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THE 

AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


VOL.  II. 
ASHES-BOL. 


53 


THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


tojwto  jfirti 


OF 


GENERAL   KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


SECOND    EDITION,    REVISED. 


VOLUME  II. 
ASHES-BOL. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549  AND  651   BROADWAY. 

LONDON:   16  LITTLE  BEITAIN. 

1879. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1858,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY  in  the 
)f  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTEBED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY    i 
the  Office  of  tho  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


/if- 


/% 


Among  the  Contributors  of  New  Articles  to  the  Second  Volume  of  the  Revised 
f  Edition  are  the  following  : 


HEXRT  CAEEY  BAIBD,  Philadelphia. 

BASK. 

WILLABD  BARTLETT. 

BENARES. 
BENGAL. 

Prof.  C.  W.  BENNETT,   D.D.,  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity. 

BASCOM,  HENRY  BLDLEMAN,  D.D.,  LL.  I). 
BENSON,  JOSEPH. 

JULIUS  BING. 

BECKET,  THOMAS  A, 
BERLIN, 
BISMARCK,  PRINCE, 

and  other  articles  In  history  and  geography. 

FRANCIS  0.  BOWMAN. 

BENEDICT,  SIE  JULIUS. 

BENNETT,  9m  WILLIAM  STERN-DALE.- 

WILLIAM  T.  BBIGHAM,  Esq.,  Boston. 

BAMBOO, 
BANANA, 
BARE, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

EDWARD  L.  BUBLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

ATTICA, 

AUGUSTUS, 

and  articles  in  history,  biography,  and  geography. 

J.  C.  OABPENTEB,  Baltimore. 

"  BALTIMORE. 

Prof.  E.  H.  CLARKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

BELLADONNA, 

and  other  articles  of  matcria  medica. 

Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

BAIL, 
BANKRUPT, 

and  other  legal  articles. 

Prof.  J.  0.  DALTON,  M.  D. 

BLACKMAN,  GEORGE  CURTIS,  M.  D., 

and  various  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

EATON  S.  DRONE. 
AUGCSTA,  GA., 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

B.  A.  FlNKELSTEIN. 
BAGDAD. 
BASHAN. 
BEDOUINS. 
BESSARABIA. 

ALFRED  II.  GUERNSEY. 

ASSYRIA. 

BABYLON. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.,  MASSACRE  op. 

BEECHER  FAMILY. 

BLAKE,  WILLIAM. 

J.  W.  HA  WES. 

ATLANTA,  GA., 

BIRMINGHAM,  CONS.,  PA.,  AND  ENG., 

BLOOMINOTON,  ILL.  AND  IND., 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 


CHARLES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

BLASTING. 
BLIND,  THE. 
BOILING  POINT. 

Prof.  T.  STEBBY  HUNT,  LL.D.,  Mass.  Tech. 
Inst.,  Boston. 

BLOOMARY. 

Prof.  C.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 
ASPHALTUM, 
BARIUM, 

BISMUTH, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

Prof.  S.  KNEELAND,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst., 
Boston. 

BACTERIUM, 
BLACK  FLY, 
BLIND  FISH, 

and  other  articles  in  natural  history. 

JAMES  F.  LYMAN. 

BENTON,  THOMAS  HART. 
BEBNADOTTE,  JEAN  BAPTISTS  JULES. 

Count   L.   F.    DE   POUBTALES,   U.   8.   Coast 
Survey. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 

E.  A.  PROCTOR,  M.  A.,  London. 

ASTRONOMY. 
AURORA  BOREALIS. 

Prof.  K.  H.  RICHARDS,  Mass.  Tech.  Inst,  Boston. 
ASSAYING. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  MONARCHY. 
BAVARIA. 

Jonx  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

Articles  on  American  Indians. 

G.  W.  SOBEN,  Esq. 
ASSAULT, 
ATTAINDER, 
ATTORNEY  GENERAL, 
and  other  legal  articles. 

P.  H.  VANDEB  WEYDE,  M.  D. 

ATMOSPHERE. 
ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE. 

I.  DE  VEITELLE. 

AYMARAS, 
BOGOTA, 

and  other  articles  in  South  American  geography. 

C.  8.  WEYMAN. 

BATEMAN,  KATE  JOSEPHINE. 
BIEESTADT,  ALBERT. 

Gen.  JAMES  GRANT  WILSON. 

BAYARD,  JAMES  ASHETON,  AND  FAMILY. 

Prof.  E.  L.  YOTTMANS. 

ATOMIC  THEORY. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA. 


ASHES 


A  SHES,  the  solid  remains  after  the  burning  of 
J\.  combustible  substances.  When  a  vegeta- 
ble or  animal  substance  is  burned  with  free  ac- 
cess of  air,  part  of  it  is  resolved  into  volatile 
compounds,  chiefly  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
free  nitrogen,  while  the  other  and  generally  the 
smaller  portion  is  left  as  incombustible  residue 
or  ash.  If  the  substance  be  decomposed  with 
exclusion  of  the  air,  a  different  set  of  compounds 
results;  and  the  residue  may  be  charcoal,  bone 
black,  or  some  other  substance,  depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  material  taken  for  the  ex- 
periment. Of  wood  ashes,  even  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  plant  furnish  different  quanti- 
ties, and  ashes  of  different  compositions.  The 
soil  itself  has  an  influence  upon  the  kind  and 
amount  of  materials  taken  up  by  the  plants. 
Nearly  all  the  substances  found  in  the  soil  enter 
into  the  composition  of  vegetable  matters,  and 
are  found  in  their  ashes.  Alumina  is,  however, 
very  rarely  met  with.  No  inorganic  substances 
found  in  the  ashes  of  plants  come  from  any 
other  source  but  the  soil.  Of  the  portion  of 
wood  ashes  soluble  in  water,  and  removed  from 
them  by  leaching  or  lixiviatipn,  the  greater  part 
consists  of  the  carbonate,  silicate,  sulphate,  and 
chloride  of  potassium.  Of  the  insoluble  portion 
(leached  ashes),  carbonate  of  lime  commonly 
forms  about  one  half;  the  remainder  is  mostly 
silicate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and 
salts  of  magnesia. .  It  is  not  supposed  that  the 
bases  were  combined  with  carbonic  acid  in  the 
plants,  but  with  organic  acids,  and  that  these 
were  replaced  by  carbonic  acid  in  the  process 
of  combustion.  Plants  that  grow  in  and  near 
salt  water  contain  soda  instead  of  potassa, 
deriving  it  from  sea  salt.  The  following  ex- 
amples show  how  the  quantity  of  ashes  varies 
with  the  wood :  From  1,000  parts  by  weight 
of  oak,  well  dried,  Kirwan  obtained  of  ashes 
13-5  parts ;  from  elm,  23 -5 ;  willow,  28 ;  poplar, 
12-2;  ash,  5'8;  pine,  3-4.  The  bark  furnishes 
more  ashes  than  the  solid  wood,  and  the 
branches  than  the  trunk.  Peat  and  coal  ashes 


contain  a  large  proportion  of  alumina ;  oxide  of 
iron,  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  are  also 
found  in  them.  The  principal  uses  of  wood 
ashes  are  for  making  soaps  and  for  enriching 
land.  The  soluble  salts  of  potash  are  dissolved 
out  from  them,  and  oil  or  fatty  matters  added 
to  the  alkali,  to  produce  the  soap.  The  residue 
is  a  valuable  manure,  but  evidently  inferior  to 
the  ashes  before  the  potash  was  extracted.  Pot 
and  pearl  ashes  are  the  salts  of  potash  extract- 
ed from  wood  ashes.  The  name  potash  is 
traced  to  the  method  of  its  preparation  from  the 
extract  of  the  ashes  boiled  down  in  iron  pots. 
Barilla,  or  soda  ash,  is  a  similar  product  of  sea 
plants,  soda  replacing  the  potash.  It  was  for- 
merly largely  imported  into  this  country,  but 
is  now  excluded  by  cheaper  preparations  of 
soda  direct  from  sea  salt.  Ashes  are  some- 
times used  with  lime  and  sand  to  increase  the 
strength  of  mortar,  and  prevent  its  cracking. 
— Bone  ashes  contain  much  phosphate  of  lime, 
the  cause  of  the  fertilizing  properties  of  bones. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  phosphorus  are  prepared 
from  these  ashes.  They  are  also  used  to  make 
the  cupels  in  which  argentiferous  lead  is  melt- 
ed and  oxidized  for  obtaining  the  pure  silver. 
The  cupels  are  merely  bone  ashes  made  into  a 
paste  with  water,  or  beer  and  water,  and  then 
moulded  and  dried. — In  distilleries,  ashes  find 
an  extensive  use  for  the  rectification  of  the 
alcoholic  liquors,  the  alkaline  matters  neutral- 
izing any  acids  that  may  be  present,  and  thus 
preventing  then-  volatilization.  It  is  a  com- 
mon impression  that  their  great  consumption 
in  American  distilleries  is  to  give  strength  to 
the  liquors  after  their  dilution  with  water,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  violent  caustic  quality, 
not  unlike  that  of  the  ley  of  ashes,  for  which 
much  of  the  common  whiskey  of  the  country 
is  remarkable.  Ashes  mixed  with  salt  make  a 
strong  cement  for  iron  pipes.  Cracked  pipes 
repaired  with  it  bear  as  heavy  pressure  as 
new  pipes.  The  cement  sets  on  application  of 
heat  of  600°. — Shower  of  Ashes,  a  phenomenon 


6 


ASHFORD 


which  frequently  accompanies  the  eruption  of 
a  volcano.  Quantities  of  matter  resembling 
fine  gray  or  black  ashes  are  thrown  aloft  from 
the  crater  to  prodigious  heights,  and  borne  by 
the  winds  to  an  astonishing  distance.  On  the 
eruption  of  the  volcano  Tomboro,  in  the  island 
of  Sumbawa,  east  of  Java,  in  the  year  1815,  a 
shower  of  ashes  fell  for  19  hours  in  succession. 
An  English  cruiser,  100  m.  away  from  the 
island,  was  surrounded  by  the  cloud,  and  re- 
ceived from  it  an  addition  to  its  freight  of 
several  tons'  weight,  and  a  Malayan  ship  was 
covered  3  feet  deep.  The  ashes  fell  upon  the 
islands  of  Amboyna  and  Banda,  the  latter  800 
m.  to  the  eastward,  and  this  apparently  in  the 
face  of  the  S.  E.  monsoon,  which  was  then 
blowing,  but  really  carried  by  a  counter  cur- 
rent, the  existence  of  which  in  the  higher  re- 
gions of  the  atmosphere  was  then  first  estab- 
lished. A  similar  phenomenon  was  observed 
in  the  eruption,  in  January,  1835,  of  the  vol- 
cano Ooseguina,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  gulf  of 
Fonseca  in  Guatemala.  Its  ashes  were  carried 
to  the  eastward,  over  the  current  of  the  trade 
winds,  and  fell  at  Truxillo,  on  the  shores  of 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Ashes  from  Etna  were 
deposited  in  Malta  in  1329 ;  and  in  A.  D.  79  the 
cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  which  had 
16  years  before  been  visited  by  an  earthquake, 
were  buried  beneath  the  showers  which  fell 
from  the  neighboring  volcano  of  Vesuvius. 
Volcanic  ash  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  min- 
erals and  rocks  abraded  by  trituration  against 
each  other,  and  consequently  exhibits  great 
difference  of  structure  and  composition.  Not 
being  a  product  of  combustion,  it  can  hardly 
be  called  a  true  ash. 

ASHFORD,  a  town  of  Kent,  England,  45  m. 
S.  E.  of  London;  pop.  5,500.  It  has  damask 
manufactories,  and  the  population  is'  rapidly 
increasing  in  consequence  of  the  favorable 
situation  of  the  town  at  the  junction  of  three 
railroad  lines. 

AS11L A\l>.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ohio ;  area, 
340  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,933.  It  is  crossed 
by  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  and  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  railroads. 
Its  surface  is  hilly  and  undulating,  and  the  soil 
is  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  In  1870  the  county 
produced  467,684  bushels  of  wheat,  537,798  of 
Indian  corn,  551,245  of  oats,  117,416  of  pota- 
toes, 83,674  tons  of  hay,  344,187  Ibs.  of  wool, 
668,473  of  butter,  418,011  of  cheese,  733,855 
of  flax,  and  110,742  of  maple  sugar.  Capital, 
Ashland.  II.  A  new  N.  W.  county  of  Wis- 
consin, bounded  N.  by  Lake  Superior,  and 
separated  on  the  N.  E.  from  Michigan  by  the 
Montreal  river ;  area,  about  1,500  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  221.  The  county  is  drained  in  its 
southern  portion  by  affluents  of  the  Chippewa 
river.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  a  ridge  called  Iron 
mountain,  which  is  1,200  feet  high. 

ASIILEY,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Arkansas,  border- 
ing on  Louisiana,  bounded  W.  by  the  Sabine  and 
Washita  rivers,  and  intersected  in  the  west  by 
Bayou  Bartholomew ;  area,  870  sq.  m. ;  pop. 


ASHMUN 

in  1870,  8,042,  of  whom  3,764  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  highly  fertile. 
In  1870  the  county  produced  201,905  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  34,269  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
7,856  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Fountain  Hill. 

ASOMOLE,  Elias,  an  English  antiquary,  found- 
er of  the  Ashmolean  museum  at  Oxford,  born 
in  Lichfield,  May  23,  1617,  died  in  London, 
May  18,  1692.  He  was  a  chancery  solicitor. 
In  the  civil  war  he  quitted  London  and  settled 
at  Oxford,  adopted  the  royalist  cause  and  be- 
came captain  in  Lord  Ashley's  regiment  of 
horse,  and  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  with- 
drew to  Cheshire.  On  the  restoration  Charles 
II.  bestowed  upon  him  the  offices  of  Windsor 
herald,  commissioner  of  excise,  and  secretary 
of  Surinam,  with  other  appointments.  He  was 
for  a  tune  the  intimate  associate  of  the  astrol- 
ogers and  alchemists  Lilly,  Booker,  Sir  Jonas 
Moore,  and  Wharton,  and  in  1650  translated 
and  published  Dr.  Dee's  Fasciculus  Chymicus 
and  Arcanum  (on  the  Hermetic  philosophy, 
&c.).  He  compiled  a  collection  of  the  various 
unpublished  writers  on  chemistry,  which  in 
1652  he  published  under  the  title  of  Theatriim 
Chymicum  Britannicum.  In  1658  he  an- 
nounced that  he  had  abandoned  astrology  and 
alchemy  in  his  "Way  to  Bliss,"  a  treatise  on 
the  philosopher's  stone.  In  1650  he  had  made 
a  catalogue  of  the  coins  in  the  Bodleian  libra- 
ry, and  in  1659  obtained  from  the  younger 
Tradescant  the  museum  of  coins  and  curiosi- 
ties which  he  and  his  father  had  collected  at 
their  house  in  Lambeth.  In  1672  he  presented 
to  the  king  a  history  of  the  order  of  the  gar- 
ter, for  which  he  received  a  grant  of  £400. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  "  History  and  An- 
tiquities of  Berkshire,"  and  of  an  autobiogra- 
phy. In  1679  his  chambers  in  the  Temple  were 
burned,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  library, 
with  9,000  ancient  and  modern  coins,  de- 
stroyed. The  rest  of  his  valuable  collection 
of  coins  was  presented  to  the  university  of 
Oxford,  which  prepared  a  suitable  building  for 
them  in  1682.  His  books  were  transferred  to 
the  same  institution  according  to  his  will. 

ASHMl  \,  Jehndi,  agent  of  the  American  col- 
onization society,  horn,  in  Champlain,  N.  Y., 
in  April,  1794,  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Aug.  25,  1828.  He  graduated  at  Burlington 
college  in  1816,  and  after  preparing  for  the 
ministry  was  chosen  a  professor  in  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  Bangor.  Removing  soon  after 
to  the  District  of  Columbia,  he  engaged  in  the 
service  of  the  colonization  society,  at  first  as 
editor  of  a  monthly  journal,  but  sailed  for  Af- 
rica, June  19,  1822,  to  take  charge  of  a  reen- 
forcement  for  the  colony  of  Liberia.  Upon 
his  arrival  he  found  himself  called  upon  to  act 
as  the  supreme  head  of  a  small  and  disorgan- 
ized community  surrounded  by  enemies.  In  a 
short  time  he  reanimated  the  spirit  of  the  col- 
onists, and  restored  their  discipline.  Three 
months  after  his  arrival,  by  the  aid  of  some 
fortifications  he  had  constructed,  and  his  own 
extraordinary  bravery  and  conduct,  they  re- 


NOR-pH   AMERICA-- 

t^/Va/    ^-?tf 

Bebriug-Str,;,    *,> 


0 

»i          11} 


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1 


ASHTABULA 


ASIA 


pelled  a  surprise  from  a  party  of  800  savages, 
and  defeated  them  entirely  a  few  days  later. 
When  obliged  by  ill  health  to  abandon  the 
country,  March  26,  182S,  he  left  a  community 
of  1,200  freemen. 

isilT \l!l  U,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  border- 
ing on  Lake  Erie  and  Pennsylvania ;  area,  420 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  32,517.  The  surface  is 
level,  the  soil  clayey  and  adapted  to  grazing 
purposes.  It  is  drained  by  Grand  and  Conne- 
aut  rivers,  and  traversed  by  two  railroads.  In 
1870  the  county  produced  190,191  bushels  of 
wheat,  557,632  of  oate,  382,556  of  Indian  corn, 
363,957  of  potatoes,  58,678  tons  of  hay,  197,- 
464  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,134,877  of  butter,  1,193,089 
of  cheese,  and  146,306  of  maple  sugar.  Capi- 
tal, Jeft'erson. 

ASHT01V-OIDER-LYNE,  a  manufacturing  town 
and  parish  of  Lancashire,  England,  on  the 
Tame,  6  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Manchester;  pop.  in 
1871,  32,030.  The  extensive  factories  for  cot- 
ton spinning  and  weaving,  calico  printing,  and 
other  branches  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  employ  more  than  15,000  hands. 

ASHTORETII  (plur.  Ashtaroth;  called  by  the 
Babylonians  Mylitta,  by  the  Assyrians  Ishtar, 
and  by  the  Greeks  Astarte,  and  nearly  identical 
with  the  Egyptian  Athor  or  Hathor),  the  great 
female  deity  of  the  ancient  Semitic  nations  on 
both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  and  chiefly  of  Phoe- 
nicia. By  Ashtoreth  was  originally  meant  the 
moon — "the  queen  of  heaven" — and  subse- 
quently the  planet  Venus.  Under  her  name  is 
supposed  to  have  been  worshipped  the  principle 
of  conception  and  production,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  that  of  generation,  variously  represent- 
ed by  Baal,  Belus,  or  Jupiter.  According  to 
many  critics,  she  is  identical  with  the  Asherah 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  divinity  of  happiness. 
In  Phoenicia  she  was  at  first  represented  by  a 
white  conical  stone ;  afterward  with  the  head 
of  a  bull  or  a  cow ;  and  ultimately  as  a  human 
being  with  a  thunderbolt  in  one  hand  and  a 
sceptre  in  the  other.  Ashtoreth  was  some- 
times worshipped  in  groves,  sometimes  in  tem- 
ples. Cakes  made  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent, 
and  male  kids,  are  said  to  have  been  the  offer- 
ings in  which  she  most  delighted.  Eunuchs 
dressed  in  feminine  attire,  or  women,  were  her 
favorite  priests ;  and  many  of  the  rites  in  which 
they  indulged  at  her  altars  were  of  the  most 
lascivious  character.  The  dove,  the  crab,  and 
the  lion  among  animals,  and  the  pomegranate 
among  fruits,  were  sacred  to  Ashtoreth.  Stat- 
ues and  groves  consecrated  to  her  were  very 
numerous  in  Syria.  In  Bashan  a  town  of  Og 
was  named  from  her  worship,  Ashtaroth  Kar- 
naim  (horned  Astartes).  The  idolatry  of  Ash- 
toreth was  introduced  into  Israel  in  the  days 
of  the  judges,  and  was  not  finally  extirpated 
till  the  reign  of  Josiah. 

ASH  WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of  Lent, 
called  by  the  fathers  of  the  church  caput  je- 
junii,  the  beginning  of  the  fust,  or  dies  cine- 
rum,  ash  day,  in  allusion  to  the  custom  of 
sprinkling  the  head  with  ashes.  In  the  Roman 


Catholic  church,  on  this  day  the  priest  marks 
the  sign  of  the  cross  with  ashes  on  the  fore- 
heads of  the  people,  repeating  the  words,  Me- 
mento, homo,  quod  pulvis  es,  et  in  puherem 
reverteru:  "Remember,  man,  that  thou  art 
dust,  and  unto  dust  shalt  return." 

ASIA,  the  largest  of  the  recognized  conti- 
nental divisions  of  the  globe.  The  name, 
which  was  originally  used  in  a  much  more 
limited  sense  than  at  present,  comes  to  us 
from  the  Greeks,  though  believed  by  many  to 
be  of  Semitic  origin ;  its  import  is  still  a  mat- 
ter of  question.  The  estimates  of  the  area  of 
Asia  differ  very  considerably.  That  of  Elis6e 
Reclus  gives  the  extent  of  the  continents  aa 
follows,  in  square  miles :  Asia,  16,771,879; 
America,  14,902,989;  Africa,  11,244,958;  Eu- 
rope, 3,822,320  ;  Australia,  2,972,916  ;  to- 
tal, 49,725,062.  Thus,  considering  Australia  a 
continent,  Asia  comprehends  almost  exactly 
one  third  of  the  solid  land  of  the  globe,  exclu- 
sive of  the  great  groups  of  islands  called 
Micronesia,  Melanesia,  and  Polynesia.  In  this 
estimate  the  Japanese  islands  are  regarded  as 
belonging  to  Asia,  although  separated  from  the 
continent  by  considerable  channels.  Asia,  thus 
considered,  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  ocean, 
the  Pacific,  the  Indian  ocean,  the  Red  sea,  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Archipelago,  the  Black  and 
Caspian  seas,  and  European  Russia.  On  the  ex- 
treme N.  E.  it  is  cut  off  from  America  only  by 
the  narrow  Behring  strait.  Between  Asia  and 
Africa  the  only  connection  is  the  isthmus  of  Suez. 
The  separation  between  Europe  and  Asia  is 
rather  geographical  than  physical  or  political, 
the  low  range  of  the  Ural  mountains,  which  for 
the  greater  part  forms  the  nominal  line,  being 
little  more  than  a  watershed,  and  running 
almost  midway  through  the  Russian  empire. 
Europe  is  physically  a  corner  arbitrarily  cut 
off  from  the  northwest  of  the  great  Asian  con- 
tinent. The  bulk  of  Asia  forms  a  solid  square 
lying  between  the  Arctic  circle  and  the  tropic 
of  Cancer,  and  Ion.  65°  and  120°  E.  Among 
the  projections  from  this  solid  square  on  the 
west  are  the  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Arabia;  on  the  north,  the  Siberian  capes;  on 
the  east,  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Siberia,  with 
its  southern  prolongation  of  Kamtchatka  and 
the  peninsula  of  Corea;  on  the  south,  India 
and  the  Malay  peninsula.  Asia  as  a  whole 
forms  a  great  trapezium,  its  main  axis  running 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  chiefly  through  Siberia,  the 
intersecting  line  passing  N.  and  S.,  nearly  on 
the  meridian  of  100°,  from  Siberia  on  the 
north,  in  lat.  78°,  to  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
Malay  peninsula  on  the  south,  almost  under 
the  equator.  Including  the  Japanese  islands, 
and  a  few  others  which  may  be  properly  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  continent,  Asia 
thus  extends  from  lat.  78°  N.  to  the  equa- 
tor ;  or,  including  the  islands  of  Sumatra  and 
Java,  and  some  minor  insular  prolongations 
of  the  Malay  peninsula,  to  lat.  10°  S. ;  and 
from  Ion.  26°  E.  to  190°  E.,  equivalent,  count- 
ed in  the  other  direction,  to  170°  W.  Asia 


8 


ASIA 


thus  includes  every  climate  of  the  globe,  and 
all  varieties  of  soil  and  production.  The  coast 
is  deeply  indented  on  every  side.  On  the 
west  it  is  cut  into  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Black  sea ;  on  the  north  by  numerous  bays 
and  gulfs  of  the  Arctic  ocean ;  on  the  east  by 
the  Okhotsk  sea,  the  sea  of  Japan,  the  Yel- 
low sea,  and  the  gulf  of  Tonquin;  on  the 
south  by  the  gulfs  of  Tonquin  and  Siam,  the 
bay  of  Bengal,  and  -the  Arabian  sea,  and  its 
prolongation,  the  Persian  gulf.  Its  entire 
coast  line  is  somewhat  more  than  33,000  m. ; 
Eeclus  puts  it  at  35,886  in. — The  great  moun- 
tain ranges,  which  contain  many  of  the  lofti- 
est summits  on  the  globe,  are  arranged  in  the 
form  of  knots,  from,  the  central  point  of  which 
ranges  radiate  in  various  directions.  There  are 
four  grand  systems,  the  Altai,  the  Hindoo 
Koosh,  the  Himalaya,  and  the  Armenian, 
which  divide  the  whole  continent  into  a  series 
of  plains  and  plateaus  of  greater  or  less  eleva- 
tion. The  central  point  of  the  Altai  group  is  in 
the  geographical  centre  of  the  continent,  about 
lat.  50°  N.,  Ion.  90°  E.  Half  way  across  the 
continent  its  median  line  runs  E.  and  W.  upon 
the  parallel  of  50°  N.,  splitting  into  various 
folds.  It  sends  a  branch  S.  W.,  which  unites 
with  the  Belur  Tagh  and  the  Hindoo  Koosh ; 
and  one  N.  E.,  which  under  the  names  of  the 
Yablonnoi  and  Stanovoi  runs  to  the  Arctic 
ocean.  The  Altai  range  separates  the  great 
northern  plain  of  Siberia  from  the  steppes  of 
Mongolia  and  Mantchooria.  The  centre  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  range  lies  in  about  lat.  35°  N., 
Ion.  73°  E.  It  branches  eastward,  under  the 
names  of  the  Kuen-lun  and  Karakorum,  into 
Chinese  Tartary,  and  westward  to  the  8. 
shore  of  the  Caspian,  where  the  range  receives 
the  name  of  Elburz  and  approaches  the  Arme- 
nian group.  The  Hindoo  Koosh,  with  its  pro- 
longations, separates  the  great  desert  of  Gobi 
from  China  and  Thibet,  and  divides  the  steppes 
of  Turkistan  from  the  plateau  of  Iran.  The 
Himalaya,  from  the  extreme  western  point, 
where  the  Indus  cuts  through  it,  to  the  eastern 
extremity,  where  the  hills  fail  altogether  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmapootra,  measures 
2,000  m.  in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
180  m.  The  western  Himalaya,  around  the  val- 
ley of  Cashmere,  has  no  peaks  exceeding  16,000 
or  18,000  ft.  in  height.  In  the  middle  of  the 
range  rise  the  stupendous  peaks  of  Gaurisan- 
kar  or  Mt.  Everest,  29,002  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  Dhawalagiri,  26,826  ft.,  and  Kinchin- 
junga,  28,156  ft.  Aconcagua  in  Chili,  now 
held  to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes,  is 
22,422  ft. ;  its  head  is  therefore  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  below  that  of  Mt.  Everest.  Northward, 
under  the  name  of  Belur  Tagh,  the  Himalaya 
range  is  continued  between  Independent  and 
Chinese  Tartary,  where  it  is  joined  by  theThian- 
shan  mountains,  which  stretch  into  the  desert 
of  Gobi  and  the  upland  plains  of  Mongolia, 
and  here  and  there  connect  with  the  Altai 
system.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the  Hima- 
laya is  connected  with  at  least  five  chains, 


which  radiate  fanwise,  traversing  parts  of 
China  and  Further  India.  The  Armenian 
group,  of  which  Ararat  is  the  culminating 
point,  lies  in  parallel  folds  at  the  head  of  the 
peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  between  the  Caspian, 
the  Black  sea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  con- 
nects N.  with  the  Caucasus,  a  somewhat  iso- 
lated chain  between  the  Caspian  and  Black 
seas,  and  in  the  west  forms  the  Taurus ;  of  its 
southern  branches,  the  one,  Libanus,  follows  the 
course  of  the  Mediterranean ;  the  other,  running 
southeastwardly,  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Mesopotamian  plain.  Besides  these  main 
groups  are  many  ranges  which  claim  mention. 
Among  these  are  the  Chang-pe  Shan,  a  coast 
chain  of  Mantchooria ;  the  Khingan  Oola,  on 
the  E.  border  of  the  desert  of  Gobi ;  the  Pe- 
ling,  Nan-ling,  Yun-ling,  and  Yun-nan  in  Chi- 
na proper ;  and  the  Vindhya  and  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts  in  Hindostan.  In  8.  W. 
Asia  there  is  the  chain  of  the  Arabian  penin- 
sula, joining  on  to  Libanus.  A  notable  chain 
branches  off  in  the  far  northeast,  near  the 
arctic  circle,  traverses  the  coast  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Kamtchatka,  and  disappears  under  the 
ocean,  its  summits  appearing  in  the  Kurile, 
Japanese,  and  Loo  Choo  islands.  It  forms  the 
ocean  rampart  of  the  continent,  enclosing  be- 
tween it  and  the  mainland  the  seas  of  Okhotsk 
and  Japan. — Apart  from  the  mountain  ranges 
Asia  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two  vast 
upland  plateaus  and  six  great  lowland  plains. 
The  eastern  plateau  is  a  tract  nearly  as  large 
as  the  whole  of  Europe,  including  the  table 
land  of  Thibet  and  the  desert  of  Gobi,  ex- 
tending N.  to  the  Altai,  and  8.  E.  to  the  gulf 
of  Tonquin.  It  is  separated  from  Hindostan 
by  the  Himalaya  range,  some  of  the  passes 
through  which  are  higher  than  the  loftiest 
peaks  of  the  Alps.  Cultivation  is  here  car- 
ried on  as  high  as  10,000  ft.,  and  pasturage 
is  found  2,000  ft.  higher.  On  the  southeast 
this  table  land  is  bounded  by  the  Yun-nan  and 
other  almost  unknown  alpine  ranges  of  China. 
On  the  north  it  is  separated  by  the  Altai 
mountains  from  the  great  plain  of  Siberia. 
The  western  plateau,  or  Iranian  table  land,  has 
a  general  elevation  of  about  5,000  ft.,  rising 
sometimes  to  7,000,  or  sinking  to  2,000  or 
1,200.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : 
Iran  proper  or  Persia,  Armenia,  with  Azer- 
bijan  and  Kurdistan,  and  Asia  Minor.  Persia 
has  a  mean  elevation  of  3,000  ft.  A  large  part 
of  its  surface  consists  of  salt  plains  covered 
with  sand  and  gravel.  In  the  Armenian  divis- 
ion, the  table  land  is  compressed  to  half  its 
more  eastern  width.  Asia  Minor,  the  western 
division,  is  bounded  along  the  shores  of  the 
Black  sea  by  wooded  mountains  which  rise  to 
the  height  of  6,000  or  7,000  ft.  These  sections 
present  many  diversities  of  soil  and  scenery. 
A  considerable  part  of  Persia  is  barren  and 
arid,  but  interspersed  with  beautiful  valleys. 
The  coasts  of  the  Persian  gulf  are  generally 
sandy  and  sterile.  A  large  portion  of  Khora- 
san  and  the  adjoining  regions  is  a  desert  of 


ASIA 


9 


clayey  soil,  impregnated  with  salt  and  nitre, 
varied  here  and  there  with  patches  of  verdure. 
Beloochistan  is  mostly  an  arid  plain  covered 
with  coarse  rod  sand.  The  mountainous  re- 
gion of  Armenia,  extending  toward  the  Black 
sea,  abounds  in  fertile  valleys  set  among  rugged 
hills.  There  are  several  smaller  and  detached 
plateaus.  Imbedded  in  the  Ural  mountains  is 
a  large  plain  rich  in  minerals.  The  highlands 
of  Syria  rise  gradually  from  the  neighboring 
deserts  to  an  elevation  of  above  10,000  ft., 
and  slope  by  a  succession  of  terraces  down 
to  the  narrow  coast  plain  of  Palestine,  with 
a  deep  depression,  the  valley  of  the  Dead 
sea,  1,300  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
In  India  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan  rises  to 
the  height  of  1,500  or  2,000  ft.,  shut  off  by 
the  Western  Ghauts  from  the  level  coast  of 
Malabar,  by  the  Eastern  Ghauts  from  that 
of  Coromandel,  and  by  the  Vindhya  and 
Malwa  mountains  from  the  low  plains  of 
Hindostan.  There  are  six  great  Asian  low- 
lands: 1.  That' of  Siberia  on  the  north,  which 
stretches  from  the  northern  declivities  of  the 
Altai  mountains  to  the  shores  of  the  Arc- 
tic ocean.  It  is  mostly  cold,  barren,  and 
gloomy,  hardly  fitted  for  the  abode  of  man. 
2.  The  lowland  near  the  Caspian  sea  and  the 
Aral,  a  sterile  waste,  much  of  it  lying  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  3.  The  Syro-Arabian 
lowland,  the  southern  and  western  parts  a 
desert,  with  few  green  spots.  But  wherever 
there  is  water  this  lowland  is  wonderfully 
productive.  Its  N.  E.  section,  lying  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  known  formerly 
as  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  once  support- 
ed powerful  nations.  Though  now  sterile 
and  almost  uninhabited,  it  needs  only  the  res- 
toration of  the  ancient  system  of  irrigation 
from  the  two  great  rivers  to  render  it  one 
of  the  most  productive  regions  of  the  earth. 
4.  The  lowlands  of  Hindostan,  comprising 
the  great  Indian  desert,  in  the  northwest, 
together  with  the  fertile  plains  of  Bengal,  a 
region  not  exceeded  even  by  China  for  capacity 
to  support  a  dense  population.  5.  The  Indo- 
Chinese  lowlands,  comprising  the  long  levels 
of  Burmah,  watered  by  the  Irrawaddy,  and 
the  low  alluvial  regions  of  Cambodia  and  Siam. 
6.  The  immense  Chinese  lowlands,  commencing 
in  lat.  40°  N".,  and  spreading  southward  to  the 
tropic  of  Cancer.  This  plain,  containing  an 
area  of  about  200,000  sq.  m.,  nearly  that  of 
France,  supports  a  population  of  more  than 
100,000,000,  in  proportion  double  that  of  Eng- 
land, more  by  half  than  that  of  Belgium,  and 
much  more  than  twice  that  of  any  other  coun- 
try in  the  world,  except  a  portion  of  India. — 
The  hydrography  of  Asia  is  regulated  by  its 
mountain  ranges.  There  are  six  main  river 
systems:  1.  That  of  Siberia  comprises  the 
Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena,  each,  roughly 
speaking,  about  2,500  m.  long.  These  carry 
off  the  waters  of  the  Altai  chain  into  the  Arc- 
tic ocean.  The  Obi,  the  most  western  of  the 
great  Siberian  rivers,  is  formed  by  two  rivers 


rising  in  the  Altai  range.  In  lat.  61°,  a  little 
N.  of  the  parallel  of  St.  Petersburg,  it  receives 
its  great  affluent  the  Irtish,  and  the  stream 
falls  into  the  Arctic  ocean  in  lat.  67°.  The 
double  basin  of  the  Obi  occupies  a  third  of  the 
area  of  Siberia.  The  Yenisei  drains  an  area 
of  about  800,000  sq.  m.,  receiving  in  its  course 
many  large  branches.  It  debouches  in  lat.  72° 
into  the  gulf  of  Yenisei.  The  Lena,  draining 
about  700,000  sq.  m.,  rises  in  the  mountains 
N.  of  Lake  Baikal,  runs  N.  E.  for  half  its  course 
to  Yakutsk,  receives  in  lat.  63°  the  Aldan,  its 
greatest  tributary,  and  thence  runs  between 
masses  of  frozen  mud,  in  which  are  found  the 
remains  of  extinct  species  of  the  elephant 
and  rhinoceros,  falling  into  the  ocean  near 
lat.  73°,  nearer  to  the  pole  than  the  month 
of  any  other  great  river.  The  Obi  is  the 
only  Siberian  river  navigable  for  any  dis- 
tance ;  but,  like  all  the  others,  it  is  frozen  over 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  2.  The  Chinese 
river  system  comprises  four  minor  divisions. 
The  Hong-kiang  or  Si-kiang,  rising  in  the 
province  of  Yun-nan,  after  an  E.  S.  E.  course  of 
1,000  m.,  falls  into  the  bay  of  Canton.  The 
Yang-tse-kiang  descends  in  several  streams 
from  the  Pe-ling  mountains,  which  divide  China 
proper  from  Tartary.  Its  length  is  nearly  3,000 
m.,  a  fifth  part  of  which  is  navigable  for  large 
ships.  In  volume  of  water  it  is  exceeded  only 
by  the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi.  It  divides 
China  proper  into  two  nearly  equal  parts, 
passing  through  the  most  populous  provinces. 
Its  course  is  very  winding,  the  general  direction 
being  first  southeasterly  and  then  northeasterly. 
It  falls  into  the  Yellow  sea  in  lat.  32°  N.  The 
Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river,  2,500  m.  long,  has 
its  source  near  that  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  but 
for  a  long  distance  the  rivers  are  separated 
by  mountain  chains  which  border  the  table 
land.  They  then  approach,  and  in  1851  their 
mouths  were  only  100  m.  apart.  In  that  year 
the  Hoang-ho  burst  through  its  northern 
banks,  and  in  1853  its  lower  course  had  wholly 
changed,  its  present  mouth  in  the  gulf  of  Pe- 
chi-li  being  260  m.  N.  of  the  former  one.  Nine 
similar  changes  are  recorded  within  2,500  years, 
the  various  mouths  ranging  over  a  coast  line 
of  nearly  350  m.  Nearly  all  of  the  Chinese 
rivers  are  tributaries  of  these  two  great  streams, 
the  principal  exceptions  being  the  Hong-kiang 
and  the  Pei-ho  or  White  river,  which  have 
their  own  basins.  The  Pei-ho,  rising  near 
the  great  wall,  becomes  navigable  a  few  miles 
E.  of  Peking,  and  is  an  important  channel  for 
trade.  It  is  also  connected  with  the  great 
canal.  The  Amoor,  having  its  source  in  Mon- 
golia, for  a  great  part  of  its  course  separates 
Chinese  Mantchooria  from  the  Russian  Amoor 
Country.  Its  lower  course  is  wholly  within 
the  Russian  dominions.  Its  length  measured 
along  its  windings  is  nearly  2,400  m.,  or  about 
1,600  in  a  direct  line.  It  falls  into  the  sea  of 
Okhotsk,  in  lat.  53°.  3.  Of  the  Indo-Chinese 
system,  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Irrawaddy 
and  the  Salwen,  which  water  Burmah ;  the 


10 


ASIA 


Menam,  which  traverses  Siam;  and  the  Me- 
kong, or  Cambodia,  which  flows  through 
Anam.  These  rivers  traverse  regions  little 
known.  4.  The  Brahmapootra  and  the  Gan- 
ges form  a  double  system.  The  Brahmapoo- 
tra, according  to  the  still  doubtful  assumption 
which  makes  the  Dzang-botziu  its  upper 
course,  rises  in  the  lofty  table  land  of  Thibet, 
its  head  waters  being  not  far  from  those  of  the 
Indus.  After  watering  the  long  valley  of 
Thibet,  it  makes  a  sudden  bend  to  the  south, 
cuts  through  the  Himalaya  chain  near  its  E. 
end,  and  falls  into  the  bay  of  Bengal,  its  waters 
near  the  mouth  sometimes  interlocking  with 
those  of  the  Ganges.  The  latter  rises  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  after  run- 
ning S.  E.  through  the  plains  of  Bengal,  and 
receiving  in  its  course  12  large  rivers,  falls  into 
the  bay  of  Bengal.  The  Brahmapootra  and  the 
Ganges  drain  an  area  of  about  500,000  sq.  m., 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  spot  in  Bengal  more 
than  20  m.  distant  from  one  of  their  tributary 
streams,  navigable  even  in  the  dry  season.  6. 
The  Indus  rises  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Dzang-botziu,  but  breaks  through  the  Hima- 
layan chain  toward  the  N.  W.  end,  and  after 
a  course  of  1,800  m.  falls  into  the  Arabian  sea, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Hin- 
dostan.  It  drains  about  350,000  sq.  m.  6. 
The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  rising  in  the 
mountains  of  Armenia,  flow  for  some  distance 
close  to  each  other,  but  after  descending  into 
the  plain  diverge  to  a  distance  of  more  than 
100  m.,  again  approach,  and  finally  unite,  falling 
into  the  Persian  gulf  under  the  name  of  the 
Shat-el-Arab.  The  region  between  them  is 
the  Mesopotamia  of  the  ancients.  The  length 
of  the  Euphrates  is  about  1,800  m. ;  that  of  the 
Tigris,  which  pursues  a  more  direct  course, 
about  1,150.  The  basin  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  occupies  about  250,000  sq.  m. — The 
lakes  of  Asia  are  of  less  importance  than  those 
of  America  or  Africa.  The  Caspian  and  the 
Aral,  however,  commonly  called  seas,  may 
more  properly  be  regarded  as  lakes.  The  for- 
mer, 700  m.  long  and  200  broad,  lies  83£  ft. 
below  the  level  of  the  Black  sea.  Although 
it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Volga,  the  largest 
river  of  Europe,  it  has  no  outlet,  and  its  wa- 
ters are  salt.  The  Aral,  300  m.  long  and  at 
its  centre  150  broad,  lies  about  40  ft.  above 
the  same  level ;  its  waters  are  salt,  but  less  so 
than  those  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  probable  that 
these  two  lakes  were  once  united.  Lake  Bai- 
kal, in  S.  Siberia,  has  an  area  of  about  13,000  sq. 
m.,  being,  next  after  Superior,  Michigan,  and 
Huron,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on  the 
globe,  and  lies  about  1,400  ft.  above  the  ocean 
level.  Lake  Balkash,  or  Tenghiz,  250  in.  long 
and  70  broad,  has  an  area  of  upward  of  8,000 
sq.  m.,  approaching  that  of  Erie.  China 
has  six  considerable  lakes,  of  which  the  two 
largest,  Po-yang  and  Thung-thing,  have  each 
an  area  of  about  3,000  sq.  m.,  a  third  of  that 
of  Erie.  The  Tengrinoor  in  Thibet  is  of  about 
the  same  dimensions.  In  Turkish  Armenia 


is  the  great  salt  lake  of  Van.  In  Persia  are 
the  large  salt  lake  of  Urumiah,  the  small 
fresh-water  lake  of  Hamun,  and  the  little  salt 
lake  of  Bakhtegan.  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  the 
Dead  sea,  in  Palestine,  is  notable  for  its  great 
depression  and  the  exceeding  saltness  of  its  wa- 
ters.— The  proportion  of  Asia  practically  unin- 
habitable, either  on  account  of  extreme  cold  or 
the  absence  of  water,  is  very  great.  A  consid- 
erable part  of  Siberia  lies  north  of  the  zone  of 
cultivation.  The  great  sand  plain  of  Gobi, 
larger  than  France  and  England,  is  practically 
a  desert.  E.  of  the  Caspian  lies  the  large 
sandy  desert  of  Khiva  in  Turkistan ;  and  a  still 
larger  one  occupies  the  centre  of  Iran.  The 
great  peninsula  of  Arabia  is  mainly  a  desert, 
which  stretches  northward  and  includes  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  plain  of  the  Euphrates, 
having  altogether  an  area  of  nearly  1,000,000 
sq.  m.  Between  the  plains  of  Hindostan  and 
the  left  bank  of  the  Indus  lies  the  Indian  des- 
ert, 400  m.  broad.  Probably  fully  a  quarter 
of  Asia  may  be  considered  a  desert  region. — 
The  climate  of  Asia  embraces  every  general 
variety  and  every  local  incident :  the  rainless 
and  riverless  plains  of  Gobi,  and  the  super- 
abundant moisture  of  the  Indian  seacoast ;  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  Siberia  and  the 
steppes;  the  more  equable  and  agreeable  cli- 
mate of  Asia  Minor ;  gradations  of  temperature 
indicated  both  by  a  latitude  ranging  from  the 
equator  almost  to  the  pole,  and  by  a  range  of 
elevation  from  several  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  sea  to  29,000  feet  above  it.  In  no 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  are  the  modifications 
of  temperature,  and  consequently  of  products, 
more  strongly  marked ;  while  in  some  spots 
the  inhabitants  behold  at  one  view  in  their 
valleys  and  hillsides  the  animal  and  vegetable 
life  of  the  tropics,  of  the  temperate,  and  of 
the  frigid  zone.  The  vast  plains  of  Siberia  are 
exposed  to  the  extremes  of  temperature.  In 
Tobolsk  the  thermometer  for  weeks  during 
the  summer  remains  at  from  80°  to  90°,  while 
the  mean  winter  temperature  is  below  zero. 
At  Yakutsk  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
13'43°,  while  in  the  summer  it  rises  to  80°.  The 
reason  for  this  extreme  variation  is  the  distance 
of  these  plains  from  the  ocean.  The  veil  of 
mist  which  in  more  equable  climates  moderates 
the  intensity  of  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun  is 
wanting ;  while  in  the  winter  no  breeze  laden 
with  moisture  is  present  to  temper  the  extreme 
cold  natural  to  the  high  latitude.  The  prevalent 
winds  are  from  the  southwest.  These  reach 
eastern  Siberia  after  having  traversed  wide 
stretches  of  land  covered  with  ice  and  snow, 
and  being  thus  deprived  of  their  caloric  and 
moisture,  they  become  cold  land  winds.  This 
applies  to  the  whole  of  Asia  N.  of  lat.  35°. 
Compared  with  the  maritime  portions  of  Eu- 
rope, the  difference  is  striking.  In  Peking, 
lat.  39°  54',  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
9°  lower  than  at  Naples,  which  lies  a  little  to 
the  north;  and  4 -5°  lower  than  at  Copenha- 
gen, which  is  17°  nearer  the  pole.  The  rain- 


ASIA 


11 


less  plain  of  Gobi,  just  N.  of  and  considerably 
less  elevated  than  Thibet,  is  exposed  to  such 
extremes  of  temperature  that  only  the  hardiest 
shrubs  can  exist.  The  western  plateau  is  also 
excessively  cold  in  winter  and  excessively  hot 
in  summer.  In  northern  India  the  great  dif- 
ferences in  elevation  occasion  great  variations 
of  climate  within  very  moderate  distances. 
Over  an  immense  region  one  may  pass  in  a 
single  day  through  all  the  range  of  climates ; 
torrid  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  temperate 
on  their  sides,  arctic  at  the  top.  In  southern 
India  regular  rainy  and  dry  seasons,  occasioned 
by  the  monsoons,  greatly  modify  the  climate. 
The  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  also  affects 
the  temperature.  On  the  southern  declivity 
of  the  Himalayas,  in  lat.  30°  45',  the  snow  line 
begins  at  the  elevation  of  12,982  ft. ;  on  the 
northern  declivity  the  warm  winds  from  the 
Thibetan  plateau  raise  the  snow  line  to  16,630 
ft. — Asia  is  rich  in  minerals.  Gold  is  widely 
diffused  in  the  Ural  and  Altai  mountains,  Chi- 
na, Persia,  and  Japan;  silver  in  Siberia,  Co- 
chin China,  and  India ;  copper  and  iron  in  very 
many  localities ;  mercury  in  China,  Japan,  and 
India.  The  island  of  Bauca  vies  with  Corn- 
wall in  the  production  of  tin.  Coal  has  been 
found  in  northern  China  and  Japan ;  the  area 
of  its  production  is  not  ascertained.  Petro- 
leum, in  its  various  forms,  is  abundant  in 
parts  of  China  and  India,  in  Siam  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  Salt  is  common  all  over  the  conti- 
nent. Precious  stones  are  more  widely  dif- 
fused in  Asia  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe,  every  variety  being  found.  The  mines 
of  India  have  produced  nearly  all  the  great 
diamonds  discovered.  The  most  valuable 
pearls  are  those  found  on  the  coasts  of  Ceylon 
and  of  the  Persian  gulf. — The  geological  fea- 
tures of  Asia  are  considered  under  the  special 
heads  of  the  different  countries  and  mountain 
ranges.  The  continent  presents  fewer  traces 
than  any  other  of  volcanic  action.  Volcanoes 
are  confined  mainly  to  the  peninsula  of  Kam- 
tchatka,  many  of  the  mountains  of  which  are 
only  masses  of  lava.  The  peninsula  of  Cutch 
and  the  delta  of  the  Indus  present  here  and 
there  traces  of  volcanic  action,  and  are  often 
agitated  by  subterranean  forces.  Mt.  Ararat 
is  also  a  volcanic  peak.  But  the  long  line  of 
islands  forming  a  prolongation  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  is  the  great  volcanic  region ;  and  the 
Japanese  islands  are  also  volcanic.  The  bro- 
ken isthmus  which  connects  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula  with  Australia  is  a  great  line  of  fire. 
From  Papua  to  Sumatra  every  large  island  is 
pierced  with  one  or  more  volcanic  outlets. 
Java  has  the  largest  number. — The  flora  of 
Asia,  while  in  general  similar  to  that  of  the 
other  continents  in  corresponding  latitudes, 
yet  presents  some  peculiarities.  Asia  is  espe- 
cially the  land  of  spices,  odoriferous  gums,  and 
medicinal  plants.  North  of  the  60th  parallel, 
the  ground  is  perpetually  frozen  at  a  very 
small  depth  below  the  surface.  Here  and 


there  trees  are  found  as  high  as  70° ;  but  for 
the  most  part  the  soil  is  covered  with  snow 
and  ice  for  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year. 
When  this  melts  the  plains  are  clothed  with 
mosses  and  lichens,  mixed  with  dwarf  willows, 
and  the  swamps  and  morasses  with  coarse 
grass,  sedges,  and  rushes.  In  the  far  north  the 
plants  live  between  the  air  and  the  earth,  their 
tops  scarcely  rising  above  the  soil,  while  their 
roots  creep  upon  the  very  surface.  The  few 
woody  plants  trail  along  the  ground,  rarely 
rising  an  inch  or  two  above  it.  The  »alix  la- 
nata,  the  giant  of  these  miniature  forests,  never 
grows  more  than  5  inches  high,  while  its  stem, 
10  or  12  feet  long,  lies  hidden  among  the 
protecting  moss.  Somewhat  further  south,  a 
beautiful  flora  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
brief  hot  summer.  Potentillas,  gentians,  saxi- 
frages, ranunculi,  artemisias,  and  many  others 
spring  up,  blossom,  ripen  their  seed,  and  die 
in  a  few  weeks.  The  Siberian  steppes  are 
bounded  on  the  south  by  forests  of  pine,  birch, 
and  willow.  The  upper  courses  of  the  great 
rivers  are  bordered  with  poplars,  elms,  and 
maples.  The  Siberian  pine,  with  edible  seeds, 
reaches  the  height  of  126  feet;  the  pinut  cem- 
Jra  grows  around  Lake  Baikal  almost  np  to 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  greater  part 
of  Thibet  is  sterile.  Frost  begins  early  in  Sep- 
tember and  continues  till  May.  In  some  parts 
snow  falls  every  month  of  the  year.  There 
are,  however,  many  sheltered  spots,  heated  by 
radiation  from  the  bare  mountain  flanks,  where 
grains  and  fruits  of  every  kind  flourish.  Wheat, 
barley,  buckwheat,  and  rice  are  native ;  maize 
has  been  introduced,  and  is  successfully  culti- 
vated. There  are  olives,  pears,  apples,  peach- 
es, apricots,  grapes,  mulberries,  and  currants; 
the  various  species  of  melons  are  noteworthy 
for  their  quality  and  quantity.  The  Himalayan 
mountains  form  a  distinct  botanical  district. 
Immediately  below  the  snow  line  the  vegetation 
is  of  an  arctic  character;  lower  down  there 
are  forests  of  pine,  oak,  walnut,  and  maple; 
the  flowers  are  mainly  species  of  rhododen- 
dron. At  an  altitude  of  about  5,000  feet  the 
transition  from  a  temperate  to  a  tropical  flora 
takes  place.  The  transition  zone  lies  between 
the  35th  and  27th  parallels  of  N".  latitude,  where 
the  tropical  flora  becomes  mixed  with  that  of 
the  temperate  zone.  The  prevailing  plants  on 
the  Chinese  low  grounds  are  glycine,  hydran- 
gea, camphor,  laurel,  the  wax  tree,  cleroden- 
dron,  rose  of  China,  thuja,  and  olea  fragrans, 
the  flowers  of  which  are  used  to  flavor  the 
finest  teas.  The  India  pride,  paper  mulberry, 
and  other  plants  cover  many  of  the  hills.  Of 
the  tea  plant  there  are  two  main  species.  The 
one,  bearing  small  leaves,  furnishes  the  tea 
consumed  at  home  and  exported  to  Europe  and 
America;  the  other,  with  larger  leaves,  fur- 
nishes the  brick  tea  consumed  mainly  in  Thibet 
and  N.  E.  Siberia;  as  used  it  is  mixed  with 
butter,  forming  a  soup  rather  than  a  beverage. 
Rice  is  here  the  most  important  cereal.  The 
plains  of  Ilindostan  are  so  completely  sheltered 


12 


ASIA 


from  the  cold  northern  winds,  and  heated  and 
watered  by  the  monsoons,  that  the  vegetation 
early  assumes  a  tropical  character.  In  the 
jungles  among  the  lower  ridges  of  the  Hima- 
laya ferns  and  orchidaceous  plants  abound. 
Trees  of  the  fig  tribe  are  a  special  characteris- 
tic. Some,  as  the  banian,  throw  off  shoots 
from  their  branches,  which  take  root  on 
reaching  the  ground,  and  become  independent 
trunks,  sending  off  other  branches,  which  also 
take  root,  until  a  forest  is  formed  around  the 
parent  stem.  Palms  of  many  kinds  abound  in 
India ;  of  some  species  every  part  is  useful  to 
man.  Cotton  is  of  spontaneous  growth.  The 
native  fruits  of  India  are  numerous.  The 
orange,  the  plantain,  the  banana,  the  mango, 
and  the  date,  areca,  palmyra,  and  cocoanut 
palms,  are  all  of  Indian  origin.  The  flowers 
are  notable  for  their  brilliancy  of  color.  The 
island  of  Ceylon,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Indian  penin- 
sula, is  the  home  of  those  species  of  laurel  of 
which  the  bark  constitutes  cinnamon  and  cas- 
sia. The  flora  of  Arabia  is  peculiar,  being 
chiefly  marked  by  the  number  of  the  plants 
producing  odoriferous  and  medicinal  gums. 
Oceans  of  barren  sand,  dotted  here  and  there, 
wherever  water  is  found,  with  oases,  like  isl- 
ands, cover  a  great  part  of  Arabia  and  the  ad- 
jacent Syria.  The  prevalent  vegetation  con- 
sists of  grasses  growing  under  the  shade  of  the 
date  palms;  while  plants  of  the  acacia  tribe 
spring  up  scantily  in  the  arid  sand.  Coffee, 
originally  brought  from  Abyssinia  to  Arabia, 
has  thence  been  widely  diffused ;  the  produc- 
tion in  Arabia  is  small  compared  with  the 
whole  amount.  The  chief  features  of  the  Asia- 
tic flora,  excluding  the  arctic  regions,  may  be 
thus  summed  up:  The  principal  forest  trees 
are  aloes,  bamboo,  birch,  chestnut,  cypress, 
ebony,  fir,  gutta  percha,  ironwood,  larch, 
mangrove,  maple,  myrtle,  oak,  palm,  pine, 
poplar,  rosewood,  sandalwood,  teak,  and  wil- 
low. The  fruits  are  almond,  apple,  apricot, 
banana,  banian,  betel,  cashew,  citron,  cocoa, 
date,  fig,  grape,  guana,  guava,  lemon,  lime, 
mangosteen,  mulberry,  olive,  orange,  pandanus, 
peach,  pear,  plantain,  plum,  pomegranate,  shad- 
dock, tamarind,  and  walnut.  The  most  im- 
portant spices  and  condiments  are  camphor, 
cassia,  cinnamon,  clove,  mace,  and  nutmeg. 
The  tea  and  coffee  plants  furnish  the  bulk  of 
the  non-alcoholic  beverages  of  the  world.  The 
leguminous  plants,  such  as  the  bean,  pea,  and 
lentil,  present  a  great  variety  of  species.  The 
yam  supplies  the  place  of  the  potato.  Cereals 
are  widely  diffused  in  their  proper  localities. 
Tobacco  has  been  introduced,  and  is  extensive- 
ly cultivated.  The  sugar  cane  is  indigenous. 
Hemp  and  flax  are  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Among  the  native  drugs  are  aloes,  anise, 
camphor,  datura,  jalap,  myrrh,  opium,  and 
sarsaparilla,— The  zoology  of  Asia  covers  a 
wide  field.  It  includes  the  whole  class  of  do- 
mesticated animals.  The  ass,  camel,  goat,  hog, 
horse,  and  ox  came  from  Asia.  Of  the  deer 


tribe  there  are  many  species,  from  the  antelope 
to  the  reindeer.  The  Asiatic  elephant  differs 
considerably  from  its  African  congener.  Be- 
sides some  special  anatomical  peculiarities,  it 
is  distinguished  by  the  smaller  size  of  the  ears 
and  tusks,  the  latter  being  often  entirely  want- 
ing. In  Africa  the  elephant  has  probably 
never  been  domesticated ;  in  Asia  it  has  from 
time  immemorial  been  made  the  servant  of  man 
in  peace  and  war.  Of  oxen  there  are  at  least 
four  distinct  species :  the  Indian  ox  (bos  In- 
dian), remarkable  for  its  large  hump,  and  held 
sacred  by  the  Hindoos ;  the  yak  (bos  grun- 
niens)  of  central  Asia,  used  as  a  beast  of  burden 
rather  than  of  draught,  notable  for  its  silky* 
tail ;  the  buffalo  (bos  bubalm),  often  found  wild, 
but  capable  of  domestication;  and  the  gayal 
(bos  gavaus)  of  Indo-China.  Among  goats,  that 
of  Cashmere  is  famous  for  its  silky  hair,  from 
which  the  costly  shawls  improperly  styled 
camel's  hair  are  made.  Persia  has  a  peculiar 
variety  of  sheep  with  a  fatty  tail.  Many  varie- 
ties of  dogs  exist;  among  the  nobler  species 
are  the  mastiff  of  Thibet,  used  for  carrying 
burdens,  and  the  Persian  greyhound.  Gen- 
erally the  dog  is  accounted  an  unclean  ani- 
mal, but  a  small  species  is  fattened  for  food  in 
China,  the  hams  being  considered  a  great 
delicacy.  In  India  the  pariah  dog  is  the  prin- 
cipal scavenger.  Of  the  greater  carnivora,  the 
lion,  leopard,  and  tiger  are  the  chief.  The 
Asiatic  lion  is  smaller  than  the  African,  and 
lacks  the  flowing  mane  which  forms  the  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  male  of  the  African  species. 
A  species  of  leopard,  the  cheetah,  has  been 
partially  tamed,  and  is  used  in  hunting.  The 
tiger  is  peculiar  to  Asia,  abounding  in  the 
warm  plains  of  the  south  and  east,  never  cross- 
ing the  deserts  which  separate  India  from 
Persia,  but  sometimes  straying  as  far  north  as 
Siberia.  Wolves  and  foxes  are  numerous  in 
the  colder,  hyeenas  and  jackals  in  the  warmer 
regions.  There  are  numerous  species  of  bears ; 
those  of  the  cold  regions  are  large  and  fero- 
cious; those  of  the  warmer  parts  are  small 
and  inoffensive,  living  mainly  upon  insects, 
fruits,  and  honey.  Among  about  422  species 
of  quadrupeds  found  in  Asia,  288  are  stated  to 
be  peculiar  to  that  continent.  The  tropical 
portions  abound  in  monkeys,  of  which  the 
species  are  numerous;  some  have  long  tails, 
some  short  ones,  others  none  at  all ;  but  none 
have  the  prehensile  tails  of  some  American 
species.  The  birds  of  Asia  include  eagles,  vul- 
tures, and  falcons,  of  the  predatory  orders, 
with  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  game  and 
domestic  fowls,  except  the  turkey.  Lizards 
and  other  saurian  reptiles  are  numerous  in 
the  rivers  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent; the  gavial  is  the  largest  of  its  species. 
Pythons  and  other  large  serpents  are  found 
in  the  jungles.  Of  the  larger  venomous  ser- 
pents, the  cobra  de  capello  is  the  most  dread- 
ed. Of  fishes,  the  salmonidm  are  abundant 
in  the  northern  rivers,  constituting  the  chief 
food  of  the  natives  and  their  train  dogs.  The 


ASIA 


13 


gold  fish  is  a  native  of  China.  Of  molluscous 
animals,  the  pearl  oyster  claims  special  notice, 
found  chiefly  in  the  Persian  gulf  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Oeylon. — Russian  Asia  includes  the 
whole  of  the  continent  north  of  about  50°,  with 
considerable  southern  extensions  in  the  ex- 
treme east  and  in  the  west,  reaching  beyond 
39°,  the  chief  of  which  is  a  strip  between  the 
Black  sea  and  the  Caspian,  including  Cauca- 
sia and  some  territory  acquired  from  Persia. 
Russia  is  slowly  extending  her  domination 
among  the  independent  tribes  toward  India, 
which  it  threatens  to  reach  at  no  very  distant 
date.  Chiefly  between  lat.  50°  and  40°  lie 
Turkistan,  Mongolia,  and  Mantchooria,  in- 
habited by  tribes  which  are  more  or  less  in- 
dependent. Chiefly  between  lat.  40°  and  30° 
lie  Turkey,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Thibet, 
with  China  at  the  east,  extending  southward 
to  a  little  below  20°,  and  the  main  Japanese 
islands.  Between  lat.  30°  and  20°  lie  Arabia, 
extending  southward  beyond  18°,  southern 
Persia,  Beloochistan,  and  the  northern  por- 
tions of  Hindostan  and  Further  India.  South 
of  lat.  20°  are  the  main  parts  of  the  Indian 

Eeninsulas,  the  eastern  including  Burmah, 
lain,  and  Anam,  with  the  Malay  peninsula, 
reaching  southward  almost  to  the  equator. — 
The  population  of  Asia  is  estimated  at  abont 
790,000,000,  or  nearly  three  fifths  of  the  entire 
inhabitants  of  the  globe.  It  is  very  unequally 
distributed  over  the  continent.  China  proper 
and  British  India,  with  an  area  of  less  than 
2,500,000  sq.  m.,  have  upward  of  500,000,000; 
while  Siberia,  with  about  5,000,000  sq.  m.,  has 
less  than  4,000,000.  At  least  half  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe  is  concentrated  in  China  and 
India.  Ethnologists  usually  group  the  inhab- 
itants of  Asia  into  three  great  classes :  1.  The 
Mongolian  race  embraces  almost  all  the  peoples 
of  the  north,  east,  and  southeast,  including 
Siberia,  Tartary,  China,  Thibet,  and  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  besides  the  dominant  peo- 
ple of  Turkey.  But  while  the  physical  char- 
acteristics of  the  Chinese  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  Tartars,  so  great  is  the  distinction  be- 
tween their  languages  that  many  have  consid- 
ered them  as  of  a  wholly  distinct  race.  2.  The 
Aryan  race  embraces  the  main  populations  of 
Hindostan,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  Persia, 
and  Caucasia,  besides  Russians,  Greeks,  Ar- 
menians, and  others  in  Siberia,  Turkey,  and 
elsewhere.  3.  The  Semitic  race  includes  the 
Syrians  and  Arabians,  besides  Jews  in  various 
parts.  The  Malay  race  appears  on  the  con- 
tinent only  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  (See 
ETHXOLOGY.)  Only  a  small  part  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Asia  can  be  properly  designated 
as  barbarous,  for  most  of  them  have  from 
time  immemorial  possessed  a  literature  and 
established  forms  of  government.  Nor  can 
they  be  called  half  civilized  with  much  more 
propriety  than  the  term  might  be  applied 
to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  Their  civilization,  however,  as- 
sumes a  type  presenting  marked  differences 


from  that  of  Europe  and  America.  Up  to 
a  certain  point,  and  in  certain  directions,  the 
Asiatics  made  great  advances  in  every  de- 
partment of  thought  and  culture;  but  that 
point  once  reached,  the  progress  of  develop- 
ment was  checked.  In  China  the  laws,  litera- 
ture, art,  and  industry  have  remained  almost 
fixed  for  ages.  So,  too,  although  in  a  some- 
what less  degree,  in  India.  The  changes  which 
have  been  wrought  have  sprung  from  without, 
from  the  pressure  of  foreign  races  or  the  in- 
fluence of  a  new  religion,  rather  than  from  a 
principle  of  growth  from  within.  Their  very 
languages  show  a  lack  of  progressiveness.  The 
Chinese  language  now  is  the  Chinese  of  2,000 
years  ago.  The  Arabic  of  the  Koran  is  the 
Arabic  of  to-day. — The  religions  of  Asia  fall 
mainly  within  three  great  classes:  Buddhism 
in  China  and  Japan,  respectively  modified  by 
and  mingled  with  Confucianism  and  Sintoism ; 
Brahminism  in  India;  and  Mohammedanism 
existing  in  almost  every  region,  but  especially  in 
the  Turkish  dominions,  Persia,  and  the  smaller 
states  of  western  Asia.  The  pagans  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Christians  and  Jews  on  the 
other,  are  too  few  to  be  taken  into  the  gen- 
eral account.  The  Greek  church  may  nom- 
inally number  7,500,000,  the  Roman  Catholic 
4,500,000,  the  Protestant  500,000.  Religion 
seems  to  be  almost  the  only  changeable  thing 
in  Asia.  In  two  centuries  Buddhism  became 
the  predominant  religion  of  300,000,000  peo- 
ple; in  half  that  time  Islamism  spread  from 
Arabia  to  Persia,  Hindostan,  and  Tartary; 
and  within  a  few  years  Babism,  a  new  religion, 
has  sprung  up  in  western  Asia,  and  is  rapidly 
spreading  in  Persia,  Turkey,  and  India.  (See 
BABISM.) — The  political  institutions  of  Asia 
present  a  variety  of  forms,  among  which  the 
republican  and  constitutional  are  not  to  be 
found.  Strict  absolutism  is  the  prevailing 
form.  In  many  parts  of  Arabia  and  Tartary 
various  nomadic  tribes  have  a  patriarchal 
government,  under  their  own  chiefs,  although 
they  nominally  recognize  a  higher  author- 
ity. In  the  true  sense,  only  Turkey,  Persia, 
Afghanistan,  China,  Japan,  Burmah,  Siam, 
and  Anam  can  be  called  independent  coun- 
tries. All  others  are  more  or  less  dependent 
upon  the  great  empires  of  Asia  or  Europe. 
In  China  the  government  is  an  absolute  mon- 
archy. More  than  a  third  of  the  continent  is 
under  the  government  of  Russia  and  England. 
The  most  extraordinary  foreign  conquest  is 
that  by  the  British,  which  in  a  century  and  a 
quarter  has  made  England  mistress  of  more 
subjects  than  were  ever  ruled  by  any  Roman 
emperor.  Compared  with  the  British  posses- 
sions, those  of  the  French  in  Cochin  China 
and  the  Portuguese  in  India  and  at  Macao  in 
China  are  quite  insignificant,  while  Holland 
and  Spain  possess  only  islands  near  the  conti- 
nent. Turkey  should  be  considered  an  Asiatic 
power  with  possessions  in  Europe,  rather  than 
a  European  power  with  possessions  in  Asia. 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  and  Portugal 


ASIA 


are  therefore  the  only  European  powers  who 
hold  any  portion  of  Asia.  The  principal  polit- 
ical divisions  of  Asia  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows, placing  the  independent  powers  first  in 
the  order  of  their  importance,  and  grouping 
some  of  the  minor  ones  together :  1 .  China 
proper,  with  the  islands  of  Formosa  and  Hai- 
nan. Chinese  dependencies :  Thibet,  Chinese 
Tartary,  Mongolia,  Mantchooria,  and  Corea.  2. 
Turkey  in  Asia :  Asia  Minor,  Turkish  Arme- 
nia, Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  part 
of  Arabia.  3.  Japan.  4.  Persia.  5.  Arabia. 
6.  Afghanistan,  Herat,  Beloochistan.  7.  Fur- 
ther India :  kingdoms  of  Anam,  Burmah,  and 
Siam.  8.  Turkistan :  khanates  of  Bokhara, 
Khiva,  Kokan,  and  Koondooz.  9.  Russian 
Asia :  Siberia,  Amoor  Country,  Russian  Tur- 
kistan, Caucasia.  10.  British  India  and  na- 
tive states  under  British  influence.  11.  French 
possessions:  Cochin  China,  Pondicherry.  12. 
Portuguese  possessions :  Goa,  Macao.  Only 
roughly  approximate  statements  of  the  area 
and  population  of  most  of  these  divisions 
can  be  given,  for  which  reference  is  made  to 
the  separate  articles  upon  them. — Asia  is  re- 
garded as  the  birthplace  of  mankind.  It  is 
the  cradle  of  all  the  great  religious  move- 
ments— of  Hindoo  pantheism  and  Buddhism, 
Hebrew  monotheism  and  Persian  dualism, 
Christianity  and  Mohammedanism — and  the 
earliest  seat  of  science  and  literature.  Here 
flourished  in  hoary  antiquity  the  secluded  em- 
pire of  China,  and  the  Aryan  communities 
which  produced  Zoroaster  and  the  Vedas,  and 
reared  the  stupendous  monuments  of  Hindo- 
stan.  Asia  was  the  seat  of  the  Assyrian,  Chal- 
dean, Median,  Persian,  Syrian,  and  Parthian 
empires.  The  names  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh, 
of  Jerusalem,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Palmyra,  and  Anti- 
och,  of  Susa,  Ecbatana,  Persepolis,  Ctesiphon, 
and  Seleucia,  of  Sardis,  Ephesus,  and  Miletus, 
keep  before  our  minds  the  ancient  glories  of 
Asiatic  power  and  culture ;  while  in  after  ages 
Bagdad,  Bassorah,  Damascus,  Aleppo,  and  even 
the  distant  Samarcand  and  Balkh  in  the  wilds 
of  central  Asia,  bespeak  the  progress  of  Asi- 
atic civilization  and  intelligence.  Phoenicia 
was  the  great  teacher  of  Greece  and  the  oth- 
er countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
When  western  civilization  had  been  developed, 
Asia  Minor  was  the  theatre  where  Asia  and 
Europe  met.  Persia  and  Hellas  for  a  century 
and  a  half  wrestled  for  supremacy,  until  semi- 
Hellenic  Macedonia  established  her  sway  over 
both.  The  Seleucidse  of  Syria  became  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  in  the  East,  but  finally 
yielded  to  the  Parthians  on  one  side  and  the 
Romans  on  the  other.  Rome  extended  her 
power  to  the  Euphrates,  and  Asian  Nicomedia 
was  for  a  time  a  favorite  seat  of  her  emperors. 
In  neighboring  Niccea  Constantino  had  the  dog- 
mas of  her  new  religion,  received  from  Jeru- 
salem, established.  But  Arabia  produced  a 
new  faith  and  a  new  race  of  conquerors,  and 
the  caliphs  triumphed  over  the  Ctesars  of  the 
East,  and  restored  power  to  its  ancient  seats 


on  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Orontes.  Rees- 
tablished Persia  was  merged  in  their  dominions. 
Sultan  Mahmoud  of  Ghuzni  conquered  Afghan- 
istan, and  carried  Mohammedanism  beyond  the 
Indus.  In  the  west  of  Asia  the  cross,  about  a 
century  later,  began  a  deadly  struggle  with  the 
crescent,  which  lasted  for  ages,  and  terminated 
with  the  total  discomfiture  of  the  crusaders. 
Turkish  tribes,  Seljuks  and  others,  had  in  the 
meanwhile  become  the  chief  rulers  of  Moslem 
Asia.  But  now  a  vast  human  flood,  under 
Genghis  Khan,  surged  in  from  the  plains  of 
eastern  Asia,  overwhelmed  China,  India,  and 
western  Asia,  and  rolled  on  as  far  as  the  centre 
of  Europe,  thus  renewing  the  devastations  of 
the  Huns  and  other  northern  Asiatic  tribes 
who  desolated  the  West-Roman  empire  before 
its  fall.  The  Mongols  retired  from  Germany, 
but  their  yoke  remained  firmly  fixed  on  Russia, 
where  the  Golden  Horde  held  sway  for  more 
than  200  years.  In  Bagdad  they  terminated 
the  dynasty  of  the  Abbasside  caliphs.  At  the 
same  epoch  they  established  the  successors  of 
Genghis  Khan  on  the  throne  of  Afghanistan 
and  northern  India,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the 
great  empire  of  which  Delhi  afterward  be- 
came the  capital.  The  great  body  of  the  Mon- 
gols themselves  embraced  Buddhism.  The 
Mongols  of  India  adopted  Mohammedanism. 
By  the  same  irruptive  movement,  the  native 
dynasty  of  the  Chinese  was  displaced,  and  a 
Mongol  line  of  sovereigns  set  up  in  their  stead, 
of  whom  Kublai  Khan  was  the  first  and  ablest. 
The  conquests  of  these  fierce  tribes,  which  had 
penetrated  from  the  Chinese  wall  to  Silesia 
and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  induced  a 
feeling  of  terror  in  Christendom.  Attempts 
were  made  by  missionaries,  sent  into  the  heart 
of  Asia,  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the 
Mongols.  Marco  Polo  also  travelled  in  central 
Asia  and  Mongolia,  and,  after  residing  for  a 
period  at  the  court  of  Kublai  Khan,  the  con- 
queror of  China,  brought  home  admirable  ac- 
counts of  central  Asia,  China,  and  India.  The 
vast  Mongolian  empire  of  Genghis  had,  after 
a  few  generations,  crumbled  into  pieces.  The 
tribes  from  whom  the  guards  of  the  throne  and 
persons  of  the  caliphs  had  been  chosen  had  as- 
sumed the  position  of  independent  conquerors, 
and  had  founded  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1299  Othman  led  his  followers  into  the  ancient 
province  of  Bithynia,  nearly  opposite  Constanti- 
nople, and  made  Brusa  his  capital.  Amurath 
and  his  son  Bajazet  soon  overran  the  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  crossing  into  Europe  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  Byzantine  provinces. 
A  new  invasion  of  the  Mongols  under  Tamer- 
lane now  swept  over  Asia  and  overthrew 
Bajazet  (1402),  but  Amurath  II.  restored  the 
Ottoman  power,  and  his  successor  Mohammed 
II.  established  himself  in  Constantinople  (1453). 
Under  Solyman  the  Magnificent  (1520-'66),  the 
Ottoman  empire  reached  its  present  limits, 
comprising  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  the  country  as  far 
as  the  Tigris,  and  a  part  of  Arabia.  A  quar- 
ter of  a  century  after  the  permanent  establish- 


ASIA 


15 


ment  of  Mohammedanism  in  Constantinople, 
Bernardo  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
(I486).  Two  years  later  Vasco  da  Gama  ar- 
rived at  Calicut,  and  afterward  Almeida  and 
Albuquerque  were  sent  out  and  formed  Por- 
tuguese settlements,  Goa  being  captured  and 
made  their  capital  (1510).  At  this  period 
China  was  in  the  hands  of  a  Chinese  dynasty, 
which  had  been  established  in  1358  by  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  Tartar  rulers.  In  central  Asia 
the  thrones  of  Samarcand,  Ispahan,  Afghan- 
istan, and  Khorasan  were  filled  by  descendants 
of  Genghis  or  Tamerlane.  A  number  of  petty 
chiefs  maintained  their  independence ;  and  the 
Uzbecks,  the  successors  to  the  country  of  the 
Turks,  harassed  all  the  territories  within  their 
reach.  In  Persia  the  first  of  the  Sufi  dynasty 
had  just  ascended  the  throne.  Albuquerque 
directed  a  successful  expedition  against  Ma- 
lacca, where  he  received  the  submission  of 
Pegu  and  Siam.  He  also  seized  Ormuz  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Persian  gulf.  A  Portuguese 
embassy  was  sent  to  China,  and  the  Portuguese 
having  gained  the  favor  of  the  court  of  Peking 
by  extirpating  a  band  of  pirates  that  infested 
the  coast,  permission  was  given  them  to  settle 
at  Macao.  From  this  point  and  from  Goa  they 
directed  their  operations,  and  in  50  years  were 
masters  of  the  Spice  Islands,  and  monopolized 
the  whole  trade  of  the  eastern  ocean.  The 
subjugation  of  northern  India  by  the  emperor 
Baber  in  1526,  and  a  succession  of  able  princes, 
consolidated  the  empire  of  the  Moguls  in  India. 
Abbas  the  Great,  shah  of  Persia  (1587-1628), 
raised  the  Persian  empire  to  its  highest  pitch 
of  modern  greatness. — The  brilliant  successes 
of  the  Portuguese  in  India  inspired  adventurers 
of  other  nations  with  hopes  of  wealth.  But  it 
was  not  till  1600  that  the  English  East  India 
company  was  formed,  and  in  1612  English 
factories  were  established  by  leave  of  the 
native  authorities  at  Surat,  Ahmedabad,  Cam- 
bay,  and  Gogo.  In  1644  the  native  dynasty 
of  the  Chinese  was  terminated  by  the  rebellion 
of  the  mandarin  Li-tse-ching,  and  the  Man- 
tchoo  Tartars  again  ruled  the  vast  empire  of 
China.  About  the  same  time  the  settlement 
of  Madras  was  founded  by  the  East  India  com- 
pany, and  subsequently  the  factory  at  Cal- 
cutta; and  in  1661  the  Portuguese  ceded  to 
the  English  the  island  of  Bombay.  The  East 
India  company,  which  had  been  unsuccessful 
as  a  trading  undertaking,  was  reorganized,  and 
in  1708  a  new  body  of  adventurers  was  formed, 
and  admitted  to  a  participation  in  its  rights 
and  privileges.  This  body  was  destined  before 
the  lapse  of  a  century  to  acquire  and  con- 
solidate a  larger  and  more  powerful  empire 
than  had  ever  been  governed  by  the  Moguls  in 
India.  Dutch  and  French  trading  companies 
had  also  obtained  a  footing  in  India.  On  the 
death  of  Aurunszebe  in  1707,  the  affairs  of  the 
empire  had  rapidly  fallen  into  confusion.  The 
various  rajahs  became  virtually  independent,, 
and  the  Mahrattas,  who  first  appeared  as  free- 
booters during  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe,  ex- 
54  VOL.  ii. — 2 


tended  their  dominions  across  the  peninsula. 
In  1746,  war  having  broken  out  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  Labonrdonnaie,  the  French 
governor  of  Mauritius,  conducted  an  expedi- 
tion against  Madras,  the  chief  British  settle- 
ment in  India,  which  capitulated  on  the  under- 
standing that  it  should  be  ransomed.  Dupleix, 
governor  of  the  French  settlement  of  Pondi- 
cherry,  conceived  the  scheme  of  consolidating 
the  states  of  Hindostan  into  one  mighty  empire, 
and  with  the  aid  of  native  allies  was  at  first 
successful  against  the  English  ;  but  Clive  saved 
the  menaced  existence  of  the  East  India  com- 
pany, and  by  1760  the  British  had  subdued  the 
finest  provinces  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and  part  of 
Orissa.  From  that  time  the  limits  of  the 
British  empire  in  India  have  steadily  increased. 
A  great  revolt  of  the  natives  was  put  down 
in  1857-'8,  and  the  government  was  imme- 
diately afterward  transferred  from  the  East 
India  company  directly  to  the  crown. — In  the 
north  a  few  Cossacks  brought  Siberia  under 
Russian  dominion  toward  the  close  of  the  16th 
century,  and  Peter  the  Great  obtained  a  foot- 
hold in  central  Asia  by  assisting  the  shah  of 
Persia  against  the  Afghans.  A  plot  concocted 
with  Turkey  for  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Persian  kingdom  was  defeated  by  the  energy 
of  the  usurper  Nadir  Shah,  who  for  a  brief 
space  restored  the  waning  glories  of  the  Persian 
name,  and  passing  the  Indus  pursued  a  career 
of  conquest  as  far  as  Delhi.  During  his  return 
he  was  murdered  by  mutineers  (1747),  and  again 
the  Persian  empire  was  dismembered,  Afghan- 
istan being  erected  into  an  independent  king- 
dom by  Ahmed,  one  of  Nadir's  followers.  The 
Russians  have  during  the  present  century 
gradually  extended  their  power,  consolidating 
their  rule  over  the  Caucasian  regions,  and  ac- 
quiring new  possessions  on  the  Aras,  the 
Amoor,  and  the  Jaxartes.  Turkey  has  had 
conflicts  with  Russia,  Persia,  and  her  own 
vassal,  Mehemet  AH  of  Egypt,  but  has  es- 
caped without  a  considerable  loss  of  terri- 
tory. Persia  has  been  constantly  declining, 
and  has  lately  suffered  a  terrible  depopulation 
from  famine.  China  has  seen  foreign  enemies 
in  her  capital,  and  half  her  territory  ravaged 
by  a  powerful  insurrection.  Japan  has  been 
compelled  to  open  her  ports  and  cities  to  the 
abhorred  occidentals.  Afghanistan  has  been 
torn  by  foreign  and  domestic  wars.  Arabia 
has  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  Wahabites, 
and  several  minor  conflicts,  but  is  on  the  whole 
as  isolated  and  unsubdued  as  ever.  What  was 
formerly  Independent  Tartary  is  now  half  re- 
duced by  Russia.  The  political  influences  of 
Asia  are  balanced  by  British  supremacy  in  the 
south  and  Russian  in  the  north.  These  two 
great  powers  have  long  antagonized  each  other 
at  the  court  of  Persia,  the  key  to  central  Asia 
and  northern  India.  In  China,  Russian  influ- 
ence is  perhaps  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
nation.  In  the  west,  Turkey  keeps  up  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  great  power,  but  her  influence  in 
general  Asiatic  affairs  is  a  cipher. 


16 


ASIAGO 


ASIA  MINOR 


ASIAGO,  a  town  of  N.  E.  Italy,  in  the  province 
and  17  m.  N.  of  Vicenza;  pop.  5,140.  It  has 
manufactories  of  straw  hats.  Asiago  is  the 
foremost  among  the  "  seven  German  commu- 
nities "  of  Venetia. 

ASIA  MINOR,  a  peninsula  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  Asia,  forming  a  large  part  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  between  lat.  36°  and  42°  N.  and  Ion. 
26°  and  41°  E.,  and  bounded  N.  W.  by  the 
Dardanelles  (the  Hellespont  of  the  ancients), 
N.  by  the  sea  of  Marmora  (Propontis),  the  Bos- 
porus, and  the  Black  sea  (Pontus  Euxinus),  E. 
by  the  Armenian  mountains  and  their  S.  W. 
prolongations  to  the  gulf  of  Iskanderun  (of 
Issus),  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  W.  by  the 
Archipelago  (vEgean  sea) ;  area,  about  212,000 
sq.  m.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  district 
consists  of  an  elevated  plateau  from  which 
rise  mountain  ranges  of  considerable  height, 


among  them  the  Taurus  and  Antitaurus  (see 
TAURUS),  culminating  in  the  extinct  volcano 
of  Arjish  Dagh  (Argteus),  about  13,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  more  than  9,000  above  the 
plain.  Between  the  abrupt  edges  of  the  high 
table  land  and  the  sea  N.  and  S.  of  the  penin- 
sula intervenes  only  a  narrow  strip  of  low, 
level  coast  land.  But  on  the  west  this  strip 
is  wider,  forming  an  extensive  and  very  fertile 
plain — that  portion  of  the  country  to  which 
the  name  of  the  Levant  was  several  centuries 
ago  first  and  properly  applied,  though  the 
term  has  since  been  indefinitely  used,  often  of 
the  whole  peninsula.  The  rivers  are  small; 
the  chief  are  the  Sakaria  (Sangarius),  Kizil 
Irmak  (Ilalys),  and  Yeshil  Irmak  (Iris),  which 
flow  into  the  Black  sea,  and  the  Sarabat 
(Hermus)  and  Meinder  (Maaander),  which 
empty  into  the  Archipelago.  On  the  bar- 


ANCIENT 

ASIA  MINOE 


ren  plateau  the  climate  is  dry  and  very  hot 
in  summer,  but  in  winter  cold ;  the  N.  and  S. 
coasts  are  less  subject  to  extremes  of  tem- 
perature ;  while  the  coast  plain  has  one  of  the 
pleasantest  climates  in  the  world.  The  fruits 
of  the  fertile  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  were 
celebrated  in  ancient  times,  and  are  still  the 
most  important  productions  of  the  country. 
—During  the  earliest  period  of  its  history  Asia 
Minor  appears  to  have  been  inhabited  by  a 
number  of  different  tribes,  and  even  by  entirely 
different  races.  The  names  of  these  tribes 
gave  rise  to.  most  of  the  designations  afterward 
given  to  the  divisions  of  the  peninsula.  The 
boundaries  of  these  were  not  well  denned  until, 
under  the  successors  of  Alexander,  they  be- 
came separate  states,  generally  under  the  rule 


of  Macedonians  and  Greeks.  The  divisions 
on  the  N.  coast  were  as  follows :  Bithynia, 
with  the  towns  of  Prusa  (now  Brusa),  Nico- 
media  (Ismid),  and  Nicsa  (Isnik),  a  country 
first  inhabited  by  the  Bebryces,  a  Mysian  or 
Phrygian  tribe,  and  afterward  conquered  by 
the  Bithyni,  who,  according  to  Herodotus, 
came  from  Thrace ;  Paphlagonia,  with  its  chief 
city  Sinope  (founded  by  a  Greek  colony), 
named  from  the  Paphlagonians,  from  whom 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Lydians,  after  which 
it  was  ruled  successively  by  Persians,  Mace- 
donians, and  Greeks ;  and  finally  Pontus,  with 
Trapezus  (Trebizond),  first  occupied  by  savage 
tribes  of  which  little  is  known,  then  colonized 
liy  the  Greeks,  and  afterward  the  kingdom 
of  the  famous  Mithridates.  On  the  W.  coast 


ASIA   MINOR 


ASMONEANS 


17 


were  three  other  divisions :  Mysia,  including 
the  plain  of  Troy  and  the  royal  city  of  Per- 
gamus,  in  the  district  of  Teuthrania;  Lydia 
(capital,  Sardis),  whose  fonnders,  the  Lydi- 
ans,  were  probably  a  Semitic  people,  who 
established  the  first  enduring  empire  of  which 
we  have  authentic  record  in  Asia  Minor ;  and 
Caria,  settled,  according  to  Herodotus,  by  col- 
onists from  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean.  On  the 
W.  coast  also,  and  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  three  divisions  just  named,  were  the  famous 
Greek  colonies  of  JJolis,  lying  principally  in 
S.  W.  Mysia,  Doris  in  southern  Caria,  and  be- 
tween the  two  Ionia,  with  its  confederation  of 
twelve  cities  (Phocoea,  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Mile- 
tus, &c.),  peopled  by  Greek  colonists,  accord- 
ing to  tradition  emigrants  from  Attica  in  the 
obscure  time  of  Codrus,  who  here  maintained 
the  reputation  of  their  race  for  progress  and 
civilization.  On  the  S.  coast  were  Lycia ; 
Pamphylia,  so  called  from  the  number  of  tribes 
composing  its  inhabitants  (n.a/i$vfoi,  people  of 
all  races);  Pisidia,  parallel  with  and  just  N.  of 
the  narrow  coast  strip  of  Pamphylia ;  and  Cili- 
cia,  with  the  city  of  Tarsus,  in  ancient  times 
peopled  by  the  most  formidable  pirates  of 
the  East.  The  inland  districts  were  Phrygia, 
whose  inhabitants  claimed  to  be  autochtho- 
nous ;  Galatia,  named  after  the  Gauls  who  de- 
serted the  army  of  the  later  Brennus  to  settle 
here;  Cappadocia  (capital,  Mazaca,  now  Kai- 
sariyeh),  first  ruled  by  the  Medes,  afterward 
by  the  Persians ;  Isauria,  peopled  by  a  tribe 
of  mountaineers  dreaded  as  daring  robbers ; 
and  Lycaonia,  first  mentioned  by  Xenophon, 
and  inhabited  by  an  ancient  tribe  from  whom 
it  took  its  name. — In  reviewing  its  history  Asia 
Minor  cannot  be  treated  as  a  united  whole; 
for  details  concerning  its  different  divisions  the 
titles  just  given  are  referred  to.  The  follow- 
ing outline,  however,  may  serve  to  show  how 
inextricably  its  fortunes  are  complicated  with 
those  of  the  great  nations  which  for  3,000 
years  contended  for  its  dominion.  Though  the 
traditions  regarding  its  first  settlement  are  ob- 
scure, it  appears  that  the  Lydians,  coming  from 
the  east,  were  among  the  first  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  Their  government  is  at  all  events  the 
first  of  which  we  have  any  detailed  record.  It 
flourished  until  King  Croesus  was  defeated  by 
Cyrus,  and  the  Persian  empire  gained  the  do- 
minion of  the  peninsula,  holding  it  from  about 
554  to  333  B.  C.  The  campaign  which  in  the 
last-mentioned  year  ended  with  the  battle  of 
Issus  now  added  the  country  to  the  conquests 
of  Alexander.  It  remained  under  his  various 
successors  until  the  victories  of  L.  Scipio  (190) 
and  Manlius  (189),  followed  by  the  treaty  with 
Antiochus  in  188,  the  bequest  of  the  kingdom 
of  Pergamus  to  Rome  by  Attains  III.  (133), 
and  the  overthrow  of  Mithridates  (65  B.  C.) 
gave  the  territory  to  the  Romans,  in  whose 
hands,  and  those  of  their  followers  of  the  By- 
zantine empire,  it  continued  till  its  conquest  by 
the  Turks  in  the  13th  century. — Asia  Minor 
now  forms  a  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia ;  its  larger 


portion  constitutes  the  district  called  Anatolia, 
or  Natolia,  from  the  old  Greek  name  given  to 
Asia  Minor — 'Avaro/l^,  the  east  or  land  of  the 
rising  sun.  Officially,  it  includes  several  eya- 
lets,  but  the  name  Anatolia  is  generally  applied 
to  the  whole  region.  For  details  as  to  its 
present  condition,  see  TUBKET. 
•  ASIXAIS,  a  tribe  of  Indians  on  Trinity  river, 
Texas,  frequently  mentioned  in  accounts  of 
La  Salle's  expedition  and  early  Louisiana  his- 
tory under  the  name  of  Cenis.  They  were  a 
branch  of  the  confederation  known  as  the  Tex- 
as, were  sedentary,  cultivating  rudely  maize, 
beans,  squashes,  melons,  and  tobacco,  and  mak- 
ing mats  and  earthenware.  They  lived  in  large 
beehive-shaped  cabins,  each  holding  15  or  20 
families,  and  at  a  very  early  day  procured 
horses  from  the  Spaniards  to  use  in  war  and 
hunting.  La  Salle  visited  them  in  1686,  and 
the  French  subsequently,  under  La  Harpe  and 
St.  Denis,  tried  to  gain  them;  but  the  Span- 
iards established  missions  and  posts  among 
them  in  1715.  Before  the  close  of  the  century 
they  ceased  to  he  noticed  as  a  separate  tribe, 
and  are  now  apparently  extinct,  unless  they 
are  represented  by  the  Arapahoes. 

ASKEW,  Aseongh,  or  Avseongb,  Anne,  an  Eng- 
lish Protestant  lady,  a  native  of  Lincolnshire, 
who  was  burned  at  Smithfield,  July  16,  1546. 
Her  husband,  named  Kyme,  was  a'Strong  Cath- 
olic, and  turned  her  out  of  doors  because  she 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  reformers.  She 
went  to  London  to  sue  for  a  separation,  and  at- 
tracted the  sympathy  of  the  queen,  Catharine 
Parr,  and  many  of  the  court  ladies.  Her  denial 
of  the  corporeal  presence  of  Christ's  body  in 
the  eucharist  caused  her  arrest  and  committal 
to  prison.  Burnet  says  that  after  much  pains 
she  signed  a  recantation,  but  this  did  not  save 
her.  She  was  recommitted  to  Newgate,  and 
asked  to  disclose  who  were  her  correspondents 
at  court.  She  refused  to  reply,  though  she 
was  racked  in  the  presence  of  the  lord  chan- 
cellor. As  she  was  not  able  to  stand  after  the 
torture,  she  was  carried  in  a  chair  to  the  stake, 
and  suffered  along  with  four  others,  under- 
going this  last  trial  with  signal  fortitude. 

ASMANNSHAUSEN,  a  village  of  Prussia,  prov- 
ince of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  2  m.  below  Rudesheim ;  pop.  about  600. 
It  is  famous  for  the  wine  of  Asmannshausen, 
one  of  the  best  red  Rhenish  wines. 

.ts.MOIi.EI'S,  or  Asmodl  (Heb.  Ashmedai,  from 
shamad,  to  destroy),  an  evil  demon  mentioned 
in  the  later  Jewish  writers.  In  the  book  of 
Tobit  he  is  described  as  murdering  the  seven 
husbands  of  Saraht  one  after  the  other.  In 
consequence  of  this  he  has  been  facetiously 
termed  the  evil  spirit  of  marriage,  or  the  de- 
mon of  divorce.  In  the  Talmud  he  figures  as 
the  prince  of  demons,  and  is  said  to  have  driven 
Solomon  out  of  his  kingdom.  Tobit  got  rid  of 
him  by  prayer  and  fasting.  Asmodaeus  is  the 
hero  of  Le  Sage's  novel  Le  diable  lioite>/.r. 

ASMONEANS,  or  llnsmoncans  (Heb.  'tttwhmo- 
naim),  the  name  of  a  Jewish  priestly  family 


18 


ASKIERES 


which,  under  its  founder  Mattathias,  the  great- 
grandson  of  Asmonffius,  and  his  five  sons,  lib- 
erated Judea  from  the  yoke  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  and  his  successors,  and  subsequently 
held  both  the  high-priestly  and  the  princely 
dignity,  until  supplanted  by  Herod.  They  are 
also  known,  though  not  properly,  as  Macca- 
bees. Mattathias  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
in  167  B.  C.,  dying  soon  after.  His  fifth  son 
Jonathan,  and  his  grandson  John  Hyrcanus, 
fully  established  the  independence  of  the  coun- 
try ;  and  the  son  of  the  latter,  Aristobulns  I., 
assumed  the  royal  title  (106).  The  rivalry  of 
Hyrcanns  II.  and  his  brother  Aristobulus  II., 
nephew  of  Aristobulus  I.,  brought  about  the 
intervention  of  Rome,  and  the  disguised  sub- 
jection to  her  under  Herod.  Antigonus,  the 
son  of  Aristobulus,  who  was  the  last  to  fight 
for  the  rights  of  his  house,  perished  by  the 
hand  of  the  Romans  (37),  and  Herod  succes- 
sively extirpated  the  rest  of  the  house,  inclu- 
ding his  own  wife  Mariamne  and  his  two  sons 
by  her.  (See  HEBREWS.) 

ASMKRKS,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  on  the  railroad  from  Paris  to 
St.  Germain,  nearly  4  m.  N.  W.  of  Paris ;  pop. 
in  1866,  5,455.  The  kings  of  France  formerly 
had  a  castle  here.  The  place,  with  its  sur- 
roundings, was  very  conspicuous  in  the  fights 
of  the  Paris  communists  with  the  government 
troops  in  the  early  days  of  April,  1871. 

ASOPDS.  I.  A  river  of  Boaotia,  now  called 
the  Oropo.  It  rises  about  6  m.  N.  of  Mt.  Ela- 
tea  (anc.  Citharori),  flows  E.  through  Boeotia, 
and  empties  into  the  channel  of  Egripo  in  the 
territory  of  Attica,  near  the  town  of  Oropus; 
length  about  25  m.  II.  A  river  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, now  called  the  Hagios  Georgios  (St. 
George).  It  flows  from  the  mountains  S.  of 
Phlius  N".  E.  through  Argolis  into  the  bay  of 
Corinth.  III.  A  river  god,  identified  in  legend 
with  each  of  the  above  described  rivers.  The 
legends  connecting  him  with  the  Asopus  in 
Peloponnesus  trace  his  descent  from  Neptune. 
He  married  Metope,  daughter  of  Ladon,  and 
by  her  had  two  sons  and  twelve  or  twenty 
daughters.  Jupiter  bore  off  his  daughter  ^Egi- 
na,  whereupon  Asopus  revolted,  bnt  was  struck 
by  a  thunderbolt  and  reduced  to  submission. 

ASP,  a  name  given  to  more  than  one  species 
of  the  venomous  serpents.  By  naturalists  it  is 
confined  to  the  vipera  aspis  (Sohl.),  which  is  a 
native  of  the  European  Alps.  The  historical 
asp,  with  which  Cleopatra  is  believed  to  have 
destroyed  herself  after  the  death  of  Antony,  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  cerastes 
Hasselqiiittii.  From  many  circumstances,  how- 
ever, and  more  especially  from  the  description 
of  Pliny,  it  is  evident  that  the  asp  of  the  Ro- 
man writers  generally,  and  therefore  doubtless 
the  asp  of  Cleopatra,  is  the  common  and  cele- 
brated Egyptian  species,  the  naya  haye  of  the 
modern  Arabs.  This  reptile  was  chosen  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians  as  the  emblem  of  the 
good  deity,  Cneph,  and  as  the  mark  of  regal 
dignity.  It  is  closely  allied  with  the  cobra  de 


ASPARAGUS 

capello,  naia  tripvdians,  called  nag  by  the 
Hindoos,  which  is  still  worshipped  in  some  of 
the  temples  in  India.  The  Hindoos  believe 


that,  in  sagacity  and  its  malicious  tenacity  in 
treasuring  up  a  wrong  to  avenge  it,  this  ser- 
pent is  in  no  wise  inferior  to  a  man.  The 
naya  is  of  a  dark  greenish  hue  marked  with 
brownish ;  is  hooded  like  the  cobra  when  it 
expands  itself  in  rage,  but  wants  the  peculiar 
mark  on  the  back  of  the  neck  which  character- 
izes the  Asiatic  species,  and  which  has  been 
compared  to  a  pair  of  spectacles.  It  varies  in 
length  from  three  to  five  feet,  and  is  one  of  the 
deadliest  serpents  known.  The  bite  produces 
acute  local  pain  in  the  first  instance ;  then  a 
sense  of  deadly  sickness ;  after  which  the  suf- 
ferer falls  into  a  comatose  state,  with  convul- 
sive fits,  each  less  violent  than  the  preceding 
one.  In  the  last  of  these  he  dies,  usually  not 
many  minutes  after  being  struck.  Owing  to 
the  almost  instantaneous  dispersion  of  the  poi- 
son through  the  blood,  it  is  not  believed  that 
excision  could  be  of  the  slightest  utility ;  nor  is 
any  certain  antidote  known  against  the  deadly 
fluid  when  once  in  the  veins. 

ASPARAGUS,  a  genus  of  perennial  plants, 
of  the  natural  order  liliacea  and  the  sub- 
order asparagece,  and  differing  only  in  the 
fruit  from  the 
asphodeletK.  The 
genus  is  distin- 
guished by  tube- 
rous root  stocks, 
branching  steins, 
thread-like  leaves, 
join  ted  pedicels,  a 
G-partedperumtli. 
small  greenish- 
yellow  or  white 
flowers,  and  a 
spherical  berry. 
It  embraces  2(5 
species,  many  of 
which  become 
hardy  shrubs,  and 
climb  with  their 
spiny  branches  as 
if  by  tendrils.  A 
few  of  them  are 
common  in  the 
East  Indies  and 

Common  Asparagus  (Asparagus       nrnnnd  tho  Afprii 
officinalis).    Root,  Fruit  Flow- 
er, Shoot,  and  Mature  Sprig.       terranean  ;    most 


ASPASIA 


ASPHALT UM 


19 


of  them  are  rare  and  of  little  importance,  and 
none  are  natives  of  America.  Of  the  wild  spe- 
cies, the  most  widely  spread  are  the  A.  aeutifo- 
lius  and  albus,  the  needle-leaved  and  the  white, 
the  former  of  which  is  common  in  France, 
Spain,  Barbary,  and  the  Levant ;  the  latter  is 
found  in  the  same  countries,  France  excepted, 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  white  flexuous  boughs 
and  green  caducous  leaves ;  the  young  shoots  of 
both  are  eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  Moors.  The 
best  known  member  of  the  genus  is  A.  offici- 
nalu,  the  common  or  garden  asparagus,  es- 
teemed as  a  delicate  culinary  herb  from  the 
time  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  It  is  thought  to 
be  native  both  on  the  shores  of  England  and 
in  rocky  and  sterile  districts  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  when  it  has  attained  its  full  develop- 
ment is  an  elegant  plant,  from  3  to  4  feet  high, 
with  numerous  branches  loaded  with  fine  and 
delicate  leaves,  and  covered  with  small,  green- 
ish-yellow, bell-shaped,  and  almost  solitary 
flowers.  The  young  and  tender  shoots  of  the 
plant,  cut  when  but  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground,  before  ramification,  are  served  for  the 
table.  It  loves  a  dry,  deep,  and  .powerfully 
manured  soil,  and  -is  raised  from  seeds  either 
planted  in  seed  beds  in  the  spring  and  trans- 
planted the  next  year,  or  planted  at  first  where 
they  are  to  remain.  During  the  first  two  years 
the  young  heads  should  not  be  cut;  half  of 
them  may  be  cut  in  the  third,  and  after  that 
the  full  crop.  The  supply  will  begin  to  dimin- 
ish after  10  or  12  years.  The  beds  for  aspara- 
gus are  usually  a^out  4  feet  broad,  and  should 
be  manured  and  trenched  at  least  2£  feet  deep. 
The  plants  are  in  rows  about  a  foot  apart,  and 
are  thinned  out  till  they  stand  about  6  inches 
from  each  other  in  the  row,  and  in  growing  a 
cluster  of  heads  branch  from  each  root.  The 
crop  may  be  reaped  as  often  as  it  appears,  be- 
ing cut  from  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground;  yet  the  plant  degenerates  by  being  cut 
late  in  the  season.  The  bed  should  be  annually, 
in  the  autumn,  replenished  with  manure,  dug 
in  between  the  rows  as  deeply  as  possible  with- 
out injuring  the  roots,  and  covered  with  pulve- 
rized manure,  seaweed,  or  other  litter  during 
the  winter,  as  a  protection  from  the  frost. 
Asparagus  is  easily  forced  by  the  use  of  hot- 
beds, but  the  process  of  transplanting  always 
injures  or  destroys  the  roots;  and  if,  instead 
of  transplanting,  the  bed  bo  covered  and  the 
trenches  filled  with  hot  dung,  which  mode  is 
sufficient  to  forward  the  crop  one  or  two  weeks, 
care  must  be  taken  to  give  the  plants  time  to 
rest  and  recover  in  the  later  part  of  the  season. 
ASPASI1,  a  Milesian  woman  who  fixed  her 
residence  at  Athens  about  the  middle  of  the 
5th  century  B.  0.  By  her  great  eloquence, 
political  and  literary  ability,  and  personal  fas- 
cination, she  at  once  obtained  a  commanding 
position  among  the  leaders  of  the  state,  and 
gained  the  affection  of  Pericles  so  far  that  he 
separated  himself  from  his  wife  and  made  As- 
pasia  his  consort  as  well  in  private  life  as  in 
political  affairs.  The  fact  that  the  laws  of 


Athens  conferred  no  rights  upon  foreign  wom- 
en, and  allowed  no  actually  legitimate  marriage 
with  them,  has  given  rise  to  the  impression 
that  Aspasia  was  a  courtesan.  The  many  ene- 
mies of  Pericles,  especially  the  satirists  of  the 
time,  also  conveyed  this  idea  by  their  attacks, 
but  it  seems  to  have  been  without  foundation ; 
she  was  held  in  universal  esteem,  and  her  union 
with  Pericles  was  as  close  as  the  Athenian  law 
allowed,  and  continued  through  his  life.  The 
enemies  of  Pericles  attributed  to  her  influence 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Samos  and  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war;  but  the  best  historians 
deny  this.  She  is  also  said  with  obvious  exag- 
geration to  have  instructed  Pericles  in  oratory ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  she  assisted  him  greatly  in 
the  government,  and  that  her  own  eloquence 
was  remarkable.  When  the  Athenians  named 
Pericles  the  Olympian  Zeus,  Aspasia  was  called 
Hera  (Juno).  Her  house  was  the  resort  of  all  the 
leading  statesmen  and  philosophers  of  Athens ; 
and  in  many  of  their  works  her  great  abilities 
are  celebrated.  After  the  death  of  Pericles 
(429)  she  attached  herself  to  a  cattle  dealer 
named  Lysicles,  whom  she  instructed  in  oratory 
and  by  her  influence  raised  in  position.  Her 
son  by  Pericles  took  his  father's  name,  being 
legitimated  by  a  popular  decree,  and  became 
a  general  of  high  rank.  He  was  put  to  death 
with  five  others  in  consequence  of  the  unsuc- 
cessful result  of  the  battle  of  Arginusae  (406). 

ASI'K.V.    See  POPLAR. 

ASPEKN  AND  ESSLING,  two  villages  lying 
about  a  league  apart,  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Danube,  a  short  distance  below  Vienna,  which 
were  the  principal  strategic  points  in  a  despe- 
rate battle  to  which  they  have  given  a  name, 
fought  May  21  and  22,  1809,  between  Na- 
poleon's army  and  the  Anstrians  under  the 
archduke  Charles.  The  Austrians  attacked 
while  the  two  bodies  of  the  French  force  were 
separated  by  the  river,  inflicting  a  severe  de- 
feat, and  finally  compelling  Napoleon  to  re- 
treat to  the  island  of  Lobau.  Mass6na,  who 
secured  the  retreat  by  the  defence  of  Essling, 
received  from  it  his  title  of  duke  of  Essling. 
The  Austrian  loss  was  4,000  killed  and  16,000 
wounded;  Napoleon's  loss  8,000  killed  and 
30,000  wounded.  Marshal  Lannes  was  among 
the  mortally  wounded.  The  success  of  the 
Austrians  was  more  than  counterbalanced  soon 
after  by  their  defeat  at  Wagram  (July  5,  6). 

ASPli ALTITKS  LAWS.     See  DEAD  SKA. 

ASPHALTUM,  or  Asphalt  (Gr.  do^aArof),  a  mix- 
ture of  different  hydrocarbons,  some  of  which 
contain  oxygen,  by  the  majority  of  chemists  and 
geologists  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable  origin, 
while  others  derive  it  from  the  remains  of  ani- 
mals. It  is  also  called  bitumen,  mineral  pitch, 
and  Jews'  pitch  (from  Lacus  Asphaltites).  (See 
BITUMEN.)  It  is  more  bituminous  than  the  coals, 
and  when  pure  is  of  the  consistence  of  resin ; 
but  the  consistence  varies  with  the  tempera- 
ture and  with  the  amount  of  liquid  bitumen  or 
petroleum  which  may  be  mixed  with  it,  hold- 
;  ing  the  more  solid  asphaltura  in  solution.  It 


20 


ASPHALTUM 


is  often  intermixed  with  stony  substances,  and 
sometimes  even  contains  80  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  Pure  asphnltum  is  soluble  in  oil 
of  turpentine,  naphtha,  and  carbonates  of  the 
alkalis,  but  insoluble  in  water;  alcohol  dissolves 
out  of  it  about  5  per  cent,  of  a  resinous  sub- 
stance, and  ether  takes  up  20  per  cent,  of  an- 
other resin  that  is  not  affected  by  the  alcohol. 
It  yields  also  a  volatile  oil.  The  remainder  is 
a  substance  named  by  M.  Boussingault  atphal- 
tene,  the  composition  of  which  is  0»H»0«. 
Asphaltum  burns  readily,  with  a  red  smoky 
flame,  and  leaves  no  ashes  except  those  due  to 
its  impurities.  Its  specific  gravity  ranges  from 
1  to  1'8;  its  color  is  black  and  dark  brown, 
and  it  does  not  soil  the  fingers.  It  melts  at 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  conse- 
quently is  unfit  for  use  as  fuel,  and  cannot  be 
economically  used  for  gas.  Most  of  the  geo- 
logical formations  contain  it,  but  it  is  particu- 
larly common  in  the  secondary  and  tertiary 
calcareous  and  sandy  strata.  In  the  primary 
rocks  it  is  found  only  in  small  veins.  It  is  ob- 
tained in  large  quantities  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  sea,  rising  to  the  surface,  where  it  forms 
solid  lumps  which  are  thrown  on  the  shore. 
Some  of  the  other  noted  localities  are  a  lake  on 
the  island  of  Trinidad,  \^  m.  in  circumference, 
which  is  hot  at  the  centre,  but  is  solid  and  cold 
toward  the  shores,  and  has  its  borders  over  a 
breadth  of  three  fourths  of  a  mile  covered  with 
the  hardened  pitch,  with  trees  flourishing  over 
it.  The  inhabitants  powder  the  asphaltum 
and  drive  it  by  a  blast  upon  burning  coals; 
thus  used  it  gives  out  as  much  heat  as  an  equal 
weight  of  the  best  English  coal.  It  is  thrown 
over  bagasse  or  wood  fuel  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar.  At  various  places  in  South  America 
are  similar  lakes,  as  at  Caxatambo  and  Beren- 
gela,  Peru,  where  it  is  used  for  pitching  boats; 
in  California,  near  the  coast  of  Santa  Barbara. 
It  occurs  in  smaller  quantities,  disseminated 
through  shale  and  sandstone  rocks,  and  occa- 
sionally limestones,  or  collected  in  cavities  or 
seams  in  these  rocks,  in  Derbyshire,  Cornwall, 
and  the  French  department  of  Landes ;  and  at 
Val  de  Travers,  Neufchatel,  impregnating  a 
bed  in  the  cretaceous  formation,  and  serving 
as  a  cement  to  the  rock,  which  is  used  for 
buildings.  Grahamite  from  West  Virginia, 
described  by  Prof.  Wurtz  of  New  York  in  1865, 
resembles  asphaltum  in  its  pitch-black  lustrous 
appearance. — A  rigorous  analysis  applicable  to 
all  asphaltum  cannot  be  given,  as  each  bed 
may  present  different  results.  The  following 
ultimate  analyses  have  been  made : 

Carbon.        Hydrogen.       Ojyiren.  Nhmcen.     Ash. 

1.  Bastennes,     78-50  8-SO  2-60       1-65       8-45 

2.  Auvergne,     77'64  7-86  8-85        1-02       6-18 
8.  Cuba,             82-84           9-10  6-26       1-91        0'40 

Nos.  1  and  2  were  by  Ebelman,  No.  3  by  Weth- 
erill.  The  action  of  heat,  alcohol,  ether, 
naphtha,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  as  well  as  the 
above  analyses,  show  that  the  so-called  as- 
phaltum from  different  localities  is  very  vari- 
ous in  composition,  and  that  the  true  composi- 


tion of  any  one  of  them  is  not  known.  They 
contain  volatile  oils,  heavy  oils,  resins  soluble 
in  alcohol,  solids  soluble  in  ether  but  not  in 
alcohol,  other  solids  not  soluble  either  in  alco- 
hol or  ether,  and  nitrogenous  substances. — 
Asphaltum  was  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
in  embalming,  and  appears  to  have  been  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  Baby- 
lon. It  is  now  used  for  pavement,  for  making 
water-tight  tanks,  as  a  coating  for  tubes  of 
glass  and  iron  used  for  conveying  gas  or  water, 
and  for  various  other  purposes  of  like  nature. 
Asphalt  is  used  in  Paris  in  two  different  forms : 
first,  the  natural  rock,  unalloyed,  with  which 
streets  are  paved;  second,  a  mixture  of  asphalt 
with  bitumen  and  fine  gravel  for  the  construc- 
tion of  sidewalks.  The  rock  is  found  princi- 
pally at  Seyssel  and  Val  de  Travers,  and  is 
transported  to  Paris  by  canal  and  rail.  Pure 
asphaltic  rock  is  preferred  for  streets  and 
roads.  When  this  is  heated  to  near  300°  F., 
it  crumbles  to  a  mass  of  brown  powder,  which 
when  compressed  in  a  mould  and  allowed  to 
cool  recovers  its  original  hardness  and  appear- 
ance. If  the  hot  powder,  instead  of  being 
placed  in  a  mould,  be  spread  about  two  inches 
thick  on  a  hard  foundation  and  pressed  or 
packed  by  a  hot  iron  pestle  or  roller  and  al- 
lowed to  cool,  the  surface  will  immediately 
solidify,  forming  a  crust  identical  with  the 
original  rock.  The  discovery  of  this  applica- 
tion was  due  to  accident.  Fragments  of  as- 
phaltum, dropping  from  the  carts  which  trans- 
ported it  from  the  quarries  along  the  road, 
became  heated  by  the  sun  and  were  crushed  to 
powder  and  compacted  by  the  continual  pas- 
sage of  carts,  until  they  formed  a  hard,  smooth 
track.  The  matter  was  investigated,  and  led 
to  the  present  method  of  asphaltum  road 
making.  The  sidewalks  of  Paris  are  made  of 
mastic  of  asphaltum,  with  an  addition  of  bitu- 
men and  fine  gravel,  and  can  be  more  properly 
described  under  PAVEMENT. — Artificial  Asphaltum 
is  made  from  bitumen  or  the  refuse  tar  of  the 
gas  house.  Coal  tar  is  heated  to  a  degree  that 
renders  it  hard  and  brittle;  of  this  25  parts 
are  mixed  with  50  parts  slaked  lime  in  fine 
powder  and  75  parts  river  gravel.  These  in- 
gredients are  thoroughly  incorporated  in  a 
cast-iron  boiler,  heated  for  two  hours,  and 
drawn  off  into  moulds.  The  blocks  thus  ob- 
tained are  treated  subsequently  like  mastic  of 
asphalt  for  sidewalks,  except  that  the  temper- 
ature is  carried  higher.  Another  patent  gives 
the  following  proportions :  Residue  of  tar  con- 
taining considerable  non-volatile  oil,  25  to  50 
per  cent. ;  carbonate  of  lime  in  dry  powder, 
50  per  cent. ;  silica  and  clay,  25  per  cent.  This 
is  stirred  in  a  boiler  over  a  slow  fire  for  ten 
hours  and  run  off  into  moulds.  The  mineral 
constituents  must  be  previously  strongly  heated 
to  expel  air  and  moisture,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  thorough  incorporation  with  the  pitch. 
Artificial  asphaltum  is  used  for  coating  gas 
pipes  to  protect  them  from  corrosion ;  also 
for  sidewalks,  roofing,  flooring,  especially  for 


ASPHODEL 


ASPLAND 


21 


stables,  and  water-tight  tanks.  A  concrete 
prepared  of  95  Ibs.  asphaltum,  5  Ibs.  bitumen, 
and  150  Ibs.  broken  stone,  has  been  employed 
in  France  for  marine  constructions.  The  use 
of  prepared  asphaltum  in  the  United  States 
has  been  largely  increased  since  the  discovery 
of  petroleum  and  of  a  deposit  of  a  solid  hydro- 
carbon called  Grahamite,  and  also  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  extension  of  gas  manufac- 
ture by  which  the  supply  of  raw  material  has 
become  practically  inexhaustible. 

ASPHODEL  (risphodelug),  a  genus  of  orna- 
mental perennial  plants  belonging  to  the  nat- 
ural order  liliacea,  and  to  the  sub-order 
attphcdelece.  They  are  all  natives  of  the  old 
world,  and  are  found  abundantly  in  Greece, 
Sicily,  Asia,  and  Barbary.  The  genus  com- 
prises 12  species,  all  of  which  have  a  bulbous 
root,  erect  undivided  stem,  long  leaves,  and 
showy  flowers  arranged  in  clusters,  which  in 
most  of  the  species  are  spikes.  The  luteiw,  or 
common  yellow  species,  is  an  old  inhabitant 
of  European  gardens,  into  which  it  was  intro- 
duced from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  branchless,  about  2^  feet  high,  has  scat- 
tered and  almost  pili- 
form  leaves  sheath- 
ing the  stalk,  and 
flowers  of  a  beauti- 
ful golden  yellow. 
It  blossoms  during 
six  weeks  in  mid- 
summer. The  ramo- 
sui,  or  white  arfd 
branched  asphodel, 
has  a  naked  stem 
with  ramifications 
near  the  summit, 
each  of  which  is  ter- 
minated by  a  spike 
of  white  star-shaped 
flowers  having  their 
petals  streaked  with 
purple.  The  an- 
cients had  a  su- 
perstition that  the 
manes  of  the  dead 
were  nourished  upon  its  roots,  and  they  there- 
fore planted  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  sepul- 
chres, and  made  it  sacred  to  Proserpine.  It 
•till  covers  the  hills  and  valleys  of  Apulia,  where 
it  furnishes  nourishment  to  the  sheep.  The 
albvs,  or  upright  asphodel,  differs  from  the 
preceding  by  having  a  branchless  stem,  and 
also  by  having  its  flowers  a  little  smaller  and 
nearer  together.  The  other  species  of  asphodel 
are  much  less  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens. 

ASPHYXIA  (Gr.  aa<fiv!;ia,  from  a  privative  and 
e-0iif(f,  pulse),  literally,  a  temporary  or  a  final 
suspension  of  the  motion  of  the  heart,  and 
the  pulsation  of  the  arteries.  The  word  is 
now  used  exclusively  to  signify  a  condition  of 
imperfect  or  suspended  respiration,  in  which 
the  blood  is  no  longer  arterialized  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  air,  irrespective  of  the  motion 
of  the  heart,  which  may  continue  some  time 


Asphodelus  ramosus. 


after  respiration  ceases.  The  immediate  bane- 
ful .effects  of  the  suspension  of  respiration 
arise  from  the  privation  of  oxgen,  and  from 
the  retention  of  the  carbonic  acid  previously 
formed,  which  becomes  a  blood  poison.  If  the 
circulation  be  disproportionately  augumented, 
carbonic  acid  is  formed,  and  being  morbidly 
retained,  convulsion  and  death  ensue.  If  the 
respiration  is  unduly  and  disproportionately 
augumented,  the  subject  is  cooled,  for  mere 
pulmonary  respiration  is  a  cooling  process,  by 
the  difference  of  temperaature  of  the  inspired 
and  expired  air ;  and  in  this  case  also  the  sub- 
ject dies,  but  now  from  loss  of  temperature. 
This  latter  is  the  case  in  the  asphyxiated  pa- 
tient, if  the  respiratory  movements  be  unduly 
hastened.  On  the  other  hand,  if  in  the  as- 
phyxiated we  excite  the  circulation,  without 
simultaneously  and  proportionately  inducing 
the  respiratory  movements,  we  destroy  the 
patient  by  carbonic  acid,  formed  in  the  course 
of  that  circulation,  and  uneliminated  by  respi- 
ration. This  statement  explains  the  injurious 
and  fatal  tendency  of  the  warm  bath  which 
was  formerly  recommended  in  asphyxia,  for  it 
is  injurious,  and  has  doubtless  of  itself  proved 
fatal  in  cases  in  which  the  patient  without  it 
would  have  spontaneously  recovered. 

ASPIJTWALL,  or  Colon,  a  city  and  seaport  of 
the  United  States  of  Colombia,  the  Atlantic 
terminus  of  the  Panama  railway,  situated  on 
the  island  of  Manzanilla  in  Limon  or  Navy  bay, 
in  lat.  9°  21'  23"  N.,  Ion.  79°  63'  52"  W.,  47  m. 
by  rail  N.  N.  W.  of  Panama;  pop.  in  1872, 
about  6,500.  The  island  of  Manzanilla  (area, 
650  acres)  was  in  1852  ceded  to  the  railway 
company  for  ever.  The  harbor  of  Aspinwall 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast.  The  town  was 
founded  by  the  railway  company  in  1850,  and 
was  originally  intended  to  serve  merely  as  a 
port  of  transit ;  but  it  has  become  a  centre  of 
supply  for  many  neighboring  towns.  The  office 
and  freight  depot  of  the  railway  company,  the 
former  of  brick  and  the  latter  a  massive  stone 
structure  300  by  80  ft.,  are  the  only  edifices 
worthy  of  note.  The  railway  company's  wharf, 
40  ft.  wide,  extends  out  from  the  shore  upon  a 
coral  reef  nearly  1,000ft.  Theformerinsalubrity 
of  the  place  has  been  in  great  part  remedied  by 
raising  its  level  and  by  thorough  drainage.  The 
port  is  now  (1872)  visited  monthly  by  three 
steamers  from  New  York,  four  from  English, 
two  from  German,  and  two  from  French  ports. 

ASPLAND,  Hubert,  an  English  dissenting  min- 
ister, born  in  Cambridgeshire,  Jan.  23,  1782, 
died  Dec.  80,  1845.  In  1799  he  entered  the 
university  of  Aberdeen,  but  in  the  following 
year  he  resigned  his  scholarship  on  account  of 
the  change  in  his  theological  opinions,  which 
prevented  him  from  remaining  longer  a  bene- 
ficiary upon  a  Calvinistic  endowment.  For  a 
year  or  two  he  tried  to  occupy  himself  with 
trade,  but  he  soon  resumed  his  theological 
pursuits,  and  in  1801  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  General  Baptist  congregation  at  Newport, 
Isle  of  Wight,  with  liberty  to  preach  Unitarian 


ASPROMONTE 


ASS 


doctrines.  He  was  then  not  20  years  old. 
In  1805  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Gravel 
Pit  chapel,  Hackney,  where  he  continued  until 
his  death.  Mr.  Aspland  stood  for  years  at  the 
head  of  the  active  Unitarian  clergy  of  England. 
In  1806  he  established  a  religious  magazine, 
the  "Monthly  Repository,"  and  took  the  lead 
in  founding  the  Unitarian  fund  society  for  the 
support  of  popular  preaching  and  the  relief 
of  indigent  ministers.  In  1815  he  established 
the  "  Christian  Reformer,"  a  monthly  magazine 
of  considerable  influence.  The  list  of  his  pub- 
lications numbers  50,  and  since  his  death  a  vol- 
ume of  sermons  and  several  pamphlets  from 
his  pen  have  been  edited  by  his  son. 

ASPROMONTE,  a  mountain  in  the  8.  "W.  corner 
of  Italy,  near  Reggio,  celebrated  for  the  battle 
of  Aug.  28,  1862,  between  the  Italian  troops 
under  Pallavicini  and  the  volunteers  of  Gari- 
baldi. The  latter,  who  had  crossed  over  from 
Sicily  to  march  on  Rome,  against  the  warn- 
ings of  the  royal  government,  was  defeated, 
wounded  in  the  foot,  and  taken  prisoner  with 
the  larger  portion  of  his  men. 

ASPKOPOTUHO.    See  ACHELOTJS. 

ASS  (equus  asinus),  the  humblest  member 
of  the  horse  family,  known  to  be  of  eastern 
origin.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  Genesis,  in 
the  history  of  Abraham,  who,  when  he  went 
down  to  Egypt  on  account  of  the  famine  in 
Palestine,  found  that  Pharaoh  was  possessed 
of  "  sheep,  and  oxen,  and  he  asses,  and  man 
servants,  and  maid  servants,  and  she  asses,  and 
camels."  At  that  time,  probably,  as  was  the 
case  during  all  the  historic  ages  of  Greece,  a 
species  of  ass  was  wild  on  the  mountains  of 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  throughout  Persia ;  and 
in  the  latter  country  and  Armenia,  in  the  re- 
gion about  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Van,  it  exists 
in  a  state  of  nature  to  the  present  day.  Asses 
are  mentioned  in  Xenophon's  Anabasis  as  occur- 
ring in  great  numbers  in  parts  of  Mesopotamia. 
These  animals,  which  he  simply  terms  wild 
asses  (&VOL  a-ypcoi,  of  which  words  the  specific 
Latin  name  onager  is  merely  a  corruption), 
were  in  company  with  ostriches,  antelopes, 
and  bustards;  they  were  eagerly  pursued  by 
the  horsemen  of  the  army,  and  are  described 
as  being  possessed  of  extraordinary  speed  and 
endurance.  The  wild  asses  of  the  same  country 
are  still  possessed  of  the  same  characteristics. 
They  have  always  been  the  special  quarry  of 
the  Persian  monarchs,  and  Nadir  Shah  was  in- 
defatigable in  his  pursuit  of  them,  and  consid- 
ered the  running  down  of  one  with  his  grey- 
hound a  feat  equal  to  the  winning  of  a  battle 
or  conquering  a  province.  The  flesh  was  con- 
sidered the  most  exquisite  of  venison.  The 
wild  ass  of  Xenophon,  and  that,  probably  iden- 
tical with  it,  hunted  by  the  shahs  of  Persia,  is 
presumably  the  dziggetai,  or  equus  hemionus  of 
Pallas,  which,  as  its  specific  name  (hemionw, 
half-ass)  indicates,  possesses  as  much  of  the 
horse  as  of  the  ass  in  its  character  and  quali- 
ties. The  best  breed  of  ass  comes  from  the 


East,  where  he  has  been  long  carefully  culti- 
vated as  a  saddle  animal.  The  rocky  nature 
of  the  soil  and  mountainous  face  of  the  country 
in  Palestine  favored  the  employment  of  this 


Wild  Ass  (Dziggetai). 

hard-hoofed,  sure-footed,  patient,  and  endur- 
ing animal,  as  much  as  it  discouraged  that  of 
the  delicate,  fine-limbed,  high-bred  courser  of 
Syria  and  Arabia.  Lieut.  Col.  Smith,  who  has 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  equine  families 
of  the  East,  found  near  Bassorah  a  breed  of 
white  asses,  remarkable  for  their  excellence, 
which  he  had  reason  to  believe  are  of  a  breed 
as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the  kings  of  Judah. — 
The  characteristics  of  the  ass,  as  distinguish- 
ing him  from  the  horse,  are :  1,  inferiority  in 
size,  although  doubtless  this  in  European  coun- 
tries is  in  great  part  in  consequence  of  centu- 
ries of  cruel  treatment,  scanty  fare,  and  want 


-    t  tea 


Ass  (Asinus   vulgaris). 

of  attention  in  breeding,  the  animal  having 
been  for  ages  regarded  only  as  the  drudge  of 
the  poor ;  2,  a  rougher  and  more  shaggy  coat, 
capable,  however,  of  much  improvement  by 
warm  keeping  and  a  little  grooming;  3,  the 
shortness  and  stiffness  of  his  pastern  .joints, 
and  the  hard  solidity  of  his  sound  upright 
hoofs,  which  seem  almost  incapable  of  lame- 
ness, and  render  him  the  safest  and  most  sure- 
footed of  animals  in  difficult  mountain  passes; 
4,  the  extraordinary  length  of  his  ears,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  hare  more  than  those  of  his 
own  race ;  5,  the  peculiar  cross  which  he  bears 
on  his  back,  formed  by  a  longitudinal  dark 
stripe  along  the  course  of  the  spine,  and  a 
transverse  bar  across  the  shoulders,  which  in- 


ASSAB 


ASSAM 


23 


dicates  his  family  connection  with  the  untama- 
ble members  of  his  race,  the  zebra  and  qiiagga, 
who  are  yet  more  conspicuously  striped,  and 
of  whose  character  and  disposition  the  ass  pos- 
sesses many  points.  The  usual  color  of  the  ass 
is  gray,  mouse-colored,  or  black;  and  as  be 
tends  to  bay,  dun,  or  chestnut,  the  horse  colors, 
the  quality  deteriorates.  The  dental  system 
of  the  ass  assimilates  that  of  the  horse,  and 
in  like  manner  indicates  the  age  of  the  animal 
by  the  changes  and  murks  of  the  teeth.  The 
inalj  ass  is  capable  of  propagation  at  two 
^ears,  the  female  somewhat  earlier ;  the  latter 
carries  her  foal  11  months,  producing  it  in  the 
beginning  of  the  12th.  The  sexual  vigor  in 
both  sexes  is  excessive,  which  may  explain  the 
fact  that  in  the  hybrids  of  the  ass  and  horse 
the  offspring  are  much  nearer,  as  well  in  organ- 
ization as  in  temper  and  appearance,  to  the 
former  than  to  the  latter  progenitor.  In  all 
cases  the  mule  is  an  ass  modified  by  a  strain 
of  the  horse  ;  not  a  horse  modified  by  a  cross 
with  the  ass.  The  hybrid  foal  of  the  male  ass 
and  the  mare  is  the  true  mule ;  that  of  the  stal- 
lion and  the  she  ass,  tlie  hinny — the  latter  be- 
ing less  strongly  tinctured  with  the  blood  and 
having  less  of  the  form  of  the  ass,  owing  to  the 
superior  influence  of  the  male  in  the  physical 
form  and  external  organization  of  the  progeny. 
The  mule,  like  the  ass,  brays,  owing  to  a  pe- 
culiar construction  of  the  larynx;  while  the 
hinny  neighs,  like  its  sire. — There  is  no  doubt 
but  that  with  careful^breeding,  grooming,  sta- 
bling, and  nutritious  feeding,  the  ass  might  be 
improved  at  least  as  much  as  any  other  domes- 
tic animal.  As  it  is,  he  is  admirably  adapted 
for  a  beast  of  burden  in  cold,  mountainous 
countries,  in  which,  on  a  quarter  of  the  food 
required  by  a  horse,  he  will  safely  carry  bur- 
dens under  which  the  more  generous  animal 
would  break  down,  over  places  in  which  the 
other  could  not  keep  its  footing.  Under  kind 
treatment,  he  is  hardly  inferior  in  docility  to 
the  horse  or  the  dog.  The  female  is  exces- 
sively fond  of  her  young,  and  both  sexes  are 
susceptible  of  strong  attachment  to  their  owner. 
In  elevated  countries,  where  the  soil  is  light, 
asses  are  serviceable  in  an  agricultural  point  of 
view ;  although  in  the  United  States,  to  which 
they  were  first  introduced  by  Gen.  Washing- 
ton, they  are  little  used  except  for  the  propa- 
gation of  mules.  The  best  asses  are  obtained 
either  from  Smyrna,  the  island  of  Cyprus,  or 
from  Spain,  where  the  race  has  been  particular- 
ly cultivated,  as  it  has  also  in  Peru,  with  a 
view  to  the  business  of  mule-raising,  which  in 
both  these  countries  is  important. 

ASSAB,  or  Saha,  a  bay  in  the  Red  sea,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  40  m.  N.  W.  of  the  strait 
of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  in  lat.  12°  55'  N.,  Ion.  42° 
45'  E.,  16  m.  long  and  5  m.  wide.  It  is  bor- 
dered on  the  W.  by  high  table  land,  and  in 
its  front  are  the  coral  islands  of  Darmabah 
and  Darmahie,  the  last  forming  near  Cape  Lu- 
ma  a  safe  harbor  for  small  craft.  The  neigh- 
boring inhabitants  are  the  Danakil,  who  are 


virtually  governed  by  their  own  sultan,  though 
the  khedive  of  Egypt  claims  to  be  their  legiti- 
mate ruler.  The  bay  of  Assab  was  purchased 
in  1869  by  an  Italian  steamboat  company  as 
a  coaling  station  on  the  voyage  from  Italy  to 
Egypt  through  the  Suez  canal  to  India. 

ASSAM,  a  province  at  the  N.  E.  extremity  of 
British  India,  presidency  of  Bengal,  between 
lat.  25°  50'  and  28°  20'  N.,  Ion.  90°  40'  and 
97°  30'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Bhotan  and  Thi- 
bet, N.  E.  by  Thibet,  E.  and  S.  by  Burrnah, 
and  S.  W.  by  Bengal;  area,  21,800  sq.  m.; 
pop.  variously  estimated  at  from  200,000  to 
700,000,  the  smaller  number  being  probably 
more  nearly  correct.  The  country  lies  between 
two  mountain  ranges,  branches  of  the  Hima- 
laya, which  are  joined  at  its  eastern  end,  and 
rise  both  on  its  northern  and  southern  side  to 
the  height  of  nearly  20,000  feet.  These  send 
out  offshoots  along  the  sides  of  the  valley 
which  forms  the  province,  and  which  consists 
of  a  long  and  level  plain,  studded  here  and 
there  with  groups  of  hills.  The  number  of 
considerable  streams  exceeds  60,  so  that  Assam 
is  supposed  to  contain  more  rivers  than  any 
other  equal  extent  of  territory  in  the  world. 
The  Brahmapootra  is  the  chief  of  these,  flow- 
ing through  the  centre  of  the  country  from  E. 
to  W.  The1  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate 
temperate  and  agreeable.  A  regular  rainy 
season,  like  that  of  the  tropics,  lasts  from  March 
till  October,  swelling  the  rivers  and  flooding 
great  districts  of  the  plain,  obliging  the  inhabi- 
tants to  construct  high  causeways  between  the 
towns  and  villages.  Earthquakes  are  frequent, 
but  seldom  severe.  The  country  is  rich  hi 
minerals,  containing  coal  and  petroleum,  iron, 
and  gold  dust  in  some  of  the  river  sands.  Tea, 
silk,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  ivory  form  leading  ar- 
ticles of  trade.  The  tea  plant  is  indigenous 
here,  and  is  largely  cultivated  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  English  "Assam  Tea  Company," 
more  than  17,000  acres  of  tea  plantations  hav- 
ing been  under  cultivation  within  the  last  few 
years.  Tigers,  leopards,  bears,  deer,  and  other 
wild  animals  abound,  and  elephants  are  very 
numerous.  The  Assamese  are  akin  to  the  Hin- 
doo races.  They  are  lithe  and  active,  though 
generally  slight  in  frame;  they  are  almost 
beardless,  and  have  unusually  smooth  skin. 
They  live  in  huts  of  bamboo  and  mats,  and 
lead  rather  indolent  lives,  carrying  on  few  and 
unimportant  industries.  The  most  widespread 
religion  is  Brahminism,  but  there  are  also  many 
Mohammedans.  Assam  was  governed  by  a  se- 
ries of  kings,  concerning  whose  origin  and  reigns 
little  is  known,  until  the  17th  century,  when  a 
formidable  attempt  was  made  by  the  Mogul 
emperors  to  attach  it  to  their  dominions.  This 
was  defeated ;  but  from  that  time  the  country 
became  the  prey  of  revolutions,  and  gradually 
declined  in  power  till  1770,  when  the  British 
troops  interfered  hi  a  revolution  against  the 
rajah,  and  occupied  a  portion  of  the  territory. 
In  1826,  in  the  war  with  Burmah,  the  British 
finally  took  possession  of  the  country. 


ASSASSINS 


ASSASSINS  (Arab,  ffashashin,  hashish  smok- 
ers), a  secret  political  society  in  Persia,  Syria, 
and  Arabia,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  branch  of  the 
Ismaelians,  so  called  from  the  imam  Ismael  hen 
Jafar.  It  took  its  origin  in  Persia  about  A.  D. 
840  from  Abdallah,  son  of  Maimun  Kadah,  a 
believer  in  the  ancient  Magian  worship,  who 
undertook  by  the  preaching  of  his  dais  or  mis- 
sionaries to  reestablish  the  old  religion,  or  at 
least  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the  Abbas- 
side  caliphs.  His  followers  were  sometimes 
called  Ibabie,  "indifferents,"  and  sometimes 
Ismaelians,  because  they  favored  the  preten- 
sions of  the  descendants  of  Mohammed  ben 
Ismael,  of  the  house  of  All.  One  of  his 
disciples,  Ahmed,  called  Karmath,  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt,  and  for  a  whole  century 
the  East  was  involved  in  wars.  Another  par- 
tisan of  the  sect,  the  dai  Abdallah,  who 
styled  himself  a  descendant  of  Mohammed  ben 
Ismael,  escaped  from  prison,  where  he  had 
been  confined  by  the  caliph  Motadhad,  and 
succeeded  in  seating  himself  on  the  throne  of 
Africa  under  the  name  of  Obeidallah  Mahdi, 
A.  D.  909.  This  person  was  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Egyptian  caliphs,  who, 
tracing  their  descent  to  Ismael  ben  Jafar  Sadik, 
and  from  him  to  Fatima,  the  prophet's  daugh- 
ter, are  known  by  the  name  of  Fatimites  or 
eastern  Ismaelians.  The  secret  policy  of  this 
sect  was  to  overthrow  the  Abbasside  caliphate. 
In  the  reign  of  Hakem-biamr-illah  a  lodge  was 
instituted  at  Cairo  called  Dar  el-Hikmet,  house 
of  wisdom.  Access  to  this  lodge,  and  the  use 
of  the  books  and  mathematical  instruments 
kept  in  it,  as  well  as  instruction  by  the  profes- 
sors, who  were  paid  by  the  government,  were 
free  to  all.  In  this  lodge  were  taught  nine  se- 
cret doctrines  deduced  from  those  of  Abdallah 
ben  Maimun  Kadah.  In  the  first  degree  the 
mind  of  the  novice  was  purposely  perplexed, 
and  a  hidden  meaning  of  the  text  of  the  Koran 
was  suggested.  After  an  oath  of  unconditional 
obedience  the  pupil  was  initiated  into  the  sec- 
ond degree,  which  inculcated  the  recognition 
of  divinely  appointed  imams,  who  were  the 
source  of  all  knowledge.  The  third  degree 
taught  their  number,  which  could  not  exceed 
seven;  these  were  Ali,  Hassan,  Hossein,  Ali 
Seinolabidin,  Mohammed  el-Bakir,  Jafar  es- 
Sadik,  and  Ismael  his  son.  The  fourth  grade 
taught  that  since  the  beginning  of  the  world 
there  have  been  seven  divine  lawgivers,  or 
speaking  apostles  of  God,  each  of  whom  had 
by  command  of  heaven  altered  the  doctrine  of 
his  predecessor.  Each  of  these  had  seven 
coadjutors  in  succession,  who,  as  they  did  not 
appear  openly,  were  called  mutes  (samit).  The 
first  of  the  mutes  was  named  Sus,  and  the 
seven  speaking  prophets  were  Adam,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Muses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  and  Is- 
mael hen  Jafar.  The  fifth  degree  taught  that  | 
each  of  the  seven  mute  prophets  had  twelve 
apostles  for  the  extension  of  the  true  faith,  the 
number  twelve  being  the  most  excellent  after 
seven.  After  these  five  degrees  the  precepts 


of  Islamism  were  examined,  and  it  was  shown 
that  all  positive  religious  legislation  must  be 
subordinate  to  the  general  and  philosophical. 
The  dogmas  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Pythago- 
ras were  adduced  as  proofs  and  laid  down  as 
axioms.  In  the  seventh  the  student  passed 
from  philosophy  to  mysticism.  In  the  eighth 
the  pupil  was  perfectly  enlightened  as  to  the 
superfluity  of  all  prophets  and  apostles,  the 
non-existence  of  heaven  and  hell,  the  indiffer- 
ence of  all  actions,  for  which  there  is  neither 
punishment  nor  reward  either  in  this  world  or 
the  next;  and  thus  was  he  matured  for  the 
ninth  and  last  degree,  in  which  he  became  the 
blind  instrument  of  his  superior.  This  lodge 
was  closed  by  the  general  of  the  caliph  Amer 
Biakim-illah,  but  was  soon  reopened. — One 
of  the  initiated  dais  was  Hassan  ben  Sabah, 
who  became  the  founder  of  the  eastern  branch 
of  Ismaelians,  the  Assassins.  Banished  from 
Egypt,  he  went  to  Aleppo,  Bagdad,  and  Persia, 
preaching  his  doctrine  and  making  proselytes. 
Partly  by  stratagem  and  partly  by  force,  he 
got  possession  of  the  almost  impregnable  castle 
of  Alamut  (eagle's  nest)  in  the  Persian  province 
of  Ghilan,  strengthened  it,  and  made  it  the  seat 
of  the  central  power  of  the  Assassins.  The 
basis  of  his  political  and  religious  system  was : 
"Nothing  is  true,  and  everything  is  lawful." 
The  knowledge  of  all  the  degrees  was  to  be 
imparted  only  to  a  chosen  few.  The  bulk  of  his 
followers  were  only  initiated  far  enough  to  con- 
fuse their  minds  and  leave  them  dependent  up- 
on their  leaders,  and  the  observance  of  all  the 
precepts  of  Islamism  was  most  strictly  enjoin- 
ed. At  Alamut,  and  when  their  power  was 
extended  in  other  places  also,  the  Assassins  had 
splendid  walled  gardens  with  flower  beds  and 
fruit  trees  of  every  description,  limpid  streams, 
luxurious  halls,  and  porcelain  kiosks,  adorned 
with  Persian  carpets  and  Grecian  stuffs,  drink- 
ing vessels  of  gold  and  silver  and  crystal,  and 
charming  maidens  and  handsome  boys.  A 
youth  who  was  deemed  worthy  by  his  strength 
and  resolution  to  he  initiated,  was  invited  to 
the  table  and  conversation  of  the  grand  mas- 
ter; he  was  then  intoxicated  with  hashish  and 
carried  into  the  garden,  which  on  awakening 
he  believed  to  be  paradise.  Sleeping  again,  he 
was  carried  back  to  the  side  of  the  master ; 
and  when  the  effect  of  the  drug  had  passed 
away  he  believed  that  he  had  actually  had  a  fore- 
taste of  the  bliss  of  paradise,  and  henceforth 
blindly  devoted  himself  to  the  will  of  .his  mas- 
ter, eagerly  seeking  an  opportunity  to  sacrifice 
himself  in  order  to  attain  eternal  life.  Later, 
when -one  of  the  grand  masters  allowed  the  en- 
joyment of  every  pleasure  to  all,  the  sect  fre- 
quently intoxicated  themselves  with  hashish, 
whence  their  name  Hashashin,  corrupted  by  the 
crusaders  into  Assassins,  which,  in  view  of  their 
bloody  deeds,  came  to  signify  men  who  practise 
secret  murder  in  general.  Jelal  ed-Din  Malek, 
sultan  of  the  Seljuks,  having  sent  an  ambassador 
to  the  grand  master  to  require  his  obedience  and 
fealty,  Hassan  ben  Sabah  called  into  his  presence 


ASSASSINS 


25 


s.-voral  of  his  followers.  Beckoning  to  one  of 
them,  he  said,  "  Kill  thyself,"  and  he  instantly 
stabbed  himself;  to  another,  "  Throw  thyself 
from  the  rampart,"  and  the  next  moment 
he  lay  a  mutilated  corpse  in  the  moat.  Then 
turning  to  the  envoy,  the  grand  master  said, 
"  Go  tell  thy  lord,  in  this  way  I  am  obeyed  by 
70,000  faithful  subjects."  The  grand  master 
was  called  seyed,  the  lord,  or  more  commonly 
iheikh  el-je.bel,  chief  of  the  mountain  region 
(incorrectly  translated  old  man  of  the  moun- 
tnm),  because  the  order  always  maintained 
itself  in  castles  among  the  mountains  in  Per- 
sia, Irak,  and  Syria.  He  never  assumed  the 
title  of  sultan  or  emir,  and  preached  not  in 
his  own  name,  but  in  that  of  the  invisible 
imam  who  was  to  appear  at  a  future  period. 
Immediately  under  the  grand  master  were 
the  duah  el-leibar,  grand  recruiters  or  pri- 
ors, his  lieutenants  in  the  three  provinces  to 
which  his  order  extended.  Under  these  were 
the  duah  or  dais,  the  religious  nuncios  and  po- 
litical emissaries,  the  initiated  masters.  Then 
followed  the  refits,  fellows,  who  were  advanc- 
ing to  the  mastership  through  the  several 
grades  of  initiation  into  the  secret  doctrine. 
Next  came  the  sedavi,  the  'guards  of  the  order, 
the  warriors,  and  devoted  murderers ;  then  the 
sassik  (aspirants),  the  novices;  and  finally  the 
profane  or  the  people.  Hassan  laid  down  for 
his  dais  seven  rules  of  conduct :  1.  The  ash- 
inai-ruk  (knowledge  of  the  calling)  comprised 
the  maxims  for  the  judgment  of  character 
necessary  in  selecting  subjects.  2.  The  teenit 
(gaining  confidence)  taught  them  to  gain  over 
candidates  by  flattering  their  inclinations  and 
passions.  3.  As  soon  as  they  were  won,  it  was 
necessary  to  involve  them  by  doubts  and  ques- 
tions on  the  religious  commands  and  absurd- 
ities of  the  Koran.  4.  The  alid,  or  oath,  bound 
the  aspirant  in  the  most  solemn  manner  to  in- 
violable silence  and  submission.  5.  The  candi- 
dates were  taught  how  their  doctrines  agreed 
with  those  of  the  greatest  men  in  church  and 
state.  6.  The  tessis  (confirmation)  recapitulated 
rill  that  preceded.  7.  The  teevil  (allegorical 
instruction),  in  opposition  to  the  tensil  or  liter- 
al sense  of  the  divine  word,  was  the  principal 
essence  of  the  secret  doctrine,  reserved  only  to 
a  few  of  the  initiated. — Hassan  ben  Sabah  was 
speedily  attacked  by  the  sultan  Malek,  but  he 
sustained  himself,  and  even  gained  new  strong- 
holds. The  practice  of  assassination  by  which 
he  became  the  terror  of  eastern  monarchs  was 
first  tried  upon  his  early  friend  the  grand  vizier 
Nizam  ul-Mulk.  The  death  of  the  sultan,  ap- 
parently by  poison,  soon  followed,  and-  then 
ensued  a  fearful  series  of  murders  and  repri- 
sals. Fakhr  ul-Mulk  Abul-Mosaffar,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father  Nizam  ul-Mulk  as  grand 
vizier,  and  another  of  the  royal  family,  were 
assassinated.  One  of  Sultan  Sanjar's  slaves, 
who  had  been  won  over  to  the  Assassins,  stuck 
a  dagger  into  the  ground  near  his  master's 
head  while  the  latter  was  asleep.  Some  days 
after  the  sultan  received  a  letter  from  Alamut, 


j  saying,  ''Had  we  not  been  well  disposed  to- 
ward the  sultan,  we  might  have  plunged  the 
dagger  into  his  heart  instead  of  the  ground." 
Peace  was  then  concluded  between  the  parties, 
and  many  privileges  were  granted  to  the  Assas- 
sins. Hassan  ben  Sabah  survived  all  his  nearest 
relations  and  most  faithful  disciples.  He  slew 
two  of  his  sons  without  any  apparent  cause. 
He  died  in  1124,  at  the  age  of  90  years,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  general  and  chief  dai,  Kia 
Busurg-Omid,  in  whose  time  hostilities  were 
renewed  by  Sultan  Sanjar,  and  great  numbers 
of  the  Assassins  were  put  to  death.  The  vizier 
of  Damascus  gave  them  the  castle  at  Banias, 
near  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  which  became 
the  centre  of  their  power  in  Syria.  In  1118 
Abul-Wefa,  the  prior  there,  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem,  by 
which  he  bound  himself  to  put  the  city  of  Da- 
mascus into  his  power  in  return  for  the  city  of 
Tyre ;  but  the  plot  was  discovered  by  the  sul- 
tan, and  the  greater  part  of  the  Assassins  and 
the  crusaders  were  attacked  and  cut  to  pieces. 
At  Cairo  the  Fatimite  caliph  Abu  Ali  Mansour 
fell  by  the  dagger  of  an  Assassin,  and  shortly 
after  (1135)  the  Abbasside  caliph  was  assassi- 
nated at  Bagdad.  The  Assassins  now  spread 
all  over  the  western  part  of  Asia,  from  the 
confines  of  Khorasan  to  the  mountains  of  Sy- 
ria, from  the  Caspian  to  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1171  the  last  of  the 
Fatimite  dynasty  died,  and  the  lodge  at  Cairo 
was  overthrown.  Saladin,  who  became  sultan 
of  Egypt,  proved  a  formidable  enemy  to  the 
Assassins.  In  the  month  of  Ramazan,  1163, 
Hassan  II.,  the  fourth  grand  master,  summoned 
the  inhabitants  of  the  province  to  Alamut, 
where  he  addressed  the  multitude,  announced 
the  day  of  resurrection  or  revelation  of  the 
imam,  and  commanded  them  to  break  the  fast 
and  give  themselves  up  to  all  kinds  of  pleas- 
ure. A  similar  proclamation  was  made  through- 
out the  country,  and  was  received  by  a  majority 
of  the  people  with  joy.  In  1175  the  Assassins 
made  two  futile  attempts  on  Saladin's  life,  and 
he  in  return  ravaged  their  territory,  and  only  de- 
sisted from  completely  annihilating  their  power 
on  condition  of  his  being  in  the  future  safe  from 
their  daggers.  About  1191  Conrad,  lord  of  Tyre 
and  marquis  of  Montfort,  a  near  relation  of 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  was  murdered  by  two 
Assassins,  said  to  have  been  hired  for  that  pur- 
pose by  Richard  I.  of  England ;  and  it  seems 
that  the  imprisonment  of  the  latter  by  Leopold 
was  in  reprisal  for  the  death  of  his  kinsman.  Has- 
san III.  prohibited  everything  that  his  grand- 
father and  father  had  allowed,  and  again  enforc- 
ed the  observance  of  the  precepts  of  Islamism ; 
and  no  assassinations  were  committed  in  his 
reign.  By  this  prudent  conduct  he  acquired 

i  the  good  will  of  the  Moslem  princes,  and  re- 

j  ceived  from  the  caliph  of  Bagdad  the  title  of 
sovereign  prince,  a  favor  never  granted  to  anj 

[  of  his  predecessors.  Under  his  successor,  Ala- 
din  Mohammed,  the  use  of  the  dagger  was  re- 
sumed. About  1252  Hulaku,  monarch  of  the 


26 


ASSAULT 


Mongols,  captured  Roknedin,  the  last  of  the 
grand  masters,  in  his  castle  of  Maimundis. 
Roknedin  and  his  whole  race  were  condemned 
to  massacre;  12,000  captives  were  assembled 
and  slaughtered  at  once ;  troops  went  through 
the  provinces  to  execute  the  sentence,  and  many 
of  the  castles  were  demolished.  In  1270  Sultan 
Bibars  overthrew  their  authority  in  Syria. 
For  about  a  century  longer  the  Ismaelians  were 
numerous  in  Persia,  but  with  diminished  power. 
Assassins  are  said  to  remain  still  in  some  parts 
of  the  Lebanon  and  Persia,  but  only  as  a  heret- 
ical sect  of  Islamism,  and  they  seem  to  have 
lost  all  remembrance  of  their  former  power 
and  murderous  tactics.  Some  of  their  doc- 
trines and  practices  are  also  traced  in  those 
of  the  Druses.  The  Persian  Ismaelians  con- 
sider their  grand  master  as  an  incarnation 
of  the  Deity.  A  few  years- since  the  fact  of 
the  existence  of  the  order  in  India,  widely  dif- 
fused, was  disclosed  through  a  suit  brought  in 
the  English  courts  for  the  possession  of  its  rec- 
ords by  a  person  claiming  to  be  grand  master. 

ASSAULT,  any  wilful  and  unlawful  attempt 
or  offer,  with  force  or  violence,  to  do  a  corpo- 
ral hurt  to  another.  In  New  York  it  has  been 
added  to  a  definition  of  substantially  the  same 
import,  that  the  assault  may  consist  of  any  act 
tending  to  such  corporal  injury,  accompanied 
with  such  circumstances  as  denote  at  the  time 
an  intention  coupled  with  the  present  ability 
of  using  actual  violence  against  the  person. 
But  this  illustration  is  not  quite  correct,  for  to 
cover  the  cases  of  pointing  firearms,  though 
they  are  not  loaded,  at  persons,  the  ability  to 
do  the  injury  need  not  be  actual,  hut  it  is  suf- 
ficient if  it  be  only  apparent.  Nor  need  there 
be  an  actual  intention  to  do  the  violent  act ; 
for  if  the  assaulter  causes  it  to  be  believed  that 
lie  has  such  an  intent,  though  he  has  not  in 
fact,  the  assault  may  be  committed.  There 
must  be  some  exhibition  or  threatening  appear- 
ance of  force,  and  this  must  ordinarily  be  of 
physical  force.  A  threat  alone  is  not  an  as- 
sault; yet  such  threat,  spoken  under  circum- 
stances which  of  themselves,  so  to  speak,  im- 
port restraint  or  force,  may  constitute  the 
offence.  One  who,  having  an  open  knife  in 
his  hand,  and  being  within  striking  distance 
of  another,  demanded  with  threatening  words 
the  surrender  of  a  certain  paper,  was  held 
guilty  of  an  assault.  Force  may  be  exhibited 
by  the  raising  of  the  hand  or  a  weapon  as  if  to 
strike,  or  to  hurl  something ;  or  by  the  point- 
ing of  a  gun  or  pistol  within  the  range  of  the 
arm,  as  if  to  shoot  with  it,  and  even  though  it 
is  not  loaded,  if  it  is  reasonably  supposed  to  be 
loaded  by  the  person  assaulted ;  or  by  wilfully 
riding  a  horse  so  near  a  foot  passenger,  or  driv- 
ing or  attempting  to  drive  a  carriage  against 
the  carriage  of  another,  or  even  by  driving  it 
toward  the  other,  so  as  in  any  of  these  cases  to 
excite  reasonable  fear  of  injury;  or  by  pursu- 
ing another  with  a  dangerous  weapon,  and 
coming  so  near  him  that  he  may  reasonably 
apprehend  danger.  But  an  assault  may  be 


ASSAYING 

committed,  even  though  the  violent  show  of 
force  is  not  actually  within  reaching  distance, 
provided  it  be  so  near  as  to  excite  a  fear  of  im- 
mediate harm  in  a  person  of  fair  firmness. 
Thus,  where  one  was  approaching  another 
with  clenched  fist,  as  if  to  hit  him,  but  was 
stopped  by  bystanders  just  before  he  got  near 
enough  to  do  so,  he  was  held  guilty  of  an 
assault.  The  force,  and  thus  the  assault,  may 
exist  to  the  eye  of  the  law,  even  though  it  is 
not  apparent  on  the  face  of  the  facts,  and 
where  from  the  submission  or  consent  of  the 
victim  it  seems  that  it  could  not  have  existed. 
This  is  illustrated  by  those  cases  in  which 
schoolmasters  or  physicians  have,  by  virtue  of 
the  authority  or  the  trust  reposed  in  them  in 
these  relations,  induced  young  girls  to  submit 
to  indecent  maltreatment.  In  such  cases  the 
consent  is  regarded  by  the  law  as  neither  in- 
telligent nor  voluntary.  Further,  the  force 
must  be  unlawful.  Therefore  it  is  not  an  as- 
sault when  a  father  or  a  schoolmaster,  for  good 
reasons,  chastises  a  child  within  proper  limits. 
— Certain  assaults  are  described  as  aggravated 
assaults.  Such  are  assaults  upon  magistrates 
in  courts  of  justice,  or  against  other  officers 
of  the  law.  But  it  seems  that  to  constitute 
such  an  offence,  the  person  assaulted  must  be 
known  to  be  such  an  official,  or  there  must  be 
grounds  upon  which  it  can  fairly  be  presumed 
that  he  was  known  to  be  so. — Assault  is  a  mis- 
demeanor; that  is  to  say,  it  is  of  an  inferior 
degree  of  criminality,  and  is  ordinarily  punish- 
able by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  by  both. — 
Assault  must  be  distinguished  from  battery. 
The  words  are  commonly  used  together,  for 
the  reason  that  the  two  offences  are  usually 
committed  together ;  but  they  are  in  fact  dis- 
tinct and  separate.  Battery  is  the  actual  in- 
fliction of  the  threatened  violence.  But  the 
law  will  not  permit  even  the  threat  of  it,  and 
therefore  makes  that  a  substantial  offence, 
namely,  an  assault.  (See  BATTERY.) 

ASSAY'E,  or  Assye,  a  village  of  Hindostan,  in 
the  Nizam's  dominions,  43  m.  N.  E.  of  Aurung- 
abad,  near  which  in  September,  1803,  the 
duke  of  Wellington  (then  Gen.  Wellesley),  with 
2,000  British  troops  and  2,500  sepoys,  defeated 
the  much  more  numerous  combined  force  of 
Scindia  and  the  rajah  of  Nagpoor. 

ASSAYING  (old  Fr.  asaier,  mod.  Fr.  essayer, 
to  try),  the  chemical  examination  of  an  ore,  a 
metal,  or  an  alloy,  to  determine  the  proportions 
of  its  ingredients.  The  assay  of  a  gold  ore,  to 
obtain  the  amount  of  gold  present,  consists  of 
several  operations.  Fifty  grammes  of  the  ore 
are  mixed  with  80  grms.  of  oxide  of  lead,  20 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  4  of  charcoal  dust,  and 
12  of  powdered  glass.  If  the  ore  contains  much 
silica,  the  glass  may  be  left  out ;  if  much  sul- 
phur, 2  grms.  of  nails  should  be  added.  The 
mixture  is  placed  in  a  Hessian  sand  crucible, 
covered  by  a  layer  of  salt,  and  heated  in  a  fur- 
nace for  half  an  hour  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  then 
for  half  an  hour  at  a  white  heat.  When  this 
,  crucible  is  taken  out  of  the  furnace  and  allowed 


ASSAYING 


27 


to  cool  and  then  broken  open,  a  button  or 
globule  of  lead  will  be  found  at  the  bottom, 
covered  by  a  dark  glassy  slag  and  a  layer  of 
salt.  This  button  contains  the  gold  and  most 
of  the  silver  of  the  original  50  grms.  of  ore. 
The  oxide  of  lead,  the  quartz,  and  carbonate 
of  potash  form  a  fusible  glassy  slag  which  ab- 
sorbs earthy  impurities.  The  oxide  of  lead 
and  nitre  unite  to  drive  off  the  sulphur  as  sul- 
phurous acid.  The  coal  dust  reduces  a  portion 
of  oxide  of  lead  to  a  fine  spray  of  metallic  lead, 
which  m  settling  alloys  the  gold  and  silver, 
carrying  them  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 
The  button  usually  contains,  besides  lead,  gold, 
and  silver,  some  copper,  nickel,  antimony,  and 
sulphur,  if  these  substances  were  present  in 
the  ore.  The  process  of  separating  gold  and 
silver  from  the  other  metals  with  which  they 
are  alloyed  depends  on  the  principle  that  they 
cannot  be  converted  into  oxides  when  heated 
in  the  air,  while  the  other  metals  with  which 
they  are  generally  alloyed  can  be  oxidized  at 
a  high  temperature,  especially  when  a  large 
quantity  of  lead  is  present.  The  lead  button 
is  placed  in  an  earthenware  dish  made  of  fire 
clay,  called  a  scorifier  (scoria,  slag).  A  wind 
furnace  containing  a  muffle  is  used  for  heating 
the  assay  in  this  and  in  the  succeeding  opera- 
tion. The  fuel  generally  employed  is  coke  or 
anthracite;  charcoal  is  sometimes  used  when 
the  other  cannot  be  obtained.  The  muffle  is  a 
flat-bottomed  earthen  vessel,  8  or  10  in.  long, 
3  or  4  in.  wide,  and  2J  or  3  in.  high,  its  top 
arched  over,  one  end  open,  the  other  closed ; 
in  fact  it  is  half  a  cylinder  open  only  at  one 
end.  In  its  roof  and  sides  are  little  apertures 
through  which  the  air  drawn  in  at  the  open 
end  can  pass.  It  is  set  in  the  furnace,  in  the 
front  of  which  is  an  opening  corresponding  to 
the  open  end  of  the  muffle.  Coals  are  heaped 
around  and  upon  it  to  expose  it  to  the  full  heat 
of  the  furnace.  In  the  scorifier,  when  heated 
to  a  bright  red  heat,  the  so-called  baser  metals 
are  oxidized  and  form  a  slag,  leaving  a  small 
quantity  of  pure  lead  alloyed  with  silver  and 
gold.  This  alloy  while  in  the  molten  state  is 
poured  into  a  cooling  mould,  hammered  to  free 
it  from  slag,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  next 
operation,  which  is  called  cupellation,  and  is 
performed  in  a  little  cup  called  a  cupel.  The 
cupels  should  be  prepared  of  bone  ashes  well 
burnt,  ground,  and  washed,  and  then  shaped 
into  cylindrical  forms  an  inch  or  so  high  and 
2  in.  in  diameter,  their  tops  having  a  shallow 
depression  to  hold  the  metal.  These  cupels 
have  the  property  of  absorbing  the  oxides  of 
metals  and  of  holding  those  that  will  not  oxi- 
dize ;  but  as  they  cannot  absorb  a  greater 
weight  than  their  own  of  oxide  of  lead  or 
litharge,  not  quite  so  much  of  this  metal  should 
be  put  into  any  one  cupel  as  its  own  weight. — 
At  the  mints  the  assayer  is  mostly  called  upon 
to  practise  his  art  upon  coin  and  bullion,  alloys 
of  copper,  lead,  gold,  and  silver,  or  containing 
two  or  more  of  these  metals.  In  this  case  the 
previous  operations  of  fusion  in  the  crucible 


and  slagging  in  the  scorifier  are  omitted,  and 
the  assay  begins  at  this  point.  The  alloy  to 
be  assayed  is  carefully  weighed  in  a  delicate 
balance.  It  may  be  from  2  or  3  grammes,  or 
even  less,  if  already  considerably  alloyed.  A 
proper  quantity  of  lead,  known  to  contain  no 
silver,  is  put  with  it,  and  the  two  are  placed 
by  means  of  small  tongs  in  the  cupel,  which 
with  the  muffle  has  been  brought  to  a  full  red 
heat  in  the  furnace.  It  is  convenient  to  carry 
on  several  of  these  operations  at  once,  and 
therefore  a  number  of  the  cupels  are  usually 
introduced  together  on  the  floor  of  the  muffle. 
The  metals  when  placed  in  the  hot  cupel  im- 
mediately melt  and  form  a  bright  globule, 
which  spins  around  and  keeps  in  continual  mo- 
tion. The  air  drawing  in  through  the  muffle 
oxidizes  its  surface,  and  fumes  of  the  oxide  of 
lead  are  carried  off  by  the  draft.  At  the  same 
time  a  floating  scum  of  the  oxide  is  constantly 
flowing  down  the  sides  of  the  globule  and 
sinking  into  the  cupel,  while  freshly  formed 
oxide  replaces  it.  Any  copper  that  is  present 
is  oxidized  with  the  lead  and  absorbed  into  the 
cupel.  Thus  the  operation  goes  on  till  it  ter- 
minates by  all  the  lead  being  oxidized,  which 
is  indicated  by  a  sudden  brightening  up  and 
subsequent  darkening  of  the  little  globule,  and 
the  cessation  of  the  appearance  of  the  fumes 
and  scum  of  oxide.  This  little  globule,  which 
is  pure  silver,  pure  gold,  or  an  alloy  of  the  two 
metals,  shows  by  its  weight  the  quantity  that 
was  in  the  sample.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  too  intense  heat,  as  this  may  volatilize 
a  portion  of  the  silver;  and  the  globule  should 
not  be  cooled  suddenly,  as  the  pure  metal  ab- 
sorbs oxygen  when  melted,  and  gives  it  out  in 
cooling.  If  the  change  is  sudden,  some  silver 
is  apt  to  be  ejected  with  the  gas.  By  a  little 
experience  and  care  this  operation  is  made  so 
perfect  that  no  sensible  difference  should  be 
detected  in  the  weight  of  two  buttons  obtained 
from  two  assays  of  equal  weights,  when  tested 
by  a  balance  that  turns  with  ^  of  a  milli- 
gramme. The  quantity  of  lead  that  should  bo 
added  is  a  matter  that  can  only  be  determined 
by  experience.  Too  little  lead  for  the  oxi- 
dation of  impuVities  prevents  the  formation 
of  a  clean  button  of  silver,  free  of  oxide, 
and  too  much  lead  is  apt  to  carry  down  with 
it  into  the  cupel  a  small  quantity  of  silver. 
This  operation  is  often  performed  with  the 
blowpipe,  and  small  cupels  adapted  to  its  uses. 
The  weight  of  the  little  button  is  ascertained 
by  the  size  of  the  round  hole,  of  a  graduated 
series  of  such  holes  in  a  brass  plate,  which  it 
fits,  the  weight  of  a  button  of  silver  or  one 
of  gold  for  each  hole  having  been  previously 
ascertained.  In  skilful  hands  this  is  conducted 
very  expeditionsly,  and  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  testing 
of  argentiferous  lead  ores,  to  determine  ap- 
proximately their  percentage  in  silver.  The 
lead  also  may  be  quantitatively  determined  by 
the  reducing  process  with  the  blowpipe,  that 
must  precede  the  cupelling.  If  the  button 


28 


ASSAYING 


when  taken  from  the  cupel  proves  to  be  pure 
silver,  it  shows  at  once  the  value  of  the  sam- 
ple of  ore  or  bullion ;  but  if  it  contains  gold, 
as  in  the  gold  assay,  the  amount  of  gold  must 
be  found  out  and  subtracted  from  the  weight 
of  the  button,  and  the  amount  of  each  metal 
will  then  be  known.  To  this  end  the  alloy 
of  these  metals  is  separated  by  the  process 
called  parting,  or  quartation,  as  it  is  usually 
conducted  upon  an  alloy  made  to  contain  at 
least  three  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold.  If 
the  silver  is  in  larger  proportion,  the  gold  cor- 
net will  crumble;  but  when  of  small  amount 
compared  with  the  gold,  it  is  shielded  by  the 
gold  from  the  action  of  the  dilute  nitric  acid 
which  is  used  to  dissolve  out  the  silver.  To 
insure  a  perfect  union  of  the  gold  and  silver 
added  to  it,  it  is  well  to  melt  them  with  lead, 
and  then  separate  the  lead  by  cupelling.  More 
heat  may  be  safely  applied  than  when  silver  is 
cupelled  without  gold,  as  the  alloy  of  these 
cannot  waste  by  volatilization.  The  button  is 
hammered  out,  heated  red-hot,  and  annealed, 
and  then  rolled  into  a  thin  plate,  which  is 
coiled  up  of  the  size  of  a  quill,  and  called  a 
cornet.  This  is  put  into  a  parting  glass,  and 
two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  pure  nitric 
acid  is  poured  upon  it.  Some  heat  is  applied, 
when  red  fumes  of  hyponitric  acid  are  given  off, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  silver  is  dissolved,  and 
the  gold  is  left,  still  retaining  the  form  of  the 
coil,  but  forming  a  brittle,  spongy,  brown  mass. 
The  solution  of  silver  is  poured  off,  and  a 
strong  acid  is  added  to  the  gold,  and  heated  to 
dissolve  out  the  last  traces  of  silver.  This  is 
poured  off,  and  the  gold  is  washed  with  hot 
distilled  water.  It  is  carefully  taken  out,  put 
in  a  crucible,  and  heated,  when  it  shrinks  to- 
gether and  regains  its  metallic  lustre  and  the 
fine  color  of  gold,  with  its  softness  and  flexi- 
bility. Being  now  weighed,  the  process  is  fin- 
ished by  the  calculation  of  the  quantity  lost. 
The  silver  is  recovered  by  precipitating  it  from 
the  solution  by  the  introduction  of  bright  sheets 
of  copper,  for  which  metal  the  acid  has  a 
greater  affinity  than  for  the  silver.  It  is  ascer- 
tained that  in  this  process  the  silver  is  never 
entirely  taken  up  by  the  nitric  acid,  and  that 
some  gold  is  dissolved  by  the  strong  acid, 
as  is  found  by  preserving  for  years  the  same 
acid  to  extract  the  last  traces  of  silver.  The 
inside  of  the  bottle  containing  it  becomes  at 
last  coated  with  fine  gold.  This  has  been  no- 
ticed in  the  British  mint,  and  full  30  grains  of 
gold  have  been  collected  from  bottles  thus  used. 
Very  small  errors  are  thus  involved  in  estimat- 
ing the  quantities  of  silver  and  gold  by  this 
process. — Assayers  and  metallurgists  at  the 
present  time  prefer  what  is  termed  the  wet 
method,  performed  by  the  aid  of  acids  and  so- 
lutions, and  called  wet  in  contradistinction  to 
the  dry  or  furnace  assay,  for  the  determination 
of  the  amount  of  iron,  zinc,  copper,  and  anti- 
mony in  the  ores  of  these  metals.  The  esti- 
mation of  the  amount  of  iron  in  an  ore  is  per- 
formed by  the  aid  of  a  solution  of  perman- 


ganate of  potassium.  When  a  solution  of  this 
salt,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  violet  color,  is 
added  to  a  solution  of  protoxide  of  iron,  the 
protoxide  is  immediately  converted  into  the 
peroxide,  and  the  solution  loses  its  color.  If, 
however,  the  permanganate  of  potassium  is 
added  with  constant  stirring  until  all  the  pro- 
toxide is  converted  into  peroxide,  and  one 
drop  too  much  added,  that  one  drop  will  color 
the  whole  iron  solution  very  distinctly.  It  is 
found  that  the  same  amount  of  iron  always 
requires  the  same  amount  of  permanganate  of 
potassium  to  give  the  first  color.  The  per- 
manganate of  potassium  is  termed  a  standard 
solution.  If  then  0'2  grm.  of  iron  is  dissolved 
in  acid  (muriatic),  and  the  standard  solution 
added  from  a  measuring  tube,  we  can  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  solution  needed  for  0'2 
grm.  iron ;  and  when  an  ore  is  dissolved,  and 
changed  to  protoxide  by  dissolving  zinc  in  it, 
and  the  standard  solution  added,  we  obtain  the 
amount  of  the  solution  needed  for  the  amount  of 
iron  in  the  ore.  And  the  problem  is  solved  by 
this  proportion :  as  first  amount  of  standard  is 
to  second  amount  of  standard,  so  is  0'2  grm. 
of  iron  to  the  amount  of  iron  in  the  ore.  The 
dry  method  of  assaying  iron  ores  is  still  used 
to  assist  the  masters  of  iron  furnaces  in  plan- 
ning the  proportions  of  ingredients  to  be  used 
in  the  blast  furnace  for  the  production  of  iron. 
It  is  based  upon  the  same  principles  as  the  re- 
ducing them  in  the  blast  furnace.  The  oxygen 
with  which  the  metal  is  combined  must  be 
taken  up  by  presenting  to  it  some  substance 
for  which  it  has  stronger  attractions  than  for 
iron,  and  the  earthy  impurities  must  have  such 
substances  added  to  them  that  the  product  of 
their  union  will  be  a  glassy  fluid,  through  which 
the  globules  of  metallic  iron  can  easily  sink 
and  collect  together  in  a  button.  Charcoal  is 
the  substance  for  deoxidizing  the  ore  in  the 
blast  furnace  and  in  the  crucible.  The  matters 
for  aiding  the  fusion,  called  the  flux,  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  earthy  ingredients  of  the  ore. 
The  desired  glassy  fluid  is  a  silicate  of  lime  and 
alumina,  and  it  may  be  of  magnesia.  If  the 
ores  already  contain  much  silica,  carbonate  of 
lime,  with  the  addition  of  some  alumina  or 
common  clay,  constitutes  the  proper  flux.  Ores 
deficient  in  silica  require  an  addition  of  it.  Some 
ores  contain  such  a  mixture  of  proper  fluxing 
ingredients,  that  they  melt  easily  without  any 
addition  of  these  matters.  In  the  crucible,  a 
little  borax  increases  very  much  the  fusibility 
of  the  mixture.  The  ore  and  fluxes  should  be 
thoroughly  ground  and  mixed  together,  and 
placed  in  a  brasqued  crucible,  that  is,  one  care- 
fully filled  and  rammed  with  fine  charcoal,  moist- 
ened with  water  to  a  paste,  and  out  of  the  top  of 
J  which  a  cavity  is  excavated  for  holding  the  as-. 
I  say  sample.  The  crucible  is  to  be  placed  in  a 
j  wind  furnace,  and  gradually  heated  for  half  an 
|  hour,  when  the  whole  force  of  the  blast  is 
|  to  be  applied  for  half  an  hour  longer.  A  but- 
|  ton  of  cast  iron  will  be  found  in  the  bottom  of 
i  the  crucible  when  it  has  cooled. — The  wet  as- 


ASSAYING 


ASSEMANI 


29 


say  of  copper  is  performed  by  dissolving  a 
weighed  amount  of  ore  in  nitric  acid,  and  re- 
moving sulphur  if  present  by  an  addition  of 
chlorate  of  potassium.  Muriatic  acid  is  added, 
and  the  nitric  acid  removed  by  evaporation. 
The  residue  is  dissolved  in  water  and  muriatic 
acid  and  filtered;  the  copper  is  precipitated 
from  this  solution  by  pure  zinc  or  iron,  and  the 
resulting  copper  sponge  is  washed  by  decant- 
ing the  liquid  and  replacing  it  by  distilled 
water,  «nd  then  quickly  dried  and  weighed  as 
metallic  copper;  from  this  weight  the  value 
of  the  ore  is  easily  calculated.  The  dry  assay 
of  copper  is  still  in  use  in  Cornwall,  at  Swan- 
sea, and  at  some  other  places.  It  is,  as  con- 
ducted by  metallurgists,  often  an  empirical 
process,  the  fluxes  being  added  with  very  vague 
ideas  as  to  their  true  effect.  The  ores  are  prop- 
erly classified  into  those  which  contain  no  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  or  any  foreign  metals  but  iron ; 
those  which  contain  sulphur,  iron,  arsenic,  an- 
timony, &c.  Ores  of  the  first  class,  containing 
over  3  per  cent,  of  copper,  are  reduced  in  a 
crucible  by  the  addition  of  three  parts  of  black 
flux.  Poorer  ores  may  be  assayed  in  the  wet 
way.  The  second  class  are  sulphates  or  sul- 
phurets.  The  former  are  easily  decomposed 
by  heat  in  a  platinum  crucible,  when  they  may 
be  treated  as  substances  of  the  first  class.  The 
sulphurets,  under  which  general  head  are  in- 
cluded most  of  the  workable  ores  of  commerce, 
are  treated  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  The 
first  operation,  after  reducing  them  to  fine 
powder,  is  to  roast  or  calcine  them,  to  expel 
the  sulphur.  This  process  requires  care  and 
experience,  and  is  most  thoroughly  effected, 
according  to  Mitchell,  by  adding  one  tenth  of 
their  weight  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  to  the 
roasting  mass  in  the  crucible,  constantly  stir- 
ring it  in  as  the  calcining  goes  on.  Sulphate 
of  copper  is  produced  by  the  roasting ;  and  on 
addition  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  by  double 
decomposition,  sulphate  of  ammonia  forms, 
which  being  volatile  can  be  expelled  by  heat. 
The  ore  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  mortar 
with  25  per  cent,  of  its  original  weight  of  lime, 
and  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  fine  charcoal,  and  1J 
time  its  weight  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda.  The 
whole  is  to  be  placed  in  the  same  crucible  in 
which  the  roasting  was  done,  and  covered  with 
its  weight  of  glass  of  borax.  It  is  then  sub- 
jected to  a  moderate  heat  for  a  quarter  of 
un  hour,  and  to  a  bright  red  heat  as  much 
longer.  On  cooling,  and  breaking  the  crucible, 
the  button  of  copper  will  be  found  in  the  bot- 
tom. It  is  well  to  make  two  parallel  assays 
of  these  ores,  that  one  may  confirm  or  dis- 
prove the  other. — The  varieties  of  lead  ores 
which  are  most  commonly  subjected  to  assay 
are  the  sulphurets  (galena)  and  the  carbonates. 
The  former  is  treated  by  taking  400  or  500 
grains,  coarsely  powdered,  and  mixing  with  it 
one  fourth  its  weight  of  black  flux,  one  fourth 
of  iron  nails,  and  one  eighth  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar. The  crucible  should  be  large  enough  to 
contain  double  the  quantity,  and  the  charge 


should  be  covered  with  common  salt  half  an 
inch  deep.  After  being  exposed  to  a  high  heat 
for  ten  minutes,  the  lead  may  bo  poured  out, 
or  suffered  to  cool  in  the  crucible.  If  the  ore 
contain  much  earthy  or  pyritous  matter,  a  less 
proportion  of  iron  filings  should  be  used,  and 
\  a  little  fluor  spar  and  borax  be  added.  Galena 
j  is  conveniently  assayed  in  an  iron  crucible,  the 
crucible  itself  furnishing  the  material  for  desul- 
phurizing the  ore.  The  usual  quantity,  say 
400  or  500  grains,  is  mixed  with  2£  timesjts 
weight  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  put  in  an 
iron  crucible,  which  is  covered.  The  galena  is 
decomposed,  and  sulphuret  of  iron  formed. 
The  lead  is  poured  out  into  an  ingot  mould, 
and  the  crucible  well  tapped  to  obtain  all  the 
lead.  Another  sample  is  immediately  put  in 
while  the  crucible  is  hot,  and  the  operation 
repeated  as  long  as  the  crucible  lasts.  The 
carbonates  are  assayed  with  half  their  weight 
of  black  flux,  and  a  little  cream  of  tartar, 
with  a  superficial  covering  of  salt. 

ASSELYJf,  Jan,  a  landscape  painter,  born  in 
1610,  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1660.  He  studied 
under  Jan  Miel  and  Isaiah  Vandervelde  at 
Antwerp,  and  under  Peter  van  Laer  (Bamboc- 
cio)  at  Rome.  In  his  landscapes  taken  from 
the  vicinity  of  Rome,  which  are  enriched  with 
ruins  of  edifices,  and  decorated  with  figures 
and  cattle  in  the  style  of  Berghem,  he  imitates 
the  manner  of  Claude  Lorraine.  lie  also  paint- 
ed battle  pieces  of  considerable  merit.  He  was 
surnamed  Jfralbetje  (little  crab,  crab-like)  by 
the  Dutch  artists  at  Rome,  on  account  of  a  con- 
traction in  his  fingers. 

Asso  AM.  I.  Joseph  Simon,  a  Syrian  oriental- 
ist, born  at  Tripoli  (Tarablus)  in  1087,  died  in 
Rome,  Jan.  14,  1768.  After  spending  many 
years  in  the  study  of  eastern  languages,  he  was 
employed  to  collect  oriental  manuscripts  for 
the  library  of  the  Vatican,  and  finally  appoint- 
ed custodian  of  the  collection,  which  he  large- 
ly increased.  His  principal  works  are :  Biblio- 
theca  Orientalis  Clementine-  Vaticana  (Rome, 
1719-'28);  Kalendaria  Ecclesia  Universes 
(1755-'7);  Bibliotheca  Juris  Orientalis  Cano- 
nici  et  Ciuili*  (1762-'4).  He  edited  also  an 
edition  of  the  Opera  Ephraemi  Syri  (1732-'46). 
II.  Stephan  Evodius,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Tripoli  in  1707,  died  Nov.  24,  1782. 
Like  his  uncle  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  oriental  languages,  and  like  him  was  made 
custodian  of  that  department  of  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  from  which  post  he  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Apamea.  His  investi- 
gations among  oriental  manuscripts  were  em- 
bodied in  his  two  works,  Bibliotheece  Mediceo- 
Laurentinas  et  Palatines  Codices  Manuscripts 
Orientales  (Florence,  1742),  and  Acta  Sanc- 
torum Martyrum  Orientalium  et  Occidenta- 
lium  (Rome,  1748).  III.  Joseph  iloyslos,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  born  at  Tripoli  about  1710, 
died  in  Rome,  Feb.  9,  1782.  Pursuing  the 
same  studies  as  his  uncle  and  brother,  he  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  Sapienza  at  Rome. 
His  works  are :  Codex  Liturgicus  Eccletia 


30 


ASSEN 


ASSIGNATIONS 


Universal™  (Rome,  1749),  and  He  Catholicis 
seu  Patriarchis  Chaldaorum  Nestorianorum 
(Rome,  1775).  IV.  Simon,  a  distant  relative  of 
the  preceding,  born  at  Tripoli,  Feb.  20,  1752, 
died  in  Padua,  April  8,  1821.  In  1785  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  oriental  languages  at 
Padua,  and  acquired  fame  as  a  student  of 
oriental  numismatics,  on  which  subject  he 
published  his  Museo  cufico  Naniano  illustrate 
(Padua,  1787-'8),  and  other  works. 

ASSEN,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Drenthe,  14  m.  S.  of  Gronin- 
gen,  on  the  Horn-Diep,  which  is  connected  by 
means  of  a  canal  with  the  Zuyder-Zee ;  pop.  in 
1867,  6,443.  Near  the  town  are  celebrated 
giants'  graves. 

ASSKU,  or  Asstrlns  Menevensls,  a  monk  of  St. 
David's  or  Menevia,  in  Wales,  died  about  910. 
At  the  request  of  Alfred  the  Great  he  left  his 
monastery  for  a  part  of  each  year  to  visit  the 
court,  where  he  read  Latin  with  the  king  asd 
corrected  his  translations.  Alfred  gave  him 
many  ecclesiastical  preferments.  Some  au- 
thorities say  he  became  bishop  of  Sherborne. 
Asser's  great  work  is  his  "Life  of  Alfred,"  in 
Latin.  The  earliest  edition  is  that  of  Arch- 
bishop Parker,  at  the  end  of  Walsingham's 
"  History  "  (1574).  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Wise  (Oxford,  1722),  entitled  Annales  Rerum 
Gestarum  jElfredi  Magni.  This  is  our  chief 
authority  for  the  events  of  Alfred's  public  and 
private  life  from  his  birth  to  889,  and  conveys 
much  incidental  intelligence  about  the  laws, 
manners,  and  general  civilization  of  Wessex. 
Thomas  Wright,  in  the  Biographia  Britannica 
Literaria,  maintains  that  this  life  was  written 
at  a  later  date,  and  Asser's  name  affixed  to  it. 

ASSIENTO  (Sp.  asiento,  treaty),  a  term  used 
to  designate  the  treaties  made  by  Spain  with 
foreign  countries  for  the  supply  of  negro  slaves 
to  her  South  American  provinces.  The  Span- 
ish government,  having  no  settlements  on  the 
African  coast,  encouraged  adventurers  to  sup- 
ply slaves  by  securing  to  them  a  monopoly  of 
the  trade,  with  other  commercial  privileges. 
The  Flemish  merchants  received  the  contract 
from  Charles  V. ;  Philip  II.  gave  it  to  the 
Genoese,  under  whose  title  the  traffic  was 
chiefly  carried  on  by  British  traders ;  and  Philip 
V.  to  a  French  company.  The  terms  of  this 
last  assiento  were  the  privilege  of  sending  a  ship 
of  500  tons  with  merchandise  free  of  duty  to 
Spanish  America,  and  the  payment  of  a  sum 
on  each  imported  negro,  the  minimum  number 
of  slaves  being  fixed  at  4,800  annually.  This 
contract  was  transferred  by  the  same  king  to 
the  South  sea  company,  but  abrogated  shortly 
after  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  never 
gave  satisfaction  to  Spain ;  and  the  contrac- 
tors always  lost  money,  their  local  factors 
and  agents  reaping  the  profits. 

ASSIGNATS,  the  paper  currency  of  the  French 
revolution,  first  issued  in  the  spring  of  1790,  to 
be  redeemed  by  the  sale  of  the  confiscated 
property  of  the  clergy  and  the  emigrants.  The 
assignats  kept  their  value  above  90  per  cent. 


till  1792,  but  from  that  time  they  began  to 
droop.  The  original  issue  of  1,200,000,000 
francs  was  increased  to  45,578,000,000,  besides 
which  there  were  in  circulation  a  great  num- 
ber of  counterfeit  notes  manufactured  abroad. 
Great  efforts  were  made  to  prop  the  market, 
and  stringent  laws  were  enacted  to  fix  prices 
and  force  the  people  to  accept  the  notes  at  their 
nominal  value ;  but  they  soon  fell  to  60  per 


cent.,  and  in  1795  were  worth  only  18  per  cent. 
In  1796  they  were  redeemed  at  ^  of  their  face 
in  mandate,  entitling  the  holder  to  enter  at 
once  upon  possession  of  the  public  lands  at  an 
estimated  price.  The  mandats  soon  fell  to  -fa 
of  their  nominal  value,  and  in  July,  1796,  a 
law  was  passed  authorizing  the  circulation  of 
mandats  at  their  current  value,  which  resulted 
in  the  speedy  disappearance  of  the  notes. 

ASSIGNATIONS,  Russian  paper  money,  intro- 
duced early  in  the  reign  of  Catharine  II.,  about 
the  year  1770,  principally  to  carry  on  the  wars 
against  the  Turks.  The  standard  currency  was 
then  as  now  the  silver  ruble,  and  the  paper 
assignations  on  the  banks — likewise  founded 
by  Catharine — were  to  represent  in  full  the 
standard  silver  coin.  But  they  soon  fell  until 
the  assignation  ruble  was  worth  only  one  half, 
one  third,  and  finally  one  fourth  of  the  original 
value ;  and  thus  it  became  necessary  to  specify 
the  nature  of  the  ruble  in  all  transactions. 
From  1787  the  use  of  assignations  as  currency 
was  general.  In  the  reign  of  Paul  I.  the  mer- 
chants of  St.  Petersburg,  foreign  and  domestic, 
refused  to  receive  assignations  at  the  govern- 
ment standard  in  payment.  Stringent  ukases 
for  facilitating  the  circulation  of  assignations 
all  over  the  empire  proved  unsuccessful,  and  at 
the  death  of  Paul  (1801),  and  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  the  assig- 
nation ruble  was  generally  worth  one  fourth 
of  the  silver.  During  the  wars  against  Napo- 
leon the  issue  of  assignations  increased  exces- 
sively, but  no  considerable  additional  deprecia- 
tion took  place.  With  peace  the  assignations 
rose,  and  finally  the  government  fixed  the 
standard  at  3  rubles  60  copecks,  either  of  cop- 
per or  assignations,  for  a  silver  ruble,  one  as- 
signation ruble  equalling  100  copecks  copper, 
and  four  copecks  copper  making  one  of  silver. 
On  account  of  the  facility  of  carrying  large 


ASSIGNMENT 


ASSINIBOINS 


31 


amounts  in  paper,  the  assignations  soon  came 
into  such  demand  as  to  be  worth  a  premium. 
This  premium  naturally  increased  with  the  dis- 
tance inland,  and  the  fluctuations  were  so  irreg- 
ular that  in  1839  a  ukase  regulated  the  value 
of  the  assignations  at  3£  to  1  silver,  and  order- 
ed that  henceforth  the  silver  ruble  should  be 
the  legal  unit  in  all  negotiations  and  legal  doc- 
uments ;  that  a  new  paper  money,  called  "  bills 
of  credit,"  should  be  issued,  and  the  old  assig- 
nations gradually  withdrawn  from  circulation 
and  destroyed.  This  was  accomplished. 

ASSIGNMENT,  in  law,  the  making  over  or 
transferring  of  any  species  of  property.  It  also 
signifies  the  deed  or  instrument  by  which  the 
transfer  is  operated.  The  assignment  of  a 
lease  is  the  transfer  of  the  assignor's  whole 
estate  in  the  term  created  by  the  original  lease. 
The  difference  between  an  assignment  and  an 
underlease  is  that  the  underlease  retains  the 
reversion,  whereas  the  assignment  parts  with 
it.  Assignment  in  commercial  law  was  for- 
merly much  restricted.  Bills  of  lading  and 
bills  of  exchange  were  not  assignable.  All  in- 
terests in  personal  property,  of  which  a  man 
has  not  the  actual  possession,  but  merely  the 
right  to  recover,  are  choses  in  action.  Thus  a 
debt,  whether  specialty  or  simple  contract,  is  a 
chose  in  action,  a  something  to  be  recovered. 
These  were  not  assignable.  These  restraints 
were,  however,  evaded  'by  a  license  to  use  the 
name  of  the  legal  creditor.  Even  under  a  bill 
of  sale  of  goods,  the  property  in  them  does  not 
pass  unless  by  actual  delivery  and  possession  as 
against  bonajide  creditors.  Both  by  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  law,  property  in  the  power 
and  disposition  of  a  debtor  may  by  process  of 
law  be  transferred  to  his  creditor. 

ASSIBfG.  I.  Rosa  Maria,  a  German  poetess, 
sister  of  Vanrtiagen  von  Ense,  born  in  Dussel- 
dorf,  May  28,  1783,  died  Jan.  22,  1840.  The 
outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  obliged  her 
family  to  take  up  their  residence  in  Strasburg, 
and  in  1796  they  removed  to  Hamburg.  After 
the  death  of  her  father  in  1799  she  became  a 
teacher.  In  1816  she  married  Dr.  Assing,  a 
physician  of  Konigsberg,  who  on  her  account 
removed  to  Hamburg,  where  his  house  became 
a  favorite  place  of  literary  reunion.  The  poet 
Chamisso  was  a  frequent  visitor.  Rosa's  poems 
have  been  published,  with  a  memoir  of  her 
life,  under  the  title  of  Rosa  Maria's  poetiseher 
Naehlast  (Altona,  1841).  II.  Lndmilla,  daugh- 
ter of  the  preceding,  born  at  Hamburg,  Feb. 
22,  1827.  After  the  death  of  her  parents 
she  resided  in  Berlin  with  her  uncle,  the 
celebrated  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  occupying  a 
daughter's  place  in  his  house,  and  receiving  an 
unusually  complete  education.  She  first  pub- 
lished essays  in  newspapers  and  reviews,  and 
in  1857  produced  a  biography  of  the  countess 
Elisa  von  Ahlefeldt.  Several  other  biographies 
followed  from  her  pen.  On  the  death  of  her 
uncle  she  edited  the  unpublished  portion  of  his 
Denlcwurdigkeiten,  issuing  the  8th  and  9th  vol- 
umes in  1859.  In  18fiO  she  also  published  Alex- 
55  VOL.  ii. — 3 


ander  von  Humboldt's  letters  to  her  uncle,  and 
in  1861-'2  the  diaries  of  Varnhagen  von  Ense 
himself.  The  manner  in  which  political  events 
are  treated  in  this  collection  brought  her  into 
disfavor  with  the  court,  and  in  May,  1862,  an  ac- 
tion was  begun  against  her  in  Berlin — she  hav- 
ing in  the  autumn  of  1861  taken  up  her  residence 
in  Florence — which  resulted  in  her  conviction 
as  a  traducer  of  the  king,  queen,  and  various 
personages,  and  in  her  sentence  to  eight  months' 
imprisonment.  A  similar  trial,  and  sentence  to 
two  years'  imprisonment,  followed  the  publica- 
tion of  the  remaining  volumes  of  the  collec- 
tion in  1864;  but  she  never  actually  under- 
went these  punishments.  She  has  since  trans- 
lated much  from  the  Italian. 

ASSIMHOI.\,  a  river  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica, rising  in  lat.  51°  40'  N.  and  about  Ion. 
105°  W.,  and  joining  the  Red  river  of  the  North 
at  Fort  Garry,  Manitoba,  in  lat.  49°  54'  N. 
Its  course  is  a  distance  of  over  400  m.  At  a 
point  22  m.  above  Fort  Garry  it  is  120  ft.  wide, 
and  has  here  in  summer  a  mean  depth  of  about 
6  ft. ;  140  m.  from  its  mouth  its  breadth  be- 
comes 230  ft.  and  its  mean  depth  over  8  ft. ;  at 
280  m.  its  depth  increases  to  over  11  ft.  with 
a  width  of  135  ft.  It  receives  in  its  course 
the  waters  of  the  Little  Souris,  Qn'appelle  or 
Calling  river,  the  Rapid  river  or  the  Little 
Saskatchewan,  White  Sand  river,  and  Beaver 
creek.  At  its  junction  with  the  Little  Souris, 
140  m.  from  Fort  Garry,  the  volume  of  water 
is  12,899,040  gallons  an  hour ;  while  at  Lane's 
Post,  118  m.  lower  down,  this  volume  is  di- 
minished, Mr.  Hind  asserts,  more  than  one 
half;  a  result  which  he  attributes  to  evapora- 
tion. At  Fort  Ellice  the  secondary  banks  are 
240  ft.  high,  forming  an  eroded  valley  nearly 
a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  Parts  of  its  course 
are  bordered  by  inconsiderable  forests  of  oak, 
ash,  elm,  maple,  birch,  poplar,  and  aspen. 

VSMMIions.  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Da- 
kota family,  in  Montana  territory,  United 
States,  and  in  Manitoba  and  the  region  round 
about  in  British  America.  They  were  a  part 
of  the  Yankton  Sioux,  but  after  a  bitter  quar- 
rel about  women  separated  from  the  mass  of 
the  nation  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  and  the  two  parties  have  since  been 
hostile.  Their  own  distinctive  name  is  never 
used  :  the  neighboring  Algonquin  tribes  called 
them  Assinipwalak,  Stone  Sioux,  or  Stone 
Warriors,  as  some  infer  from  the  nature  of 
their  country  near  the  Lake  of  the  Woods. 
The  adventurous  French  missionaries  reported 
them  as  a  nation  as  early  as  1840,  and  at  a 
very  early  period  they  traded  furs  on  Hudson 
bay.  In  the  British  provinces  they  are  divid- 
ed into  Assiniboins  of  the  prairies,  who  are 
tall,  vigorous,  and  thievish,  and  Assiniboins  of 
the  woods,  who  are  wretchedly  poor.  They 
extend  from  Souris  or  Mouse  river  to  the 
Athabasca,  and  number  some  5,000.  There 
are  Roman  Catholic  and  Methodist  missions 
among  them  at  Lake  Ste.  Anne  and  Pigeon 
lake.  They  are  friends  and  allies  of  the  Crees, 


ASSISI 


ASSUMPSIT 


and  live  intermixed  with  them.  In  the  United 
States  the  Red  Stone  Assiniboins  and  Upper  As- 
siniboins  were  estimated  in  1871  at  4,850  souls. 

ASSISI  (anc.  Asiaium),  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  and  13  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Perugia,  pic- 
turesquely situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  steep 
hill ;  pop.  about  6,200.  It  is  especially  noted 
as  the  birthplace  of  St.  Francis,  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Franciscans,  and  contains  12 
monasteries  of  that  order.  Here  are  the 
church  and  monastery  in  which  St.  Francis  is 
buried,  and  about  2  m.  from  the  town  is  the 
celebrated  Portiuncnla  or  church  where  Fran- 
cis began  the  preaching  of  his  ascetic  life.  As- 
sisi  was  once  a  Roman  municipium  of  some  im- 
portance, having  a  temple  of  Minerva,  of  which 
several  Corinthian  columns  still  stand.  The 
region  around  abounds  in  mineral  waters. 

ASSIZE,  a  term  of  the  common  law,  having 
reference  to  several  distinct  subjects.  Its  most 
general  uses  are  to  designate  an  ordinance  for 
regulating  the  sale  of  provisions,  and  the  peri- 
odical sittings  held  by  the  judges  of  England 
and  law  officers  in  the  various  circuits  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  for  the  trial  of  lawsuits  as 
well  civil  as  criminal.  The  term  is  of  uncer- 
tain derivation.  It  may  be  either  from  Lat. 
aisido,  to  assess,  or  assideo,  to  sit  near  or  to- 
gether, both  of  which  are  incident  to  the  func- 
tions discharged  at  assizes.  Suits  for  the  re- 
covery of  land  were  anciently  tried  by  writ 
of  right,  or  of  assize.  On  these  occasions  the 
sheriff  impanelled  four  knights  and  twelve  as- 
sistants to  try  the  matters  in  dispute.  This 
assize  could  only  be  held  before  a  judge  of 
the  principal  courts  at  Westminster,  whereby 
enormous  expense  was  entailed  on  the  jurors, 
the  parties,  and  the  witnesses.  To  remedy 
this  grave  inconvenience,  provision  was  made 
by  Magna  Charta  that  an  assize  should  be  held 
annually  by  a  judge  in  each  county.  This  dec- 
laration was  enlarged  by  the  statute  of  West- 
minster (13  Edward  I.,  c.  3),  which  gave  juris- 
diction to  the  judges  to  sit  in  the  grand  assize, 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  settling  disputes  as 
to  land,  but  also  for  the  adjudication  of  all  civil 
actions.  The  sittings  thus  held  are  familiarly 
known  as  sittings  at  nisi  prius.  This  term 
originated  from  the  form  of  the  process  for 
summoning  and  impanelling  the  jury,  which, 
following  the  words  of  the  statute  of  West- 
minster, directs  the  sheriff  to  summon  a  jury 
to  be  at  Westminster  on  the  first  day  of  term, 
unless  before  (nisi  prim)  a  judge  shall  come 
to  try  issues  in  the  county.— The  criminal  juris- 
diction of  the  court  at  the  assizes  is  derived 
from  a  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer  and 
general  jail  delivery.  Courts  for  these  purposes 
are  held  at  each  assize.  Two  assizes  a  year 
are  held  throughout  England  and  Wales,  and 
in  the  metropolitan  and  some  other  counties 
which  comprise  populous  districts.  Three  as- 
sizes are  held  under  modern  statutes.  Courts 
of  quarter  sessions  are  also  held  in  the  several 
counties,  cities,  and  boroughs.  The  sessions 
despatch  business  of  a  quasi-judicial  character, 


as  ale-house  licenses,  poor-law  questions,  or  ap- 
peals under  certain  statutes ;  and  of  late  years, 
with  a  view  of  relieving  the  pressure  of  assize 
business,  jurisdiction  has  been  given  to  county 
magistrates  sitting  in  sessions  to  decide  certain 
criminal  causes  of  minor  importance.  Under 
the  statute,  the  assizes  are  held  by  two  judges 
of  the  superior  courts  of  Westminster,  one  of 
whom  usually  presides  in  the  criminal,  the 
other  in  the  civil  court.  All  reserved  points 
of  law,  exceptions,  and  other  purely  legal 
questions  arising  out  of  the  proceedings  at  the 
trial,  are  argued  subsequently  at  Westminster 
before  the  full  court.  Final  judgment  cannot  be 
entered  up  until  after  the  first  four  days  of  the 
term  next  after  the  assizes,  which  gives  oppor- 
tunity to  move  the  court  above  for  new  trials, 
to  set  aside  verdicts,  or  to  stay  judgment  for 
any  cause  assigned.  To  obviate  the  evils  of  the 
delay  thus  afforded  by  common  law,  a  recent 
statute  gives  discretion  to  the  judge  at  nisi 
prim  to  certify  for  immediate  execution,  in  all 
cases  of  simple  contract  debts.  The  bar  at  the 
assizes,  or  "  upon  circuit,"  as  the  more  correct 
phrase  is,  is  composed  of  the  same  barristers 
who  argue  at  Westminster,  each  in  his  partic- 
ular circuit,  selected  at  the  beginning  of  his 
career,  and  from  which  by  etiquette  he  cannot 
deviate  except  in  extraordinary  cases. — Assize 
of  Bread,  or  provisions  (ctssisw  venalium),  in 
England,  was  the  ordinance  of  a  royal  officer, 
or  of  the  municipality,  fixing  the  price  and 
quality  of  bread,  beer,  meat,  fish,  coals,  and 
other  necessaries.  This  was  anciently  fixed  by 
the  clerk  of  the  market  of  the  king's  house- 
hold. By  some  municipal  charters  this  power 
was  delegated  to  the  corporation.  The  earliest 
distinct  notice  of  such  an  assize  bears  date 
1203.  All  regulations  of  the  kind  were  abol- 
ished for  London  and  its  vicinity 'in  1815,  and 
they  have  everywhere  fallen  into  disuse. — As- 
sizes of  Jerusalem  were  the  laws  made  in  1099 
by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  his  princes  and 
clergy,  for  the  regulation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  formed  in  the  first  crusade. 

ASSPAY.     See  ASUAT. 

ASSOIPSIT  (Lat.,  he  undertook),  in  law,  the 
compendious  title  under  which  an  extensive 
class  of  actions  are  included.  After  stating 
the  cause  of  action,  the  pleadings  state  that 
thereupon  "  the  defendant  promised  to  pay." 
Assumpsit  may  be  either  special  or  common, 
also  called  indebitatus  assumpsit.  Under  the 
former  are  included  actions  upon  written  con- 
tracts or  agreements  of  all  kinds ;  actions  for 
derelictions  of  duty  by  professional  men,  car- 
riers, or  warehousemen  ;  in  short,  under  every 
circumstance  where  a  contract  is  in  actual  ex- 
istence or  can  be  predicated  from  the  relations 
of  the  parties.  Common  assumpsit  is  an  ac- 
tion brought  for  goods  sold  and  delivered, 
money  lent,  &c.  Theoretically  all  actions  of 
assumpsit  are  brought  to  recover  compensation 
in  the  nature  of  damages ;  but,  where  those 
damages  can  be  immediately  ascertained  by 
the  acts  of  the  parties,  as  for  goods  sold  and 


ASSUMPTION 


ASSYRIA 


33 


delivered,  where  a  price  has  been  agreed  upon, 
then  it  is  common  assumpsit. 

ASSUMPTION,  a  festival  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church,  instituted  to  commemorate  the  as- 
cent of  the  Virgin  Mary  into  heaven.  From  a 
very  early  period  it  has  been  a  belief  in  the 
western  and  oriental  churches  that  after  her 
death  the  Virgin  was  taken  up,  body  and  soul, 
into  heaven.  This  event  is  called  in  the  ancient 
ecclesiastical  writings  the  "  assumption,"  "  pas- 
sage," or  "  repose,"  and  is  mentioned  by  vari- 
ous early  authors,  among  whom  are  St.  Greg- 
ory of  Tours  in  the  6th  century,  and  Andrew 
of  Crete  at  the  beginning  of  the  8th.  The 
date  of  the  institution  of  the  festival  is  un- 
known, but  it  is  mentioned  as  having  been 
celebrated  with  great  solemnity  before  the  6th 
century,  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  It 
falls  on  Aug.  15. 

ASSUMPTION,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana,  W. 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  having  within  its  limits 
Lake  Verret  and  a  part  of  Bayou  La  Fourche ; 
area,  320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,234,  of 
whom  6,984  were  colored.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile,  and  the  parish  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive sugar  districts  in  the  United  States. 
In  1870  it  produced  246,929  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  17,229  Ibs.  of  rice,  9,558  hhds.  of  sugar, 
and  499,135  gallons  of  molasses.  Capital,  As- 
sumption. 

ASSUMPTION,  a  city  of  South  America.  See 
ASUNCION. 

ASSUMPTION,  one  of  the  Ladrone  gronp  of 
islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  lat.  19°  41'  N., 
Ion.  145°  27'  E.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  rises 
to  the  height  of  about  2,000  feet,  and  is  nearly 
10  miles  in  circumference.  It  produces  cocoa- 
nuts,  rice,  oranges,  and  breadfruit. 

ASSURANCE.1   See  INSURANCE. 

ASSWAN,  or  Assura  (anc.  Syene  ;  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  Seveneh),  a  town  on  the  southern 
border  of  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Nile,  opposite  the  island  of  Elephantine,  in 
lat.  24°  5'  N.,  a  little  below  the  first  cataract, 
where  the  river  is  first  navigable ;  pop.  about 
4,000.  The  tropic  of  Cancer  was  anciently 
but  erroneously  drawn  here.  The  surrounding 
country  is  sandy  and  desolate,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  palm  groves,  is  almost  des- 
titute of  vegetation.  The  inhabitants  are 
Egyptians,  Nubians,  and  the  descendants  of 
Bosnian  troops  garrisoned  there  by  Sultan 
Selim  I.,  the  conqueror  of  Egypt,  in  1517. 
Asswan  has  considerable  commerce  in  dates, 
senna,  wicker  baskets,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
tamarinds,  coffee,  and  slaves.  On  the  S.  side 
are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Saracen  town, 
where  during  the  middle  ages  20,000  persons 
died  by  one  visitation  of  the  plague. 

ASSYRIA  (Gr.  'Aaavpia ;  Heb.  Ashshur),  an 
ancient  country  in  Asia,  lying  upon  both  banks 
of  the  Tigris,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  great  mon- 
archies of  antiquity,  and  now  comprised  with- 
in the  easternmost  dominions  of  the  Turkish 
empire.  The  name  conies  from  Asshur,  a 
son  of  Shem  and  grandson  of  Noah,  probably 


a  leader  in  one  of  the  great  early  migrations, 
who  was  deified  and  recognized  as  the  tutelary 
divinity  of  the  country  occupied  by  the  de- 
scendants of  the  clan  of  which  he  was  the 
chief.  In  its  earlier  and  most  limited  sense, 
Assyria  was  a  narrow  territory,  mainly  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Tigris,  including  the  triangle 
formed  by  that  river  and  the  Greater  Zab  (the 
Zabatus  or  Lycus  of  the  classical  writers),  a 
district  especially  known  as  Aturia;  the  dis- 
trict of  Adiabene,  between  the  Greater  Zab 
and  the  Lesser  (the  Caprus  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans) ;  and  some  regions  to  the  southeast 
of  the  latter.  Assyria  was  thus  bounded  N. 
by  the  snowy  Niphates  range,  which  separated 
it  from  Armenia,  and  E.  by  the  Zagros  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  which  separated  it  from 
Media,  and  on  the  S.  and  W.  it  bordered  on 
Susiana,  Babylonia,  and  western  Mesopotamia. 
It  was  mountainous  in  the  north  and  east,  a 
rolling  plain  in  most  other  parts,  and  east  of 
the  Tigris  well  watered.  Later,  when  Assyria 
became  the  predominant  power  in  the  region, 
the  name  came  to  embrace  also  all  northern 
Mesopotamia.  Still  later,  and  in  the  widest 
sense,  Assyria  denoted  the  entire  plain  wa- 
tered by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  to- 
gether with  the  countries  to  the  west,  north, 
and  east,  which  became  subjects  of  or  tribu- 
tary to  the  great  Assyrian  empire. — There  is 
no  record  of  the  time  when  the  country  was 
first  peopled.  Berosus,  whose  chronology  from 
the  commencement  of  the  historic  period  is 
confirmed  from  various  sources,  makes  a  pe- 
riod of  36,000  years  before  the  capture  of 
Babylon  by  Cyrus  (538  B.  C.) ;  but  of  this, 
34,080  years  belong  to  a  mythical  dynasty  of 
86  kings.  This  number  is  merely  assumed  to 
make  up  the  grand  Chaldean  cycle  of  36,000 
years.  His  historic  chronology  begins  at  2458 
B.  0.,  a  short  period  before  the  time  when,  ac- 
cording to  the  Scriptural  narrative,  Nimrod  es- 
tablished his  reign  in  "  Babel,  and  Erech,  and 
Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,"  out 
of  which  land  "went  forth  Asshur,  and  builded 
Nineveh,  and  the  city  Rehoboth,  and  Calah, 
and  Resen  between  Nineveh  and  Calah,"  all 
cities  on  or  near  the  upper  Tigris.  From  this 
time  for  fully  1,000  years  there  is  no  record 
of  Assyria  in  the  Hebrew  writers ;  and  down 
to  about  1850,  when  the  inscriptions  of  Nin- 
eveh and  Calah  had  been  unearthed  and  deci- 
phered by  Botta,  Layard,  and  others,  there 
was  absolutely  nothing  known  of  the  true  his- 
tory of  this  great  empire,  which  lasted  more 
than  1,000  years,  except  as  it  was  for  a  brief 
space  connected  with  that  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah.  The  legends  of  Ninus, 
Semiramis,  Ninyas,  and  Sardanapalus  have  no 
other  foundation  than  that  among  the  Assy- 
rian kings  was  one  named  Asshur-bani-pal, 
or  similarly,  and  a  queen  Sammuramit ;  that 
Nineveh  was  taken  by  a  revolt  in  which  the 
Medes  took  part ;  and  that  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  the  great  palace  was  by  fire. — The 
earliest  known  native  document  of  Assyrian 


ASSYRIA 


history  is  impressed  upon  three  clay  cylinders 
found  by  Layard  at  Kileh-sherghat,  the  ear- 
lier Asshur,  one  of  the  capitals,  the  only  one 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris.  It 
forms  the  records  of  King  Tiglatli-pileser  I., 
whose  date  is  by  other  records  fixed  at  about 
1130  B.  C.  From  this  and  other  monuments 
it  appears  that  for  many  centuries  there  were 
in  the  lands  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
two  rival  kingdoms,  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
each  in  turn  superior  to  the  other;  and  that 
about  1250  Assyria  had  come  to  be  a  pow- 
erful and  compact  kingdom,  under  a  single 
monarch,  surrounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  scattered  tribes,  who  sometimes  coalesced 
into  temporary  alliances,  but  were  one  by  one 
beaten  down  and  rendered  tributary.  The 
Assyrian  capital  was  at  Kileh-sherghat,  the 
old  Asshur,  some  60  m.  below  Nineveh,  and  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  Tigris.  On  the  west 
it  reached  the  Euphrates;  on  the  south  was 
the  rival  kingdom  of  Babylonia.  For  the  next 
two  centuries  the  history  of  Assyria  is  almost 
a  blank.  During  this  period  a  compact  king- 
dom of  Israel  was  founded  by  David.  The  do- 
minion of  David  and  Solomon  stretched  beyond 
the  range  of  Lebanon,  nominally  reaching  quite 
across  the  desert  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphra- 
tes ;  but  it  is  clear  that  neither  David  nor  Sol- 
omon ever  came  into  contact  with  the  Assyrian 
power.  This  power  seems  indeed  to  have  then 
become  enfeebled ;  and  when,  after  the  sepa- 
ration into  Israel  and  Judah,  the  Hebrews 
were  pressed  back  within  their  old  limits,  the 
new  kingdom  of  Damascus  had  arisen.  When 
our  record  is  resumed,  the  residence  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  had  been  removed  40  m.  up  the 
Tigris  to  Calah  (now  Nimrud),  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  river.  At  the  angle  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Upper  or  Greater  Zab,  Calah  was 
only  20  m.  below  the  site  now  recognized  as 
that  of  Nineveh,  and  possibly  was  considered 
a  part  of  that  great  city.  The  monarch  whose 
reign  was  from  886  to  858  appears  on  the  in- 
scriptions as  Asshur-nasir-pal  (or,  according 
to  other  readings,  Asshur-izir-pal  or  Asshur- 
idanni-pal),  "the  great  king,  the  powerful 
king,  king  of  hosts,  king  of  Assyria."  He 
overran  the  mountain  region  of  Armenia  and 
Kurdistan,  and  his  furthest  expedition  was 
through  Lebanon  and  the  valley  of  the  Orontes 
to  the  Mediterranean  shore,  where  he  received 
the  submission  of  the  chief  cities  of  Phoenicia. 
From  Lebanon  he  brought  back  the  cedar 
which  was  used  to  ornament  his  palace  at 
Calah  or  Nimrud.  The  sculptures  from  this 
palace  are  among  the  most  striking  of  all  the 
Assyrian  remains.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Shalmuneser  II.,  whose  reign  lasted  from 
858  to  823.  He  is  known  as  the  "black 
obelisk  king,"  from  an  obelisk  7  feet  high  and 
22  inches  wide,  now  in  the  British  museum, 
upon  the  four  sides  of  which  is  portrayed, 
pictorially  and  literally,  the  history  of  his  27 
campaigns.  These  were  carried  on  upon  the 
middle  Euphrates,  in  Babylonia,  in  the  moun- 


tains of  Kurdistan  and  Armenia,  upon  both 
slopes  of  Lebanon,  down  the  valley  of  the 
Orontes,  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Among 
the  prostrate  figures  is  one  described  as  Jehu 
the  son  of  Omri,  the  king  of  Israel.  The  As- 
syrian king  moved  down  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  leaving  Judah  on  his  left  untouched,  but 
receiving  tribute  from  the  Phoenician  cities  of 
Tyre,  Sidon,  and  Byblus.  Five  years  before 
his  death  Shalmaneser  was  dethroned  by  a 
revolt  headed  by  his  eldest  son.  This  revolt 
was  put  down  by  a  younger  son,  Shamas- 
iva,  who  reigned  13  years  (823-810),  carried 
his  arms  into  Media  and  Babylonia,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Iva-lush,  who  married 
Sammuramit,  a  Babylonian  princess  who,  as  the 
only  female  ruler  recorded  in  Assyrian  history, 
furnished  the  Greek  fabulists  with  the  name 
of  Semiramis.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  seem 
now  to  have  been  formally  united ;  the  govern- 
ment of  the  former  being  specially  put  into 
the  hands  of  a  member  of  the  royal  Assyrian 
family,  who  acted  as  viceroy.  Nineveh,  the 
main  ruins  of  which  are  now  visible  at  Koyun- 
jik  and  Nebbi-Yunus,  opposite  Mosul,  had 
now  become  the  Assyrian  capital.  The  book 
of  Jonah,  who  is  believed  to  have  lived  dur- 
ing this  period,  is  of  historical  value  from 
the  glimpse  which  it  affords  of  the  extent  of 
that  great  city  in  its  palmiest  days.  If  we 
assume  that  the  120,000  persons  who  "  knew 
not  their  right  hand  from  their  left,"  that  is, 
children,  is  an  approximation  to  the  census, 
the  population  of  the  city  would  be  about 
600,000.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  city  of  three 
days'  journey,  containing  also  "  much  cat- 
tle " ;  other  authorities  say  it  was  17  in.  long 
and  10  broad.  The  probability  is  that  Nineveh, 
like  Babylon,  was  a  district,  about  as  large  as 
our  District  of  Columbia,  enclosed  with  high 
walls,  containing  pastures,  fields,  and  gardens, 
besides  several  strongly  fortified  points.  Three 
other  reigns  fill  up  the  interval  from  781  to 
745.  With  the  last  of  these  the  reigning 
dynasty  seems  to  have  come  to  a  close ;  for 
in  745  we  find  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  apparently  a 
usurper,  on  the  throne,  with  his  capital  at 
Calah.  The  duration  of  the  new  dynasty, 
known  as  the  lower  monarchy,  is  variously 
estimated  at  120  or  139  years — 745  to  625  or 
606.  The  names  of  five  out  of  the  seven  kings 
of  the  last  dynasty  are  familiar  from  their  oc- 
currence in  the  Hebrew  records.  The  first  of 
these  was  Tiglath-pileser  II.  His  accession 
(745)  coincides  closely  with  one  of  the  great 
eras  of  history.  The  first  Greek  Olympiad 
began  a  generation  earlier  (776);  Rome  was, 
according  to  her  traditions,  founded  eight 
years  before  (753) ;  the  Babylonian  era  of 
Nubonassar  is  synchronous  within  two  years 
(747).  Thus  the  last  and  most  splendid  age 
•  of  the  Assyrian  empire  coincides  with  the  in- 
j  fanoy  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization.  The 
records  of  this  Tiglath-pileser  are  fragment- 
ary, for  Esar-haddon,  his  fourth  successor,  un- 
i  dertook  to  destroy  all  the  palaces  of  his  pre- 


ASSYRIA 


35 


decessor,  and  to  use  the  materials  for  the  con- 
struction of  new  ones  of  his  own.  The  work 
was  incomplete  when  the  Assyrian  kingdom 
came  to  an  end.  When  Tiglath-pileser  came 
to  the  throne  he  found  all  the  tributary  nations 
in  a  state  of  revolt.  In  reducing  them  he 
struck  first  at  the  nearest  ones,  Babylonia  and 
Ohaldea ;  these  were  soon  reduced  to  submis- 
sion, lie  then  Tiad  to  turn  to  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. Hitherto  the  kingdom  of  Judah  had  been 
able  to  keep  aloof  from  the  quarrels  of  its 
neighbors ;  but  now  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  entered  into  a  league 
against  Ahaz,  the  new  king  of  Judah,  who  ap- 
plied to  Tiglath-pileser  for  assistance,  and  paid 
him  tribute.  The  Assyrian  reduced  Syria, 
overran  Israel,  and  began  that  series  of  de- 
portations which  we  know  as  the  captivities, 
carrying  away  the  people  of  the  northern  dis- 
tricts of  Israel.  Ahaz  was  now  summoned  to 
Damascus  to  pay  homage  to  his  protector  and 
to  satisfy  his  exactions.  The  Hebrew  chronicle 
records :  "  Ahaz  made  Judah  naked,  and  Tig- 
lath-pileser distressed  him,  but  strengthened 
him  not."  The  next  Assyrian  king  was  Shal- 
maneser  IV.,  of  whose  short  reign  (727-721) 
no  mention  is  found  in  the  Assyrian  records 
yet  discovered ;  but  from  the  Hebrew  records 
we  know  that  he  carried  on  the  war  against 
Israel,  whose  king  Hoshea  refused  to  pay  the 
tribute  levied  upon  him.  Samaria  was  be- 
leaguered, 'and  captured  after  a  siege  of  three 
years,  and  her  king  was  "  cut  off  as  the  foam 
upon  the  face  of  the  water."  Shalmaneser 
died  during  this  siege,  leaving  an  infant  son. 
The  war  was  carried  on  by  the  tartan,  or 
general-in-chief,  who  soon  assumed  the  gov- 
ernment, taking  the  name  of  Sargon,  or,  as 
the  inscriptions  are  read,  Sargina  or  Sar- 
yukin.  This  Sargon,  though  only  once  men- 
tioned in  the  Hebrew  records,  is  shown  by 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions  to  have  been  a  great 
ruler.  He  had  to  finish  the  war  in  Palestine. 
How  he  did  this  he  tells:  "I  besieged,  took, 
and  occupied  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  carried 
away  27,280  people  who  dwelt  in  it.  I  changed 
the  former  establishments  of  the  country,  and 
set  over  them  my  lieutenants."  A  strong  pow- 
er was  now  again  established  in  Egypt,  which 
was  trying  to  spread  itself  to  the  east.  Sabaco, 
the  Egyptian  king,  had  already  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Hoshea  of  Israel,  and  was  march- 
ing to  his  aid.  Sargon,  having  taken  Samaria, 
moved  to  meet  Sabaco,  marching  down  the 
Mediterranean  coast.  The  encounter  took 
place  at  Raphia,  near  Gaza.  The  Egyptians 
were  defeated,  and  Sargon  in  time  came  into 
possession  of  all  the  strong  places  on  the 
Phoenician  coasts,  though  lie  seems  to  have 
been  foiled  in  an  attack  upon  Tyre.  All  these 
wars  occupied  a  space  of  ten  years.  From 
them  Sargon  was  recalled  by  troubles  nearer 
home.  Babylonia  had  asserted  its  indepen- 
dence under  a  king  called  Merodach-baladan, 
who  sought  to  strengthen  himself  by  alli- 
ances with  Elam  (Susiana)  on  the  east,  the 


Arabs,  Damascus,  and  Judah  on  the  west,  and 
even  with  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  In  Judah  the 
national  spirit  had  revived  under  Hezekiah, 
who  received  the  messengers  from  Merodach- 
baladan  with  favor,  and  made  an  ostentatious 
display  of  his  resources,  but  did  not  formally 
join  the  league.  Sargon  attacked  the  con- 
federates in  detail,  routed  the  Elamites  on 
the  plains  of  Chaldea  and  marched  upon  Baby- 
lon, defeated  Merodach-baladan,  took  him 
prisoner,  and  assumed  his  kingdoms  but  spared 
his  life.  He  then  overran  Damascus,  pushed 
down  the  seacoast,  and  sent  a  successful  ex- 
pedition over  sea  to  Cyprus.  Merodach-bala- 
dan took  occasion  to  revolt,  and  recovered  his 
throne.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  at  home, 
and  Sargon  was  assassinated  (704).  His  resi- 
dence was  originally  at  Culah  ;  he  rebuilt  the 
walls  of  Nineveh  ;  but  his  chief  ambition 
was  to  replace  that  capital  by  a  new  city  on 
a  beautiful  site  10  m.  N.  of  Nineveh.  This 
royal  residence  was  named  Hisr  Sargina,  "  the 
house  of  Sargon."  From  the  rnins  of  this 
palace,  at  Khorsabad,  have  come  many  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  Assyrian  relics.  Sargon 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sennacherib,  the 
greatest  of  the  Assyrian  kings  (704-680).  The 
disasters  of  the  last  few  years  of  Sargon  had 
reduced  the  dominions  of  his  son  to  little  more 
than  Assyria  proper.  Babylonia  was  in  open 
revolt.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  Sen- 
nacherib undertook  its  reconquest,  which  was 
effected  in  a  single  brief  campaign.  The  next 
year  he  made  successful  expeditions  against 
Media  and  Armenia.  Hezekiah  of  Judah  had 
renounced  his  allegiance  to  Assyria,  conquered 
Philistia,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign 
(701)  Sennacherib  regained  all  Hezekiah's 
conquests,  defeated  the  Egyptians,  and  shut 
up  Hezekiah  in  Jerusalem.  The  Assyrian 
bass-reliefs  are  full  of  scenes  of  this  war. 
Hezekiah  offered  his  submission,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Sennacherib,  sent  a  tribute  of  30  tal- 
ents of  gold,  800  of  silver,  and  a  vast  quantity 
of  other  gifts.  To  raise  this  tribute  he  was 
forced  to  strip  the  temple  of  its  treasures,  and 
to  cut  off  the  golden  ornaments  from  the  build- 
ing itself.  Sennacherib,  having  left  a  detach- 
ment under  his  general-in-chief  (tartan),  chief 
eunuch  (raJi-sarif),  and  chief  cup-benrer  (rab- 
shakeh)  to  receive  the  submission  of  Jerusa- 
lem, was  besieging  Lachish,  then  a  strong  town 
on  the  road  to  Egypt.  Meanwhile  a  great 
army  under  Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  was 
advancing  to  the  aid  of  Judah.  Hezekinh, 
encouraged  by  Isaiah,  refused  to  surrender. 
Sennacherib  broke  up  the  siege  of  Lachish 
and  moved  to  Libnah  to  meet  the  Ethiopians. 
But  on  the  night  before  the  day  when  bat-: 
tie  was  to  be  given  occurred  that  great  dis- 
aster, of  which  the  Assyrian  records  contain 
no  mention,  but  of  which  the  Hebrew  account 
is :  "  The  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth 
and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians 
185,000."  Whatever  may  have  been  the  na- 


36 


ASSYRIA 


tnre  of  tins  disaster,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  Sennacherib  looked  upon  it  as  an  indi- 
cation of  divine  displeasure;  for  during  the 
remaining  20  years  of  his  reign  he  made  no 
new  attempt  upon  Judah,  although  he  held  on 
to  his  conquests  in  Phoenicia.  He  was  there- 
after engaged  in  numerous  and  for  the  most 
part  successful  wars.  Merodach-baladan  again 
revolted,  and  was  finally  crushed  in  lower 
Chaldea.  Again  the  combined  rulers  of  Baby- 
lon and  Elam,  aided  by  the  Arabs  on  the  mid- 
dle Euphrates,  attempted  to  make  head  against 
Assyria,  but  were  defeated  in  a  great  battle  on 
the  Tigris.  Three  times  more  Babylonia  re- 
volted, and  at  the  close  of  the  last  revolt  Baby- 
lon was  captured  and  sacked  (683).  The  annals 
of  Sennacherib  are  silent  as  to  the  last  three 
years  of  his  reign,  from  which  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  they  were  years  of  disaster  to 
his  kingdom.  He  was  assassinated  in  the 
temple  of  Nisroch  by  two  of  his  sons,  who  fled 
to  Armenia.  His  great  work  was  the  restora- 
tion and  embellishment  of  Nineveh,  of  which 
his  palace  at  Koynnjik,  the  most  magnificent 
of  the  Assyrian  ruins,  was  a  part.  Sennache- 
rib was  succeeded  by  his  fourth  son,  Esar- 
haddon  (680-667).  He  appears  to  have  re- 
conquered Babylonia,  and  to  have  been  ap- 
pointed viceroy.  Esar-haddon  is  the  only 
Assyrian  king  who  ruled  also  over  Baby- 
lonia during  his  whole  reign.  He  pushed 
his  conquests  far  and  wide,  extending  them 
to  Cilicia  on  the  west  and  across  the  sea 
to  Cyprus,  and  on  the  east  he  advanced  into 
Media  further  than  any  of  his  predecessors 
had  done.  He  overran  Judah,  and  carried 
King  Manasseh  a  captive  to  Babylon,  which 
seems  to  have  been  his  joint  capital  with 
Nineveh.  He  was  the  first  Assyrian  king 
who  actually  invaded  Egypt,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  king  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  He 
built  two  great  palaces  at  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, and  began  another  at  Oalah.  In  this  un- 
finished palace  the  slabs  which  line  the  walls 
were  torn  from  the  palaces  of  former  kings, 
their  sculptured  faces  placed  toward  the  wall, 
and  the  backs  smoothed  preparatory  to  being 
carved  with  the  king's  own  exploits.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  reign  he  divided  the  empire, 
placing  one  of  his  sons  as  viceroy  over  Babylo- 
nia. Asshur-bani-pal,  whom  some  consider  the 
Sardanapalus  of  the  Greek  romances,  ascended 
the  throne  in  667,  and  reigned  till  660,  or  ac- 
cording to  others  till  647.  He  was  also  a  great 
conqueror;  but  his  chief  glory  is  that  during 
his  reign,  and  under  his  patronage,  Assyrian 
art  and  literature  reached  their  highest  point. 
He  established  what  may  properly  be  called  a 
great  public  library.  In  his  palace  of  Koyunjik 
were  found  three  chambers  the  floors  of  which 
were  covered  a  foot  deep  with  tablets  of  clay 
of  all  sizes  from  an  inch  long  to  nine  inches, 
covered  with  inscriptions,  many  of  them  so  mi- 
nute as  to  be  read  only  by  the  aid  of  a  magni- 
fying glass.  The  letters  had  been  punched 
into  the  moist  clay,  which  was  afterward 


burned.  Most  of  these  tablets  were  broken 
into  fragments ;  but  as  there  were  four  copies 
of  each,  many  of  them  have  been  pieced  to- 
gether, so  that  they  have  been  deciphered. 
These  partially  restored  tablets  are  among  the 
most  precious  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
and  contain  the  annals  of  the  first  seven  years 
(which  some  suppose  to  be  the  whole)  of  the 
reign  of  Asshnr-bani-pal.  (See  CUNEIFORM  IN- 
SCRIPTIONS.) His  first  campaign  was  in  Egypt, 
against  Tirhakah,  who  had  broken  the  treaty 
by  which  he  had  agreed  to  confine  himself  to 
his  own  country  of  Ethiopia.  The  Assyrian 
drove  him  out  of  Egypt,  of  which  he  took  pos- 
session, but  left  the  petty  rulers  in  actual  gov- 
ernment. He  had  scarcely  returned  to  Nine- 
veh when  these  rulers  allied  themselves  again 
with  Tirhakah.  Asshur-bani-pal  went  back 
and  took  summary  vengeance.  Memphis,  Sals, 
and  other  cities  were  stormed  and  their  peo- 
ple put  to  the  sword.  Thebes  was  taken 
and  sacked  to  its  foundations.  When  Asshur- 
bani-pal  died,  Assyria  seemed  at  the  summit 
of  its  greatness.  But  its  fall  was  close  at 
hand.  Of  his  successor  nothing  remains  but  a 
few  bricks  inscribed  with  a  name  which  has 
been  read  Asshur-emit-ilin.  He  commenced  a 
palace  at  Nimrud,  the  inferiority  of  which  to 
earlier  structures  bears  witness  to  the  decline, 
while  its  unfinished  state  indicates  the  sudden 
downfall  of  the  kingdom.  No  Assyrian  rec- 
ords describe  the  fall  of  Nineveh  or  the  events 
which  led  to  it.  Its  very  time  is  uncertain, 
some  placing  it  in  625,  others  in  G06.  It  is  not 
certain  that  Asshiir-cmit-ilin  was  the  last  king, 
for  a  fragment  attributed  to  Berosus  gives  Sa- 
racus  as  the  name  of  the  ruler  under  whom  the 
kingdom  fell.  The  account  gathered  from  sev- 
eral writers  is  this :  The  Medes,  having  estab- 
lished their  independence  and  power,  made  war 
upon  Assyria.  The  Babylonians,  Chaldeans, 
and  Susianians  revolted,  and  joined  the  Medes. 
Saracus  sent  against  them  his  general  Nabo- 
polassar,  who  turned  traitor,  and,  having  be- 
trothed his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Median  king,  led  the  Babylonians 
upon  Nineveh.  When  Saracus  learned  this, 
he  burned  himself  in  his  palace,  as  told  in  the 
legend  of  Sardanapalus.  Assyria  ceased  to  be 
a  kingdom,  not  even  being  embraced  within 
the  brief  but  splendid  empire  of  Babylon, 
which  comprised  Babylonia,  Chaldea,  Susiana, 
and  the  region  along  the  Euphrates.  All  that 
was  properly  Assyria  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Medes. — The  Assyrians  were  undoubtedly  a 
homogeneous  people  of  Semitic  stock,  while 
the  Babylonians  were  a  mixed  race,  embracing 
Hamite,  Aryan,  and  Turanian  elements.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Assyrians  was  apparently  in  general 
similar  to  that  of  the  Babylonians,  distinguished 
mainly  by  the  greater  predominance  of  Asshur, 
the  national  deity.  He  was  the  "  great  god,"  the 
"  king  of  all  the  gods,"  "  he  who  rules  supreme 
over  the  gods."  He  was  from  first  to  last  the 
main  object  of  worship,  never  confounded  with 
the  personified  or  individualized  deities :  Sha- 


ASSYRIA 


ASTER 


37 


mas,  the  sun ;  Sin,  the  moon ;  Nergal,  the  god 
of  war;  Nin,  the  god  of  hunting;  Iva,  the 
wielder  of  the  thunderbolt ;  and  the  like.  The 
great  temple  at  Asshur  is  the  only  one  yet  dis- 
covered specially  dedicated  to  him ;  from 
which  some  hav%  inferred  that  instead  of  sepa- 
rate temples  he  had  the  first  place  in  the  fanes 
of  all  the  other  divinities.  It  is  more  probable 
that  in  Assyrian  mythology  he  occupied  the 
place  of  Brahma  in  that  of  the  Hindoos.  After 
this  supreme  god,  the  source  of  all  being,  and 
the  supreme  arbiter  of  all  events,  came  a  series 
of  secondary  gods,  arranged  in  two  series  of 
double  triads,  male  and  female.  The  first  con- 
sists of  Ann,  masculine,  Anat,  feminine — Pluto ; 
Bel,  m.,  Bilit,  f.— Jupiter;  Hea,  m.,  Daokina,  f. 
— Neptune.  The  second  triad  is  Sin,  the  moon ; 
Shamas,  the  sun ;  Iva,  the  air :  in  this  triad 
the  moon  occupies  the  place  of  precedence. 
Then  there  is  a  secondary  group  of  five  plane- 
tary divinities :  Ninip,  Saturn ;  Merodach,  Ju- 
piter; Nergal,  Mars;  Ishtar,  Venus;  Nebo, 
Mercury.  This  pentad  in  time  seems  to  have 
superseded  in  popular  esteem  the  older  triads, 
Nebo,  like  Hermes  and  Mercury,  being  the  espe- 
cial patron  of  learning  and  eloquence,  and  the 
symbol  of  royal  authority.  The  two  triads 
and  the  pentad  constituted  the  12  great  deities 
of  the  Assyrian  pantheon,  below  which  there 
was  a  host  of  inferior  divinities,  prominent 
among  whom  was  Nisroch  or  Salman,  the  eagle- 
headed  and  winged  god,  whose  figure  appears 
so  frequently  in  the  sculptures.  How  little 
these  religious  notions  served  to  raise  the 
moral  character  of  the  nation,  and  chiefly  of 
its  rulers,  is  best  proved  by  the  sculptural  rec- 
ords of  the  latter,  whose  greatest  and  constant 
boast  is  the  successful  hunting  of  men  and 
beasts,  the  burning  of  cities,  and  flaying  and 
mangling  of  captives.  The  monuments  of  Nine- 
veh more  than  justify  the  bitterest  invectives  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets  against  "  the  bloody  city," 
•which  was  "  full  of  lies  and  robbery,"  with  "  a 
multitude  of  slain  "  and  "  no  end  of  corpses." — 
In  certain  departments  of  science  the  Assyrians 
attained  to  considerable  eminence.  Their  system 
of  astronomy  was  in  advance  of  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. They  knew  the  synodical  period  of  the 
moon,  the  true  length  of  the  year,  and  even, 
though  not  quite  accurately,  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes ;  they  made  it  30"  instead  of  50", 
so  that  their  great  cosmical  year  was  43,200 
years  instead  of  26,000,  its  true  length.  They 
ascribed  solar  eclipses  to  their  true  cause,  and 
calculated  lunar  eclipses  with  great  accuracy. 
They  must  therefore  have  been  acquainted  with 
the  golden  cycle  of  223  lunations,  after  which 
eclipses  recur  in  the  same  order.  They  fixed 
this  period  at  18  years  and  10  days,  which  is 
within  less  than  8  hours  of  the  true  period. — 
For  further  particulars  relating  to  the  geogra- 
phy and  history  of  Assyria,  see  the  articles 
BABYLON,  BABYLONIA,  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP- 
TIONS, KURDISTAN,  MESOPOTAMIA,  NINEVEH,  and 
TURKEY.  The  principal  authorities  are :  Rich's 
"Journey  to  the  Site  of  Babylon"  (London, 


1839) ;  Botta  and  Flandin's  Monument  de 
Ninive  (5  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1849-'50) ;  Layard's 
"  Nineveh  and  its  Remains  "  (2  vols.,  London, 
1849),  "Discoveries  in  the  Ruins  of  Nineveh 
and  Babylon"  (London,  1853),  and  "Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh"  (1849,  and  continued  for 
several  years);  Vaux's  "Nineveh  and  Perse- 
polis "  (London,  1850) ;  Brandis's  UeJ>er  den 
historischen  Gewinn  aus  der  Entzifferung  der 
Assyrigchen  Imchriften  (Berlin,  1856) ;  M. 
von  Niebnhr's  Geschichte  Assurs  und  Babels 
seit  Phul  (Berlin,  1857) ;  G.  Rawlinson's  "  Five 
Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  World  "  (vol. 
i.,  London,  1862) ;  Oppert's  Let  inscriptions 
assyriennes  des  Sargonides  (Versailles,  1863) ; 
Philip  Smith's  "Ancient  History  of  the  East" 
(London,  1870). 

ASTARTE.     See  ASHTOHETH. 

ASTER  (Gr.  aarfp,  a  star),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  great  family  of  composites,  so  widespread 
as  to  induce  Lindley  to  give  its  name  to  the 


China  Aster,  Doable. 

whole  family,  asteraeea.  The  plants  popularly 
called  asters  belong  to  several  genera,  but  the 
typical  genus  is  by  far  the  richest  in  species. 
Although  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  China, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Alps,  and  Siberia, 
furnish  species,  many  of  great  beauty,  Amer- 
ica, and  especially  New  England,  seems  most 
amply  supplied.  Of  nearly  200  species  cul- 
tivated in  Europe,  150  are  natives  of  North 
America.  They  are  mostly  annuals,  with  co- 
rymbed,  panicled,  or  racemose  heads;  flowers 
radiate,  the  rays  white,  purple,  or  blue,  and 
fertile,  the  disk  yellow  or  reddish.  In  the  cul- 
tivated species  the  disk  flowers  give  place  to 
repeated  series  of  ray  flowers,  and  assume  the 
appearance  of  the  well  known  China  asters. 
The  finest  American  species  are :  A.  Nona 
Anglia,  whose  erect,  narrow-leafed  stem,  3 
to  8  feet  high,  crowned  with  large  corymbed 
heads  of  violet-purple  flowers,  is  often  seen  by 
the  roadsides;  A.  ptmiceus,  with  a  purplish 


38 


ASTER 


stem,  serrate  leaves,  purple  or  blue  flowers  in 
panicles,  found  with  the  preceding,  but  taller, 
6  to  10  feet;  A.  l<evis,  macrophylhui,  specta- 
lilit,  horizontals,  Oalifornicus,  and  mutabilu 
versicolor,  all  worth  cultivating;  the  last  two 
change  color  with  age.  In  England  they  are 
all  called  Christmas  or  Michaelmas  daisies.  The 
Chinese  pay  special  attention  to  the  cultivation 
of  many  species  of  this  genus,  and  the  results 
of  their  skill  have  been  introduced  in  America 
and  are  favorites  with  horticulturists.  The 
first  China  asters  were  brought  to  Europe  early 
in  the  18th  century.  Asters  require  a  free, 
rich  soil,  and  moderate  exposure  to  the  sun. 
The  Chinese  cultivate  them  almost  exclusively 
in  pots.  A.  argyrophyllus,  a  native  of  New 
Holland,  is  a  shrubby  species,  growing  to  the 
height  of  10  feet;  the  flowers  are  very  nu- 
merous in  little  heads,  whitish  gray  with  yel- 
low disk,  and  smelling  strongly  of  musk ;  this 
species  is  half-hardy  in  southern  England.  A. 
calestis,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  a  hot- 
house plant,  blooming  the  whole  year;  the 
flowers  sky-blue,  disk  yellow. 

ASTER.  I.  Ernst  Ladwlg  von,  a  German  mil- 
itary engineer,  born  in  Dresden  in  November, 
1T78,  died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  10,  1855.  In  1794 
he  entered  the  corps  of  engineers  in  the  Saxon 
army,  iii  which  his  father  had  held  high  rank. 
He  was  made  lieutenant  in  1800,  and  captain 
in  1809.  A  plan  made  by  him  for  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Torgau  attracted  the  attention  of  Na- 
poleon, who  adopted  it ;  the  fortress  was  fin- 
ished under  Aster's  superintendence,  and  after 
the  Russian  campaign,  in  which  he  took  {>art, 
he  was  appointed  its  commander.  Soon  after 
this  he  left  the  Saxon  for  the  Russian  service. 
He  fought  at-  Bautzen  and  Leipsic,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  several  expeditions  with  a 
detachment  of  Cossacks  which  he  commanded. 
In  1813  he  reentered  the  Saxon  service,  and  in 
1814  was  made  colonel.  In  1815  he  entered  the 
Prussian  engineer  corps,  and  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Ligny  and  "Waterloo  and  in  several 
sieges.  In  the  same  year  he  was  made  a  gen- 
eral, and  inspector  of  the  Prussian  fortifica- 
tions. He  now  established  his  reputation  as  a 
master  of  his  art  by  the  construction  of  the 
great  fortresses  of  Coblentz  and  Ehrenbreit- 
stein.  Of  these  he  was  appointed  commander 
in  1825,  still  holding  the  office  of  inspector 
general.  He  became  a  lieutenant  general  in 
1827,  and  in  1842  general  of  infantry.  He 
was  also  made  a  councillor  in  1837.  He  left  a 
collection  of  essays  and  volumes,  published 
together  after  his  death,  under  the  title  Nach- 
gelassene  Schriften  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1856-'61). 
See  also  the  work  of  Eiler,  Betrachtungen  und 
Urtheile  E.  L.  von  Aster's  uber  die  politi- 
schen,  kirchlichen  -and  padagogischen  Partei- 
bewegungen  misers  Jahrhunderts  (2  vols.,  Saar- 
brucken,  1858-'9).  II.  Karl  Hclnrlch  von,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dresden,  Feb.  4, 
1782,  died  there,  Dec.  23,  1855.  He  entered 
the  Saxon  artillery  corps  in  1796,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Jena.  He  was  soon  after- 


ASTEROIDS 

ward  temporarily  assigned  to  a  professorship 
in  the  military  school  at  Dresden,  and  was 
made  lieutenant  colonel  in  1831.  He  retired 
in  1834,  and  received  the  honorary  rank  of 
colonel  in  1844.  He  wrote  many  military 
works,  and  his  Lehre  vom  Festungskriege  (2 
vols.,  Dresden,  1812;  3d  ed.,  1835)  is  a  text 
book  on  the  subject  of  fortifications  in  the 
Prussian  military  schools,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  languages. 

ASTERABAD.     See  ASTBABAD. 

ASTEKIAS.     See  STAB  FISH. 

ASTEROIDS,  a  ring  of  small  planets  travel- 
ling between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
It  had  long  been  noticed  that  no  empirical  law 
of  planetary  distances  would  give  an  account 
of  the  wide  disparity  between  the  distance  sepa- 
rating the  orbits  of  the  earth  and  Mars  and 
that  which  separates  the  paths  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter.  When  Sir  W.  Herschel's  discovery 
of  Uranus  in  1781  had  confirmed  Bode's  em- 
pirical law,  astronomers  were  led  to  search  for 
a  planet  travelling  in  the  orbit  which,  accord- 
ing to  that  law,  should  lie  between  the  paths 
of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  On  Jan.  1,  1801,  such  a 
planet  was  discovered  by  Piazzi,  who  called  it 
Ceres.  In  March,  1802,  while  looking  for  the 
new  planet,  Olbers  discovered  another,  travel- 
ling at  about  the  same  distance  from  the  sun. 
He  called  it  Pallas.  Two  others  discovered 
before  1808  were  called  Juno  and  Vesta.  In 
1845  Hencke  of  Prussia  discovered  a  fifth. 
Since  then  the  progress  of  discovery  has  scarce- 
ly been  interrupted  by  a  single  barren  year. 
Luther  in  Germany,  Goldschmidt  in  France, 
Watson  in  America,  Hind  in  England,  and  De 
Gasparis  in  Italy  were  until  1873  the  most  suc- 
cessful asteroid  seekers.  Recently  Prof.  Peters 
of  the  Litchfield  observatory,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  has 
shared  their  honors,  having  thus  far  discovered 
more  asteroids  than  any  other  astromomer  save 
Luther.  He  discovered  three  new  asteroids  in 
July  and  August,  1872,  and  two  more  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1873,  raising  the  known  number  to  130. 
— Olbers  endeavored  to  explain  the  existence  of 
the  zone  of  asteroids  by  the  theory  that  a  planet 
which  had  once  travelled  between  the  paths  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter  had  exploded,  and  that  the  as- 
teroids are  its  fragments.  But  Prof.  Newcomb 
has  shown,  by  an  elaborate  investigation  of  the 
asteroidal  motions,  that  "  although  there  are 
some  peculiarities  which  might  favor  Olbers's 
hypothesis,  there  are  a  far  greater  number  of 
cases  which  undoubtedly  negative  the  assump- 
tion." Prof.  Kirkwood  has  shown  that  when 
the  mean  distances  of  the  asteroids  are  arranged 
in  order,  certain  gaps  can  be  recognized  ;  that 
in  fact  "there  are  no  asteroids  having  mean 
distances  lying  near  certain  definite  values." 
He  shows  how  these  gaps  by  their  position  in- 
dicate the  probability  that  the  asteroidal  zone 
was  formed  from  scattered  cosmical  matter 
travelling  around  the  sun  under  the  perturb- 
ing influence  of  the  planet  Jupiter.  Leverrier, 
from  an  analysis  of  the  motions  of  Mars,  has 
shown  that  the  combined  mass  of  all  the  aste- 


ASTHMA 


ASTLEY 


roids  probably  falls  far  short  of  one  fourth  of 
the  earth's  mass.  More  than  a  third  of  the 
known  asteroids  have  been  discovered  iu  the 
two  months  April  and  September,  and  less  than 
a  third  in  the  six  months  January,  February, 
June,  July,  November^and  December. 

ASTHMA  (Gr.  dofya,  from  aeiv,  to  blow),  a 
disease  characterized  by  an  extreme  difficulty 
of  respiration,  which  is  worse  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  particular  periods  of  the 
day,  being  generally  most  severe  at  night. 
The  difficulty  of  breathing  is  increased  by  vio- 
lent emotions,  damp  atmosphere,  excess  of  any 
kind,  strong  exercise,  running,  walking  quickly, 
or  ascending  a  flight  of  stairs.  It  is  also  more 
laborious  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  hence 
more  distress  is  felt  in  bed  at  night ;  the  warmth 
of  the  bed  also  excites  increased  secretion  of 
the  mucous  follicles,  and  this  blocks  up  the  air 
passages  more  completely,  causing  paroxysms 
to  be  more  frequent  than  during  the  day.  The 
patient  seeks  relief  by  sitting  upright  in  bed, 
or  bending  his  body  forward,  and  endeavoring 
to  expand  the  chest  mechanically  by  every  pos- 
sible means.  Old  persons  are  more  liable  to  the 
disease  than  young.  Some  writers  describe  the 
disease  mainly  as  a  nervous  affection ;  others  as 
the  result  of  organic  lesion  of  the  heart  and  blood 
vessels ;  while  others  again  attribute  it  to  dila- 
tation of  the  air  vesicles  of  the  lungs.  All 
these  and  many  other  complications  may  exist. 
It  is  now  believed  that  spasmodic  asthma  is 
caused  by  a  spasm  of  the  muscular  fibres  en- 
circling the  bronchial  tubes,  especially  the 
smaller  branches.  The  existence  of  these 
fibres  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  microscopic 
examination.  In  common  asthma  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  air  passages  is  more  or  less 
affected  as  in  chronic  bronchitis,  but  the  af- 
fection of  the  mucous  membrane  extends 
further  down  into  the  lungs,  the  air  cells 
are  more  obstructed,  and  the  conformation  of 
the  chest  itself  is  often  somewhat  contracted 
and  defective.  The  action  of  the  diaphragm 
is  imperfect,  a3  well  as  that  of  the  walls  of  the 
chest ;  and  hence  it  is  that,  from  want  of  in- 
nervation  and  free  action  in  these  parts,  the 
disease  is  commonly  deemed  nervous,  as  distin- 
guished from  chronic  bronchitis,  which  affects 
the  bronchial  mucous  membrane  chiefly.  In 
spasmodic  asthma,  the  nerves  are  still  more 
deeply  implicated;  their  action  seems  de- 
fective in  the  respiratory  organs,  as  stammer- 
ing shows  imperfect  nervous  action  in  the  or- 
gans of  speech ;  and  in  both  cases  the  diffi- 
culty is  increased  by  physical  or  moral  excite- 
ment. Chronic  asthma  seldom  shortens  life, 
where  patients  carefully  avoid  all  violent  emo- 
tions, exercise,  and  excess,  although  spasmodic 
paroxysms  may  endanger  life  at  any  time  where 
these  precautions  are  neglected.  Attacks  of 
spasmodic  asthma  generally  occur  during  the 
first  sleep,  soon  after  midnight,  or  very  early 
in  the  morning.  The  patient  suddenly  awakea 
with  a  sense  of  suffocation,  tightness  of  the 
chest,  and  difficulty  of  breathing.  The  respi- 


ration is  wheezing  and  laborious,  the  shoulders 
are  raised,  and  every  effort  made  to  enlarge  the 
chest.  The  pulse  is  usually  quick,  weak,  and 
irregular ;  the  lower  extremities  cold.  When 
cough  and  expectoration  come  on,  the  patient 
is  relieved.  The  spasm,  however,  may  con- 
tinue half  an  hour  or  more,  and  even  as  much 
as  three  or  four  hours. — Asthma  is  often  com- 
plicated with  diseases  of  the  heart  or  with 
chronic  bronchitis,  acting  as  a  source  of  per- 
manent congestion,  predisposing  the  parts  to 
be  more  easily  thrown  into  a  state  of  spasm. 
Sometimes  severe  attacks  of  dry  catarrh  are 
aggravated  by  spasm,  as  in  the  "bronchial 
asthma"  of  Andral. — The  most  common  con- 
sequences or  concomitants  of  the  disease  are 
chronic  inflammation  and  dilatation  of  the 
bronchi ;  emphysema  and  oedema  of  the  lungs ; 
haemoptysis ;  tubercular  deposits ;  hypertrophy 
and  dilatation  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart; 
effusions  into  the  pericardium,  the  pleura, 
and  sometimes  congestion  and  effusions  in  the 
head,  giving  rise  to  coma  or  apoplexy.  The 
treatment  of  the  paroxysm  consists  in  admin- 
istering narcotics  and  antispasmodics,  to  be 
given  if  possible  as  soon  as  the  first  sensations 
are  felt.  Strong  coffee,  laudanum,  and  ether 
are  among  the  best ;  and  stramonium  smoked 
as  tobacco  is  often  very  useful,  but  should  be 
used  with  caution  where  the  heart  is  diseased. 
Those  medicines  are  most  effectual  which  pro- 
duce expectoration. 

ASTI  (anc.  Aita  Pompeia),  a  city  of  N.  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Alessandria,  36  m.  by  rail  E. 
S.  E.  of  Turin;  pop.  in  1872,  31,033.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  the  capital  of  the  republic 
of  Asti,  which  maintained  its  independence 
from  1098  to  1155,  in  which  latter  year  the 
city  was  burned  by  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Old 
walls  surround  it,  and  it  contains  several  cele- 
brated buildings.  Near  the  city  is  made  the 
wine  which  bears  its  name.  Asti  is  the  birth- 
place of  Alfieri. 

AS'I'IK,  Jean  Frederic,  a  French  writer,  born 
in  1822.  He  was  for  some  time  pastor  in  New 
York  city,  and  subsequently  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Lausanne.  Among  his  works  are  : 
Le  reveil  religieux  des  fitati-Unis,  1857-'8 
(Lausanne,  1859),  and  ffutoire  de  la  republique 
des  &tats-  Unii  depute  V etablissement  dei  pre- 
mi&res  colonies  jusgu'A  Selection  du  president 
Lincoln,  1620-1860  (2  vols.,  1865). 

ASTLET,  Philip,  an  English  equestrian,  born 
at  Newcastle-under-Lyne  in  1742,  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  20,  1814.  He  served  seven  years  in  the 
light  horse,  and  receiving  an  honorable  dis- 
charge supported  himself  for  some  time  by  ex- 
hibitions of  horsemanship.  He  at  length  ac- 
quired sufficient  means  to  build  a  circus  or 
amphitheatre,  which  he  conducted  successfully 
for  many  years,  though  it  was  several  times 
partially  burned  and  rebuilt.  In  1804  he  leased 
it  to  his  son.  He  also  built  for  his  own  use 
19  theatres  in  London,  Paris,  find  Dublin,  and 
in  connection  with  Antoine  Franconi  assisted 
to  establish  the  "Olympic  Circus."  He  pub- 


ASTOLPHUS 


ASTORIA 


lished  "  Remarks  on  the  Duty  and  Profession 
of  a  Soldier"  (1794);  "Description  and  His- 
torical Account  of  the  Places  near  the  Theatre 
of  War  in  the  Low  Countries  "  (1794) ;  "  Ast- 
ley  System  of  Equestrian  Education"  (1801). 

ASTOLPHCS,  or  Astulplms,  called  by  the  Ger- 
mans Aistulf,  king  of  the  Lombards  in  northern 
Italy,  succeeded  his  brother  Rachis  in  749,  and 
died  in  756.  After  having  seized  the  exar- 
chate of  Ravenna,  he  threatened  Rome.  Pope 
Stephen  II.  fled  to  France  and  demanded  aid 
from  King  Pepin,  who  crossed  the  Alps  in  754 
with  an  army,  defeated  Astolphus,  and  be- 
sieged Pavia.  The  Lombard  obtained  peace 
on  condition  of  surrendering  Ravenna  and  all 
his  other  conquests ;  but  on  Pepin's  withdrawal 
he  burst  forth  again,  laid  siege  to  Rome,  and 
ravaged  all  the  surrounding  country.  The 
pope  again  supplicated  Pepin,  who  crossed  the 
Alps  and  shut  Astolphus  up  in  Pavia.  Astol- 
phus was  preparing  for  a  new  war,  but  fell 
from  his  horse  while  hunting,  and  died  three 
days  afterward  without  leaving  male  heirs. 

ASTOR,  John  Jwob,  a  merchant  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  born  at  Walldorf.  near  Heidelberg, 
July  17,  1763,  died  in  New  York,  March  29, 
1848.  lie  was  the  youngest  of  the  four  sons 
of  a  peasant,  and  his  boyhood  was  passed  in 
work  upon  his  father's  farm.  Two  of  his 
brothers  hud  left  their  home,  one  of  them  to 
establish  himself  as  a  maker  of  musical  instru- 
ments in  London,  and  the  other  to  settle  in 
America.  At  the  age  of  16  Astor  accepted  an 
invitation  from  the  former  to  join  him  in  his 
business,  and  he,  walking  to  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land, embarked  for  London  in  a  Dutch  smack. 
In  London  he  worked  industriously  till  1783, 
when,  a  few  months  after  the  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  by 
Great  Britain,  he  sailed  for  Baltimore,  taking 
with  him  a  few  hundred  dollars'  worth  of 
musical  instruments  to  dispose  of  on  commis- 
sion. On  the  voyage  he  made  acquaintance 
with  a  furrier,  in  accordance  with  whose  sug- 
gestions he  exchanged  his  musical  instruments 
in  New  York  for  furs,  with  which  he  hastened 
back  to  London,  where  he  disposed  of  them  to 
great  advantage.  He  soon  returned  to  New 
York  and  established  himself  there  in  the  fur 
trade,  prospering  so  fast  that  in  a  few  years  he 
was  able  to  send  his  furs  to  Europe  and  the 
East  in  his  own  ships,  which  brought  back 
cargoes  of  foreign  produce  to  be  disposed  of  in 
New  York.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century 
he  was  worth  $250,000,  and  he  now  began  to 
revolve  colossal  schemes  of  supplying  with  furs 
all  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  of  planting 
towns  and  spreading  civilization  in  the  wilds 
of  the  western  continent.  It  was  his  aim  to 
organize  the  fur  trade  from  the  lakes  to  the 
Pacific  by  establishing  numerous  trading  posts, 
making  a  central  depot  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  river,  and  then,  by  obtaining  one  of 
the  Sandwich  islands  as  a  station,  to  supply 
the  Chinese  and  Indian  markets  with  furs  sent 
directly  from  the  Pacific  coast.  In  prosecuting 


this  gigantic  scheme  it  is  said  that  he  expected 
only  outlay  during  the  first  10  years,  and  un- 
profitable returns  during  the  second  10,  but  af- 
ter that  a  net  annual  result  of  about  $1,000,000. 
The  settlement  of  Astoria  was  founded  in  1811, 
but  the  scheme  was  never  fully  carried  out. 
Astor  early  began  to  make  investments  in  real 
estate  in  New  York,  and  in  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  city  the  value  of  some  portions  of  his 
property  nearly  centupled.  He  erected  many 
handsome  private  and  public  buildings.  His 
fortune  has  been  estimated  at  $20,000,000. 
During  his  whole  career  he  hardly  made  a  mis- 
step through  defect  of  his  own  judgment,  and 
his  memory  retained  for  years  the  minutest 
details.  He  lived  during  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century  in  retirement,  in  the  society  of  his 
family  and  of  eminent  practical  and  literary 
men,  his  mind  retaining  its  vigor  after  his 
bodily  strength  had  become  greatly  enfeebled. 
He  gave  many  liberal  donations  during  his  life- 
time, and  his  will  contained  numerous  charita- 
ble provisions.  One  of  these  was  $50,000  for 
the  benefit  of  the  poor  of  Walldorf,  his  native 
village.  Among  his  most  useful  bequests  was 
that  of  $400,000  to  found  the  Astor  library 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  the  fruit  of  a  long 
cherished  purpose,  and  of  much  consultation  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life.  (See  ASTOK  LIBRARY.) 

ASTORGA  (anc.  Asturica  Augusta),  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  and  30  m.  by  rail  W.  S. 
W.  of  Leon,  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain 
2  m.  from  the  river  Tuerto ;  pop.  5,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  ruined  walls,  and  has  an  ancient 
Gothic  cathedral  with  a  high  altar  of  great 
beauty,  an  old  castle,  and  some  Roman  remains. 
Napoleon  made  Astorga  his  headquarters  dur- 
ing the  pursuit  of  Sir  John  Moore,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1809.  In  1810  it  was  taken  after 
an  obstinate  defence  by  Junot,  and  in  1812 
retaken  by  the  Spaniards. 

ASTORGA,  Emmannde  d',  a  Sicilian  musical 
composer,  born  at  Palermo,  Dec.  11,  1681,  died 
in  Bohemia,  Aug.  21,  1736.  ,111s  father,  a 
Sicilian  of  rank,  in  command  of  a  band  of  mer- 
cenary troops,  resisted  the  union  of  Sicily  with 
Spain ;  but  his  soldiers  betrayed  him,  and  he 
was  executed  in  the  presence  of  his  wife  and 
son.  The  former  immediately  died  of  grief, 
and  Emmanuele  was  for  a  time  almost  idiotic 
and  helpless.  Recovering,  he  entered  a  con- 
vent at  Astorga,  from  which  town  he  took  his 
surname.  Here  he  speedily  developed  a  re- 
markable musical  talent,  and  in  1 704  became  a 
court  musician  and  composer  at  Parma.  Soon 
afterward  he  attached  himself  to  the  suite  of 
the  emperor  Leopold,  and  after  his  death  in 
1705  travelled  extensively,  but  at  last  entered 
a  convent  in  Bohemia,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  His  principal  work  is  his 
Stabat  Mater,  of  which  the  original  MS.  is  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Oxford. 

ASTORIA,  a  town  of  Clatsop  county,  Oregon, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river;  pop.  in 
1870,  039.  It  was  for  a  long  time  the  depot 
of  the  fur  trade  for  all  the  country  west  of  tho 


ASTOR  LIBEAEY 


ASTRABAD 


41 


Rocky  mountains,  and  was  formerly  a  port  of 
entry.  The  difficulties  in  the  entrance  to  the 
Columbia  have,  however,  opposed  a  great  im- 
pediment to  its  development.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Pacific  fur  company^jn  1811,  and  named 
in  honor  of  John  Jacob  Astor,  the  chief  pro- 
prietor. Its  early  history  is  described  by 
Washington  Irving  in  his  "  Astoria." 

ASTOR  LIBRARY,  an  institution  founded 
under  the  will  of  John  Jacob  Astor,  who  be- 
queathed $400,000  "  for  the  establishment  of  a 
public  library  in  the  city  of  New  York."  By 
a  provision  of  the  will,  the  government  of  the 
library  was  vested  in  11  trustees,  in  whose 
keeping  were  placed  all  the  property  and 
effects  of  the  institution ;  in  them  existed  all 
power  to  invest  and  expend  the  funds,  and  to 
manage  the  affairs  of  the  library.  Among 
the  first  trustees  named  by  the  testator  were 
Washington  Irving,  William  B.  Astor,  Joseph 
G.  Cogswell,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  besides 
five  other  gentlemen,  and  the  mayor  of 
New  York  and  the  chancellor  of  the  state 
ex  officio.  By  a  subsequent  codicil,  Charles 
Astor  Bristed,  the  testator's  grandson,  was 
appointed  an  additional  trustee.  A  pro- 
vision of  the  will  designated,  as  the  land 
whereon  to  erect  a  suitable  building  for  the 
purposes  of  the  library,  a  lot  situated  upon  the 
east  side  of  Lafayette  place,  measuring  80  ft. 
in  front  by  120  ft.  deep.  As  early  as  1839  Mr. 
Astor  had  purchased  a  number  of  volumes, 
aided  by  Dr.  Cogswell,  with  the  ultimate  in- 
tention expressed  in  his  will.  In  May,  1848, 
the  trustees  of  the  library  met  for  the  first 
time,  and  in  accordance  with  the  desire  of  Mr. 
Astor,  appointed  Dr.  Cogswell  superintendent 
He  went  to  Europe  in  the  autumn  of  1848, 
authorized  to  purchase  books  to  the  amount 
of  $20,000.  During  an  absence  of  four  months 
he  collected  20,000  volume^  which  were  tem- 
porarily placed  in  a  building  rented  for  the 
purpose.  A  second  and  third  visit  by  the  su- 
perintendent increased  the  number  of  volumes 
to  70,000,  with  which  the  first  building  was 
opened,  Jan.  9,  1854.  The  Astor  library  is 
built  in. the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture, 
richly  ornamented  with  brown  stone  mould- 
ings and  an  imposing  entablature.  Its  dimen- 
sions are  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Astor's  will, 
the  height  being  about  70  ft.  The  library 
room  is  100  ft.  in  length  by  64  in  width,  and 
50  in  height ;  this  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  36 
marble  steps.  The  lower  rooms  are  chiefly 
used  for  the  deposit  of  public  documents  and 
for  the  meetings  of  the  trustees.  Since  the 
erection  of  this  building  the  number  of  volumes 
has  increased  to  nearly  150,000,  not  quite  fill- 
ing the  second  building,  which  has  since  been 
erected.  The  books  are  arranged  according  to 
subjects.  In  the  selection  of  books  Dr.  Cogs- 
well, upon  whom  devolved  the  whole  of  this 
labor  and  responsibility,  chose  only  such  works 
as  his  experience  and  knowledge  of  bibliog- 
raphy taught  him  would  be  most  useful  to  a 
young  and  growing  country.  Particular  atten- 


tion was  paid  to  the  department  of  technology, 
in  which  the  library  is  unusually  rich.  Bibliog- 
raphy also  received  a  large  share  of  Dr.  Cogs- 
well's attention,  his  own  private  collection 
having  been  early  added  to  the  library.  It  is 
designed  to  render  the  department  of  American 
history  as  full  as  possible,  as  works  of  this  class 
are  more  and  more  required  by  the  American 
public.  In  linguistics,  particularly  oriental, 
the  Astor  library  is  unsurpassed  by  any  in  this 
country.  The  natural  sciences  are  also  fully 
represented,  comprising  about  7,000  volumes, 
many  of  them  rare  and  costly.  In  January, 
1856,  the  first  building  having  become  filled, 
and  the  necessity  tor  more  room  obviously  ex- 
isting, Mr.  William  B.  Astor,  eldest  son  of  the 
founder  of  the  library,  made  a  donation  to  the 
trustees  of  an  adjacent  piece  of  land  80  ft. 
wide  and  120  ft.  deep.  Upon  this  a  building 
similar  to  the  first  was  erected  in  1859,  and 
formally  opened  to  the  public  on  the  1st  of 
September  in  that  year.  Both  edifices,  capable 
of  containing  200,000  volumes,  will  soon  be 
filled.  In  December,  1866,  William  B.  Astor 
made  a  further  donation  to  the  library  of  $50,- 

000,  $20,000  of  which  he  directed  to  be  ex- 
pended in  buying  books,  and  the  remainder  to 
be  added  to  the  general  funds  of  the  library. 
The  catalogue  of  the  Astor  library,  as  prepared 
by  Dr.  Cogswell,  comprises  five  octavo  volumes 
of  500  pages  each,  four  volumes  containing  the 
alphabetical  list  of  authors'  names,  the  fifth 
the  supplemental  list  np  to  1866,  and  the  an- 
alytical index  of  subjects  to  the  whole.     The 
present  superintendent  is  Dr.  E.  R.  Straznicky, 
formerly  first  assistant  librarian,  his  two  pre- 
decessors, the  late  Dr.  Cogswell  and  Mr.  Fran- 
cis Schroeder,  having  resigned,  the  former  Jan. 

1,  1862,  and  the  latter  July  1,  1871. 
ASTRABA1),    or    Astenbad.      I.   A    northern 

province  of  Persia,  lying  along  the  8.  coast  of 
a  large  bay  of  the  same  name,  which  forms 
the  8.  E.  extremity  of  the  Caspian  sea.  The 
surface  is  generally  hilly,  but  near  the  prin- 
cipal rivers,  the  Gurgan  and  the  Attruk,  are 
considerable  plains.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  ex- 
cellent fruit  is  everywhere  produced.  Large 
parts  of  the  province,  especially  the  plains  near 
the  rivers,  form  the  favorite  camping  grounds 
and  cattle  pastures  of  the  Goklan,  Yamud, 
and  other  nomadic  tribes.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  equable.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding province,  in  lat.  86°  50'  N.,  Ion.  54°  45' 
E.,  15  m.  S.  E.  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  190  m.  E. 
N.  E.  of  Teheran  ;  pop.  about  10,000.  A  wall 
about  two  miles  in  circumference  encircles  it. 
The  buildings  are  low  and  insignificant,  and 
the  trade  and  industries  are  unimportant.  The 
town  is  exceedingly  unhealthy,  as  the  marshes 
and  bodies  of  water  near  it  send  up  malarious 
vapors  of  the  most  dangerous  character.  It  is 
commonly  known  as  "the  city  of  the  plague," 
and  in  the  summer  is  almost  deserted  by  its 
inhabitants.  Astrabad  was  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Kajar  princes,  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Persian  dynasty. 


ASTR^EA 


ASTROLOGY 


1STRSA  (Gr.  aarpala,  starry),  a  genus  of 
radiate  animals  of  the  polyp  family,  which  at- 
tach themselves  to  marine  bodies,  and  are 
often  found  collected  together  into  a  globular 
or  hemispherical  mass,  known  as  one  of  the 
forms  of  coral.  The  upper  surface  of  these 
masses  is  entirely  covered  with  little  cavities  of 
stellar  form,  each  one  of  which  is  the  recep- 
tacle of  a  polyp,  and  in  the  centre  is  its  mouth, 
from  which  radiate  its  numerous  tentacula  or 
arms.  These  cavities  are  either  in  close  con- 
tact or  separated  by  intervening  spaces;  and 
this  feature  is  made  the  basis  for  dividing  the 
genus  into  two  sections,  the  first  of  which  is 
represented  by  the  common  East  India  species, 
A.favosa,  and  the  other  by  the  A.  rotulosa  of 
the  West  Indies. 

ASTRAKHAN,  or  A  «t  radian.  I.  A  government 
of  S.  E.  Russia,  on  the  N.  W.  shore  of  the  Cas- 
pian sea;  area,  85,010  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867, 
573,954,  including  134,000  Kirghizes.  The 
Volga,  flowing  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  divides  it 
into  two  arid  steppes  of  nearly  equal  size,  with  a 
few  fertile  tracts,  pasture  lands,  and  grain  fields 
along  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  whole  coun- 
try seems  to  have  once  been  covered  by  the 
Caspian,  and  the  soil  abounds  with  saline  in- 
gredients. Salt  lakes  and  marshes  are  abun- 
dant. Rock  salt  and  gypsum  are  found.  There 
are  few  trees.  The  climate  is  extremely  hot 
in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  and  unwhole- 
some to  strangers.  Cattle,  goats,  and  a  poor 
breed  of  horses  are  raised,  and  the  goat  skins 
are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  morocco  leath- 
er. The  most  valuable  industry  is  fishing,  the 
fisheries  of  the  Volga  being  extraordinarily 
productive.  The  principal  rivers  besides  the 
Volga  are  the  Akhtnba,  Sarpa,  and  Kuma. 
The  most  important  towns,  besides  the  capital, 
are  Krasnoi-Yar,  Tchernoi-Yar,  and  Tzarev. 
The  population  is  composed  of  Kalmucks,  Kir- 
ghizes, Tartars — these  three  being  nomadic 
tribes — and  Russians,  Armenians,  Persians, 
Hindoos,  and  Germans.  Astrakhan  was  an- 
ciently a  khanate  of  the  Golden  Horde  of  Tar- 
tars, and  embraced,  besides  Astrakhan  proper, 
Saratov,  Orenburg,  and  the  Caucasus.  It  was 
annexed  to  Russia  by  the  czar  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible in  1554.  II.  The  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing government,  situated  on  an  island  formed 
by  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Volga,  about  20 
m.  from  the  sea;  pop.  in  1867,  47,839.  The 
houses  are  partly  of  brick,  partly  of  wood,  and 
the  streets  are  crooked,  unpaved,  and  dirty. 
The  population  is  composed  of  all  nations  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  of  nearly  all  creeds. 
There  are  mosques  for  the  Mohammedans  and 
sanctuaries  for  the  Hindoos,  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian churches.  The  city  has  a  naval  academy, 
several  public  schools,  a  Greek  theological  sem- 
inary, Greek  and  Armenian  archbishops,  and 
a  printing  office  for  the  Kalmuck  language. 
About  100  small  manufacturing  establishments 
produce  cashmere  shawls,  silk  and  cotton  fab- 
rics, furs,  dyes,  powder,  and  salt.  The  salt 
works  are  very  extensive,  and  its  fisheries  in 


the  Volga  and  Caspian  are,  next  to  those  of 
Newfoundland,  the  most  important  in  the 
world.  Astrakhan  is  an  entrepot  of  the  Rus- 
sian oriental  trade,  and  the  raw  produce  from 
the  remoter  regions,  consisting  principally  of 
hides,  sheepskins,  and  grease,  is  brought  there. 
The  Volga  is  its  great  channel  of  inland  nnvi- 
gation,  and  in  1863  its  imports  were  valued  at 
$997,976,  and  its  exports  at  $215,448.  The 
trade  of  the  Caspian,  with  Astrabad  and  other 
Persian  ports  on  the  S.  and  Tartary  on  the  E., 
belongs  almost  wholly  to  Astrakhan  and  Baku. 
The  harbor  of  Astrakhan,  however,  is  much 
obstructed  by  sand. 

ASTRINGENTS  (Lat.  aetringcre,  to  bind), 
agents  which  have  the  power  to  contract  the 
animal  tissues,  diminish  the  amount  of  their 
fluids,  and  increase  their  density.  They  seem 
to  act  partly  by  a  direct  coagulation  of  albu- 
minous and  gelatinous  structures,  and  partly 
by  diminishing  the  size  of  the  blood  vessels  and 
consequently  the  amount  of  blood.  An  exam- 
ple of  the  first  mode  is  seen  in  the  formation 
of  leather  by  tanning,  which,  however,  is  a 
degree  of  action  far  beyond  what  can  take 
place  in  the  living  body.  Astringents  diminish 
both  the  absorbing  and  secreting  functions  of 
mucous  membranes,  and  coagulate  the  secre- 
tions already  formed.  They  excite  a  peculiar 
feeling  of  dryness  and  puckering  in  the  mouth. 
They  are  used  to  check  bleeding  and  excessive 
discharges  from  mucous  membranes,  to  pro- 
mote the  healing  of  ulcerated  surfaces,  and  to 
restore  lax  and  flabby  tissues  to  their  normal 
firmness.  Some  of  them  are  absorbed,  and, 
after  passing  through  the  blood,  are  excreted 
by  the  kidneys. — The  vegetable  astringents, 
nutgalls,  oak  and  hemlock  bark,  kino,  catechu, 
rhatany,  logwood,  crane's-bill,  ui-a  urti,  Tvin- 
tergreen,  and  a  large  number  of  others,  con- 
tain more  or  less  of  the  different  forms  of  tan- 
nic  and  gallic  acids.  The  chief  mineral  astrin- 
gents are  acetate  of  lead,  the  different  alums, 
persalts  of  iron,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  the  sul- 
phates of  copper  and  zinc.  Some  astringents, 
as  tannic  acid,  alum,  and  lead,  find  a  useful  ap- 
plication in  the  arts  of  dyeing  and  tanning. 

ASTROLOGY  (Gr.  aar/mv,  star  or  constellation, 
and  /Wyof,  discourse),  a  system  of  rules  for  dis- 
covering future  events  by  studying  the  positions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  was  received  for 
ages  as  a  science,  but  lias  now  lost  all  credit 
in  civilized  nations.  It  was  divided  into  two 
kinds :  judicial;  by  which  the  fate  and  acts  of 
men  and  nations  might  be  foreknown ;  and 
natural,  by  which  the  events  of  brute  and  in- 
animate nature,  such  as  the  changes  of  the 
weather,  &c.,  might  be  predicted.  The  etymo- 
logical meaning  of  the  word  astrology  is  almost 
the  same  as  that  of  astronomy ;  and  there  was 
no  clear  distinction  made  between  the  two 
branches  until  the  time  of  Galileo.  Previously, 
most  students  of  the  movements  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  had  been  more  or  less  astrologers. 
The  invention  of  the  telescope  and  the  gen- 
eral establishment  of  the  Copernican  system 


ASTRONOMY 


43 


first  gradually  displaced  astrology  for  the  ben- 
efit of  true  scientific  knowledge. — Astrology 
was  early  developed  in  Egypt,  but  chiefly 
flourished  in  Chaldea,  whose  "  star-gazers  and 
monthly  prognosticators  "  weVe  so  famous  that 
the  name  Ohaldee  came  to  be  used  as  identical 
with  astrologer,  not  only  in  the  Scriptures,  but 
also  by  the  classical  writers.  In  the  East  it  still 
has  its  votaries.  It  was  much  practised  in  im- 
perial Rome.  It  was  forbidden  by  Augustus, 
and  the  edict  was  often  reenacted  by  later  em- 
perors, but  was  apparently  not  much  regarded. 
The  Arabs  revived  astrology  with  astronomy. 
The  Moors  in  Spain  held  it  in  great  respect, 
and  by  their  influence  it  was  made  popular 
among  the  Gothic  nations  of  western  Europe. 
The  astronomical  tables  of  Alfonso  X.  in  the 
13th  century  were  in  great  part  intended  for 
astrological  purposes.  Astrology  continued  to 
increase  in  credit  till  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century,  was  still  practised  at  European  courts 
at  the  end  of  the  17th,  and  had  a  few  votaries' 
till  the  end  of  the  18th,  even  in  England.  It 
was  in  high  repute  at  the  court  of  Catharine 
de'  Medici ;  it  was  considered  a  science  even 
by  Kepler ;  and  Lilly,  the  last  of  the  famous  as- 
trologers, was  called  before  a  committee  of  the 
house  of  commons  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
to  give  his  opinion  of  future  events. — The  gen- 
eral method  of  procedure  in  finding  the  fate  of 
any  man  or  enterprise  was  to  draw  a  horo- 
scope, representing  the  position  of  the  stars 
and  planets,  either  in  the  whole  heaven,  or 
within  one  degree  above  the  eastern  horizon, 
at  the  time  of  birth  of  the  individual  or  the  in- 
ception of  the  undertaking.  Arbitrary  signifi- 
cations were  given  to  different  heavenly  bodies, 
as  they  appeared  singly  or  in  conjunction ;  and 
according  to  these  significations,  the  horoscope 
was  interpreted.  The  presence  of  Venus  fore- 
told love;  Mars,  war;  Jupiter,  power;  the 
Pleiades,  storms  at  sea,  &c.  The  system  of  a 
reputable  astrologer  in  the  16th  century  re- 
quired years  for  its  mastery ;  and  absurd  as  its 
fundamental  principles  now  appear,  its  details 
were  not  inconsistent  with  each  other,  and  the 
whole  system  has  a  completeness  which  ap- 
pears very  singular  in  a  scheme  so  visionary. 

ASTRONOMY  (Gr.  aarpov,  a  star,  and  v<i//oc, 
law),  the  science  which  deals  with  the  move- 
ments, distribution,  and  physical  character- 
istics of  the  heavenly  bodies.  That  astronomy 
is  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  sciences,  save 
agriculture,  can  scarcely  be  questioned.  In  the 
earliest  ages  men  must  have  required  measures 
of  time,  and  such  measures  could  only  be  ob- 
tained from  the  study  of  the  motions  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  celestial  bodies.  The  origin 
of  astronomy  has  been  referred  to  several 
nations.  The  evidence  in  favor  of  the  Chal- 
deans seems  on  the  whole  the  strongest.  We 
find  in  Ptolemy's  Almagest  the  records  of  ob- 
servations of  considerable  accuracy  made  at 
Babylon  at  a  very  early  epoch.  Some  of  the 
observations  which  were  transmitted  to  Aris- 
totle by  Callisthenes  were  made  about  2250 


years  B.  C.  The  Chaldean  investigations  of 
the  motions  of  the  moon  were  in  many  respects 
remarkable.  In  particular  their  invention  of 
the  saros  indicates  not  merely  very  accurate 
observation  and  a  careful  discussion  of  the  re- 
sults, but  considerable  ingenuity.  They  were 
also  acquainted  with  the  art  of  dialling;  they 
had  discovered  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  had  determined  the  length  of  the  tropical 
year  to  within  less  than  half  a  minute  of  its 
true  value.  There  are  even  reasons  for  believ- 
ing that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  true 
system  of  the  universe ;  and  we  learn  from 
Diodorus  Siculus  and  Apollonius  Myndius  that 
the  Chaldean  astronomers  regarded  comets  as 
bodies  travelling  in  extended  orbits,  and  even 
in  some  instances  predicted  the  return  of  these 
objects.  Indian  astronomy  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  by  any  means  so  accurate  as  that 
taught  by  the  Chaldeans.  The  Indian  system 
seems  indeed  to  have  belonged  to  a  more 
northerly  latitude  than  Benares,  the  chief  seat 
of  Hindoo  learning.  Accordingly  M.  Bailly 
was  led  to  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  system  to  a 
nation  which  had  inhabited  higher  latitudes; 
and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  invent  a  nation 
for  the  occasion,  the  Atlantides,  and  to  ascribe 
to  that  apocryphal  nation  a  wholly  incredible 
degree  of  learning.  It  may  be  inferred  that  the 
want  of  agreement  between  celestial  phenom- 
ena in  India  and  the  Indian  system  of  astron- 
omy, instead  of  justifying  M.  Bailly's  argument, 
shows  rather  that  the  Indian  astronomers 
were  but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  heavens.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  ac- 
cept the  opinion  of  Prof.  Smyth,  astronomer 
royal  for  Scotland,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
the  architects  of  the  great  pyramid,  were  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  facts  which  he  conceives 
to  have  been  symbolized  in  that  remarkable 
edifice.  That  the  pyramid  was  erected  for 
astronomical  purposes  may  be  admitted;  and 
we  may  accept  Prof.  Smyth's  conclusion  that 
the  building  of  the  pyramid  corresponded  to 
the  time  when  the  star  a  Draconis  at  its  upper 
transit  was  visible  (as  well  by  day  as  by  night) 
through  the  long  inclined  passage  which  forms 
one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  pyra- 
mid. This  would  set  the  epoch  about  the  year 
2170  B.  C.  And  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that, 
as  Prof.  Smyth  points  out,  the  Pleiades  were 
at  that  time  in  a  most  peculiar  position,  well 
worthy  of  being  monumentally  commemorated ; 
"  for  they  were  actually  at  the  commencing 
point  of  all  right  ascensions,  or  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  running  that  great  round  of  stellar 
chronological  mensuration  which  takes  25,868 
years  to  return  into  itself  again,  and  has 
been  called  elsewhere,  for  reasons  derived  from 
far  other  studies  than  anything  hitherto  con- 
nected with  the  great  pyramid,  the  'great 
year  of  the  Pleiades.' "  But  although  we  may 
thus  set  the  astronomical  system  of  the  early 
Egyptians  in  a  far  antiquity,  it  seems  unsafe 
to  follow  Smyth  in  believing  that  the  builders 
of  the  great  pyramid  were  acquainted  with 


44 


ASTRONOMY 


the  sun's  distance,  with  the  true  length  of  the 
precession  al  period,  and  with  other  astronomi- 
cal elements  the  discovery  of  which  has  re- 
warded the  exact  methods  and  the  profound 
mathematical  researches  of  modern  times. — As 
to  Chinese  astronomy,  we  have  abundant  evi- 
dence to  show  that  it  was  inexact,  though  un- 
doubtedly very  ancient.  Its  antiquity  may  be 
inferred  from  the  circumstance  that  the  em- 
peror Chwen-hio  adopted  as  an  epoch  a  con- 
junction of  the  planets  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn,  which  has  been  shown  by  M.  Bailly 
to  have  occurred  no  less  than  2449  years  B.  0. 
In  a  remarkable  work  on  the  subject  of  Chinese 
astronomy,  recently  published  by  Mr.  Williams, 
assistant  secretary  of  the  astronomical  society 
of  England,  we  are  told  that  the  instruments 
at  present  used  by  Chinese  astronomers,  as 
well  as  their  principal  methods  of  calculation, 
were  introduced  by  Jesuit  missionaries.  Yet 
the  ancient  Chinese  must  have  possessed  some 
familiarity  with  the  celestial  motions.  They 
could  calculate  eclipses ;.  .for  we  learn  that  "  in 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Chow-kang,  the  chief 
astronomers  Ho  and  Hi  were  condemned  to 
death  for  failing  to  announce  a  solar  eclipse 
which  took  place  21  69  B.  C. ; "  a  clear  proof 
that  the  prediction  of  eclipses  was  a  part  of  the 
duty  of  the  imperial  astronomers.  The  Chinese 
were  also  acquainted  with  the  Metonic  and 
Callippic  cycles. — The  earliest  Greek  school  of 
astronomy  was  that  founded  by  Thales  of  Mi- 
letus (600  B.  C.)  and  termed  the  Ionian  school. 
Thales  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
the  motions  of  the  sun  and  moon,  with  the  ex- 

Elanation  of  seasonal  changes,  and  with  the 
sngth  of  the  year.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
taught  mariners  to  regard  the  Lesser  Bear 
rather  than  the  Greater  as  the  polar  constel- 
lation; but  Manilius  ascribes  the  selection  of 
the  Lesser  Bear  as  the  cynosure  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians. To  Pythagoras,  who  also  belonged  to 
the  Ionian  school,  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
theory  of  the  earth  has  been  ascribed,  though 
on  insufficient  grounds.  According  to  the 
statement  of  his  pupil  Philolaus,  he  taught  that 
"  the  earth  and  planets  move  in  oblique  circles 
(or  ellipses)  about  fire,  as  the  sun  and  moon  do  " 
— a  statement  which  certainly  does  not  as  it 
stands  indicate  exact  knowledge  respecting  the 
constitution  of  the  solar  system.  Nicetas  of 
Syracuse  is  said  in  like  manner  to  have  taught 
that  the  diurnal  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies 
are  caused  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon 
her  axis.  'Theophrastus,"  says  Cicero,  "nar- 
rates that  Nicetas  of  Syracuse  held  that  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  are  at  rest,  and  the  earth 
alone  moves,  turning  about  its  axis,  by  which 
the  same  phenomena  are  produced  as  if  the 
contrary  were  the  case."  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus 
first  endeavored  to  explain  the  looped  paths  of 
the  planets,  solving  the  problem  by  the  inven- 
tion of  the  theory  of  concentric  spheres. — But 
it  was  by  the  Alexandrian  school,  founded 
under  the  Ptolemies,  that  exact  and  systematic 
observation  of  the  celestial  bodies  was  first 


undertaken.  Hipparchns  of  Nictea  (160  B.  C.) 
surpassed  all  the  astronomers  of  antiquity  in 
skill  and  acumen.  He  made  the  first  catalogue 
of  the  stars,  and  was  the  first  to  calculate  the 
motions  of  the  sun  and  moon.  He  also  made  a 
series  of  observations  of  the  planets,  and  rep- 
resented their  motions  by  the  famous  theory 
of  epicycles — a  theory  which,  though  unsound, 
was  in  so  far  in  advance  of  previous  ideas,  that 
it  was  intended  to  be  brought  into  comparison 
with  the  real  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies. 
Hipparchus  also  invented  plane  and  spherical 
trigonometry.  Ptolemy  is  another  distinguished 
member  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  Some  of 
the  theories  and  observations  which  have  been 
ascribed  to  him  were  indeed  due  to  the  labors 
of  Hipparchus.  Thus  the  Ptolemaic  system 
of  astronomy  was  wholly  based  on  the  theories 
of  his  predecessor ;  and  the  star  places  indi- 
cated in  his  works  seem  to  have  been  simply 
deduced  from  Hipparchus's  catalogue  of  1,081 
stars  by  introducing  a  correction  for  precession. 
Yet  Ptolemy's  labors  were  unquestionably  im- 
portant. He  detected  the  inequality  in  the 
moon's  motions  called  the  evection,  and  was 
the  first  to  recognize  the  effect  of  refraction  in 
altering  the  apparent  places  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  His  work,  the  Almagest  (or  the  Syn- 
taxis),  contains  nearly  all  that  we  know  of 
the  astronomy  of  the  ancients.  The  school  of 
Alexandria  ceased  to  exist  when  Egypt  was 
invaded  and  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans, 
and  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  library  de- 
stroyed, in  the  7th  century.  The  Arabians, 
however,  formed  no  contemptible  astronomers. 
They  even  surpassed  the  Greeks  in  the  depart- 
ment of  practical  astronomy ;  and  they  handed 
down  to  the  Europeans  the  system  which  they 
had  derived  from  their  predecessors. — In  the 
13th  century  European  astronomy  may  be  said 
to  have  had  its  origin  or  revival,  though  nearly 
two  centuries  elapsed  before  any  important 
advance  was  effected.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
15th  century  the  labors  of  Purbach  and  Regio- 
montanus  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  of 
Copernicus,  the  founder  of  the  true  system  of 
astronomy;  while  Waltherus  revived  the  art 
of  astronomical  observation,  and  thus  indi- 
rectly supplied  the  means  of  establishing  the 
theories  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  and  Newton. 
Copernicus  (born  in  1473)  found  that  by  pla- 
cing the  sun  instead  of  the  earth  at  the  centre 
of  the  scheme,  there  resulted  a  simple  and 
rational  explanation  of  all  the  chief  motions 
of  the  planets.  He  was  not  able  to  show, 
however,  that  the  epicycles  of  Hipparchus  and 
Ptolemy  could  be  wholly  removed.  According- 
ly, many  astronomers,  who  might  have  been 
attracted  to  the  Copernican  system  if  it  could 
have  been  presented  as  it  is  known  in  our  day, 
were  found  in  the  ranks  of  its  opponents. 
Among  these  was  Tycho  Brahe,  the  Dane, 
who  pointed  out  that  the  apparent  fixity  of 
the  stars  is  opposed  to  the  Copernican  theory, 
unless  the  distances  of  all  the  stars  be  assumed 
to  exceed  enormously  the  distance  of  the  earth 


ASTRONOMY 


45 


from  the  sun.  He  therefore  adopted  a  modifi- 
cation of  a  system  once  held  by  the  Egyptians, 
regarding  the  earth  as  the  centre  around  which 
the  sun  revolves,  while  the  j>laiiets  revolve 
around  the  sun  as  a  subordinate  centre.  Al- 
though this  was  a  retrogression,  astronomy 
owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Tycho  Brahe  for 
the  observations  by  which  lie  endeavored  to 
put  the  Copernican  theory  to  the  test.  His 
observations  of  Mars,  in  particular,  enabled 
Kepler  to  remove  for  ever  from  astronomy  the 
cycles  and  epicycles,  centrics  and  eccentrics  of 
the  old  systems.  Endeavoring  to  explain  the 
motions  of  Mars  on  the  Copernican  theory, 
Kepler  found  himself  baffled  so  long  as  he  ad- 
hered to  circular  and  uniform  motions  so  com- 
bined as  to  produce  epicyclic  paths.  He  was 
thus  led  to  try  whether  the  ellipse  would  bet- 
ter explain  the  movements  of  Mars.  After 
long  and  patient  study  ho  was  able  in  1609  to 
establish  his  first  two  laws,  and  nine  years  later 
his  third  law.  The  three  laws  are  as  follows: 
1.  Every  planet  describes  an  ellipse  about  the 
sun,  this  orb  occupying  one  focus  of  each  such 
ellipse.  2.  If  a  line  be  supposed  continually 
drawn  from  the  sun  to  any  given  planet,  this 
line  will  sweep  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 
3.  The  squares  of  the  periodic  times  of  the 
planets  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their 
mean  distances.  In  the  mean  time  the  telescope 
had  been  invented,  and  when  less  than  one 
year  had  passed  after  the  publication  of  the 
first  two  laws  of  Kepler,  Galileo  had  made  a 
series  of  observations  tending  to  illustrate  if 
not  even  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  the  Co- 
pernican system.  In  particular  his  discovery 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  the  recognition 
of  the  motions  of  these  orbs  around  their  pri- 
mary, was  felt  even  by  the  enemies  of  the  new 
theory  to  be  strikingly  in  its  favor.  Here  was 
a  system  in  which  the  motions  of  the  earth 
and  planets  around  the  sun  seemed  pictured  in 
miniature.  The  discovery  of  the  phases  of  Ve- 
nus was  also  regarded  as  a  serious  blow  to  the 
Ptolemaic  system.  The  invention  of  the  tele- 
scope supplied  also  the  means  of  determining 
the  places  and  therefore  the  motions  of  the 
celestial  bodies  with  a  degree  of  accuracy 
which  had  hitherto  been  unattainable.  He- 
velius  indeed  endeavored  to  make  a  stand 
against  the  innovation,  adhering  until  the  end 
of  his  career  to  the  methods  used  by  the  an- 
cients. But  gradually  the  telescope  prevailed, 
and  the  way  was  thus  prepared  for  the  re- 
searches of  Newton,  whose  discovery  of  the 
law  of  gravitation  would  never  have  been  ad- 
mitted but  for  the  evidence  in  its  favor  attained 
by  means  of  telescopic  observations.  In  par- 
ticular, the  measurement  of  the  earth's  dimen- 
sions with  the  requisite  accuracy  could  not 
have  been  accomplished  without  telescopic  ob- 
servations of  star  places ;  and  Newton  would 
have  been  unable  to  show  that  the  moon  is  re- 
tained in  her  orbit  by  the  same  force  which 
draws  objects  to  the  earth's  surface,  had  not 
accurate  measurements  of  the  earth  been  ob- 


tained by  Picard.  We  know  in  fact  that  New- 
ton was  led  by  erroneous  ideas  of  the  earth's 
dimensions  to  abandon  the  theory  of  gravita- 
tion for  nearly  20  years.  Returning  to  his  re- 
searches in  1680,  when  news  of  Picard's  results 
had  reached  him,  Newton  was  able  to  establish 
the  theory  of  gravitation  on  a  firm  and  stable 
basis.  He  showed  that  the  moon  is  drawn  to 
the  earth  by  terrestrial  gravity,  diminished  at 
the  moon's  distance  in  the  same  degree  that 
the  square  of  that  distance  exceeds  the  dis- 
tance of  points  on  the  earth's  surface  from  the 
earth's  centre.  He  proved  that  when  the  force 
of  attraction  diminishes  according  to  the  law 
of  the  inverse  square,  the  attracted  body  will 
obey  all  the  laws  of  Kepler  in  its  motions 
around  the  attracting  orb.  Then  he  extended 
his  inquiries  to  the  mutual  perturbations  of 
bodies  so  moving.  Taking  the  moon  as  an  in- 
stance of  the  effects  of  perturbation,  he  showed 
how  several  peculiarities  in  her  motions  which 
had  hitherto  seemed  inexplicable  are  caused  by 
the  sun's  perturbing  action  on  the  moon,  that 
is,  by  the  excess  or  defect  of  his  action  on  the 
moon  in  different  parts  of  her  orbit,  as  com- 
pared with  his  action  on  the  earth.  Pursuing 
his  researches,  he  showed  how  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes  can  be  accounted  for  by  the 
law  of  gravitation ;  he  formed  and  discussed 
two  theories  of  the  tides ;  he  solved  the  prob- 
lem presented  by  the  oblateness  of  the  earth's 
figure.  Half  a  century  passed  before  any  at- 
tempts were  made  to  extend  the  reasoning  of 
the  Principia,  or  to  develop  the  views  of  its 
author.  During  this  half  century  British 
mathematicians  were  chiefly  engaged  in  de- 
fending, continental  mathematicians  in  attack- 
ing, the  principle  of  universal  gravitation. 
But  in  1745  Euler  and  Clairaut  began  to  ap- 
ply the  new  methods  of  mathematical  anal- 
ysis to  the  problems  discussed  by  Newton. 
Clairaut  succeeded  in  explaining  the  lunar 
evection,  which  had  foiled  Newton ;  and  this 
success  encouraged  continental  astronomers  to 
devote  their  powers  to  the  investigation  of  the 
problems  presented  by  the  celestial  motions. 
They  mastered  one  after  another  the  difficulties 
of  the  lunar  and  planetary  perturbations.  The 
analytical  researches  of  Lagrange  and  Laplace, 
and  in  particular  the  discovery  (independently 
made  by  both)  of  the  great  laws  on  which  the 
stability  of  the  planetary  system  depends,  are 
only  inferior  to  the  discovery  of  the  law  of 
gravitation  itself  in  interest  and  importance. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  of  these  two 
geometers  displayed  the  greater  powers  of 
analytical  research.  If  the  genius  of  Lagrange 
was  the  more  profound,  yet  Laplace's  labors 
led  to  more  important  practical  results,  and  in 
discovering  the  real  interpretation  of  the  "  long 
inequality  "  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  he  mastered  a 
problem  which  had  foiled  his  great  rival.  Yet 
another  noble  achievement  of  Laplace's  must 
be  mentioned — hJs  interpretation  of  the  secu- 
lar acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean  motion. 
In  recent  times  it  has  been  shown  indeed  by 


ASTRONOMY 


Adams  that  Laplace's  investigation  of  the  sub- 
ject was  imperfect ;  yet  undoubtedly  he  placed 
his  finger  on  the  true  cause  of  that  part  of  the 
acceleration  which  is  due  to  the  ordinary  forms 
of  perturbation,  nor  has  the  cause  of  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  moon's  acceleration  been 
hitherto  ascertained.  Finally,  we  may  regard 
the  publication  of  his  Mecanique  celeste  as  form- 
ing a  veritable  epoch  in  the  history  of  physical 
astronomy.  Passing  over  many  important  con- 
tributions to  the  theory  of  gravitation,  we  may 
point  to  the  achievement  of  Adams  and  Lever- 
rier  in  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune  as 
perhaps  the  most  conclusive  of  the  evidences 
yet  adduced  in  support  of  Newton's  theory. 
A  planet  hitherto  unseen  was  made  known  to 
us,  not  as  in  the  case  of  Uranus  by  a  happy 
chance,  but  by  a  study  of  the  deviations  of  a 
known  planet  from  the  path  calculated  for  it 
by  mathematicians.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
discovery  of  Neptune  led  to  the  recognition 
of  the  mastery  which  American  astronomers 
and  mathematicians  had  obtained  over  the 
more  recondite  departments  of  analysis.  It  has 
been  remarked  by  Prof.  Grant  of  Glasgow 
that  "the  results  which  have  been  deduced 
from  Bond's  observations  of  the  satellite  of 
Neptune,  and  the  mathematical  researches  of 
Walker  and  Peirce,  unquestionably  exhibit  a 
degree  of  consistency  with  the  actual  observa- 
tions of  Uranus  and  Neptune  which  has  not  been 
paralleled  by  any  similar  efforts  in  Europe; 
while  at  the  same  time  they  tend  to  throw 
much  interesting  light  on  the  theory  of  both 
planets."  Among  the  more  recent  contribu- 
tions to  the  mathematics  of  astronomy  must  be 
mentioned  Adams's  discussion  of  the  moon's 
secular  acceleration  and  the  researches  to 
which  that  discussion  led,  Delaunay's  exten- 
sion of  the  lunar  theory,  and  the  inquiries  of 
Prof.  Newcomb  into  the  same  subject. — 
While  mathematical  astronomy  had  been  thus 
advancing,  observational  astronomy  made  sim- 
ilar progress.  The  discovery  of  Saturn's  ring 
and  largest  satellite  by  Huyghens  was  soon 
followed  by  the  discovery  of  four  other  satel- 
lites. Later  Sir  W.  Herschel  discovered  two 
other  Saturnian  satellites,  while  in  compara- 
tively recent  times  Bond  in  America  and  Las- 
sell  in  England  discovered  an  eighth.  Uranus 
was  added  to  the  planetary  system  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel  in  1781,  and  at  sundry  times  fourUra- 
nian  satellites  have  since  been  discovered,  while 
four  others  are  by  some  supposed  to  have  been 
seen  by  Sir  W.  Herschel.  Neptune  and  his 
satellite  constitute  two  other  known  members 
of  the  planetary  scheme.  But  to  these  must 
be  added  130  small  planets  (see  ASTEROIDS) 
which  travel  between  the  paths  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter ;  while  the  observations  and  researches 
of  Bond  and  Peirce  in  America  and  Maxwell 
in  England  tend  to  show  that  the  rings  of 
Saturn  are  composed  of  multitudinous  small 
satellites.  Apart  from  these'  discoveries,  the 
complexity  of  the  scheme  ruled  over  by  the 
sun  has  been  indicated  by  the  discovery 


of  the  fact  that  multitudes  of  meteoric  sys- 
tems exist  within  the  confines  of  the  solar 
domain,  and  that  the  component  members  of 
these  systems  must  be  counted  by  millions. 
The  recent  observations  of  Profs.  Newton  and 
Kirkwood  in  the  United  States,  Prof.  Alex- 
ander Herschel  and  Mr.  Glaisher  in  England, 
Quetelet  in  Belgium,  Schmidt  in  Athens,  Heis 
in  Germany,  and  Secchi  in  Rome,  have  added 
largely  to  our  knowledge  respecting  meteors ; 
while  the  mathematical  researches  of  Schiapa- 
relli,  Adams,  Leverrier,  and  others,  have  re- 
vealed the  interesting  fact  that  these  bodies 
are  intimately  associated  with  comets. — The 
telescopic  study  of  the  starry  depths,  though  it 
has  been  prosecuted  laboriously  by  the  Her- 
schels,  Struve,  Argelander,  Madler,  and  others, 
must  be  regarded  as  still  (owing  to  the  vastness 
of  the  domain  to  be  explored)  in  its  infancy. 
The  elder  Herschel  first  conceived  the  daring 
idea  of  gauging  the  celestial  depths ;  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  regions  surveyed  by  the 
two  Herschels  amount  to  but  a  minute  portion 
of  the  heavens.  On  the  other  hand,  though 
Argelander's  survey  extended  over  a  complete 
hemisphere,  yet  the  telescopic  power  employed 
was  but  small.  Dr.  Gould,  an  American  astron- 
omer, is  extending  Argelander's  system  of  sur- 
vey to  the  southern  heavens ;  and  the  result  can- 
not fail  to  be  of  the  utmost  interest  and  value. 
We  owe  to  the  Herschels  nearly  all  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  strange  objects  called  nebulas 
or  star  cloudlets.  Of  these  only  16  were  known 
in  Halley's  time,  and  barely  200  when  Sir  W. 
Herschel  began  his  telescopic  labors.  He  and 
his  son  added  between  them  nearly  5,000  neb- 
ulae to  the  list  of  known  objects  of  this  class. 
At  present  some  5,700  nebula?  are  known  in 
all. — The  theoretical  considerations  by  which 
the  Herschels  have  endeavored  to  interpret  the 
scheme  of  the  universe  are  too  important  to 
pass  unnoticed  in  this  brief  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  astronomy.  They  have  presented  the 
galaxy  to  our  contemplation  as  a  scheme  of 
suns,  many  equalling  and  many  surpassing  our 
own  sun  in  magnitude  and  splendor,  while  they 
have  taught  that  many  of  the  star  cloudlets 
are  schemes  of  suns  resembling  the  galaxy  in 
extent  and  constitution.  If  some,  as  Whewell, 
Herbert  Spencer,  and  others,  do  not  regard 
these  views  as  demonstrated  or  even  demon- 
strable, yet  we  cannot  but  contemplate  with 
admiration  the  activity  of  mind  which  enabled 
the  Herschels,  after  completing  unrivalled  series 
of  observational  researches,  to  propound  theo- 
ries so  magnificent  respecting  the  myriads  of 
orbs  which  they  had  examined. — The  spectro- 
scopic  analysis  of  the  sun  and  other  celestie? 
bodies,  in  the  hands  of  Kirchhoff,  Huggins, 
Young,  Secchi,  Zollner,  Lockyer,  and  Respighi, 
has  revealed  many  facts  of  importance.  It  has 
been  shown  that  in  the  sun  many  of  our  famil- 
iar elements  exist  in  the  form  of  vapor.  In 
the  planetary  atmospheres  known  vapors,  and 
especially  the  vapor  of  water,  have  been  de- 
tected. The  stars  have  been  proved  to  bo 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTUEIAS 


suns,  many  closely  resembling  our  sun  in  ele- 
mentary constitution,  others  formed  very  dif- 
ferently, but  all  incandescent  orbs  as  he  is,  and 
surrounded  by  the  glowing  vaftors  of  many  ele- 
mentary substances.  The  application  of  the 
analysis  to  nebulae  has  led  to  the  surprising  dis- 
covery that  while  many  of  these  objects  shine 
with  a  light  resembling  that  of  our  own  sun, 
so  that  they  may  be  considered  to  be  formed 
by  the  aggregation  together  of  many  stars, 
others  consist  almost  wholly  of  glowing  gas, 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  forming  their  chief  con- 
stituent elements.  The  observations  of  recent 
solar  eclipses  have  been  rewarded  by  many 
interesting  discoveries  respecting  the  physical 
constitution  of  the  sun,  the  colored  prominences 
surrounding  him,  and  the  corona  which  lies  be- 
yond the  prominences.  In  these  discoveries, 
Huggins,  Young,  Janssen,  Lockyer,  Eespighi, 
and  Secchi  have  borne  the  principal  part. 
The  progress  of  practical  astronomy,  and  par- 
ticularly the  application  of  the  telescope  to 
the  determination  of  the  exact  position  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  has  proceeded  pari  passu  with 
the  progress  of  mathematical  analysis  and  di- 
rect telescopic  observation.  The  invention  of 
the  equatorial,  the  transit  instrument,  the  mu- 
ral circle,  and  other  instruments  of  exact  obser- 
vation, belongs  to  the  comparatively  early  his- 
tory of  modern  astronomy.  In  the  present 
day  these  instruments  are  constructed  with  a 
degree  of  perfection,  and  with  a  multiplicity  of 
contrivances  for  improving  their  performance 
or  extending  their  application,  which  are  truly 
surprising.  Nor  have  the  achievements  of  in- 
strumental astronomy  fallen  short  of  the  prom- 
ise afforded  by  the  qualities  of  the  instruments. 
It  would  be  sufficient  to  point  out  that  the 
telescope  has  revealed  the  greater  number  of 
those  minute  inequalities  of  planetary  motion 
which  have  afforded  the  material  for  the  ana- 
lytical researches  above  referred  to;  but  we 
may  add  that  we  owe  to  the  telescope  the 
recognition  of  the  aberration  of  light,  the  dis- 
covery of  the  proper  motions  of  the  stars,  the 
determination  of  the  sun's  distance,  and  the 
partial  solution  of  the  most  difficult  problem 
yet  attacked  by  astronomers,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  distances  of  the  stars.  Lastly, 
the  spectroscope  promises  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  instrumental  researches,  since 
already  it  has  been  applied  to  the  determi- 
nation of  the  velocity  with  which  stars  are 
approaching  us  or  receding  from  us,  and  to 
the  measurement  of  movements  taking  place 
within  the  solar  atmospheric  envelopes. — For 
a  popular  view  of  astronomy,  Sir  John  Her- 
schers  "Outlines"  may  be  recommended;  and 
full  details  respecting  practical  astronomy  will 
be  found  in  the  treatise  on  that  subject  by  Prof. 
Loomis  of  New  York,  justly  described  by  Prof. 
Nichol  as  "the  best  work  of  the  kind  in  the 
English  language."  A  thorough  knowledge  of 
physical  astronomy  would  require  an  acquaint- 
ance with  such  works  as  Laplace's  Mecanique 
celeste,  translated  by  Bowditch,  Gauss's  The- 
66  VOL.  ii. — 4 


oria  Motus  Corporum  Ccelestium,  translated  by 
Admiral  C.  H.  Davis,  U.  S.  N.  (Boston,  1858), 
Delambre's  Astronomie,  orPeirue's  "Analytical 
Mechanics "  and  "Celestial  Mechanics."  For 
the  history  of  astronomy,  see  Whewell's  "  His- 
tory of  the  Inductive  Sciences,"  Grant's  "His- 
tory of  Physical  Astronomy,"  Jahn's  Geschichte 
der  Astronomic,  and  Delambre's  Histoire  de 
Vastronomie.  For  full  information  concern- 
ing the  modern  history  of  astronomy,  Zach's 
Monatliche  Correspondenz,  Lindenau's  Zeit- 
sclirift,  Schumacher's  AstronomucJie  NacJiricJi- 
ten,  continued  by  Dr.  Peterson,  and  Gould's 
"  Astronomical  Journal "  (Boston)  must  be 
consulted;  also,  the  French  Connaissances  des 
temps,  which  contain  Leverrier's  discussions 
that  led  to  the  discovery  of  Neptune,  the  Berlin 
Jahrbuch,  the  Milan  Effemeridi,  and  the  Amer- 
ican "  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac." 

ASTRIIC,  Jean,  a  French  physician,  born  at 
Sauve,  March  19,  1684,  died  May  5,  1766.  He 
was  a  graduate  and  became  a  professor  of  the 
medical  college  of  Montpellier  as  a  substitute 
of  Chirac,  on  whose  death  he  succeeded  him  in 
the  professorship,  after  having  filled  for  some 
time  the.  chair  of  anatomy  in  Toulouse.  In 
1730  he  became  regent  and  professor  of  the 
faculty  of  medicine  at  Paris,  and  was  also  phy- 
sician to  the  king.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  De  Morlis  Venereis  Libri  sex  (2d  ed.,  2 
vols.,  1740;  translated  into  French  and  other 
languages) ;  and  he  was  regarded  as  a  high 
authority  on  venereal  and  female  diseases  and 
obstetrics,  though  he  excelled  rather  by  his 
prodigious  memory  than  by  inventive  genius. 
Among  his  many  other  writings  are  Traite  des 
maladies  des  femmei  (6  vols.,  1761— '5),  and  a 
posthumous  work,  ISart  d'aeeoucher  reduit  a 
ses  principes  (1  vol.,  1768). 

ASTIJRIAS,  a  former  province  of  N.  W.  Spain, 
bordering  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  bearing  the 
title  of  principality,  and  still  commonly  known 
by  its  ancient  name,  although  since  1833  it 
constitutes  the  province  of  Oviedo ;  area,  4,088 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  588,031.  The  surface  is 
irregular  and  hilly,  the  country  being  intersect- 
ed by  offshoots  of  the  Cantabrian  mountains, 
a  chain  varying  in  height  from  6,000  to  10,000 
feet.  The  scenery  is  picturesque  and  wild,  and 
the  coast  is  almost  everywhere  bold  and  high. 
The  rivers  are  few  and  generally  unimportant, 
the  Nalon  being  the  chief.  The  province  is 
rich  in  coal,  and  in  the  north  many  mines  are 
worked ;  the  coal  is  shipped  from  Aviles  and 
Gijon.  Maize,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  fruits  are 
the  chief  productions.  The  horses  of  Asturias 
are  celebrated  for  strength  and  endurance. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  simple  habits,  retaining 
many  old  Spanish  customs  and  peculiarities  of 
dress  that  have  elsewhere  disappeared.  They 
are  proud  of  the  freedom  of  their  race  from  the 
admixture  of  Jewish  and  Arab  blood  found  in 
the  other  provinces,  and  affect  a  superiority  to 
other  Spaniards.  The  herdsmen  (raqueros) 
among  them  form  a  separate  and  nomadic  class, 
spending  the  winter  on  the  coast  and  the  sum- 


ASTYAGES 


ASUNCION 


mer  in  the  mountains.^Astnrias  is  famous  in 
Spanish  history  as  the  refuge  and  stronghold  to 
which  the  Christian  Visigoths  and  their  lead- 
ers fled  when  the  Moors  had  gained  possession 
of  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  and  had 
routed  the  Christian  army  in  the  battle  of  the 
Guadalete,  in  711.  The  Christians  held  the 
province  until,  under  the  leadership  of  Pelayo, 
they  gained  a  victory  in  718,  and,  aided  by 
the  Prankish  successes  elsewhere,  gradually 
drove  back  the  Moors.  Pelayo  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Asturias,  over  which  he  and  his 
descendants  ruled  till  757,  after  which  they 
were  called  kings  of  Oviedo.  In  914  the  court 
was  transferred  to  Leon,  that  large  district 
having  been  generally  freed  from  Moorish 
rule  and  joined  with  Asturias.  The  title  king 
of  Leon  was  now  borne  by  the  reigning  sover- 
eign, and  the  history  of  Asturias  became  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  larger  territory.  The 
title  of  prince  of  Asturias  was  created  for  the 
Spanish  heir  apparent  by  John  I.  in  1388,  at  the 
wish  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  whose  daughter 
the  prince  was  about  to  marry ;  and  the  crown 
prince  of  Spain  was  thus  designated  until  the 
expulsion  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1868. 

ASTYAGES,  son  of  Cyaxares,  the  last  king  of 
Media  and  grandfather  of  Cyrus,  by  whom,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  he  was  dethroned  after  a 
reign  of  35  years  (594-559  B.  0.).  (See  CYRUS.) 

ASliAY,  or  A/,n:iy,  the  largest  of  the  three 
departments  of  Ecuador,  occupying  the  whole 
eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  country, 
between  lat.  1°  N.  and  5°  S.,  and  Ion.  68°  and 
80°  W. ;  area,  about  200,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
250,000.  In  the  western  portion  is  an  ele- 
vated desert,  called  the  Paramo  or  desert  of 
Asuay,  being  a  plateau  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  Andes  by  two  chains  of  mountains 
running  E.  and  W.  The  eastern  parts,  however, 


are  fertile,  being  well  watered  by  the  Napo, 
Putumayo,  and  other  affluents  of  the  Amazon  ; 
and  the  inhabitants  here  are  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture and  cattle  breeding.  On  the  edges  of  the 
western  table  land  grow  cinchona  trees,  whose 
bark  forms  one  of  the  few  exports  of  the  coun- 
try. The  principal  towns  are  Cuenca  and  Loja. 
ASUNCION,  \ ni'slra  Sefiora  de  la  Asuncion,  or  As- 
sumption, the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Paraguay, 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  river  Paraguay,  in  lat. 
25°  16'  S.,  Ion.  57°  42'  W.,  650  m.  N.  of  Buenos 
Ayres ;  pop.  in  1857,  including  suburbs,  48,000. 
It  was  founded  in  1536  by  Juan  de  Ayolas,  and 
until  1620  was  the  capital  of  all  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  streets  are 
regularly  laid  out,  but  unpaved,  and  only  a  few 
of  them  have  narrow  flagged  sidewalks.  The 
dwellings  are  mostly  of  a  single  story,  the  bet- 
ter class  built  of  adobes,  with  tiled  roofs  and 
projecting  eaves.  In  building  the  ordinary 
nouses,  posts  are  driven  into  the  ground  to 
support  the  beams  and  rafters,  then  strips  of 
bamboo  are  placed  transversely,  and  the  whole 
chinked  and  plastered  with  mud.  The  finest  pub- 
lic building  is  the  cathedral,  rebuilt  in  1842-'5. 
There  are  two  other  churches,  in  one  of  which 
the  dictator  Francia  was  buried,  but  one  night 
his  monument  was  destroyed,  and  his  bones 
removed,  no  one  knows  whither.  The  cahildo 
or  city  hall,  in  which  the  congress  meets,  is  a 
respectable  structure;  the  government  palace 
is  a  building  of  one  story  with  a  double  front 
and  portico.  There  is  a  stone  quay  bordering 
the  river,  upon  which  stand  the  arsenal  and 
some  workshops,  mainly  for  ship  building.  The 
principal  suburbs  are  La  Eecoleta  and  Lam- 
barfi,  where  are  the  cemeteries ;  but  until  re- 
cently the  dead  were  buried  in  the  churches. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  although  in  summer  the 
thermometer  frequently  rises  above  100°.  In 


I      _- 


Asuncion 


ASYLUM 


ATAOAMA 


49 


the  neighborhood  are  many  pleasant  residences. 
Asuncion  is  connected  by  railway  with  Villa 
Rica,  about  145  in.  distant,  and  is  favorably 
situated  for  commerce  with  tBre  interior  and 
upon  the  river.  The  population  has,  like  that 
of  all  Paraguay,  suffered  much  diminution  in 
consequence  of  the  war  of  1865-'70  with  Bra- 
zil, the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  Uruguay, 
shortly  before  the  close  of  which  the  allied 
forces  took  possession  of  the  city. 

ASYLUM  (Gr.  aavtov),  formerly,  a  place  of 
refuge,  from  which  persons  who  fled  to  it  could 
not  be  taken  without  sacrilege.  The  Jew- 
ish cities  of  refuge  established  by  Moses  and 
Joshua  are  the  earliest  examples  of  the  cus- 
tom of  which  we  possess  historical  evidence. 
These  were  six  in  number,  three  on  each  side 
of  the  Jordan.  There  the  involuntary  homi- 
cide might  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  rela- 
tives of  the  deceased.  In  Greece,  the  temples, 
groves,  altars,  and  sometimes  the  precincts  of 
the  temple,  were  asylums  to  men  convicted  or 
indicted  for  civil  or  criminal  offences.  Yet  it 
was  lawful  to  surround  the  temple,  and  let  the 
fugitive  die  of  hunger,  and  even  in  some  cases 
to  set  fire  to  the  building.  In  the  later  days 
of  Rome,  the  eagles  of  the  legions,  and  the  stat- 
ues and  palaces  of  the  emperors,  were  also 
asylums.  The  strongest  religious  sanction  was 
thrown  around  these  places  of  refuge.  In- 
solvent debtors  and  runaway  slaves  resorted 
to  them  in  great  numbers.  As  law  became 
more  powerful  under  the  Roman  government, 
these  asylums  came  to  be  regarded  as  nui- 
sances; and  at  last  an  edict  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius  swept  most  of  them  away,  both  legal 
and  pretended.  With  the  barbarian  incursions 
in  the  East  and  West,  the  necessity  for  asy- 
lums again  arose.  The  new  right  of  asylum 
fell  to  the  churches.  Under  Constantino  the 
Great,  all  Christian  churches  were  asylums ;  the 
younger  Theodosius  extended  the  privilege  to 
all  courts,  gardens,  walks,  and  houses  belonging 
to  the  church.  The  Franks  in  France  and  the 
Visigoths  in  Spain  permitted  it.  Many  of  the 
popes  favored  this  right.  All  convents,  and 
even  bishops'  houses,  became  asylums.  Opposed 
to  the  right  were  the  temporal  lords,  whose 
jurisdiction  was  curtailed  by  the  asylums. 
Several  popes,  in  particular  Gregory  XIV.  and 
Benedict  XIII.,  restricted  the  right  as  nar- 
rowly as  possible.  All  highway  robbers,  vol- 
untary homicides,  horse  or  sheep  stealers,  pro- 
fessional thieves,  heretics  under  inquisition 
process,  those  who  laid  violent  hands  on  nobles, 
forgers,  false  coiners,  and  duellists,  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  privilege.  In  Germany,  where 
the  temporal  power  was  strong,  the  right 
of  asylum  was  never  very  effective.  Some- 
times, however,  the  German  barons  would 
themselves  set  up  the  right  of  asylum  in  their 
castles.  The  German  emperors  never  regard- 
ed the  ecclesiastical  asylum,  and  it  was  entire- 
ly swept  away  by  the  Protestant  princes.  In 
England,  in  1487,  the  right  was  for  the  first  time 
restrained  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Innocent  VIII. 


In  1534,  after  the  reformation  had  commenced, 
persons  accused  of  treason  were  debarred  the 
right  of  sanctuary,  which  word  is  more  com- 
monly used  in  English  law  than  asylum,  and 
hence  the  phrase,  "to  take  sanctuary,"  is 
equivalent  to  take  refuge.  In  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  the  right  of  asylum  was  de- 
nied to  all  criminals,  but  reserved  to  debtors. 
In  1697  the  right  of  asylum  was  at  length  taken 
away  from  insolvent  debtors.  To  Macduff,  thane 
of  Fife,  who  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of 
Macbeth,  and  to  his  descendants,  was  given  by 
Malcom  Kenmore,  on  the  recovery  of  the  throne 
of  his  ancestors,  the  privilege  for  any  one  of 
the  clan  Macduff  who  committed  unpremedi- 
tated homicide,  to  have  his  punishment  remit- 
ted for  a  fine,  payable  to  the  injured  family,  if 
he  could  get  safe  to  Macduff's  cross,  which 
stood  in  Fifeshire.  Many  similar  privileges  were 
granted  by  charter  in  Scotland.  To  this  day, 
Holyrood  palace,  as  an  ancient  royal  residence, 
continues  to  retain  this  right  with  respect  to 
the  persons  of  debtors.  The  boundaries  of 
this  place  of  refuge  are  liberal ;  the  debtors 
find  lodgings  in  a  short  street,  the  privileged 
part  of  which  is  divided  from  the  unprivileged 
by  a  gutter  running  across  it.  This  is  the  only 
existing  sanctuary  in  the  British  empire.  In 
the  United  States  of  America,  no  civil  or  eccle- 
siastical asylum  ever  existed.  The  right  of 
asylum  endured  longest  in  Italy,  and  was  first 
put  an  end  to  by  the  French  occupation  at  the 
end  of  the  last  century.  The  houses  of  the 
clergy  and  graveyards  became  asylums  in  Italy 
in  course  of  time ;  and  the  houses  of  the  car- 
dinals at  Rome  had  this  privilege,  at  least  in 
theory,  as  long  as  the  temporal  power  lasted. 

ASYMPTOTE,  a  line  (straight  or  curved)  tan- 
gent to  a  curve,  but  having  its  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  curve  at  an  infinite  distance.  If 
a  weight  were  hung  upon  a  cord,  the  ends  of 
which  were  fastened  to  pins  at  unequal  heights, 
the  weight  would  slide  to  a  point  nearer  the 
lower  pin.  Let  now  the  cord  gradually  yield 
to  the  weight,  and  be  stretched  to  an  indefinite 
length,  the  weight,  sliding  constantly  toward 
the  middle  of  the  cord,  would  move  in  a  curve ; 
and  a  vertical  line  midway  between  the  pins 
would  be  an  asymptote  to  that  curve. 

ATACAMi.  I.  A  S.  W.  department  of  Bolivia, 
bounded  by  Peru,  the  Bolivian  department  of 
Potosi,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Chili,  and 
the  Pacific  ocean ;  area,  about  70,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  8, 000.  The  greater  portion  of  the  de- 
partment is  a  dry  sandy  desert  entirely  uninhab- 
ited, which  is  supposed  to  have  been  for  ages 
the  burial  place  of  the  aboriginal  Peruvians. 
There  are  a  few  fertile  valleys  in  the  north. 
Anhydrous  sulphate  of  soda  is  abundant  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  department,  and  large 
masses  of  solid  iron  have  also  been  found  in 
different  localities.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  salt, 
and  alum  are  also  among  the  mineral  produc- 
tions. The  capital  is  Cobija,  or  Puerto  de 
la  Mar,  the  only  seaport  which  Bolivia  pos- 
sesses, lit  The  most  northern  province  of 


50 


ATAHUALLPA 


Chili,  including  the  portion  of  the  desert 
of  Atacama  lying  S.  of  the  preceding  de- 
partment, the  separating  line  being  the  par- 
allel of  lat.  24°  S.,  according  to  the  treaty  of 
1866,  and  bounded  E.  by  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation, S.  by  the  province  of  Coquimbo, 
and  W.  by  the  Pacific;  area,  about  38,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1868,  81,615.  The  province  is 
divided  into  the  departments  of  Caldera,  Co- 
piapo,  Freirina,  and  Vallemar.  It  abounds  in 
mineral  wealth,  including  perhaps  the  richest 
silver  and  copper  mines  in  the  world.  Of 
the  former  it  has  247  and  of  the  latter  994 
which  are  now  worked.  The  silver  mines 
were  discovered  as  lately  as  1832,  by  a  shep- 
herd, Juan  Godoy,  and  they  have  yielded  since 
then  ores  to  the  value  of  over  $100,000,000,  fully 
one  third  of  which  amount  has  been  derived 
from  the  mines  of  Chattarcillo.  A  village  of 
over  1,500  inhabitants,  which  contains  a  free 
school,  a  church,  a  hospital,  and  a  post  office, 
now  marks  the  spot  of  the  discovery,  and  is 
named  Juan  Godoy.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Chafiarcillo  hills,  51  m.  S.  E.  of  Copiapo,  the 
capital  of  the  department,  with  which  city  it 
is  connected  by  railroad.  Within  a  circuit  of 
25  leagues  from  Copiapo  are  19  silver-mining 
districts,  of  which  those  of  Chafiarcillo,  Tres 
Puntas,  and  Agua  Amarga  are  the  most  im- 
portant. The  metal  is  found  in  a  variety  of 
combinations,  of  which  sulphurets,  chlorides, 
and  chloro-bromides  are  the  most  important. 
A  railway  101  m.  long,  the  first  ever  built  in 
South  America  (1850),  connects  the  port  of 
Caldera,  one  of  the  best  on  the  whole  coast  of 
Chili,  with  Copiapo  and  with  the  mining  dis- 
tricts further  east. 

ATAHUALLPA,  or  Atabalipa,  inca  of  Peru  at 
the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards,  died 
Aug.  29,  1533.  He  was  the  son  of  Huayna 
Capac.  The  laws  of  Peru  required  that  the 
principal  wives  of  the  incas  should  be  blood 
relations,  and  that  no  children  of  other  parent- 
age should  be  legitimate.  Atahuallpa's  mother 
had  been  a  princess  of  Quito ;  nevertheless,  at 
the  request  of  his  father,  the  heir  to  the  throne, 
Huascar,  consented  to  divide  the  kingdom  with 
Atahuallpa,  on  condition  only  that  he  should 
render  homage  to  him,  and  not  make  conquests 
beyond  his  own  dominions.  This  liberal  con- 
duct was  infamously  requited  by  Atahuallpa, 
who,  having  secretly  got  together  a  large  army, 
attacked  Huascar  in  Cuzco,  took  him  prisoner, 
loaded  him  with  chains,  and  exterminated  all 
his  adherents,  putting  his  family  and  immedi- 
ate dependants  to  death  in  the  most  atrocious 
tortures.  Such  is  the  story  told  by  Spanish 
annalists,  whose  testimony  is  doubtful,  seeing 
that  the  murder  of  Huascar,  their  pseudo-ally, 
and  the  tyranny  of  Atahuallpa  were  among  the 
causes  of  his  own  execution.  Pizarro  and  his 
followers  were  now  in  Peru,  and  Atahuallpa 
opened  negotiations  with  them.  His  proposals 
were  received  in  a  friendly  manner  by  Pizarro, 
and  an  interview  was  arranged  (1532),  which 
Atahuallpa  attended,  followed  by  a  very  large 


ATAULPHUS 

number  of  unarmed  subjects.  Father  Vicente 
de  Valverde  explained  to  him,  through  an  in- 
terpreter, the  mysteries  of  religion,  and  that  on 
account  of  their  heathenism  the  pope  had 
granted  his  kingdom  to  the  Spaniards.  Ata- 
huallpa professed  not  to  understand  the  tenor 
of  this  discourse,  and  would  not  resign  his 
kingdom ;  whereupon  a  massacre  of  the  assem- 
bled crowd  was  at  once  commenced  by  the 
Spanish  soldiers,  who  seized  Atahuallpa  and 
threw  him  into  prison.  On  the  arrival  of  Al- 
magro  the  cupidity  of  the  adventurers  was  ex- 
cited by  the  magnificent  proposals  that  Ata- 
huallpa made  for  his  ransom,  and  with  a  de- 
sire of  seizing  the  whole  it  was  determined  to 
put  him  to  death.  During  his  imprisonment 
Atahuallpa  gave  orders  for  the  execution  of 
Huascar,  which  were  obeyed.  This  was  one 
of  the  charges  against  him  on  the  court  martial 
by  which  he  was  tried,  and  being  found  guilty, 
he  was  sentenced  to  be  burned,  a  penalty  com- 
muted for  strangulation  by  the  garrote  on  his 
accepting  baptism  at  the  hands  of  the  priests 
accompanying  the  invaders.— See  Prescott's 
"  Conquest  of  Peru,"  vol.  i. 

ATALANTA,  a  mythical  personage,  a  native 
of  Arcadia,  or  according  to  a  less  generally 
adopted  legend,  which  gives  her  story  with 
some  variations,  of  Bceotia.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Jasus,  who,  having  prayed  to  the 
gods  for  a  son,  was  displeased  at  her  birth,  and 
as  a  mark  of  his  displeasure  exposed  her  on  the 
Parthenian  mount.  Here  she  was  nurtured  by 
a  she  bear,  and  grew  up' to  womanhood,  retain- 
ing her  virginity,  and  becoming  the  most  swift- 
footed  of  mortals.  She  vanquished  the  Cen- 
taurs, who  sought  to  capture  her,  participated 
in  the  Calydonian  boar  hunt,  and  engaged  in 
the  Pelian  games.  In  course  of  time  her  father 
was  reconciled  to  her ;  but  when  he  urged  her 
to  choose  a  husband,  she  insisted  that  every 
suitor  who  aspired  to  win  her  should  first  con- 
tend with  her  in  running.  If  he  vanquished 
her,  he  was  to  receive  her  hand ;  if  vanquished, 
he  was  to  be  put  to  death.  Milanion  overcame 
her  by  artifice :  as  he  ran  he  dropped  three 
golden  apples,  the  gift  of  Venus,  which  Ata- 
lanta  delayed  to  pick  up. 

ATASCOSA,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  watered 
by  the  San  Miguel  river  and  Atascosa  creek, 
branches  of  the  Nueces;  area,  1,262  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,915.  It  is  a  stock-raising  county, 
and  about  three  fourths  of  the  surface  is  prairie. 
The  soil  is  sandy  and  easy  of  cultivation ;  and 
the  climate  is  particularly  healthy.  In  1870 
the  county  produced  36,371  bushels  of  corn, 
11,839  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  22,877  Ibs.  of 
wool.  There  were  97,622  cattle,  6,370  horses, 
8,187  sheep,  and  13,590  hogs.  Capital,  Pleas- 
onton. 

ATAUAI,  Hawaiian  Islands.     See  KAUAI. 

ATACLPHl'S,  or  AtanJf  (ADOLPHUS),  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  as  successor  to  Alaric  (410),  to 
whom  his  sister  was  given  in  marriage,  died 
in  415.  He  joined  Alaric  in  Italy  with  an  army 
of  Goths  and  Huns,  and  aided  him  in  the  siege 


ATBARA 


ATHA  BEN   HAKEM 


51 


of  Rome.  After  the  death  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Ataulphus  marched  into  Gaul,  carrying 
with  him  captive  Placidia,  the  si^fcer  of  the  em- 
peror Ilonorius.  The  Gallic  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  then  in  dispute  hetween  Jovinus 
and  Honorius.  Ataulphus  offered  to  treat  with 
Jovinus,  but  being  repulsed  made  similar  pro- 
posals to  Ilonorius,  and  defeated  and  slew  Jo- 
vinus. Honorius,  however,  would  not  be  rec- 
onciled with  the  abductor  of  his  sister,  and 
Constantius,  to  whom  Placidia  had  been  es- 
poused, harassed  the  Gothic  kingdom,  until  in 
414  the  barbarians  were  compelled  to  with- 
draw, burning  Bordeaux  as  they  left,  and  cross- 
ing the  Pyrenees  into  Spain.  Ataulphus  was 
assassinated  by  one  of  his  equerries. 

ATBARA,  the  principal  eastern  affluent  of 
the  Nile,  rising  in  Abyssinia.  (See  NILE,  and 
ABYSSINIA.) 

ATCUAFALAYA,  a  river  and  bayou  of  Louisi- 
ana, connecting  with  the  Mississippi  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Red  river,  but  receiving  very 
little  of  its  waters  except  in  time  of  flood.  Its 
course  is  nearly  south  to  Lake  Chetimaches 
or  Grand  lake,  through  which  it  passes,  and 
from  which,  in  a  greatly  enlarged  stream,  it 
discharges  itself  into  Atchafalaya  bay.  Its 
name  signifies  lost  river,  and  it  is  supposed  by 
geographers  to  have  formed  the  old  bed  of  the 
Red  river.  The  Teche  and  Courtableau  are  its 
principal  tributaries.  Its  whole  course  is  about 
260  m. 

ATCHISON.  I.  A  county  forming  the  N.  W. 
extremity  of  Missouri,  lying  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Missouri  river,  bounded  E.  by  the  Noda- 
way  and  drained  by  the  Tarkeo  and  Nishna- 
batona  rivers;  area,  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,440,  of  whom  34  were  colored.  In  1870 
the  county  produced  45,117  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,312,030  of  Indian  corn,  69,666  of  oats,  18,266 
Ibs.  of  wool,  127,826  of  butter,  and  6,110  gal- 
lons of  wine.  Capital,  Rockport.  II.  A  N.  E. 
county  of  Kansas,  separated  from  Missouri  by 
the  Missouri  river ;  area,  424  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,507.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
123,745  bushels  of  wheat,  619,447  of  Indian 
corn,  96,012  of  oats,  78,721  of  potatoes,  23,239 
tons  of  hay,  513,864  Ibs.  of  butter,  207,839  of 
tobacco,  and  201,593  of  wool.  Building  stone 
is  abundant.  The  central  branch  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the  county. 
Capital,  Atchison. 

ATCHISON,  a  city  of  Kansas,  capital  of  Atchi- 
son co.,  situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Mis- 
souri river,  at  the  extreme  point  of  the  "  Great 
Western  Bend,"  about  25  m.  above  Leaven- 
worth  ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,054.  It  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  being  the  terminus  of  four 
roads :  the  Central  Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific ; 
the  Missouri  Pacific ;  the  Kansas  City,  St.  Jo- 
seph, and  Council  Bluffs,  connecting  it  with  the 
Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  ;  and  the  Atchison 
and  Nebraska.  The  city  contains  5  churches, 
9  schools,  3  banks,  2  newspaper  offices,  a  large 
furniture  manufactory,  flour  mills,  and  planing 
mills.  The  central  school  building,  just  com- 


pleted at  a  cost  of  $45,000,  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  state. 

ATCHISON,  David  R.,  an  American  politician, 
born  at  Frogtown,  Fayette  county,  Ky.,  Aug. 
11,  1807.  He  was  a  lawyer  in  Clay  county, 
Mo.,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  state  legis- 
lature in  1834,  and  in  1841  was  made  .judge 
of  the  circuit  court  for  Platte  county.  From 
1841  to  1855  he  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  senate,  at  first  acting  with  the  party 
opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
northern  territories,  but  suddenly  changing  his 
policy  in  1849.  In  1854  he  became  prominent 
in  the  legislation  for  the  organization  of  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska,  advocating  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  compromise.  After  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  in  the  senate  he  became  a  pro- 
slavery  leader  in  the  conflict  on  and  near  the 
Kansas  border  in  1856-'7.  Since  that  time 
Mr.  Atchison  has  not  appeared  in  public  life. 

ATE,  a  Greek  deity,  daughter  of  Eris  or  of 
Zeus.  In  the  tragic  poets  she  is  the  punisher 
of  those  who  perpetrate  crime ;  in  the  epic 
she  is  the  instigator  of  gods  and  men  to  deeds 
which  superinduce  misfortunes.  In  this  char- 
acter she  persuaded  Jupiter  to  take  an  oath, 
which  afterward  enabled  Juno  to  transfer  to 
Eurystheus  the  power  that  had  been  intended 
for  Hercules.  When  Jupiter  perceived  what 
he  had  done,  he  cast  Ate  from  Olympus. 

ATELLA,  an  ancient  Oscan  town  of  Cam- 
pania, midway  between  Naples  and  Capua, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  executed,  sold 
as  slaves,  or  expelled  by  the  Romans  in  211  B. 
C.,  for  having  been  the  first  to  declare  for  the 
Carthaginians  after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  In 
the  days  of  Cicero  the  town  had  recovered  its 
prosperity,  though  it  was  classed  by  Strabo 
among  the  smaller  towns  of  Campania.  In 
early  Christian  times  it  became  an  episcopal 
see,  and  continued  as  such  till  the  9th  cen- 
tury, but  was  then  much  dilapidated.  In  1030 
the  inhabitants  were  removed  to  the  neighbor- 
ing town  of  Aversa,  near  which  some  remains 
still  exist.  Atella  is  celebrated  in  Roman  liter- 
ature through  the  Atellana  fabulce,  also  called 
ludi  Osci,  farces  or  comedies  in  the  Oscan  dia- 
lect. They  were  at  one  time  highly  popular  in 
Rome.  No  entire  play  has  come  down  to  us. 

ATH,  or  ,'Elh.  a  city  of  Belgium,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hainault,  on  the  river  Dender,  30  m.  W. 
S.  W.  of  Brussels;  pop.  in  1866,  8,260.  It  has 
a  tower  built  in  1150,  a  handsome  town  hall, 
a  college,  orphan  asylum,  &c.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  fabrics, 
of  hats  and  gloves,  bleaching  and  dyeing  es- 
tablishments, and  breweries ;  and  it  is  the  seat 
of  a  considerable  trade.  It  once  had  fortifica- 
tions, but  they  were  demolished  in  1830. 

ATHA  BEN  III k m.  or  Alhakem  ibn  Alia,  sur- 
named  Mokanna  (the  veiled),  a  Moslem  im- 
postor, born  at  Merv,  Khorasan,  killed  about 
780.  He  was  by  trade  a  fuller.  He  pretended 
to  be  the  embodiment  of  the  living  spirit  of 
God,  and  by  his  knowledge  of  philosophy  and 
chemistry  was  enabled  to  perform  wonders 


52 


ATIIA   MELIK 


ATHANASIAN    CREED 


which  drew  about  him  a  large  band  of  fol- 
lowers. He  always  wore  a  veil,  declaring  that 
no  one  could  behold  his  face  and  live ;  but  the 
real  reason  of  his  doing  so  is  supposed  to  have 
been  to  hide  the  loss  of  an  eye.  The  caliph 
Mahdi  having  sent  an  army  against  him,  he 
shut  himself  up  in  the  castle  of  Keh,  north  of 
the  Oxus,  and  when  no  longer  able  to  stand  a 
siege  put  himself  to  death.  According  to  some, 
he  set  fire  to  his  castle  and  threw  himself  into 
the  flames,  followed  by  many  of  his  disciples. 
Others  state  that  he  poisoned  himself  and  his 
followers;  and  again  others  that  he  threw 
himself  into  a  cauldron  of  corrosive  acid,  in 
the  hope  that  his  complete  destruction  would 
follow,  causing  the  belief  that  he  had  been  re- 
moved by  divine  agency.  Mokanna  is  the  hero 
of  Moore's  poem,  "The  Veiled  Prophet  of 
Khorassan." 

ATHA  JIELIK,  \la  ed-Din,  a  Persian  historian 
and  statesman,  born  in  Khorasan  about  1227, 
died  at  Bagdad  in  1282.  He  enjoyed  the  favor 
of  the  Mongol  princes  of  Persia,  and  was  for 
many  years  governor  of  Bagdad.  His  history 
of  the  Mongols,  entitled  "  Conquest  of  the 
World,"  has  been  highly  valued. 

ATHABASCA,  or  Athapescow.  I.  A  lake  of 
British  North  America,  in  lat.  59°  N.,  and  be- 
tween Ion.  106°  and  112°  W.,  about  midway 
between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  Hudson 
bay.  It  is  about  20  m.  wide  from  N.  to  S.  and 
230  m.  long.  Forts  Chipewyan  and  Fond  du 
Lac  are  on  its  N.  shore.  At  the  W.  end  it 
receives  the  Athabasca  and  Peace  rivers,  and 
discharges  the  Slave  river,  which  flows  N.  into 
Great  Slave  lake,  whence  there  is  communica- 
tion by  the  Mackenzie  river  with  the  Arctic 
ocean.  The  Black  river  issues  from  its  E.  ex- 
tremity, and  forms  part  of  the  channel  through 
which,  by  Black,  Manito  or  Wollaston,  Deer, 
and  Indian  lakes,  and  the  Churchill  river,  it 
is  connected  with  Hudson  bay.  II.  A  river 
which  rises  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  near  Mt. 
Brown,  in  lat.  52°  10'  N.,  Ion.  116°  30'  W.,  and 
has  a  tortuous  N.  and  N.  E.  course,  receiving 
the  overflow  of  the  Lesser  Slave  and  several 
other  lakes,  and  entering  Athabasca  lake.  Its 
length  is  about  600  m.  A  shoal  several  miles 
in  extent  is  formed  by  the  debris  and  drift 
timber  which  it  brings  into  the  lake. 

ATHABASCAS,  a  family  of  American  Indians, 
comprising  two  large  divisions :  one  bordering 
on  the  Esquimaux  in  the  northwest,  and  ex- 
tending from  Hudson  bay  to  the  Pacific ;  the 
other  on  the  Mexican  frontier,  extending  from 
the  gulf  of  California  to  Texas,  with  smaller 
bands  scattered  along  the  Pacific  from  Cook's 
inlet  to  Umpqua  river,  Oregon.  The  north- 
ern district  contains  a  variety  of  tribes,  the 
more  important  being  the  Tinne  (called  Chipe- 
wyans  by  the  Crees),  the  Tahkali  or  Carriers, 
Sicaunies,  Kutchin  or  Loucheux,  Dog  Ribs, 
Mauvais  Monde,  Slaves,  Beaver  Indians,  and 
Yellow  Knives,  with  the  Sursee  on  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Their  numbers  have  not  been  ac- 
curately computed,  but  are  estimated  by  Kirby 


at  32,000.  The  scattered  tribes  are  the  Ke- 
naians  or  Tnaina  on  Cook's  inlet,  numbering 
about  25,000  ;  the  Kwalhioqua  and  Tlatskanai, 
about  100  each,  on  the  Columbia ;  and  the 
Umpquas,  about  400  in  number,  on  the  river 
of  that  name.  These  tribes  are  all  repre- 
sented as  timid,  mild,  and  gentle  in  man- 
ner, peaceable  and  industrious.  The  southern 
district  includes  the  sedentary  Navajos,  who 
cultivate  the  soil  and  weave  blankets;  the 
fierce,  wandering  Apaches,  the  most  trouble- 
some of  tribes ;  and  the  more  quiet  Lipans 
of  Texas.  These  number  about  17,000.  The 
name  of  the  family  is  derived  from  Lake  Ath- 
abasca, but  the  word  is  taken,  not  from  their 
language,  but  from  the  Cree,  meaning  cords  of 
hay  according  to  some.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  other  families,  having  square 
massive  heads,  short  hands  and  feet,  and  a 
quantity  of  beard  quite  unusual  in  American 
tribes.  They  profess  to  have  come  from  a  dis- 
tant country  in  the  west,  over  a  series  of  islands 
amid  ice  and  snow.  Some  writers  trace  strong 
Tartar  resemblances  in  them,  and  Turner  found 
curious  analogies  between  their  language  and 
that  of  Thibet. 

ATIIALIAH,  queen  of  Judah,  daughter  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  She  was  sought  by  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  3udah,  in  marriage  for  his 
son  Jehoram.  This  marriage  was  the  occasion 
of  the  introduction  of  idolatry  into  Judah,  and 
of  an  interruption  in  the  Judean  dynasty.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Jehoram,  and  the  short  reign 
and  destruction  of  her  son  Ahaziah  (884  B.  0.), 
Athaliah  caused  all  the  male  members  of  the 
royal  line,  as  she  supposed,  to  be  slain,  and 
mounted  the  throne  of  Judah  herself.  But 
after  she  had  reigned  six  years,  the  high  priest 
Jehoiada  produced  her  grandson,  the  young 
Joash,  who  had  been  saved  from  the  massacre 
and  reared  in  the  temple,  caused  him  to  be  an- 
ointed as  king,  and  ordered  the  punishment 
of  Athaliah  by  the  armed  Levites. 

ATHA5IAS,  in  Greek  legendary  history,  a  son 
of  ^Eolus,  married  Nephele,  who,  discovering 
that  he  preferred  Ino,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus, 
vanished  from  the  earth.  Ino  endeavored  to 
destroy  Phrixus  and  Ilelle,  his  children  by  Ne- 
phele, but  they  were  rescued  by  their  mother 
and  transported  to  Colchis  on  the  back  of  the 
ram  with  the  golden  fleece.  Juno,  to  punish  the 
infidelity  of  Athamas,  afflicted  him  with  mad- 
ness. While  in  this  condition  he  killed  Lear- 
chus,  one  of  his  sons  by  Ino,  and  the  latter 
cast  herself  into  the  sea  with  her  other  son, 
Melicertes.  Athamas  now  fled  from  Boeotia, 
and  was  commanded  by  an  oracle  to  remain 
wherever  he  should  be  hospitably  received  by 
savage  beasts.  After  much  wandering  he  ar- 
rived at  a  place  where  wolves  were  devouring 
sheep  ;  they  fled  at  his  approach,  and  left  their 
prey  at  his  disposal.  Athamas  settled  there, 
and  called  his  new  territory  Athamania. 

ATHANASIAJf  CREED,  a  symbol  chiefly  com- 
posed of  precise  theological  definitions  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  incarnation.  The 


ATHANASIUS 


ATHELSTAN 


53 


first  notices  of  it  are  from  the  7th  century,  and 
do  not  mention  the  author.  It  made  its  ap- 
pearance first  in  France,  in  the  Latin  language, 
became  generally  known  througfkmt  the  West, 
and  was  adopted  last  of  all  in  the  East.  The 
Greek  writers  immediately  succeeding  St.  Ath- 
anasius  make  no  mention  of  it.  In  the  MS. 
editions  of  his  works  it  is  usually  not  found  at 
all,  or,  if  it  is,  with  the  remark,  "commonly" 
or  "incorrectly  ascribed  to  St.  Athanasius." 
Subsequently,  however,  it  was  ascribed  to  him 
by  all  ecclesiastical  writers.  Durandus  (1287) 
states  that  it  was  composed  by  St.  Athanasius 
at  Treves  during  his  exile  in  the  West,  and 
Mayer  thinks  this  account  not  improbable. 
Modern  critics  generally  suppose  that  it  was 
drawn  up  as  a  summary  of  the  doctrine  of 
St.  Athanasius,  from  which  circumstance  it  ob- 
tained the  name  of  Athanasian  creed,  and  in 
process  of  time  was  attributed  to  the  great 
Alexandrian  doctor.  It  has  been  attributed, 
on  conjectural  grounds,  to  Hilary  of  Aries  and 
Venantius  Fortnnatus,  to  Vincent  of  Lerins, 
and  to  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Thapsus  in  Africa. 
This  creed  is  an  authoritative  formulary  of  faith 
in  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches.  Its  author- 
ity does  not  rest  on  the  presumption  that  it 
was  composed  by  St.  Athanasius,  but  on  its 
general  acceptance  as  a  correct  enunciation  of 
Catholic  faith.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
it  is  recited  at  the  office  of  prime  on  Sundays, 
when  the  office  is  dominical.  In  the  church 
of  England  it  is  accepted  as  of  equal  authority 
with  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  creeds,  and  or- 
dered to  be  recited  on  certain  festivals  at  the 
morning  prayer.  In  the  39  articles  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  church  of  the  United  States 
all  mention  of  it  is  omitted,  and  the  creed  itself 
has  no  place  in  the  prayer  book. 

ATHANASIl'S,  Saint,  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
and  doctor  of  the  eastern  church,  died  there 
in  373.  He  was  born  at  Alexandria  about  296, 
of  Christian  parents,  was  educated  under  the 
direction  of  Alexander,  afterward  bishop  of 
the  city,  and  spent  some  time  in  the  desert  as 
a  disciple  of  the  hermit  St.  Anthony.  At  the 
age  of  23  he  received  deacon's  orders,  and  in 
the  discharge  of  his  office  so  signalized  himself 
as  a  foe  to  every  kind  of  heresy,  that  he  was 
chosen  by  Alexander  to  accompany  him  to  the 
council  of  Nice  (325).  To  the  subtlety,  learn- 
ing, and  eloquence  of  Athanasius  in  that  coun- 
cil was  principally  attributed  the  condemnation 
of  Arianism.  His  bearing  on  this  occasion, 
not  less  than  the  dying  request  of  Alexander, 
secured  his  election  as  bishop  of  Alexandria  in 
32G.  His  uncompromising  orthodoxy  subjected 
him  to  bitter  persecution  from  the  adherents  of 
Arius.  The  emperor  Constantine  summoned 
him  before  a  synod  at  Tyre  in  335  and  declared 
him  deposed.  A  synod  at  Jerusalem  the  next 
year  confirmed  this  sentence  and  banished  him 
to  Treves.  Constantius  recalled  him  in  338. 
An  Arian  council  at  Antioch  condemned  him 
again  in  341 ;  but  a  larger  orthodox  council  at 
Alexandria  sustained  him,  and  another  at  Sar- 


dis,  with  the  Roman  bishop  at  its  head,  replaced 
him  in  his  episcopal  chair  in  349.  Deposed 
for  a  third  time,  through  the  influence  of  Con- 
stantine, by  the  synods  of  Aries  (353)  and  Milan 
(355),  he  was  dragged  from  the  altar  by  a  band 
of  soldiers,  and  fled  into  the  desert  with  a  price 
upon  his  head.  Under  Julian  the  Apostate  he 
was  again  exiled,  and  spent  some  time  in  the 
wilderness  of  the  Thebaid ;  and  under  Valens 
he  suffered  his  fifth  banishment,  concealing 
himself  four  months  in  his  father's  tomb.  He 
was  finally  restored  to  his  see  and  died  in  peace. 
His  festival  is  kept  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  on  May  2,  and  in  the  Greek  church 
also  on  Jan.  18. — The  life  of  Athanasius  has 
historical  importance  mainly  from  its  connec- 
tion with  the  Arian  controversy,  and  the  estab- 
lishment and  defence  of  the  Nicene  creed. 
With  the  exception  of  his  "Discourse  against 
the  Pagans "  and  his  treatise  on  "  The  Incar- 
nation," all  his  writings  have  a  direct  bearing 
upon  Arianism.  His  style  has  the  merits  of 
strength,  clearness,  conciseness  of  expression, 
and  exact  logical  order.  It  is  praised  even  by 
Erasmus,  the  most  fastidious  of  critics,  above 
the  style  of  Chrysostom  and  Gregory.  What 
it  lacks  of  finished  grace  it  makes  up  in  nervous 
vigor.  Bold,  unbending,  confident  even  to 
dogmatism,  severe  against  what  he  believed,  to 
be  heresy,  suspicious  of  the  promises  and  pro- 
fessions of  all  who  were  not  friends  of  the  truth, 
he  was  yet  courteous,  kind  to  the  poor,  pious, 
just,  and  patient.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Paris,  1627-'8,  3  vols.  folio. 

ATHELING.     See  ANGLO-SAXONS. 

ATHELXEY,  Isle  of,  a  tract  of  about  100  acres 
in  Somersetshire,  England,  7  m.  S.  E.  of  Bridge- 
water.  In  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great  it  was 
an  island  at  the  junction  of  the  Tone  and  Par- 
ret  rivers.  Alfred  concealed  himself  among  its 
marshes  during  the  Danish  invasion,  and  after- 
ward founded  an  abbey  there,  about  888. 

ATHELSTAN,  the  first  who  called  himself  king 
of  the  English,  born  about  895,  died  at  Glou- 
cester, Oct.  25,  941.  He  was  a  grandson  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  and  illegitimate  son  of  Ed- 
ward the  Elder ;  but  as  the  only  legitimate  son 
of  Edward  who  was  of  age  died  a  few  days 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  Athelstan  was 
preferred  by  the  witenagemote  to  his  legiti- 
mate brothers,  who  were"under  age,  and  he  was 
crowned  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  at  Kingston 
on  the  Thames  in  925.  He  annexed  the  terri- 
tory of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  and  exacted  trib- 
ute from  Howel  Dda,  pendragon  of  Wales. 
When  Sigtric,  king  of  Northumbria,  died, 
Athelstan  seized  upon  his  territory  also.  Au- 
laf,  the  son  of  Sigtric,  obtained  the  assistance 
of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians,  and  was  aided 
also  by  the  Irish,  Scots,  and  Welsh,  who  saw 
with  dislike  the  increase  of  the  power  of  the 
South  Saxon  king ;  but  Athelstan  signally  de- 
feated the  allies  at  Brunanburg  or  Brunsbury 
in  Northumbria.  After  this  event  Athelstan 
enjoyed  great  consideration  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  His  sisters  were  given  in  marriage 


ATHENA 


ATHENS 


to  the  king  of  France,  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  a  Norse  king.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Edmund.  Atlielstan  added 
much  to  the  code  left  by  Alfred.  One  of  his 
decrees  was,  that  any  merchant  who  made 
three  voyages  on  his  own  account  beyond  the 
British  channel,  or  narrow  seas,  should  be  en- 
titled to  the  privileges  of  a  thane.  He  favored 
learning,  built  .monasteries,  collected  books, 
and  encouraged  the  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  the  vernacular.  Two  of  his  books 
are  believed  to  be  extant  among  the  Cottonian 
manuscripts  in  the  British  museum. 

ATHENA.     See  MINERVA. 

ATHEMEUS,  a  Greek  writer  of  the  early  part 
of  the  3d  century  of  the  Christian  era,  born  at 
Naucratis  in  Egypt.  He  is  chiefly  known  as 
the  author  of  the  Deipnosophista  ("  Banquet 
of  the  Learned  "),  a  voluminous  work  of  ima- 
ginary table  talk  on  almost  every  conceivable 
subject,  especially  gastronomy,  between  certain 
learned  men  while  enjoying  themselves  at  sup- 
per in  the  house  of  an  imaginary  Roman  named 
Laurentius,  with  Galen  the  physician  and 
Ulpian  the  jurist  among  the  guests.  It  con- 
sisted of  15  books,  but  only  the  1st  and  2d, 
and  parts  of  the  3d,  llth,  and  15th,  are  now 
extant  in  an  epitome,  of  which  we  know  nei- 
ther the  date  nor  the  compiler.  Notwithstand- 
ing its  many  literary  and  artistic  defects,  the 
great  mass  of  information  which  it  contains, 
and  the  light  which  it  throws  on  the  manners 
of  the  ancients,  will  ever  cause  the  Deipnoso- 
pJiixtw  to  be  prized  by  the  scholar  and  the  an- 
tiquary. The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  that 
of  Dindorf  (3  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1827). 

ATHKNAGOKAS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
2d  century,  who  became  a  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  flourished  probably  in  the  reigns 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  his  son  Commodus. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and 
first  master  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alex- 
andria. Intending  to  write  against  the  Chris- 
tians, he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  became  convinced  of  their  truth, 
and  addressed  an  apology  to  one  of  the  em- 
perors in  behalf  of  the  Christians.  He  also 
wrote  a  treatise  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection.  These  works  of  Athenagoras 
are  still  extant.  Their  style  is  Attic  and  ele- 
gant. The  best  edition  is  that  of  the  Benedic- 
tines (Paris,  1742). 

ATHENS  (Gr.  'ABijvai),  anciently  the  principal 
city  of  Attica,  and  now  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Greece,  situated  in  lat.  37°  56'  N.,  Ion. 
23°  44'  E.,  about  4  m.  from  the  E.  coast  of  the 
Saronic  gulf,  and  4^  m.  from  the  port  town  of 
Piraeus.  It  was  built  round  a  central  rocky 
height,  called  the  Acropolis,  an  elevation  about 
300  ft.  above  the  average  level  of  the  town, 
and  600  ft.  above  the  Mediterranean.  Grouped 
near  it  are  several  smaller  elevations,  with  val- 
leys between.  N.  W.  of  the  Acropolis  is  a 
•moderate  height  on  which  stands  the  temple 
of  Theseus.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  N. 
W.  angle  is  the  Areopagus;  and  over  against 


the  Areopagus  is  the  hill  of  the  Pnyx,  with 
the  hill  of  the  Nymphs  a  little  north,  and  the 
Museum,  or  hill  of  the  Muses,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance to  the  south.  N.  E.  of  the  city  rises  the 
conical  hill  of  Lycabettus.  The  plain  itself  in 
which  the  city  stands  is  bounded  N.  by  Mt. 
Parnes,  which  separates  it  from  Boeotia  ;  N.  E. 
by  Mt.  Pentelicus;  S.  E.  by  Mt.  Hymettus, 
which  descends  to  the  sea;  8.  W.  and  W.  by 
the  Saronic  gulf;  and  N.  W.  by  Mt.  JSgaleos. 
—  A  sketch  of  the  history  of  Athens  is  neces- 
sary to  the  understanding  of  any  description 
either  of  the  ancient  or  modern  city.  No 
doubt  a  stronghold  on  the  rock,  afterward 
called  the  Acropolis,  was  the  germ  from  which 
it  grew.  When  or  by  whom  this  was  founded 
is  unknown.  According  to  the  legends,  Cecrops, 
sometimes  represented  as  an  Egyptian  settler, 
sometimes  as  an  autochthonous  Pelasgian  hero, 
first  took  possession  of  the  rock,  which  from  him 
was  called  Cecropia.  He  was  succeeded  by  a 
line  of  16  kings,  bearing  the  names  of  Cranaus, 
Amphictyon,  Erechtheus  I.  or  Erichthonius, 
Pandion  I.,  Erechtheus  II.,  Cecrops  II.,  Pan- 
dion  II.,  -iEgeus,  Theseus,  Menestheus,  Demo- 
phon,  Oxyntes,  Aphidas,  Thymcetes,  Melan- 
thus,  and  Codrus.  In  the  reign  of  the  second 
or  third  king  the  city  is  said  to  have  received 
its  name  from  the  geddess  Athena  (Minerva). 
Erechtheus  is  said  to  have  built  a  temple  to 
Athena  on  the  Acropolis,  where  he  placed  the 
statue  of  the  goddess,  made  of  olive  wood.  The 
temple  was  called,  from  this  legend,  the  Erech- 
theum.  Theseus  is  said  to  have  united  the  12 
communities,  or  cities,  into  which  Attica  was 
hitherto  divided,  into  one  political  body.  Me- 
nestheus led  the  50  dark  ships  of  the  Athenians 
in  the  Trojan  war,  and  is  pronounced  by  Homer 
the  first  of  warriors,  except  Nestor.  The  17th 
and  last  king  of  Athens  was  Codrus,  who  sacri- 
ficed himself  for  his  country  in  a  war  with  the 
Peloponnesian  invaders,  who,  according  to  an 
oracle,  were  to  be  victorious  if  they  did  not 
slay  the  king  of  the  Athenians.  After  him  no 
one,  so  the  legend  says,  was  permitted  to  bear 
the  title  of  king:  His  son  Medon  succeeded 
him  under  the  name  of  archon,  or  ruler,  hold- 
ing the  office,  however,  upon  the  hereditary 
principle,  and  for  life.  A  line  of  life  archons 
continued  to  rule  through  12  reigns,  Alcmseon 
being  the  last.  During  the  government  of  his 
predecessor,  ^Eschylus,  commenced  the  era  of 
the  Olympic  games,  celebrated  at  intervals  of 
four  years,  at  Olympia  in  Elis.  This  date  —  the 
earliest  fixed  point  in  Greek  chronology  —  has 
been  satisfactorily  established  at  776  B.  C. 
After  Alemason,  a  series  of  seven  decenninl 
archons  carried  on  the  government  till  683, 
when  the  office  was  made  annual,  its  various 
functions  were  distributed  among  nine  col- 
leagues, and  the  right  of  election  was  extended 
to  the  entire  class  of  the  eupatrida  or  nobles. 
One  of  these,  the  head  of  the  college,  bore  the 
title  of  "the  archon,"  and  was  designated 
as  the  eponyrrms  —  a  magistrate  in  whose  name 
the  transactions  of  the  year  were  dated  and 


ATHENS 


55 


recorded.  The  office  of  archon  lasted  until 
long  after  the  independent  political  existence 
of  Athens  and  Greece  had  come  to  an  end. 
The  only  important  political  bo8y  existing  in 
Athens  at  the  time  of  the  first  appointment 
of  life  archons  was  the  senate  or  council  of  the 
Areopagus,  which  appears  to  have  been  in  its 
earliest  constitution  the  representative  of  the 
Homeric  boule,  and  until  the  time  of  Solon  was 
called  simply  the  boule,  or  senate.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  oppressions  and  abuses  of 
the  eupatridce  gave  rise  to  popular  discontents, 
and  Draco  was  appointed  in  624  to  draw  up 
a  code  of  written  laws.  He  made  no  change 
in  the  political  forms,  but  merely  attempted  to 
introduce  a  code  the  severity  of  which  made 
it  impossible  to  execute  it.  Twelve  years  after 
Draco's  legislation  Oylon,  a  member  of  the 
eupatrid  order,  attempted  to  usurp  the  supreme 
power  of  the  state,  but  failed.  Cylon  escaped, 
and  his  partisans,  who  had  taken  refuge,  some 
at  the  altar  of  Athena,  others  at  the  altar  of 
the  Eumenides,  were  put  to  death  by  the  di- 
rection of  Megacles,  the  representative  of  the 
house  of  the  Alcmfflonidse.  This  act  was  sup- 
posed to  have  brought  upon  that  race  the 
curse  of  the  gods,  and  they  were  expelled  from 
the  city  in  597.  Epimenides,  the  Cretan  sage, 
was  invited  to  purify  the  city  from  the  pollu- 
tion of  sacrilege  by  expiatory  rites.  His  visit 
is  placed  in  596. — The  glory  of  Athens  as  a 
political  commonwealth  dates  from  the  age  of 
Solon,  a  liaeal  descendant  of  King  Codrus,  born 
about  638  B.  0.  At  a  tune  of  great  political 
disturbance,  resulting  in  part  from  the  oppres- 
sions of  the  eupatridse,  he  was  chosen  archon 
in  594,  and  vested  with  unlimited  power  to 
make  any  changes  that  might  seem  necessary 
in  the  constitution  of  the  state.  He  framed  a 
new  constitution,  changing  the  title  to  politi- 
cal power  from  birth  to  property.  He  divided 
the  citizens  into  four  classes:  1.  The  pente- 
cosiomedimni,  or  those  whose  annual  revenue 
was  equal  to  500  medimni  of  corn  and  upward. 
2.  The  hippela,  or  knights,  whose  income 
ranged  between  300  and  500  medimni,  and 
who  were  sufficiently  wealthy  to  furnish  a  war 
horse.  3.  The  zeugita,  whose  income  ranged 
between  200  and  300  medimni,  and  who  were 
able  to  keep  a  yoke  of  oxen.  4.  The  thetes, 
whose  income  fell  short  of  200  medimni.  The 
4th  class  were  exempt  from  taxation  and  ex- 
cluded from  public  office,  but  they  served  as 
light  troops  in  the  army.  Only  the  first  class 
were  eligible  to  the  higher  offices  of  the  state ; 
the  2d  and  3d  classes  filled  the  inferior  offices ; 
the  2d  class  served  in  the  army  as  horsemen, 
and  the  3d  as  heavy-armed  foot  soldiers.  All 
classes  had  the  right  of  voting  in  the  public 
assembly,  which  elected  the  archons  and  other 
magistrates.  He  established  another  legislative 
body,  called  the  senate  or  council  of  the  four 
hundred,  elected  by  the  assembly,  100  being 
taken  from  each  of  the  four  ancient  tribes,  into 
which  the  people  were  divided  long  before  So- 
lon. The  court  of  the  Areopagus  was  endowed 


with  enlarged  powers,  and  with  the  general 
supervision  of  the  conduct  and  lives  of  the  citi- 
zens and  the  institutions  of  the  state.  Solon's 
kinsman  Pisistratus  made  himself  master  of 
Athens  in  560,  adorned  the  city  with  many  pub- 
lic works,  collected  a  public  library,  and  called 
around  him  the  most  distinguished  poets,  ar- 
tists, and  scholars  from  every  part  of  Greece. 
He  died  in  527,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  two 
sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus.  By  the  con- 
spiracy of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  Hip- 
parchus was  slain  in  514,  and  Hippias  was 
compelled  to  quit  Athens  for  Asia  in  510. 
Olisthenes  and  Isagoras  were  now  rivals  for 
power,  and  the  constitution  of  Solon  went  for 
a  time  into  full  operation ;  but  Clisthenes  soon 
reorganized  the  people  of  Attica  by  dividing 
them  into  ten  tribes,  instead  of  the  old  Ionic 
four  tribes;  and  these  ten  tribes  were  local, 
and  were  subdivided  into  districts  or  town- 
ships called  demes  (iy/ioi).  It  was.  customary 
to  designate  every  citizen  by  affixing  to  his 
name  the  epithet  indicating  the  deme  to  which 
he  belonged.  The  senate  was  also  changed, 
and -its  powers  and  duties  were  greatly  in- 
creased ;  it  now  consisted  of  500  members,  50 
being  taken  from  eacii  tribe.  The  general  con- 
trol exercised  by  the  people  over  the  affairs 
of  government,  through  the  ecclesia,  was  also 
greatly  enlarged.  The  judicial  powers  of  the. 
people  were  regulated  by  the  establishment  of 
the  heliastic  courts,  of  which  ten  were  organ- 
ized, either  by  Olisthenes,  or  soon  after  his 
time.  The  new  arrangement  of  the  tribes  led 
to  a  new  arrangement  of  the  military  service, 
the  administration  of  which  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  ten  generals,  one  being  chosen  from 
each  tribe.  With  them  was  associated,  how- 
ever, the  polemarch,  or  third  archon,  who 
under  the  old  constitution  held  the  exclusive 
military  command.  The  ostracism  was  also 
introduced  by  Clisthenes. — The  prosperity  of 
Athens  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Spartans, 
who  soon  made  several  attempts  to  overthrow 
the  growing  democracy.  Their  first  plan  was 
to  establish  Isagoras,  the  rival  of  Clisthenes, 
as  tyrant  of  Athens ;  but  the  expedition  set  on 
foot  for  the  purpose  failed.  They  next  planned 
the  restoration  of  the  exiled  Hippias ;  and  thus  • 
began  that  series  of  events  which  resulted  in 
the  Persian  invasions  of  Greece,  in  repelling 
which  the  Athenians,  under  their  generals  Mil- 
tiades,  Themistocles,  and  Aristides,  took  so  con- 
spicuous a  part.  The  history  of  Athens  in  this 
struggle  is  completely  identified  with  that  of 
Greece  until  the  battle  of  Plataea,  in  479,  when 
the  Persians  were  finally  vanquished.  The  con- 
duct of  the  Athenians  in  meeting  the  invaders 
had  given  Athens  the  leadership  of  the  coun- 
try; and  this  was  now  acknowledged  in  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  confederacy  of  Delos, 
a  union  of  numerous  states  under  the  Athenian 
hegemony.  The  rebuilding  <>f  Athens  on  a 
larger  scale,  and  with  stronger  defences,  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  the  ^Eginetans  and  the 
Spartans,  and  attempts  were  made  to  interfere. 


56 


ATHENS 


These  were  frustrated  by  the  policy  of  The- 
mistocles.  The  city  was  surrounded  by  mas- 
sive walls,  the  fleet  was  increased,  and  the 
harbors  of  Piraeus  and  Munychia  were  forti- 
fied with  walls  and  towers,  vast  ruins  of 
which  remain  to  this  day. — The  progress  of 
Athens  in  letters  and  arts  in  the  time  of  her 
hegemony  was  wonderful ;  but  her  most  bril- 
liant period  was  that  of  Pericles,  who  came 
forward  as  a  popular  leader  in  469.  With  slight 
interruptions,  his  administration  lasted  from  469 
till  his  death  in  429,  though  he  held  no  perma- 
nent office.  The  names  of  ^Eschylus,  Sopho- 
cles, Euripides,  and  Aristophanes  in  dramatic 
poetry,  of  Phidias  and  his  school  in  plastic 
art,  and  of  Anaxagoras  and  Socrates  in  philos- 
ophy, are  connected  with  this  period.  The 
treasury  of  Delos  was  removed  to  Athens,  and 
the  amount  of  contributions  increased  beyond 
the  assessment  of  Aristides.  Public  buildings 
of  extraordinary  splendor  were  erected.  The 
great  structures  of  the  Periclean  age  were  the 
Odeon,  finished  in  444 ;  the  Parthenon,  387 ; 
the  Propyleea,  432  ;  and  the  Erechtheum, 
which  was  not  quite  completed  at  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  This  mag- 
nificent system  of  public  works  was  under  the 
general  superintendence  of  the  sculptor  Phidias. 
The  architects  of  the  Parthenon  were  Ictinus 
and  Callicrates.  Mnesicles  was  the  builder 
of  the  Propylsaa. — The  Peloponnesian  war 
broke  out  in  431.  The  Lacedemonian  troops 
ravaged  the  plain  of  Athens,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  country  crowded  into  the  city.  In 
the  next  year  a  second  invasion  took  place, 
and  the  plague  carried  off  not  less  than  a 
fourth  of  the  inhabitants.  The  disasters  in 
the  field  were  accompanied  by  violent  changes 
in  the  city.  (See  GREECE.)  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Athenians  at  ^Egospotami  and  the  sur- 
render of  the  city  in  404  to  the  Spartan 
general  Lysander,  the  democracy,  which  had 
been  restored,  was  again  abolished,  and  a 
government  of  thirty  established,  under  the 
control  of  Sparta,  known  in  history  as  the 
thirty  tyrants.  The  walls  of  Athens  were 
demolished  by  the  Lacedsemonians,  and  the 
arsenals  and  docks  at  Piraeus  destroyed.  The 
Spartan  rule  was  overthrown  by  a  body  of 
exiles,  headed  by  Thrasybulus,  who  restored 
the  reign  of  the  ancient  laws.  But  Athens 
never  regained  her  leadership  in  Greece. — The 
period  between  403  and  360  B.  C.,  usually 
designated  as  that  of  the  Spartan  and  Theban 
supremacy,  is  signalized  by  the  adventures  of 
Xenophon,  the  Athenian,  in  the  expedition 
of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  and  the  retreat  of  the 
10,000;  the  war  of  the  Lacedsemonians,  under 
Agesilaus,  in  Asia  Minor ;  the  Corinthian  war ; 
the  peace  negotiated  by  Antalcidas  and  bear- 
ing his  name  in  history,  387;  the  partial  re- 
organization of  the  Athenian  confederacy  on 
the  basis  of  the  confederacy  of  Delos ;  and 
by  numerous  distant  expeditions,  both  by  the 
Lacedemonians  and  the  Athenians.  In  361  a 
general  peace  was  concluded  by  consent  of  all 


parties  except  the  Lacedaemonians ;  but  in  the 
following  year  the  Athenians  went  to  war 
with  the  Olynthians  for  the  possession  of  Am- 
phipolis,  and  this  war  brought  them  into 
collision  with  Macedonia  under  the  lead  of 
Philip,  and  after  his  death  under  that  of  his 
son  Alexander.  As  the  Macedonian  successes 
increased,  a  party  grew  up  in  Athens  which 
favored  a  conciliation  of  the  conquerors.  Until 
the  death  of  Philip  and  the  accession  of  Alex- 
ander, Demosthenes  and  the  true  Athenian 
patriots  of  his  school  were  able  to  make  a 
vigorous  opposition  to  this  movement ;  but 
when  Alexander  destroyed  Thebes,  and  the 
Athenians  could  only  protect  themselves 
against  him  by  almost  complete  submission, 
the  Macedonian  party  triumphed,  and  in  spite 
of  the  efforts  of  the  great  orator  Athens  sank 
into  entire  subjection  to  the  invaders.  A  tran- 
quil period,  one  of  the  most  inglorious  in  the 
political  history  of  the  city,  now  ensued.  When 
the  news  of  Alexander's  death  arrived  (323),  a 
fresh  attempt  was  made  to  overturn  the  Mace- 
donian supremacy.  Leosthenes,  the  Athenian, 
defeated  the  army  of  Antipater,  the  Mace- 
donian general,  at  Lamia,  a  short  distance  N. 
of  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  ;  but  the  defeat  of 
the  Greek  forces  at  Crannon  m  Thessaly  once 
more  placed  the  Macedonians  in  the  ascendant. 
The  Lamian  war  closed  with  the  unconditional 
surrender  of  Athens  to  Antipater.  From  this 
time  Athens  became  the  victim  of  the  con- 
tending chiefs  of  Macedonia.  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus  ruled  the  city  ten  years,  supported  by  a 
Macedonian  garrison ;  but  in  307  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  was  sent  from  Ephesus  by  his  fa- 
ther, and  compelled  his  namesake,  the  Pha- 
lerean,  to  surrender  the  city.  The  conqueror 
announced  to  the  people  the  restoration  of 
their  ancient  constitution,  and  was  the  object 
of  extraordinary  honors,  though  he  did  nothing 
to  really  elevate  Athens,  and  his  rule  only 
added  to  her  degradation.  Athens  continued 
under  the  Macedonian  influence  down  to  the 
conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans,  though 
nominally  governed  by  her  own  laws,  and  pre- 
serving her  ancient  customs,  rites,  and  cere- 
monies of  every  description.  In  200  the  last 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  involved  in  a  war 
with  Rome,  and  Athens,  having  taken  sides 
with  the  Romans,  suffered  from  his  barbarism. 
The  city  was  relieved  by  a  Roman  fleet ;  but 
before  Philip  withdrew  from  the  siege  he  laid 
waste  the  gardens  and  suburbs,  including  the 
lyceum  and  the  tombs  of  the  Attic  heroes,  and 
destroyed  the  temples  that  stood  on  the  Attic 
plain.  Philip  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Cynoscephalse  in  197,  and  in  the  following  year 
Greece  was  declared  free  by  the  Roman  consul 
Flamininus,  at  tlie  Isthmian  games.  War  was 
renewed  by  Perseus,  and  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire was  finally  overthrown  by  Lucius  ^Emilius 
Paulus  in  168.  In  147  war  broke  out  between 
the  Achaean  league  and  Rome,  but  it  was 
closed  with  the  capture  and  sack  of  Corinth 
by  the  consul  Mummius  in  the  following  year, 


ATHENS 


57 


which  saw  the  whole  of  Greece  reduced  to  a 
Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Achaia. — 
Under  the  Romans  Athens  was  prosperous  and 
respected.  Her  schools  of  eloquence  and  phi- 
losophy were  open  to  the  civilized  world,  and 
the  sons  of  distinguished  Roman  citizens  were 
sent  there  to  complete  their  education.  Her 
splendid  temples  remained  uninjured  ;  the 
magnificence  of  the  city  had  been  increased  by 
the  liberality  of  foreign  potentates.  Athens 
occasionally  suffered  during  the  civil  wars. 
She  took  part  with  Mithridates,  and  was  be- 
sieged and  captured  by  Sulla,  who  destroyed 
the  long  walls  and  the  fortifications,  annihilated 
the  commerce  of  Piraaus,  and  left  the  city  crip- 
pled in  all  her  resources.  The  groves  of  the 
academy  and  the  lyceum  were  cut  down,  and 
columns  were  carried  off  from  the  temple  of 
Olympian  Zeus  to  adorn  some  public  building 
at  Rome.  The  establishment  of  the  empire 
made  but  little  difference  in  the  condition  of 
Athens,  and  she  continued  the  centre  of  the 
world  of  literature  and  art  down  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  St.  Paul  vis- 
ited the  city,  and  delivered  his  discourse  on 
Mars  Hill,  probably  about  the  middle  of  the 
1st  century.  The  emperor  Hadrian,  in  the  first 
part  of  the  2d  century,  finished  the  temple  of 
Olympian  Zeus,  established  a  public  library, 
and  built  a  pantheon  and  gymnasium.  Marcus 
Aurelius  increased  the  number  of  the  Athe- 
nian schools  and  the  salaries  of  the  teachers. 
About  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  the  Goths, 
crossing  the  Hellespont  and  ^Egean,  descended 
upon  Attica.  Athens  made  a  brave  defence 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  scholar  and  phi- 
losopher Dexippus,  and  suffered  but  little  from 
the  invasion  before  the  enemy  were  driven 
back.  In  A.  D.  258,  a  few  years  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Goths,  the  walls,  which  had  been 
in  a  ruinous  condition  since  the  siege  of  Sylla, 
were  repaired  by  Valerian.  In  396  Alaric 
advanced  upon  Athens ;  but.  not  willing  to 
undergo  the  delay  of  a  siege,  he  accepted  the 
hospitalities  of  the  magistrates,  and  retired, 
leaving  the  city  and  Attica  unharmed.  For 
more  than  100  years  after  this  Athens  enjoyed 
great  prosperity  as  the  chief  seat  of  learning 
and  culture ;  and  we  hear  of  her  principally 
through  the  many  learned  men  of  the  time 
who  received  their  education  in  the  city. — In 
the  5th  century  the  beautiful  Athenais,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Athenian  philosopher  Leontius,  be- 
came a  Christian,  was  baptized  at  Constanti- 
nople under  the  name  of  Eudocia,  married  the 
emperor  Theodosius  II.,  and  did  much  by  the 
influence  of  her  example,  and  by  building 
churches,  to  promote  Christianity  in  Athens, 
the  local  government  having  recently  author- 
ized, by  direction  of  an  imperial  rescript,  the 
public  recognition  of  Christianity  there.  The 
temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  was  consecrated 
to  Christ  the  Saviour ;  the  Parthenon  to  the 
Holy  Wisdom  (St.  Sophia),  afterward  chang- 
ing the  designation  to  the  Panagia  and  the 
Mother  of  God  ;  and  the  temple  of  Theseus 


to  St.  George  of  Cappadocia.  After  Justinian 
in  the  6th  century  had  broken  up  the  schools, 
we  scarcely  hear  of  the  city  for  nearly  400 
years. — In  the  12th  century  Athens  was  taken 
and  plundered  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily.  The 
fourth  crusade  again  brought  the  name  of 
Athens  to  the  notice  of  Europe.  Greece 
was  parcelled  out  among  the  Frankish  princes 
after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1204. 
Otho  de  la  Roche  was  made  duke  of  Athens  in 
1205,  and  four  successors  of  his  family  held 
the  dukedom  till  1308.  Walter  de  Brienne 
succeeded,  and  was  overthrown  by  the  Grand 
Catalan  company,  whose  aid  he  had  invoked. 
A  duke  of  the  Sicilian  branch  of  the  house  of 
Aragon  was  invested  with  the  dignity  by  the 
Catalans,  and  in  this  line  the  dukedom  re- 
mained till  near  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Six  dukes  of  the  Florentine  family  of 
Acciajuoli  followed,  ruling  Athens  till  1456. 
The  ducal  court  of  Athens  was  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  in  Europe.  In  1456,  when  it 
was  captured  by  Mohammed  II.,  Athens  ap- 
pears to  have  been  prosperous,  and  the  num- 
ber of  its  inhabitants  is  said  to  have  exceeded 
50,000.  In  1467  the  Venetians  went  to  war 
with  the  Turks,  and,  invading  Greece  with  a 
powerful  fleet,  landed  at  Piraeus,  and  expelled 
the  Turks  from  Athens  after  a  bloody  battle. 
Athens  remained  under  the  Venetians  till  1470, 
when  the  sultan  entered  Greece  with  a  large 
army  and  retook  the  city.  He  placed  Athens 
under  a  waywode,  who  held  his  office  from  the 
chief  eunuch  of  the  harem.  The  external  affairs 
of  the  city  were  managed  by  the  waywode ;  a 
cadi,  or  judge,  decided  the  controversies  be- 
tween the  Ottomans,  without  interfering  in 
those  of  the  Christians.  The  garrison  on  the 
Acropolis  was  under  the  command  of  the  Turk- 
ish disdar.  The  proper  municipal  affairs  of 
the  city  were  managed  by  magistrates  elected 
from  the  principal  families  by  the  people,  and 
called  by  the  ancient  name  of  archons.  This 
form  of  administration  remained  unchanged 
from  1470  to  1687.  In  the  latter  year  Mo- 
rosini,  the  Venetian  admiral,  having  gained 
brilliant  victories  in  the  war  between  the 
republic  and  Turkey,  captured  Athens,  and 
obliged  most  of  the  Turks  to  leave  the  city. 
But  an  epidemic  sickness  and  a  fresh  muster 
of  the  Turks  compelled  him  to  withdraw  in 
March,  1688.  A  large  number  of  the  citizens 
fled,  some  to  Salamis,  ^Egina,  and  other  islands, 
some  to  Corinth,  some  to  Nauplia,  and  others 
I  to  Cephalonia.  The  city  remained  deserted 
till  the  following  year,  when  the  Turks  en- 
tered it  and  committed  a  large  part  of  the 
houses  to  the  flames.  The  Athenians,  how- 
ever, began  gradually  to  return.  The  sultan 
granted  them  a  free  pardon,  and  remitted  the 
tribute  for  three  years.  From  1690  to  1754 
the  Athenians  lived  quietly,  under  a  political 
organization  essentially  the  same  as  that  al- 
ready described.  Between  1754  and  1777 
Athens  was  frequently  harassed  by  Albanian 
incursions.  In  the  latter  year  a  battle  was 


58 


ATHENS 


fought  at  Calandria,  near  Athens,  by  the 
Athenian  Turks  and  Greeks,  under  the  way- 
wode,  named  Chasekes,  against  these  barbari- 
ans, commanded  by  the  deli  pasha,  and  a  de- 
cisive victory  gained.  In  1778  Chasekes  forti- 
fied Athens  with  a  wall,  using  materials  taken 
from  many  of  the  ancient  structures.  The  con- 
duct of  Ohasekes  gained  him  so  much  popu- 
larity, that  his  reappointment  was  solicited 
and  obtained  of  the  Porte,  and  finally  he  was 
appointed  waywode  for  life.  Having  secured 
his  end,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  'showed 
himself  to  be  a  tyrant.  The  tide  of  popular 
feeling  turned  against  him,  and  he  was  ban- 
ished ;  but  by  intrigue  and  bribery  he  was 
again  restored.  The  contest  continued  22 
years,  during  which  the  game  was  repeated 
five  times;  and  finally,  in  1795,  he  was  be- 
headed in  Cos,  the  place  of  his  exile.  In  this 
period  the  prosperity  of  Athens  declined.  Her 
population  and  wealth  greatly  diminished.  A 
pestilence  ravaged  the  city  in  1789  and  again 
in  1792 ;  about  1,200  perished  in  the  former,  and 
1,000  in  the  latter.  In  the  movement  toward  a 
revival  of  Greek  independence,  which  distin- 
guished the  close  of  the  last  century  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present,  Athens  played  a  promi- 
nent part.  New  schools  were  established,  and 
the  whole  influence  of  all  her  educational  insti- 
tutions was  on  the  side  of  Greek  freedom.  The 
actual  war  of  independence  commenced  in 
1821.  The  fortunes  of  Athens  were  variously 
affected  during  the  seven  years  of  its  continu- 
ance. The  Turkish  garrison  was  besieged  in 
the  Acropolis  April  28,  bat  after  many  tragical 
scenes  was  relieved  July  20,  and  the  Greek 
troops  were  compelled  to  retreat  by  the  Turks 
under  Omer  Pasha,  Briones,  and  Omer  Bey. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain,  and  the 
city  was  plundered  and  burned.  Many  of  the 
Athenians  fled  to  Salamis  and  ^Egina,  and 
some  of  them  joined  the  troops  concentrating 
at  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  In  September, 
1821,  Omer  Pasha  retired  from  Athens  with 
the  greater  part  of  his  forces,  and  his  lieuten- 
ant soon  afterward  with  the  remainder.  The 
Acropolis  was  again  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
resident  Turks,  and  the  Athenians,  returning 
from  their  places  of  refuge,  besieged  them,  and 
compelled  them  to  surrender,  June  21,  1822, 
1,160  prisoners  being  taken.  Before  these 
could  be  conveyed  to  a  place  of  safety,  a  ru- 
mor of  a  new  invasion  spread  through  the  city, 
and  caused  the  Athenians  such  alarm  that  they 
fell  upon  the  Turks  and  put  to  death  about 
400,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  surrender. 
During  the  next  two  years  violent  dissensions 
between  the  Greek  leaders  delayed  the  pro- 
gress of  the  war ;  but  in  spite  of  the  treachery 
of  Odysseus,  a  leading  general,  who  joined  the 
enemy  and  made  hostile  movements  against 
Athens,  the  body  of  the  troops  and  citizens 
faithfully  supported  Gnras,  the  commander 
of  the  city,  and  finally  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory, capturing  Odysseus,  who  was  put  to 
death.  Early  in  1826  the  Turkish  forces,  un- 


der Kiutahi  Pasha  and  Omer  Pasha,  overran 
Attica.  Numerous  conflicts  occurred  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Athens.  On  Aug.  15  the  Turks 
forced  their  way  into  the  city,  and  the  Greeks 
retired  into  the  Acropolis,  where  they  were 
long  besieged,  suffering  great  hardships.  Gu- 
ras  was  killed  in  an  outwork.  During  the 
siege  the  Greek  forces  outside  the  city,  under 
the  command  of  the  English  Lord  Cochrane, 
Gen.  Church,  and  others,  strove  to  relieve 
the  garrison.  In  May  a  bloody  and  decisive 
battle  was  fought,  and  the  Greeks  were  en- 
tirely defeated.  Cochrane  and  Church  were 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  on  board  their  ships, 
and  the  posts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Piraus 
were  abandoned.  The  citadel  was  compelled 
to  surrender  June  5.  More  than  2,000  men 
and  500  women  were  marched  down  from  the 
Acropolis,  and  transported  to  Salamis,  yEgina, 
and  Poros.  Thus,  after  a  siege  of  11  months, 
Athens  was  again  placed  under  Turkish  domi- 
nation. The  city  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  Turks  till  1832,  when  the  intervention  of 
the  great  powers  had  secured  independence  to 
the  Greeks  under  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, with  President  Capo  d'Istria  at  its  head. 
During  these  last  years  almost  all  the  modern 
buildings  of  the  city  had  been  demolished. 
Scarcely  a  private  dwelling  was  uninjured,  and 
the  remains  of  antiquity  shared  in  the  general 
calamity.  The  city  recovered  slowly,  and  had 
little  prosperity  until  subsequent  events  drew 
back  to  it  some  part  of  its  former  population. 
Capo  d'Istria  was  assassinated  in  1831.  In 
August,  1832,  Otho,  the  second  son  of  the  king 
of  Bavaria,  who  had  been  selected  by  the  great 
powers,  England,  France,  and  Russia,  was  pro- 
claimed king  at  Nauplia.  He  arrived  at  the 
end  of  January,  1833.  The  king,  only  17  years 
old  when  he  was  chosen,  attained  his  majority, 
which  was  fixed  at  20,  in  1835.  In  that  year 
the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from 
Nauplia  to  Athens,  and  from  this  date  recom- 
mences the  history  of  Athens  as  a  new  centre 
of  civilization  in  that  quarter  of  the  world.  Its 
prosperity  now  quickly  revived.  A  new  liberal 
constitution,  drawn  up  by  an  assembly  con- 
vened at  the  demand  of  the  people,  and  for- 
mally accepted  March  16,  1844,  made  great 
changes  in  the  government  of  Greece,  of 
which  the  city  speedily  felt  the  favorable 
results.  Since  1844  there  have  been  few 
events  of  importance  in  the  history  of  Ath- 
ens. In  1854,  during  the  Crimean  war,  revolu- 
tionary movements  having  broken  out  against 
the  Turks,  Athens  was  occupied  by  a  garrison 
of  French  and  English  troops,  which  was  not 
wholly  withdrawn  till  1857.  In  1854  also 
the  Asiatic  cholera  visited  the  city,  causing 
terrible  suffering  and  a  very  great  number  of 
deaths. — Our  knowledge  of  the  appearance 
and  topography  of  ancient  Athens  is  derived 
from  several  sources :  from  the  ruins  now  vis- 
ible in  the  modern  city,  from  which  almost 
alone  scholars  have  been  able  to  ascertain  the 
positions  of  many  walls  and  buildings;  from 


ATHENS 


59 


the  casual  references  and  allusions  of  ancient 
historians,  orators,  and  dramatists ;  but  most 
of  all  from  the  detailed  account  of  Pausanias, 
who  visited  Athens  in  the  tin^  of  the  An- 
tonines,  a  period  of  great  splendor.  By  the 
aid  of  these  means  of  information,  interpreted 
and  arranged  by  many  eminent  scholars — 
among  whom  Ool.  Leake  and  the  German 
philologist  Forchhammer  are  prominent  as 
having  established  the  principal  points  almost 
beyond  a  doubt — a  very  accurate  idea  has  been 
formed  of  the  ancient  capital,  its  fortifications 
and  environs.  In  describing  it,  we  shall,  after 
a  few  necessary  explanations,  follow  the  route 
taken  by  Pausanias,  using  his  descriptions  in 
their  order,  and  filling  the  gaps  left  by  him  with 
information  derivable  from  other  sources. — 
Athens — that  is,  all  the  district  lying  within 
the  fortifications — consisted  of  three  parts : 

1.  The  Acropolis,  often  called  simply  the  Polls. 

2.  The  Asty,  or  upper  town,  as  distinguished 
from  the  port  towns,  and  therefore  really  in- 


Plan  of  Athens  and  the  Port  Towns. 

eluding  the  Acropolis.  3.  The  port  towns, 
Pirsous,  Munychia,  and  Phalerum.  The  Acro- 
polis was  in  itself  a  citadel ;  the  Asty  was 
surrounded  by  walls ;  and  three  similar  walls, 
the  two  long  walls  and  the  Phaleric  wall,  con- 
nected the  Asty  with  the  port  towns.  About 
the  position  of  these  last  three  there  has  been 
little  doubt ;  but  the  questions  concerning  the 
walls  of  the  Asty  itself  have  been  matter  for 
controversy.  For  a  long  time  the  views  of  Ool. 
Leake  on  this  point  were  considered  the  true 
ones ;  but  Forchhammer's  theory  is  now  gen- 
erally adopted  as  correct.  The  wall  around 
the  Asty  measured  60  stadia;  that  around 
Piraeus  (with  Munychia)  the  same ;  the  length 
of  each  of  the  long  walls  was  40  stadia,  and 
that  of  the  Phaleric  wall  35.  The  walls  of 
Pira3us,  and  probably  the  others  also,  were  60 
feet  in  height.  Between  the  long  walls,  which 
were  550  feet  apart,  ran  a  carriage  road  from 
the  Asty  to  Piraeus ;  and  this  was  probably 
lined  with  houses,  so  that  the  city  was  contin- 
ued through  the  whole  distance.  Although 
some  kind  of  fortifications  probably  surround- 


ed the  Asty  from  the  earliest  times,  the  great 
wall  around  it,  to  which  we  have  alluded,  was 
built  by  Themistocles  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  battle  of  Salamis.  The  port  towns,  though 
also  slightly  fortified  by  him,  were  first  regular- 
ly walled  and  laid  out  under  Pericles,  by  whose 
advice  they  were  connected  with  the  Asty  by 
the  northern  long  wall  and  the  Phaleric  wall. 
The  southern  long  wall  was  not  built  until 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war ; 
the  Phaleric  wall  then  became  comparatively 
useless,  and  was  allowed  to  decay.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  gates  in  the  wall  of  the  Asty  has 
been  a  matter  of  much  doubt.  The  locations 
given  in  the  accompanying  map  are  those 
agreed  upon  by  the  best  authorities,  though 
many  of  them  are  still  uncertain. — Pausanias 
apparently  entered  the  city  by  the  Piraic  gate, 
and  his  first  mention  is  of  the  Pompeium, 
a  building  used  as  a  depository  of  certain  very 
valuable  sacred  vessels  (no/tiri: la)  when  not  in  use. 
Here  were  several  statues,  among  them  one  of 
Socrates.  Beyond  this,  in  passing  toward  the 
Acropolis,  were  the  temples  of  Demeter  (Ceres), 
Hercules,  and  several  minor  deities ;  then  the 
gymnasium  of  Hermes  (Mercury) ;  all  these 
were  on  the  road  leading  toward  Pirffius,  and 
passing  between  the  hills  of  the  Museum  and  the 
Pnyx.  The  former  of  these,  lying  on  the  his- 
torian's right,  and  S.  W.  of  the  Acropolis,  was 
a  considerable  elevation,  crowned  by  a  fortress, 
and  probably  covered  with  houses.  Upon  it 
was  the  monument  of  Philopappus,  which  still 
remains  in  a  ruined  state.  The  hill  of  the  Pnyx, 
the  height  lying  to  the  left  of  Pausanias,  was 
one  of  the  famous  localities  of  Athens.  Here 
was  the  bema,  or  pulpit  of  stone,  from  which 
the  great  Athenian  orators  spoke  to  the  assem- 
bled people,  gathered  in  a  semicircular  level 
area  of  large  extent,  which  was  the  Pnyx  proper 
(n.vi>S-).  The  bema  and  traces  of  the  levelled 
area  still  remain.  Beyond  the  Pnyx,  to  the 
northeast,  was  the  Areopagus,  or  hill  of  Ares 
(Mars),  on  the  S.  E.  summit  of  which  the  famous 
court  or  council  of  the  Areopagus  held  its  sit- 
tings. N.  W.  of  the  Pnyx  was  still  another 
hill,  that  of  the  Nymphs.  Along  the  road 
taken  by  Pausanias  colonnades  extended,  proba- 
bly forming  the  entrances  to  dwellings  in  the 
rear.  Pausanias  next  entered  the  district  of 
the  Asty  called  the  inner  Oeramicus  (the  outer 
Oeramicus  lying  outside  the  walls),  at  that 
prominent  point  of  Athens,  the  Agora,  or 
i  market  place.  This  was  a  square  surrounded 
by  colonnades,  temples,  and  public  buildings, 
decorated  with  statues  and  paintings.  On  the 
right,  as  Pausanias  entered  it,  stood  the  Stoa 
Basileius  (royal  colonnade),  in  which  was  held 
the  court  of  the  archon  basileus.  Upon  its 
roof  and  near  it  were  numerous  statues,  which 
Pausanias  describes.  Next  this  stoa  was  an- 
other, the  Stoa  Eleutherius,  decorated  with 
paintings  by  Euphranor.  Near  this,  again, 
stood  the  temple  of  Apollo  Patrons,  that  of 
the  Mother  of  the  Gods,  and  the  council  house 
of  the  500.  According  to  the  account  of  the 


60 


ATHENS 


1.  ireoWAnim.     2.  Pmpylata.     1  Temple  of  Nike  Aptem.    4.   Temple  of  Ara.     5.  Sanchinry  of  Semna.     6.  (Wool  o/  Herodet. 
7.  Theatre  of  Dionytm.     8.  S!oa  ibmeiwa.     9.  JfonumerU  o/  ijwicrofc*. 

Plan  of  Ancient  Athens. 


historian,  the  Tholus,  a  circular  stone  edifice 
dedicated  to  the  gods,  the  temple  of  Aphro- 
dite Pandemus,  the  altar  of  the  Twelve  Gods, 
and  a  very  great  number  of  statues  of  gods 
and  heroes,  also  stood  around  the  market  place  ; 
and  on  the  fourth  side  were  the  Stoa  Poecile,  the 
temples  of  Aphrodite  Urania  and  Hephsestus, 
and  the  Eurysaceum,  a  temple  to  the  memory 
of  Eurysaces,  a  son  of  Ajax.  In  the  Agora 
was  also  an  enclosure  where  the  votes  for  os- 
tracism were  received.  Many  of  these  things 
are  not  mentioned  until  later  in  the  historian's 
account,  for  Pausanias  now  changed  his  route, 
passed  down  the  road  continuing  the  street  of 
the  Ceramicus  on  the  other  side  of  the  Agora  and 
leading  to  the  Ilissus,  and  only  returned  to  the 
Agora  after  describing  much  of  the  remainder 
of  the  city.  Near  the  end  of  the  long  street, 
which  was  generally  lined  with  private  houses, 
he  found  the  Odeon,  first  built  for  a  public  the- 
atre, but  afterward  used  as  a  granary,  and  near 
it  the  Enneacrunus,  or  fountain  of  Callirhoe, 
the  only  supply  of  fresh  running  water  in  an- 
cient Athens,  the  rest  used  by  the  inhabitants 
having  been  drawn  from  wells.  Beyond  these 
were  several  smaller  temples.  Returning  to 
the  Agora,  and  describing  those  parts  of  it  not 
alluded  to  before,  Pausanias  now  began  a  new 


excursion,  passing  up  the  Ceramicus  toward 
the  gate,  noticing  the  gymnasium  of  Ptolemy 


Present  Appearance  of  the  Theseuni. 


and  the  temple  of  Theseus,  or  Theseum.  This 
edifice,  at  this  day  the  best  preserved  mon- 
ument of  the  splendor  of  ancient  Athens,  was 


ATHENS 


61 


a  structure  of  Pentelic  marble,  a  peripteral 
hexastyle  of  the  Doric  order  of  architecture, 
104  ft.  long,  45  broad,  and  33|  high  to  the 
summit  of  the  pediment.  Its  sifles  and  pedi- 
ments were  adorned  with  sculptures,  some  of 
which  remain,  though  much  injured.  Many 
of  these,  as  well  as  parts  of  the  building, 
were  painted.  They  set  forth  incidents  in  the 
lives  of  Theseus  and  Hercules.  Pausanias 
turns  to  the  right  at  the  Theseum,  and  visits 
the  temple  of  the  Dioscuri  (Castor  and  Pollux), 
the  Aglaurium  or  sacred  enclosure  dedicated 
to  Aglaurus,  and  the  Prytaneura,  an  edifice  in 
which  were  deposited  the  laws  of  Solon.  The 
Olympienm,  S.  E.  of  the  Acropolis,  was  the 
largest  and  must  have  been  in  some  respects 
the  most  magnificent  of  all  the  Athenian  tem- 


ples. It  was  begun  by  Pisistratus  and  finished 
by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  so  that  its  construc- 
tion was  continued  at  intervals  through  a 
period  of  TOO  years.  It  was  350  ft.  long, 
171  broad,  and  of  great  height,  surrounded 
by  a  peristyle  comprising  160  columns,  16  of 
which  remain  standing ;  they  are  6  ft.  6  in.  in 
diameter,  and  more  than  60  ft.  high.  Several 
minor  buildings  are  next  noticed  by  Pausanias, 
among  them  the  Pythium  and  the  Delphinium, 
both  temples  of  Apollo.  After  visiting  certain 
gardens  which  appear  to  have  been  in  this 
quarter  of  the  city,  he  describes  the  Cynosar- 
ges  and  the  Lyceum,  both  outside  the  walls; 
the  former  a  place  sacred  to  Hercules,  the  latter 
the  famous  gymnasium  in  which  Aristotle  ex- 
pounded his  doctrines.  Pausanias  returned 


General  View  of  the  Acropolis  at  the  Present  Day.    (From  a  recent  Photograph.) 


along  the  Ilissus,  passing  several  lesser  altars 
and  sanctuaries,  and  his  account  makes  its 
next  important  subject  the  Panathenaic  Sta- 
dium, a  partly  natural  amphitheatre  in  the 
hills,  in  ancient  times  furnished  with  mar- 
ble seats  from  which  an  immense  multitude 
could  witness  the  games  below.  The  terraces 
of  this  amphitheatre  are  still  to  be  traced. 
The  historian  returns  to  the  Prytaneum,  notices 
the  Ohoragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  which 
still  exists,  among  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
smaller  relics  of  Athenian  art,  and  enters  the 
sacred  enclosure  of  Dionysus,  in  which  stood 
two  temples,  and  near  which  was  the  Diony- 
siac  theatre.  Near  the  theatre,  again,  stood  the 
Odeon  of  Pericles,  the  roof  of  which  is  said 
to  have  been  formed  in  imitation  of  the  tent  of 
Xerxes.  Passing  westward  along  the  base  of 
the  Acropolis,  Pausanias  mentions  the  tomb  of 
Talos,  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius  (Asclepieum), 
and  several  other  monumental  tombs  and  tem- 
ples, which  were  here  clustered  together. — In 


following  his  description  of  the  Acropolis  we 
are  aided  by  the  magnificent  ruins  still  remaining 


Ground  Plan  of  the  Acropolis. 


ATHENS 


of  the  temples  that  covered  its  summit,  and 
may  safely  supply  many  details  of  the  account. 
The  principal  buildings  on  the  summit  of  the 
Acropolis  were  the  Propylffia,  the  Erechtheum, 
and  the  Parthenon.  The  Propyleea  served  at 
once  at  an  architectural  embellishment  and  a 
military  defence.  Among  the  ancients  it  was 
more  admired  than  even  the  Parthenon,  for 
the  skill  with  which  the  difficulties  of  the 
ground  were  overcome,  and  for  the  grandeur 
of  the  general  effect.  The  approach  was  a 
flight  of  60  marble  steps,  and  was  70  ft.  broad. 
At  the  top  of  the  steps  was  a  portico  of  six 
fluted  Doric  columns,  5  ft.  in  diameter  and  29 
ft.  high.  The  side  wings,  on  platforms,  78  ft. 
apart,  had  three  Doric  colums  in  antig  front- 
ing upon  the  grand  staircase.  The  north  wing 
contained  the  Pinacotheca,  a  hall  35  ft.  by  30 ; 
the  hall  of  the  south  wing  was  27  ft.  by  16. 
Behind  the  Doric  hexastyle  was  a  magnificent 
hall  60  ft.  broad,  44  deep,  and  39  high,  with 


Ruins  of  the  Propytea. 

a  marble  ceiling  resting  on  enormous  beams, 
supported  by  three  Ionic  columns,  on  each  side 
of  the  passage.  At  the  east  end  of  this  hall 
was  the  wall,  through  which  there  were  five 
entrances,  with  doors  or  gates.  The  central 
opening,  through  which  the  Panathenaic  pro- 
cession passed,  was  13  ft.  wide  and  24  ft.  high ; 
those  next  the  central  are,  on  each  side,  9£  ft. 
wide,  and  the  smallest  5  ft.,  the  height  varying 
in  proportion.  These  gates  were  the  only  public 
entrance  into  the  Acropolis.  Within  the  wall, 
on  the  eastern  side,  was  another  hall,  19  ft. 
deep,  its  floor  elevated  about  4^  ft.  above  the 
western,  and  terminated  by  another  Doric  por- 
tico of  six  columns.  The  pediments  and  ceil- 
ings of  this  structure  have  been  destroyed. 
Most  of  the  columns  remain,  some  of  them  en- 
tire, with  heavy  fragments  of  the  architraves. 
Passing  through  the  Propylsea,  one  came  to  the 
Erechtheum,  on  the  left  or  north  side  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  the  Parthenon  on  the  right, 
near  the  southern  or  Cimonian  wall.  The 


form  of  the  Erechtheum  was  oblong,  with  a 
portico  of  six  Ionic  columns  at  the  east  end, 
and  a  kind  of  transept  at  the  west,  a  portico 
of  four  columns  on  the  north,  and  the  portico 
of  the  caryatides,  standing  on  a  basement  8 
ft.  high,  on  the  south.  At  the  western  end 


Portico  of  the  Erechtheum,  with  Caryatides. 

there  is  a  basement,  on  which  are  four  Ionic 
columns  half  engaged  in  the  wall,  and  support- 
ing a  pediment.  The  eastern  and  western  di- 
visions of  the  temple  are  on  different  levels, 
the  eastern  being  98  ft.  higher  than  the  west- 
ern. Enough  remains  of  this  extraordinary 
and  beautiful  temple  to  give  a  correct  idea  of 
its  outward  form ;  but  the  interior  is  in  so 


Ruins  of  the  Erechtheum. 

ruinous  a  condition  that  the  distribution  and 
arrangement  of  the  divisions  are  subject  to 
the  greatest  doubt.  There  remains  to  be 
described  the  Parthenon,  the  noblest  mon- 
ument in  Athens.  It  was  built  of  Pentelic 
marble,  under  the  superintendence  of  Phidias, 


ATHENS 


63 


by  Ictinus  and  Callicrates.  It  stands  on  a 
basis  approached  by  three  steps,  each  1  ft. 
9  in.  high,  2  ft.  and  about  4»in.  wide.  Its 
breadth,  on  the  upper  step,  is  1 01-34  ft.  ;  its 
length,  228  ft. ;  the  height  to  the  top  of  the 
pediment  from  the  upper  step  of  the  stylobate, 
59  ft.,  and  with  the  stylobate,  64  ft.  The  tem- 
ple is  Doric,  oetostyle,  or  with  eight  columns 
at  each  end,  and  peripteral,  or  colonnaded  all 
round,  there  being  15  columns  on  each  side, 
not  counting  those  at  the  corners — 40  in  all. 
The  length  of  the  secos,  or  body  of  the  temple, 
is  193  ft.,  and  its  breadth  71  ft.,  omitting  frac- 
tions. The  space  between  the  peristyle  and 
the  wall  is  9  ft.  wide  at  the  sides  and  11  ft.  at 
the  fronts.  The  body  is  divided  by  a  trans- 
verse wall  into  two  unequal  portions :  the  east- 
ern was  the  naos  proper,  an  apartment  for  the 
statue  of  the  goddess,  98  ft.  in  length  ;  the 
western,  the  opisthodomos,  which  was  com- 
monly used  as  the  treasury  of  the  city,  43  ft. 
long.  Within  the  peristyle,  at  each  end,  were 
eight  columns,  33  ft.  high,  on  a  stylobate  of 
two  steps.  Within  the  naos  was  a  range  of 
ten  Doric  columns  on  each  side,  and  three  at 
the  west  end,  forming  three  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangle ;  above  them,  an  architrave  supported 
an  upper  range  of  columns,  which  Wheeler,  at 
the  time  of  whose  visit  they  were  still  stand- 
ing, calls  a  kind  of  gallery ;  14  ft.  distant  from 
the  western  columns  is  the  pavement  of  Piraic 
stone,  on  which  the  great  chryselephantine 
statue  of  Athena  was  placed.  Besides  the  in- 
ternal decorations,  the  outside  of  the  temple 
was  ornamented  with  three  classes  of  sculpture : 
1.  The  sculptures  of  the  pediments,  being  inde- 
pendent statues  resting  upon  the  deep  cornice. 
The  subject  of  those  on  the  eastern  pediment 
was  the  birth  of  Athena ;  of  those  on  the  west- 
ern, the  contest  between  Poseidon  and  Athe- 
na for  the  possession  of  Attica.  2.  The  groups 
in  the  metopes,  92  in  number,  representing 
combats  of  Hercules  and  Theseus,  the  Centaurs 
and  Amazons,  and  perhaps  some  figures  of  the 
Persian  war.  These  groups  were  executed  in 
high  relief.  3.  The  frieze  round  the  upper 
border  of  the  cella  of  the  Parthenon  contained 
a  representation  in  low  relief  of  the  Panathe- 
nnic  procession.  All  these  classes  of  sculpture 
were  in  the  highest  style  of  the  art,  executed 
by  Phidias  himself,  or  under  his  immediate  di- 
rection. Most  of  them  were  in  place  when 
Wheeler  visited  Athens,  in  1670 ;  and  drawings 
of  the  figures  in  the  pediments  were  made  in 
1674  by  Carrey,  a  French  architect  in  the  suite 
of  the  marquis  de  Nointel,  minister  of  France 
at  the  Porte.  The  interior  of  the  temple  was 
thrown  down  in  1G87,  by  the  explosion  of  a 
bomb  in  the  Turkish  powder  magazine.  The 
front  columns  of  the  peristyle  escaped,  but 
eight  on  the  north  side  and  six  on  the  south 
were  overthrown.  Morosiui,  in  endeavoring  to 
remove  some  of  the  figures  on  the  pediments, 
broke  them,  and  otherwise  did  great  mischief. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  Lord 
Elgin  dismantled  a  considerable  part  of  the 
57  VOL.  H. — 5 


'  Parthenon  of  the  remaining  sculptures,  which 
form  the  most  precious  treasures  of  the  Brit- 
ish museum  at  the  present  moment.  A  ques- 

'  tioii  has  been  much  discussed  as  to  whether 
any  portion  of  the  exterior  of  the  temple  was 
decorated  with  painting.  It  is  hardly  possi- 
ble to  doubt  the  fact,  after  a  personal  exami- 
nation. Many  of  the  mouldings  have  traces 
of  beautifully  drawn  patterns.  Under  the  cor- 
nices there  are  delicate  tints  of  blue  and  red, 
and  of  blue  in  the  triglyphs.  Architraves  and 
broader  surfaces  were  tinged  with  ochre.  All 
these  figures  were  executed  so  delicately  and 
exquisitely,  that  it  is  impossible  to  accept  the 
theory  sometimes  advanced  of  their  being  the 
work  of  subsequent  barbarous  ages.  There 
are  other  traces  of  colors  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  portion  of  the  walls  still  standing,  which 
evidently  belong  to  a  period  after  the  stone- 
cutters Eulogius  and  Apollos  converted  the 
Parthenon  into'  a  church.  Among  the  inscrip- 
tions there  is  one,  found  in  1836,  containing 


Buins  of  the  Parthenon. 

a  record  of  money  paid  for  polychromatic 
decorations.  The  Parthenon  was  built  in  the 
best  period  of  architecture,  and  under  the  in- 
spiration of  the  highest  genius  in  art.  Its  as- 
pect is  simple,  but  scientific  investigation  has 
not  yet  exhausted  its  beauties  and  refinements. 
Unexpected  delicacies  of  construction  have  not 
ceased  to  be  discovered  in  it.  In  1837  Penne- 
thorne,  an  English  traveller,  noticed  the  incli- 
nation of  the  columns.  Hotter,  8chaubert,and 
others  have  examined  the  subject,  and  pub- 
lished their  observations  upon  the  inclination 
of  the  columns  and  the  curved  lines  of  the  sty- 
lobate and  architraves.  Mr.  Penrose,  an  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  architect,  visited  Athens  in 
1845,  and  was  afterward  sent  by  the  society  of 
dilettanti  to  complete  the  investigations  he  had 
already  commenced.  The  results  were  pub- 
lished in  a  splendid  folio,  in  1851.  They  may 
be  briefly  summed  up  thus:  The  lines  which 
in  ordinary  architecture  are  straight,  in  the 


ATHENS 


Boric  temple  at  Athens  are  delicate  curves. 
The  edges  of  the  steps  and  the  lines  of  the  en- 
tablatures are  convex  curves,  lying  in  vertical 
planes  and  nearly  parallel,  and  the  curves  are 
conic  sections,  the  middle  of  the  stylobate  ris- 
ing several  inches  above  the  extremities.  The 
external  lines  of  the  columns  are  curved  also, 
forming  a  hyperbolic  entasis.  The  axes  of  the 
columns  incline  inward,  so  that  opposite  pairs, 
if  produced  sufficiently  far,  would  meet.  The 
spaces  of  the  intercolumniations  and  the  size 
of  the  capitals  vary  slightly,  according  to  their 
position.  From  the  usual  points  of  view  these 
variations  and  curves  are  not  perceptible,  but 
they  produce  by  their  combination  the  effect 
of  perfect  harmony  and  regularity ;  and  the  ab- 
sence of  these  refinements  is  the  cause  of  the 
universal  failure  of  buildings  constructed  in 
modern  times  according  to  what  have  been 
supposed  to  be  the  principles  of  Hellenic  archi- 
tecture. This  subject  is  treated  by  Mr,  Penrose 
in  great  detail,  and  with  remarkable  precis- 
ion; also  by  M.  Beule,  in  ISAcropole  cTAthenes 
(Paris,  1853-'5). — Besides  these  famous  build- 
ings, there  were  on  the  Acropolis  others  of  less 
size,  but  great  beauty.  Such  were  the  temple 
of  Nike  Apteros  (the  Wingless  Victory),  the 
remains  of  which  have  been  discovered  and 
restored,  the  temple  of  Rome  and  Augustus, 
and  the  temple  of  Artemis  Brauronia.  Among 
the  celebrated  statues  and  works  of  art  on  the 
summit  of  the  Acropolis  was  the  colossal  statue 
of  Athena  Promachus,  which  represented  the 
goddess  holding  a  spear  and  in  full  armor.  It 
was  of  such  height  that  it  could  be  seen  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  coast,  above  the 
Parthenon  and  the  other  highest  buildings  of 
the  city. — The  population  of  ancient  Athens 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  controversy ;  but 
the  results  reached  by  different  authorities  differ 
by  only  a  few  thousands  from  the  estimate  of 
Leake,  who  supposes  the  city,  including  the 
port  towns,  to  have  contained  about  192,000 
inhabitants.  Of  these,  all  who  corresponded 
to  our  laboring  classes  were  slaves;  a  large 
proportion  of  the  remainder  were  metmci,  or 
residents  of  foreign  birth ;  while  the  actual 
Athenian  citizens,  freemen  in  the  enjoyment 
of  all  the  civic  rights,  formed  the  smallest  class 
of  all.  This  statement  uses  the  word  citizen  in 
a  narrow  sense,  applying  only  to  those  within 
the  walls;  but  the  political  privileges  of  an 
Athenian  citizen  were  extended  to  all  free-born 
and  properly  qualified  citizens  of  Attica.  They 
were  generally  divided  into  eupatridae,  or  pa- 
tricians, geomori,  or  landholders,  and  demiurgi, 
or  tradespeople.  (See  ATTICA.) — The  govern- 
ment of  Athens  in  the  time  of  its  prosperity 
was  in  the  hands  of  three  bodies :  the  nine 
archons,  elected  annually  ;  the  boule,  or  coun- 
cil of  state  (of  400  members  under  Solon's  con- 
stitution, 500  under  Clisthenes,  and  after  the 
year  306  B.  0.  increased  to  600  members) ;  and 
the  assembly  of  the  people  (ecclesia).  Among 
the  archons  were  divided  special  departments 
of  the  executive  power.  (See  AECHON.)  The 


boule  debated  important  measures  previous  to 
bringing  them  before  the  assem^iy  of  the  peo- 
ple, received  reports,  decided  to  what  courts 
certain  appeals  should  be  made,  &c.  Its  mem- 
bers held  office  for  one  year,  and  it  held  daily 
meetings.  The  ecclesise  were  of  three  kinds  : 
assemblies  of  the  people  held  on  fixed  days,  at 
intervals  of  about  a  month ;  those  called  on 
extraordinary  occasions  by  committees  (as  we 
should  call  them)  of  the  boule ;  and  those  which 
in  important  cases  included  not  only  the  citi- 
zens of  the  city  but  of  all  Attica.  These  as- 
semblies had  the  ultimate  power  of  decision  in 
all  cases  without  appeal,  made  war  and  con- 
cluded peace,  passed  laws  and  made  alliances, 
and  confirmed  or  censured  the  acts  of  officials. 
Their  meetings,  usually  held  in  the  Agora,  on 
the  Pnyx,  or  in  the  theatre  of  Dionysus,  were 
conducted  with  many  ceremonies.  The  chief 
court  of  the  Athenians  was  that  of  the  Areop- 
agus, the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  prehistoric 
legends.  Men  who  had  held  the  rank  of  archon 
composed  it.  Its  jurisdiction  extended  over 
all  cases  of  treason  and  special  cases  of  murder, 
serious  assault,  and  arson.  (See  ABEOPAGUS.) 
Next  stood  the  court  of  the  ephori,  who  num- 
bered 50,  chosen  from  the  citizens,  who  tried 
ordinary  cases  of  murder  and  assault.  There 
were  several  other  courts  of  less  importance. 
There  were  few  taxes  in  ancient  Athens.  The 
state  derived  a  great  part  of  its  income  from 
the  rent  of  its  lands  to  private  citizens.  The 
taxes,  including  harbor  dues,  market  taxes, 
taxes  paid  by  foreign  residents,  the  tax  set 
upon  public  prostitutes  (after  the  time  of  Peri- 
cles), and  a  few  others,  were  farmed  out. 
Upon  the  actual  citizens  there  fell  almost  no 
burden  of  taxation.  The  fines  imposed  by  the 
courts  were  also  a  considerable  source  of  in- 
come for  the  state,  and  of  course  the  largest 
sums  of  all  were  those  extorted  from  enemies 
and  foreign  allies  of  the  city. — The  ceremonies 
connected  with  religious  worship  at  Athens 
were  perhaps  more  magnificent  than  in  any 
other  city  of  the  ancient  world.  The  chief 
among  the  great  solemnities  were  the  Pana- 
thencea,  the  Dionysiac  festival,  and  the  Eleu- 
sinian  mysteries.  (See  BACCHANALIA,  ELErsis, 
and  PAKATHEN^EA.)  The  rites  and  temples 
were  under  the  charge  of  priests,  whose  offices 
were  generally  hereditary.  Immense  sums 
were  annually  expended  by  the  state  in  beau- 
tifying the  temples,  sacred  enclosures,  and 
monuments  of  the  gods,  and  the  days  dedica- 
ted to  them  were  celebrated  with  magnificent 
ceremonies. — The  private  life  of  the  Athenians 
in  the  most  ancient  days  of  the  city  was  sim- 
ple; but  with  the  administration  of  Pericles, 
or  even  before  it,  their  customs  became  extrav- 
agant and  sensual.  The  magnificent  Athenian 
banquets  of  this  and  subsequent  periods  sur- 
passed almost  all  others  of  the  time.  The 
guests  reclined  on  couches  about  the  tables, 
while  dancers  of  both  sexes,  musicians,  and 
the  songs  of  hired  slave  girls  accompanied  the 
most  extravagant  feasts.  These  ended  with  sym- 


ATHENS 


65 


posia,  or  drinking  bouts,  generally  scenes  of 
the  wildest  license.  The  education  of  the  citi- 
zen before  this  period  of  luxury  fois  as  follows : 
After  having  his  name  inscribed  by  his  father 
or  other  relative  in  the  catalogue  of  his  phratry 
(see  ATTICA)  when  he  was  but  three  or  four 
years  old,  the  young  Athenian  was  brought 
up  during  the  next  few  years  in  the  part  of 
the  house  devoted  to  the  women  (gynceceum). 
At  seven  his  actual  education  was  begun  under 
a  pedagogue  or  tutor,  under  whose  guidance 
he  visited  the  schools  and  places  of  public  ath- 
letic exercises,  pursuing  courses  of  rhetoric, 
mathematics,  music,  philosophy,  and  also  of 
manly  arts — riding,  spear-throwing,  wrestling, 
&c.  Women  and  girls  were  scarcely  allowed 


by  decorum  any  social  intercourse,  nor  were 
any  facilities  furnished  them  for  education. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  most  intel- 
ligent and  brilliant  women  of  Athens  were 
found  among  the  hetarte,  a  term  which  is 
wrongly  translated  by  our  word  prostitutes; 
for  these  women,  though  actually  hired  mis- 
tresses, were  generally  an  orderly,  highly  educa- 
ted class,  and  only  obeyed  customs  which  were 
sanctioned  by  the  age.  An  Athenian  could 
marry  at  or  after  the  age  of  14.  Heiresses  were 
compelled  by  law  to  marry  their  next  of  kin, 
outside  the  natural  limits  of  course,  that  the 
property  might  not  pass  to  another  gens.  Di- 
vorce was  obtained  by  the  simple  consent  of 
both  parties ;  adultery  was  severely  punished. 


General  View  of  Modern  Athens.    (From  a  recent  Photograph.) 


The  Athenian  private  houses  were  generally 
small  frame  buildings,  witli  tiled  roofs:  the 
streets  between  them  were  narrow  and  crooked. 
Only  as  late  as  the  time  of  Olisthenes  were  fine 
private  houses  constructed,  and  the  custom 
once  begun,  it  increased  so  fast  that  Demos- 
thenes severely  reprimanded  certain  citizens  for 
building  houses  far  surpassing  the  public  edi- 
fices ;  no  ruins  remain  to  give  us  an  idea  of  these. 
The  dress  of  the  Athenians  was  very  simple. 
The  older  men  wore  white  robes  or  Mmatia,  the 
younger  the  saffron-colored  Mamys  or  tunic. 
The  women  wore  the  chiton,  a  long  woollen 
robe ;  over  it  a  cloak  or  wrapping,  the  diploi- 
don  ;  and  outside  this  again  a  simple  shoulder 
cloak  or  cape,  the  hemidiploidon.  This  dress 


varied  little  in  times  of  festival. — In  the  present 
political  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
Athens  is  the  capital  of  the  nomarchy  of  At- 
tica and  Boeotia,  as  well  as  of  the  entire  king- 
dom. Its  population  in  1871,  after  a  slow  in- 
crease for  several  years,  was  48,107.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  king  and  court,  and  the  seat 
of  several  important  institutions  of  learning, 
art,  and  public  charity.  Among  these  are  the 
university,  employing  more  than  50  professors 
and  instructors,  and  having  a  free  library  of 
more  than  90,000  volumes ;  an  observatory  and 
botanical  garden;  two  gymnasia  on  the  Ger- 
man system;  a  military  school,  schools  for  the 
special  education  of  priests  and  teachers,  a 
polytechnic  school,  a  seminary  for  girls,  &c. 


66 


ATHENS 


ATHIAS 


An  "American  female  school "  founded  by  Rev. 
J.  H.  Hill,  is  also  maintained  in  the  city  ;  it 
was  for  a  long  time  under  the  direct  patronage 
of  the  government.  The  grammar  and  pri- 
mary schools  are  excellent,  and  instruction  is 
generally  sought  and  widely  ditfused.  Among 
the  institutions  of  art  is  an  association  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
there  are  several  museums  in  which  the 
scattered  relics  of  the  old  splendor  of  the 
city  have  been  brought  together  and  care- 
fully arranged.  Under  the  head  of  public 
charities  fall  un  asylum  for  the  blind  and  a 
hospital,  both  of  considerable  size.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  the  palace,  a  fine 
building  of  three  stories,  near  Mount  Lycabet- 
tus,  the  chamber  of  deputies,  the  barracks, 
mint,  theatre,  and  extensive  structures  intend- 
ed for  the  assemblies  of  the  national  academy, 
and  for  the  museum  and  polytechnic  school. 
There  are  also  about  100  churches,  some  of 
them  admirable  specimens  of  architecture.  The 
largest  is  that  of  St.  Nicodemus,  built  during 
the  middle  ages,  in  the  Byzantine  style.  Like, 
most  of  the  others,  it  is  not  of  great  size,  and 
depends  for  its  effect  on  the  beauty  of  its 
construction.  •  The  general  appearance  of  the 
modern  city  is  not  especially  attractive  on  near 
approach,  though  the  magnificent  height  of  the 
Acropolis,  crowned  with  the  ruins  we  have 
noticed  above,  and  the  pleasant  situation  of  the 
town  itself,  give  it  a  picturesque  aspect  when  one 
views  it  from  some  distant  point.  Parts  of  the 
city  have  the  dirt  and  squalor  peculiar  to  nearly 
all  towns  of  southeastern  Europe ;  but  its  con- 
dition has  been  gradually  improved  since  it 
became  the  royal  residence,  and  now  there  are 
several  broad  streets  and  squares,  well  kept 
and  clean.  The  hotels,  shops,  cafes,  &c.,  are 
among  the  indications  of  the  improvement  of 
the  city,  and  the  local  trade  is  active,  though 
there  is  comparatively  little  commerce  with 
foreign  ports. — See  Forchhammer's  Topogra- 
phie  von  Athen  (in  the  Kieler  philologisclie 
Studien  for  1841,  Kiel),  and  his  essay  in  de- 
fence of  his  views  in  the  Zeitschrift  f&r  Alter- 
thumswissenschaft  (1843,  Nos.  69,  70) ;  Leake's 
"  Researches  in  Greece "  (London,  1814), 
and  especially  his  "Topography  of  Athens" 
(1821);  also  his  work  "On  some  Disputed 
Questions  of  Ancient  Geography"  (1857); 
Wordsworth's  "Athens  and  Attica"  (London, 
1836);  Stuart  and  Revett's  "Antiquities  of 
Athens"  (London,  1825-'7);  Mure's  "Journal 
of  a  Tour  in  Greece"  (Edinburgh,  1842); 
Kruse's  Hellas  (Leipsic,  1826);  K.  O.  Muller's 
Attika  (in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyklopa- 
dif,  English  translation  by  Lockhart,  London, 
1842) ;  Prokesch's  Denlcwurdigkeiten  (Stutt- 
gart, 1836);  the  article  "Athenee"  in  Smith's 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography  " 
(London,  1854);  Bockh's  "Public  Economy 
of  the  Athenians"  (translated  by  Lamb,  Bos- 
ton, 1857);  Wessenberg's  "Life  in  Athens  in 
the  Time  of  Pericles"  (London,  no  date); 
Prof.  Felton's  "Greece,  Ancient  and  Modern" 


(Boston,  1867) ;  Tuckerman's  "  Greeks  of  To- 
day" (New  York,  1873). 

ATHENS,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio 
river;  area,  430  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,768. 
It  has  railroad  communication  with  Marietta, 
Columbus,  and  Cincinnati.  The  surface  is  well 
wooded  and  extremely  fertile,  and  abounds  in 
iron  ore  and  coal ;  and  large  quantities  of  salt 
are  manufactured  throughout  the  county.  The 
Hocking  river  intersects  the  county,  and  the 
Hocking  canal  extends  from  its  centre  to  the 
Ohio  canal.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
133,745  bushels  of  wheat,  96,012  of  oats,  619,- 
447  of  Indian  corn,  78,721  of  potatoes,  23,239 
tons  of  hay,  207,839  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  513,864 
of  butter,  and  201,593  of  wool.  There  were 
57,399  sheep  and  15,097  hogs.  Capital,  Ath- 
ens, on  Hocking  river  and  the  Marietta  and 
Cincinnati  and  Hocking  Valley  railroads,  70  m. 
S.  E.  of  Columbus. 

ATHENS,  a  city,  capital  of  Clarke  county,  Ga.. 
on  the  Oconee  river,  at  the  end  of  the  Athens 
branch  of  the  Georgia  railroad;  pop.  in  1860, 
3,848,  of  whom  1,893  were  colored;  in  1870, 
4,251,  of  whom  1,967  were  colored.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  cotton-growing  region,  and 
has  several  cotton  factories.  The  university 
of  Georgia,  a  state  institution  founded  in  1801, 
is  situated  here.  In  1868  it  had  5  instructors, 
76  students,  256  alumni,  and  a  library  of  7,500 
volumes.  The  law  department  had  4  profes- 
sors and  14  students.  The  city  has  three  weekly 
newspapers,  besides  two  periodicals. 

ATHERTON,  Charles  G.,  an  American  senator, 
born  at  Amherst,  N.  H.,  July  4,  1804,  died 
Nov.  15,  1853.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
congress  in  1837,  and  on  Dec.  11,  1838,  intro- 
duced under  a  suspension  of  the  rules  a  series 
of  resolutions,  declaring  that  "congress  has 
no  jurisdiction  over  the  institution  of  slavery 
in  the  several  states  of  the  confederacy;"  and 
that  "every  petition,  memorial,  resolution, 
proposition,  or  paper,  touching  or  relating  in 
any  way  or  to  any  extent  whatever  to  slavery, 
or  to  the  abolition  thereof,  shall,  on  the  pres- 
entation thereof,  without  any  further  action 
thereon,  be  laid  on  the  table  without  being 
debated,  printed,  or  referred."  These  resolu- 
tions were  passed,  under  the  previous  question, 
by  a  vote  of  126  to  78,  and  formed  the  basis 
of  the  21st  rule  of  the  next  congress,  by  which 
all  such  petitions,  upon  presentation,  were 
considered  as  objected  to,  and  the  question  of 
their  reception  laid  on  the  table.  Mr.  Ather- 
ton  continued  in  the  house  of  representatives 
till  1843,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  senate, 
where  he  remained  till  1849.  He  was  again 
elected  in  1852. 

ATHIAS,  Joseph,  a  learned  Jewish  printer  in 
Amsterdam,  died  about  1700.  He  is  princi- 
pally noted  for  having  published  two  editions 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  in  1661  and 
1667,  on  which,  on  account  of  their  correct- 
ness, most  of  the  modern  editions  are  founded. 
They  are  remarkable  for  being  the  first  in 
which  the  verses  were  marked  with  Arabic 


ATI!  LONE 


ATKINSON 


67 


figures.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  merits  the 
states  general  conferred  upon  Athias  a  chain 
of  gold  and  a  medal.  *» 

ATHLOXE,  a  market  town  and  parliament- 
ary borough  of  Ireland,  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Shannon,  near  its  entrance  into  Lough 
Ree,  partly  in  Westnieath  and  partly  in  Ros- 
coramon,  68  m.  W.  of  Dublin  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,617.  The  opposite  shores  of  the  river  are 
here  united  by  a  handsome  bridge,  and  a  canal 
has  been  formed  to  avoid  the  rapids  at  this 
point,  thus  making  navigation  practicable  for 
70  miles  higher  up  the  stream.  The  castle  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river,  with  its  outworks, 
covers  15  acres.  It  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Dublin  and  Galway,  and  an  active  trade 
is  carried  on  by  steamers  with  Limerick  and 
Shannon  harbor,  and  with  Dublin  by  the  Grand 
and  Royal  canals.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne  William  III.  besieged  Athlone  unsuc- 
cessfully, but  it  was  taken  by  Gen.  Ginkell, 
June  30,  1691. 

ATHOL,  Athole,  or  Atholl,  a  district  in  the 
northern  part  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  em- 
bracing about  450  sq.  m.  It  is  picturesque 
and  mountainous,  some  of  the  summits  attain- 
ing an  elevation  of  more  than  3,000  feet.  It 
contains  several  lakes  and  beautiful  valleys, 
among  which  is  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie, 
where  Graham  of  Claverhonse  gained  a  victory 
and  met  his  death  in  1689.  Agriculture  is 
carried  on  in  the  valleys,  while  on  the  hills 
sheep  and  cattle  are  pastured. 

ATHOS  (mod.  Gr.  Hag  ion  Oros,  holy  moun- 
tain ;  Turk.  Aineros),  the  easternmost  of  the 
three  peninsulas  projecting  from  ancient  Chal- 
cidice,  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  ^Egean  sea, 
now  included  in  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Salonica, 
about  30  m.  long  and  from  4  to  7  broad.  It 
is  mountainous,  and  cut  by  numerous  ravines. 
At  its  extremity  stands  the  mountain  from 
which  it  takes  its  name.  Mt.  Athos  is  about 
6,350  ft.  high,  with  a  peak  of  white  limestone, 
while  its  lower  rocks  are  of  gneiss  and  argil- 
laceous slate.  The  sides  of  the  mountain  are 
flanked  with  vast  forests  of  pines,  oaks,  and 
chestnuts,  the  pines  growing  to  an  immense 
size.  Various  kinds  of  aromatic  herbs  grow 
here  in  abundance,  out  of  which  the  monks  ex- 
tract the  oils  and  essence  and  use  them  for 
medicinal  purposes,  perfumery,  and  ingredients 
in  incense.  It  was  across  the  isthmus  which 
connects  the  peninsula  of  Athos  with  the  main- 
land that  Xerxes  cut  a  canal  for  his  ships,  in 
his  invasion  of  Greece.  The  remains  of  this 
canal,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  are 
still  distinctly  visible  through  most  of  its  ex- 
tent. Near  the  middle  of  its  course  it  is  not 
discernible,  having  been  filled  up.  Athos  was 
so  called  from  the  giant  of  that  name  who  in 
the  Grecian  mythology  hurled  the  mountain 
at  the  gods.  The  peninsula  in  ancient  times 
contained  several  flourishing  cities  and  a  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was 
dotted  over  with  hermitages  and  monasteries, 
20  of  which  still  remain.  Most  of  these  mon- 


asteries were  founded  by  Byzantine  princes. 
It  was  here  that  ambitious  malcontents  of  the 
court  of  Constantinople,  favorites  in  disgrace, 
and  even  private  individuals,  retired  to  await 


Athoa. 

a  change  of  ati'airs  or  return  to  favor.  The 
monks  at  present  number  about  6,000,  from 
Greece,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  and  Russia,  in  all 
of  which  countries  the  convents  of  Athos  pos- 
sess estates.  No  female  is  permitted  to  enter 
the  peninsula.  The  monks  are  ruled  by  an  ad- 
ministrative assembly  (protaton),  composed  of 
delegates  from  the  various  convents  chosen  for 
a  term  of  four  years.  The  administration  of 
justice  and  the  management  of  the  revenue  are 
also  vested  in  this  body.  The  assembly  has 
its  seat  at  Karias,  the  capital  of  the  peninsula. 
A  Turkish  aga  resides  in  Athos  and  collects  an 
annual  tribute  from  the  convents.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  these  convents  were  the  seat  of  Greek 
science  and  the  centre  of  Byzantine  Christian 
knowledge,  and  possessed  many  large  libraries. 
There  are  still  to  be  found  there  old  and  beau- 
tiful manuscripts,  several  of  which  have  been 
photographed  and  deposited  in  the  museum  of 
Moscow. 

VII 1 1.  \  V  or  Milan,  a  lake  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, about  20  m.  in  length  and  8  to  10  m.  in 
breadth,  situated  in  the  department  of  Solola, 
Guatemala.  It  appears,  from  the  geological 
formations  about  it,  to  lie  in  the  crater  of 
an  ancient  volcano,  and  it  is  of  extraordinary 
depth,  no  soundings,  it  is  said,  being  obtain- 
able with  a  line  of  1,800  ft.  Although  several 
small  streams  flow  into  it,  no  outlet  has  been 
discovered.  The  scenery  in  its  neighborhood 
is  remarkably  picturesque ;  high  cliffs  surround 
it,  with  but  little  vegetation.  On  the  southern 
bank  of  the  lake  is  a  small  Indian  town  of  the 
same  name,  having  barely  2,000  inhabitants. 

ATKINSON,  Thomas  Witlam,  an  English  artist 
and  traveller,  born  in  Yorkshire,  March  6, 


ATLANTA 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


1799,  died  at  Lower  W  aimer,  Kent,  Aug.  13, 
1861.  He  excelled  by  his  architectural  designs 
and  in  landscape  gardening,  and  wrote  "  Gothic 
Ornaments  of  English  Cathedrals."  He  trav- 
elled extensively,  and  published  "  Oriental  and 
Western  Siberia,  a  Narrative  of  seven  years' 
Explorations  and  Adventures  in  Siberia,  Mon- 
golia, the  Kirghis  Steppes,  Chinese  Tartary, 
and  part  of  Central  Asia"  (London,  1857), 
and  "  Travels  in  the  Regions  of  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Amoor"  (1860),  both  works  illustrated 
from  his  own  designs. 

ATLANTA,  a  city,  capital  of  Georgia,  and  also 
of  Fulton  county,  and  next  to  Savannah  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  state, 
101  m.  N.  W.  of  Macon  and  171  m.  W.  of  Au- 
gusta ;  pop.  in  1860,  9,554 ;  in  1870,  21,789,  of 
which  9,929  were  colored.  It  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  the  Atlanta  and  West  Point, 
Atlanta  and  Richmond,  Western  and  Atlantic, 
Georgia,  and  Macon  and  Western  railroads  con- 
necting here.  There  is  also  a  street  railroad 
company.  Atlanta  lies  nearly  1,100  ft.  above 
the  sea,  and  is  built  upon  hilly  ground.  It  is 
laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  about  3  m.  in 
diameter,  the  union  passenger  depot  occupying 
the  centre.  Oglethorpe  park,  at  the  terminus 
of  Marietta  street,  about  2  m.  from  the  depot, 
contains  fine  drives,  lakes,  &c.  The  chief  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  state  capitol,  the  city  hall, 
the  first  Methodist  church  (South),  the  opera 
house,  and  the  Kimball  house,  one  of  the  lar- 
gest hotels  in  the  South.  The  principal  manu- 
factories are  a  rolling  mill,  three  founderies, 
three  planing  mills,  several  flour  mills,  two 
railway  shops,  a  brewery,  and  several  tobacco 
factories.  The  business  of  the  city  amounts  to 
about  $35,000,000  annually.  The  valuation  of 
property  in  1872  was  $13,545,585.  There  are 
two  national  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $400,000, 
a  loan  and  trust  company,  and  two  savings 
banks.  The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a 
hoard  of  14  councilmen  (two  from  each  ward). 
The  police  force  consists  of  55  oificers  and  pri- 
vates. There  are  three  steam  fire  engines,  two 
hand  engines,  and  a  hook  and  ladder  company. 
Atlanta  contains  a  branch  of  the  Baptist  or- 
phans' home  and  a  ladies'  relief  society.  Steps 
were  taken  in  the  autumn  of  1869  to  establish 
a  public  school  system,  and  in  1872  three 
school  houses  had  been  erected,  and  29  teachers 
were  employed.  Other  institutions  of  learning 
are  the  North  Georgia  female  college,  Atlanta 
medical  college,  Oglethorpe  college,  Atlanta 
university  (colored),  two  business  colleges,  an 
English  and  German  select  school,  an  orphans' 
free  school,  and  a  colored  school.  Oglethorpe 
college  has  a  library  of  5,000  volumes;  the 
young  men's  library  association  possess  about 
3,000  volumes ;  and  the  state  library  contains 
16,000  volumes.  Three  daily  and  two  weekly 
newspapers  and  three  monthly  periodicals  are 
published.  There  are  28  churches,  viz. :  6  Bap- 
tist (1  colored),  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Christian, 
1  Congregational,  2  Episcopal,  1  Jewish,  1  Lu- 
theran, 13  Methodist  (9  Southern  and  3  colored), 


and  2  Presbyterian. — Atlanta  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1847.  During  the  civil  war  it  ac- 
quired great  importance  as  the  chief  entrepot 
of  trade  between  the  western  and  Atlantic 
and  gulf  states,  the  principal  manufacturing 
town  in  the  south,  and  the  seat  of  various  gov- 
ernment works  of  the  confederacy.  It  was 
then  strongly  fortified.  Gen.  Sherman  began 
an  advance  upon  it  from  Chattanooga  at  the 
beginning  of  May,  1864,  with  98,000  men  and 
254  guns.  The  defence  was  intrusted  to  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston,  with  about  50,000  men, 
occupying  a  position  at  Dalton.  By  a  series 
of  flank  movements,  and  some  severe  fighting, 
particularly  at  Resaca,  New  Hope  church,  and 
Kenesaw  and  Lost  mountains,  Johnston,  though 
skilfully  manoeuvring,  was  forced  to  retire  from 
position  to  position,  to  the  very  defences  of  At- 
lanta, which  he  reached  before  the  middle  of 
July.  On  the  17th  he  was  superseded  by  Gen. 
Hood,  who  assumed  the  offensive,  making  three 
heavy  attacks  on  the  federal  forces  (July  20, 
22,  and  28).  These  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss,  and  Atlanta  was  besieged  till  Sept.  1,  when 
Hood  was  compelled  to  evacuate  it  by  a  flank 
movement  of  Sherman's  army  which  covered 
the  lines  of  railroad  in  the  rear  of  the  con- 
federates. Before  abandoning  the  city,  to  fall 
back  on  Macon,  Gen.  Hood  set  fire  to  all  the  ma- 
chinery, supplies,  and  munitions  of  war  which 
he  could  not  remove.  The  federal  losses  from 
Chattanooga  to  the  occupation  of  Atlanta  were 
30,400  men  and  15  cannon.  The  confederate 
losses  amounted  to  about  42,000  men,  40  or  50 
guns,  and  25,000  stand  of  small  arms.  Both 
armies  had  been  reenforced  during  the  four 
months'  contest.  When  Sherman  moved  his 
base  of  supplies  to  Chattanooga  in  November, 
the  machine  shops,  depots,  government  build- 
ings, &c.,  were  set  on  fire.  After  the  recon- 
struction of  the  state  and  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  1868,  Atlanta  became  the  capital, 
since  which  time  it  has  increased  in  population 
with  remarkable  rapidity. 

ATLANTIC,  a  S.  S.  E.  county  of  New  Jersey ; 
area,  620  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,093.  The 
Atlantic  ocean  borders  it  on  the  S.  E.,  where 
it  is  indented  by  Great  Egg  harbor,  Absecum 
and  several  other  bays,  studded  with  islands 
and  planted  with  oysters.  It  is  intersected  by 
Great  Egg  Harbor  river.  The  surface  is  low 
and  flat ;  it  is  marshy  near  the  coast,  and  the 
soil  further  inland  is  light  and  sandy.  In  1870 
the  county  produced  7,198  bushels  of  wheat. 
47,488  of  Indian  corn,  31,702  of  Irish  and 
18,514  of  sweet  potatoes,  4,675  tons  of  hay, 
and  5,020  gallons  of  wine.  Capital,  May's 
Landing. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  that  branch  of  the  gen- 
eral ocean  which  separates  the  continents  of 
Europe  and  Africa  from  America.  Its  oldest 
name  among  the  ancients  was  simply  the 
Ocean  (6  'ttKeav6f) ;  it  was  afterward  named 
the  Atlantic  ocean  from  Mount  Atlas,  which 
rises  near  its  shores.  It  was  known  and  navi- 
gated by  the  Phoenicians  long  before  the  be- 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


ginning  of  Greek  historical  records.  Some  of 
their  colonies  on  its  coasts  are  said  to  have 
been  founded  as  early  as  1100  B.  ^.,  and  their 
commerce  extended  to  the  British  islands  and 
the  Baltic.  To  the  south  they  went  equally 
far,  and  are  believed  to  have  even  circumnavi- 
gated Africa  six  centuries  before  Christ,  about 
the  same  time  that  the  more  timid  Greeks  re- 
corded the  passage  of  the  first  navigator  of  their 
nation  through  the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  But  the 
real  importance  of  this  ocean  as  the  great  high- 
way of  modern  civilization  dates  from  the  14th 
and  loth  centuries,  when  the  outlying  groups  of 
islands,  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores, 
were  first  visited,  and  finally  Columbus,  cutting 
loose  from  coasting  voyages,  struck  across  its 
unknown  waste  to  the  discovery  qf  a  new 
world.  I.  GEOGRAPHICAL  DESCRIPTION.  The 
limits  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  have  been  taken 
rather  arbitrarily,  generally  between  the  Arc- 
tic circle  and  a  line  drawn  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  physical  geog- 
raphy it  is  a  brancli  of  the  great  southern 
ocean,  forming  a  deep  gulf  of  which  the  Arctic 
ocean  is  the  blind  end.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
Atlantic  has  the  shape  of  an  irregular  broad 
canal  running  north  and  south,  with  a  deep 
bend  to  the  west  in  the  middle  of  its  course. 
The  projecting  angles  of  the  bordering  conti- 
nents are  said  by  Humboldt  to  correspond  to 
the  reentering  ones  on  the  opposite  side.  But 
in  reality  this  correspondence  is  somewhat  dis- 
torted, and  thus  narrows  are  formed  by  which 
the  Atlantic  is  divided  into  three  principal 
basins:  the  southern  or  Ethiopic,  from  the 
Antarctic  ocean  to  the  narrows  between  Cape 
San  Roque  and  Senegambia ;  the  middle  or  At- 
lantic proper,  from  the  same  narrows  to  the 
range  of  islands  formed  by  the  British  and 
Faroe  islands  and  Iceland ;  and  the  northern  or 
Arctic.  The  Atlantic  proper  contrasts  strongly 
with  the  Ethiopic  by  the  great  development  of 
its  shore  line  and  the  number  of  lateral  arms 
or  mediterranean  seas  in  communication  with 
it.  Such  are  the  Caribbean  sea,  the  gulfs  of 
Mexico  and  of  St.  Lawrence,  Baffin  and  Hud- 
son bays,  the  Baltic,  the  North  sea  or  German 
ocean,  the  Irish  sea,  and  the  Mediterranean 
with  its  dependencies  the  Adriatic  and  the 
Black  sea.  In  the  Ethiopic  ocean,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  coasts  are  very  uniform,  with  few 
indentations  or  bays,  and  no  inland  seas  at  all. 
The  watershed  of  the  continents  bordering  on 
the  Atlantic  basin  is  of  remarkable  extent,  nil 
the  other  oceans  of  the  earth  put  together  re- 
ceiving but  a  fraction  of  the  fresh-water  drain- 
age in  comparison.  Several  rivers  of  Asia  and 
one  or  two  in  northwestern  America  can  alone 
bear  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  Atlantic 
basin.  The  number  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean  is  small  when  compared  with  those  of 
the  Pacific.  Leaving  aside  those  islands  which 
are  merely  detached  parts  of  the  continents,  we 
can  count  scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  groups. 
Like  most  of  that  class,  they  are  principally 
of  volcanic  origin.  Of  coral  islands,  so  numer- 


ous in  the  Pacific,  there  are  but  two  groups, 
the  Bermudas  and  the  Bahamas.  II.  DEPTH, 

"AND  FIGUKE  OF  THE  BOTTOM.  The  means  em- 
ployed for  ascertaining  the  depth  are  general- 
ly modifications  of  the  old-fashioned  lead  and 
line.  In  moderate  depths  this  method  suffices 
in  its  simplest  form.  In  great  depths,  however, 
its  indications  are  apt  to  be  untrustworthy, 
because  the  shock  of  the  lead  on  the  bottom 
ceases  to  be  felt,  and  the  line  continues  to  run 
by  its  own  weight  or  is  carried  off  by  currents 
without  sensibly  slackening.  Sounding  with 
a  small  line  or  twine,  to  be  abandoned  to- 
gether with  the  weight  at  each  cast,  was  tried, 
but  failed  for  want  of  means  to  determine  when 
the  bottom  was  reached.  No  sounding  being 
now  considered  trustworthy  unless  a  specimen 
of  bottom  is  brought  up  as  a  proof  that  the 
lead  has  touched,  it  was  found  desirable  to  be 
relieved  of  the  labor  of  hauling  up  the  weight, 
and  to  bring  up  only  the  small  apparatus  and 
to  collect  the  mud  or  sand.  This  was  first 
accomplished  by  Lieut.  Brooke's  apparatus,  a 
perforated  cannon  ball  suspended  in  a  sling 
which  unhooks  itself  when  the  tension  is  re- 
lieved ;  an  iron  rod  passing  through  the  hole  in 
the  ball  is  provided  with  a  contrivance  to  bring 
up  a  specimen,  and  is  the  only  weight  remain- 
ing on  the  line.  Lieut,  (now  Admiral)  Sands 
substituted  two  hemispheres  for  the  solid  shot, 
falling  off  on  each  side  of  the  central  rod,  thus 
allowing  a  larger  specimen  cup  to  be  employed. 
An  original  method  proposed  by  Prof.  Tro\v- 
bridge  consists  in  paying  out  the  line  (a  small 
but  strong  twine)  from  a  coil  carried  down 
with  the  weight,  thus  avoiding  the  friction  of 
the  line  in  passing  through  the  water.  The 
depth  is  registered  by  a  screw  similar  to  Mas- 
sey's.  Propositions  for  sounding  without  line 
have  been  numerous,  the  weight  carrying  down 
a  float  which  is  released  on  the  bottom  and  re- 
turns to  the  surface ;  but  none  have  been  suc- 
cessful. In  the  United  States  coast  survey 
deep-sea  soundings  are  now  usually  made  with 
a  strong  line  and  a  heavy  weight ;  detaching 
the  latter  is  not  considered  of  great  importance, 
since  the  hauling  up  is  done  by  steam.  The 
depth  is  registered  by  Massey's  indicator, 
based  on  the  principle  of  a  propeller  screw, 
free  to  revolve  in  passing  downward,  and  com- 
municating its  motion  to  a  set  of  wheels  regis- 
tering the  number  of  revolutions.  It  is  clamped 
loosely  to  a  spindle  so  as  to  be  free  from  the 
torsion  of  the  line,  and  is  carefully  tested  and 
its  error  determined  in  moderate  depths.  The 
Atlantic  ocean  in  its  northern  basin  is  better 
known  with  regard  to  depth  than  any  of  the 
others ;  nevertheless,  there  is  need  of  more 
soundings  before  we  can  form  a  true  idea  of 
the  figure  of  its  bottom.  Most  of  our  knowl- 

j  edge  of  it  has  been  acquired  during  the  last  30 
years.  Before  that,  a  few  soundings,  now 
mostly  considered  untrustworthy,  and  some 
theoretical  speculations,  were  the  sum  of  our 
knowledge.  Dr.  Young  deduced,  chiefly  from 
the  theory  of  tides,  a  depth  of  about  15,000  ft. 


70 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


for  the  Atlantic,  which  is  probably  not  far  from 
the  truth.  Laplace  supposed  the  mean  depth 
of  the  ocean  to  be  of  the  same  order  as  the 
mean  elevation  of  the  land.  But  his  supposed 
mean  height  of  the  land,  3,000  ft.  (Humboldt 
estimated  it  more  correctly  at  1,000),  was 
much  too  small  to  represent  the  mean  depth  of 
the  ocean.  Among  the  first  connected  series 
of  deep-sea  soundings  were  those  made  by  the 
United  States  coast  survey  in  connection  with 
the  exploration  of  the  Gulf  stream,  those  of 
Capt.  Lee  and  Capt.  Berryman  in  the  brig 
Dolphin,  of  Sir  Leopold  McClintock  in  the 
Bulldog,  and  others.  When  the  projects  for 
laying  submarine  telegraph  cables  across  the 
ocean  began  to  assume  importance,  a  sudden 
impetus  was  given  to  deep-sea  sounding ;  com- 
plete sections  across  the  ocean  were  explored 
in  different  directions,  and  the  whole  subject 
appeared  much  less  formidable  than  before. 
After  such  feats  as  finding  and  grappling  suc- 
cessfully a  broken  cable  in  mid-ocean  and  in 
nearly  two  thousand  fathoms,  the  mere  fact  of 
sounding  to  obtain  the  depth  appeared  very 
simple.  In  late  years  a  new  scientific  interest 
has  arisen  in  the  study  of  the  deep-sea  bottom 
by  means  of  the  dredge,  and  numerous  sound- 
ings have  been  taken  in  connection  with  it 
in  Europe  and  America.  In  studying  a  chart  of 
the  ocean  containing  many  soundings  it  will  be 
observed  that  on  leaving  the  shore,  in  the 
greater  number  of  cases,  the  depth  does  not 
increase  regularly  or  according  to  a  uniform 
slope,  but  that  the  bottom  forms  as  it  were  a 
terrace  around  the  continents,  sloping  very 
gradually  down  to  a  certain  depth,  from  which 
there  is  a  much  more  rapid  descent  into  deep 
water.  This  depth  we  may  assume  at  about 
100  fathoms,  and  that  line  is  generally  marked 
on  the  maps ;  but  it  is  really  somewhat  less, 
probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  80  fathoms. 
We  may,  for  instance,  find  that  we  must  sail 
100  m.  from  the  shore  to  find  100  fathoms 
depth ;  but  in  10  m.  more  the  lead  would  sink 
to  1,000.  Hence,  should  the  level  of  the  ocean 
sink  100  fathoms,  a  large  addition  of  territory 
would  be  made  to  the  continents;  100  fathoms 
more  would  increase  this  addition  by  a  mere 
narrow  strip,  very  steep  toward  the  sea.  This 
terrace  probably  marks  the  ancient  margin  of 
the  continents,  and  has  been  gradually  formed 
by  the  encroachment  of  the  ocean  on  the  land. 
Hence  it  is  as  a  rule  wider  on  coasts  formed 
of  materials  easily  disintegrated  than  on  those 
formed  of  hard  rocks.  The  terrace  is  narrow 
on  the  coast  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  widens 
largely  from  the  bay  of  Biscay  northward,  ex- 
tending from  50  to  100  m.  outside  of  the  Brit- 
ish islands,  which  it  embraces  together  with 
the  whole  North  sea.  It  is  narrow  along  the 
coast  of  Norway,  but  extends  from  Spitzbergen 
half  way  to  Cape  North.  On  the  coast  of 
North  America  it  is  very  wide,  though  inter- 
rupted at  several  points,  from  Newfoundland 
to  Cape  Cod,  embracing  all  the  banks.  South 
of  Cape  Cod  it  is  from  60  to  100  m.  broad, 


narrowest  at  Cape  Hatteras  and  tapering  off 
toward  Florida,  but  wide  again  on  the  W. 
side  of  this  peninsula.  The  West  Indies  gen- 
erally rise  out  of  deep  water.  The  terrace 
along  the  coast  of  South  America  varies  gen- 
erally from  (iO  to  100  m.  in  breadth,  but  be- 
comes much  wider  S.  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
so  as  to  include  the  Falklands.  At  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  it  extends  about  100  m.  S.  It 
has  not  yet  been  developed  by  observation 
along  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  With  regard  to 
the  depth  of  the  trough  of  the  South  Atlantic 
ocean,  we  have  little  information.  Some  of 
the  supposed  deepest  soundings  on  record,  from 
7,000  to  8,000  fathoms,  were  made  off  the  coast 
of  South  America,  but  they  are  entirely  dis- 
credited now.  From  a  few  trustworthy  ones 
it  is  fair  to  suppose  this  basin  to  have  what  is 
probably  the  average  depth  of  all  oceans,  viz., 
from  2,000  to  3,000  fathoms.  (It  may  be  stated 
in  passing,  that  for  the  Pacific  ocean  the  aver- 
age depth  between  Japan  and  California,  de- 
duced from  the  velocity  of  earthquake  waves, 
was  found  a  little  over  2,000  fathoms,  between 
Chili  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  2,500,  and  be- 
tween Chili  and  New  Zealand  only  1,500  fath- 
oms.) Of  the  North  Atlantic  more  is  known 
than  of  any  other  ocean.  The  lines  of  sound- 
ings taken  from  England  and  France  to  New- 
foundland, for  the  telegraph  cables,  show  that 
no  depth  in  that  part  exceeds  2,400  fath- 
oms. From  these  and  other  soundings  it  ap- 
pears that  the  bed  of  the  North  Atlantic  con- 
sists of  two  valleys  separated  by  a  broad  ridge 
running  from  the  Azores  to  Iceland.  The  depth 
over  the  ridge  is  always  less  than  2,000  fath- 
oms, generally  about  1,500;  it  widens  and 
shoals  toward  the  north,  forming  there  a  wide 
plateau  embracing  both  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
islands,  with  a  depth  of  little  more  than  300 
fathoms.  The  eastern  valley  varies  between 
2,000  and  2,500  fathoms,  seems  to  extend  to 
the  equator,  and  shoals  and  tapers  toward  the 
north,  turning  at  the  same  time  toward  the 
northeast,  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  narrow 
channel  between  the  Shetland  and  Faroe  isl- 
ands, with  600  fathoms.  Beyond  this  point 
it  cannot  be  followed  for  want  of  data.  The 
western  valley  is  not  well  known  in  its  south- 
ern and  middle  part.  It  is  probably  very 
broad  in  the  great  bay  formed  between  the 
West  Indies,  the  United  States,  and  Newfound- 
land, depths  of  over  3,000  fathoms  being  re- 
ported S.  of  the  Bermudas.  Very  deep  water, 
4,580  fathoms,  is  said  to  have  been  found  a 
short  distance  S.  of  the  Grand  Bank  of  New- 
foundland, but  this  has  not  yet  been  corrobora- 
ted by  additional  soundings.  The  valley  then 
passes  E.  of  the  banks,  gradually  shoaling,  and, 
after  sending  an  offset  into  Davis  strait,  passes 
into  the  Arctic  ocean  through  the  narrow  pas- 
sage between  Iceland  and  Greenland,  having 
there  a  probable  depth  of  a  little  more  than 
1,000  fathoms.  Of  the  seas  communicnting 
with  the  Atlantic,  the  Mediterranean  in  its 
two  basins  reaches  a  depth  of  about  1,600 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


71 


fathoms  in  the  western  and  2,200  in  the  east- 
ern ;  and  the  Black  sea  a  depth  of  £00  to  900 
fathoms.  The  whole  Mediterranean'system  is 
separated  from  the  Atlantic  by  a  barrier  of 
150  to  200  fathoms  at  the  strait  of  Gibraltar. 
The  Caribbean  sea  is  deep,  reaching  to  about 
2,500  fathoms  in  some  parts,  and  the  passages 
between  the  Windward  Islands  are  in  some 
places  more  than  1,000  fathoms.  The  passage 
through  the  strait  of  Yucatan  has  about  the 
same  depth,  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico  may  reach 
2,000  fathoms  in  its  central  part.  Its  com- 
munications with  the  Atlantic  through  the 
strait  of  Florida  and  the  Old  Bahama  channel 
do  not  exceed  400  or  500  fathoms.— From 
what  we  know  at  present  of  the  Atlantic  ocean 
bottom,  it  appears  to  be  entirely  destitute  of 
any  submarine  chains  of  mountains  analogous 
to  those  we  have  on  land ;  there  are  no  steep 
valleys,  no  bare  rocks,  in  fact  none  of  that 
variety  of  surface  which  on  dry  land  contrib- 
utes so  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  scenery.  For 
incalculable  ages  a  slow  but  permanent  shower 
of  organic  debris  has  been  descending  from  the 
surface,  which,  mingling  at  the  bottom  with 
the  skeletons  of  its  inhabitants,  has  formed  a 
uniform  layer  of  a  soft  calcareous  ooze  of  un- 
known thickness,  covering  the  accidents  of  the 
bottom  as  a  snowstorm  levels  the  hillocks  and 
ditches  of  our  fields.  Being  entirely  unaffected 
by  changes  of  temperature  and  of  moisture,  the 
ocean  bottom  cannot  show  the  effects  of  weath- 
er or  of  erosion,  the  magnitude  of  which  on 
the  terrestrial  relief  is  as  yet  greatly  under- 
rated even  by  many  geologists.  It  is  only  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  ocean  (and  probably  in 
the  southern  also)  that  in  a  certain  sense  the 
traces  of  atmospheric  action  on  the  surface  of 
the  bottom  can  be  found,  but  only  mediately. 
The  banks  of  Newfoundland  are,  if  not  formed, 
at  least  increased  by  the  sand  and  pebbles  an- 
nually brought  down,  though  in  small  quanti- 
ties, from  the  arctic  regions  by  the  icebergs, 
of  which  this  is  the  great  melting  ground.  The 
rounded  pebbles  of  basalt  found  by  Wallich  be- 
tween the  Faroe  islands  and  Iceland,  and  the 
gruvel  and  pebbles  observed  by  Carpenter  in 
the  deep-sea  dredgings  off  the  Faroes,  have 
probably  also  an  arctic  origin,  drift  ice  having 
been  seen,  though  rarely,  very  nearly  in  the 
same  localities.  The  foregoing  remarks  apply 
of  course  only  to  the  deep-sea  basin.  On  the 
terrace  fringing  the  continents  the  force  of  tidal 
and  other  currents  has  had  more  effect  in  shap- 
ing the  bottom ;  rocks  and  coral  reefs  lift  their 
heads  to  or  above  the  surface ;  in  a  word,  there 
is  more  superficial  variety,  but  even  here  it  is  sel- 
dom comparable  to  many  of  the  subaerial  reliefs. 

III.    CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  OCEAN  BED.       It  has 

always  been  the  practice  in  navigation  to  arm 
the  sounding  lead,  i.  e.,  to  fill  a  cavity  at  its 
base  with  tallow  (the  arming).  Particles  of 
sand,  stones,  shells,  &c.,  remain  attached  to 
it  after  a  cast,  and  give,  by  their  proportions, 
color,  or  size,  indications  of  the  position  of  a 
ship,  frequently  of  great  value.  Hydrogruphers 


have  devised  more  convenient  means  of  bring- 
ing up  specimens  of  the  bottom.  In  France  the 
sounding  lance  is  mostly  used,  a  pointed  bar 
of  iron  projecting  under  the  lead,  and  provided 
with  notches  or  barbs  in  which  the  sand  or 
mud  remains.  In  the  United  States  coast 
survey  the  characteristic  specimens  of  bottom 
are  preserved  with  care,  in  the  first  place  as 
vouchers  of  the  correctness  of  the  data  given 
on  the  charts,  and  secondly  for  purposes  of 
scientific  investigation.  Lieut.  Stellwagen,  U. 
S.  N.,  while  on  coast  survey  duty,  proposed  a 
simple  instrument  for  bringing  up  specimens, 
which,  under  the  name  of  the  Stellwagen  cup, 
has  been  extensively  and  satisfactorily  used. 
It  consists  in  a  conical  iron  cup,  screwed  into 
a  rod  projecting  from  the  base  of  the  lead,  and 
having  its  opening  covered  by  a  loose  leather 
valve.  When  the  lead  strikes,  the  cup  is 
driven  into  the  bottom  and  fills,  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  afterward  keeps  the  cover 
down  while  hauling  up.  A  slightly  different 
sounding  cup  was  invented  by  Admiral  Sands, 
in  which  the  opening  into  the  cup  is  at  the 
side  and  kept  closed  by  a  spring,  which  opens 
only  when  the  cup  is  penetrating  into  the  soil. 
In  Brooke's  sounding  apparatus,  before  men- 
tioned, the  cavity  at  the  end  of  the  rod  was 
at  first  filled  with  quills  in  which  the  mud 
lodged ;  later  a  valve  was  provided  which 
was  pressed  over  the  opening  by  the  sliding 
off  of  the  cannon  ball.  The  quantity  brought 
up  in  that  way  was,  however,  always  very 
small.  The  greater  part  of  the  extensive  col- 
lection of  specimens  of  soundings  in  the  coast 
i  survey  office  in  Washington  have  been  pro- 
j  cured  with  the  Stellwagen  and  the  Sands  cups. 
In  England  the  Bulldog  machine,  so  called,  has 
been  successfully  used  for  some  years.  It  is 
a  modification  of  Capt.  Ross's  clams,  and  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  scoops  closing  against  each 
other  and  thus  bringing  up  a  considerable 
quantity  of  material.  The  results  obtained  by 
these  different  methods  have  been  laid  down 
in  maps,  in  France  by  M.  Delesse  and  in  Ame- 
rica by  Mr.  Pourtales,  and  thus  a  general 
idea  of  the  geology  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
has  been  obtained,  or  rather  of  its  lithology,  as 
M.  Delesse  has  called  it ;  for  under  water  it  is 
only  the  superficial  layer  which  is  brought  to 
our  knowledge ;  of  its  thickness,  superposition, 
&c.,  the  sounding  lead  can  give  us  no  idea. 
From  these  researches  it  appears  that  on  the 
coast  terrace  there  is,  as  might  be  expected,  a 
great  variety  in  the  constitution  of  the  bottom. 
It  reflects  as  it  were  the  geological  formations 
of  the  adjacent  shore,  but  with  this  difference, 
that  the  movement  of  the  water  produces  a 
sifting  action  when  agitated  by  the  tides,  winds, 
or  currents,  the  heavier  and  harder  particles 
remaining  alone  in  some  localities,  while  the 
lighter  and  finer  materials  are  transported  and 
deposited  in  others.  This  accounts  in  part  for 
the  immense  preponderance  of  silicious  sand  in 
the  deposits  of  the  terrace,  since  it  is  the  result 
of  the  decomposition  of  most  of  the  primitive 


72 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


rooks  and  of  the  sifting  out  of  many  of  the 
secondary  and  tertiary  formations.  Limestones, 
being  generally  soft,  are  reduced  to  impalpable 
powder  and  form  deposits  of  calcareous  mud  ; 
while  argillaceous  mud  results  from  the  decom- 
position of  clay  slates,  marl,  and  true  clay  beds. 
Large  pebbles  or  shingle  are  rare  at  a  distance 
from  the  shore,  though  common  enough  on  the 
beaches.  They  seem  to  be  covered  by  finer 
materials,  except  where  swept  by  currents,  as 
for  instance  in  the  British  channel,  where  sev- 
eral banks  of  flints  from  the  decomposed  chalk 
beds  are  known  to  exist.  But  besides  the  de- 
posits of  which  we  have  spoken,  resulting  from 
decomposition  or  remodelling  of  preexisting 
ones,  there  are  real  formations  on  a  very  large 
scale  now  going  on.  The  lime  dissolved  in  the 
sea  water  is  assimilated  by  organized  beings, 
animals  or  plants,  secreted  in  solid  form,  prin- 
cipally as  a  carbonate,  and,  after  having  per- 
formed a  short  duty  in  the  organic  world,  con- 
tributes in  the  form  of  a  new  inorganic  body  to 
the  increase  of  the  earth  crust.  Thus  we  see  in 
the  vicinity  of  coral  reefs  the  bottom  composed 
of  calcareous  mud  or  sand  formed  by  the  disper- 
sion of  corals,  shells,  and  echinoderms,  and  in 
shoaler  parts  largely  by  the  decomposition  of 
lime-secreting  seaweeds.  This  mud  or  sand 
often  consolidates  into  hard  limestone  rock, 
but  more  frequently  when  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere than  when  it  remains  under  water. 
But  it  is  chiefly  in  the  deep-sea  bed  that  lime 
deposits  produced  by  organized  beings  assume 
gigantic  proportions,  at  least  in  horizontal  ex- 
tent. The  entire  bed  of  the  ocean  as  far  as  ex- 
plored, outside  of  the  coast  terrace,  is  covered 
by  a  uniform  layer  of  soft  calcareous  mud, 
called  ooze  by  sailors,  and  composed  chiefly  of 
foraminifera,  low  organisms  forming  minute 
chambered  shells,  and  living  partly  on  the  bot- 
tom and  partly  near  the  surface,  whence  they 
sink  after  death.  With  them  are  mixed  the 
shells  of  floating  mollusks,  such  as  pteropods, 
of  other  mollusks  inhabiting  the  bottom  itself, 
the  tubes  of  worms,  the  remains  of  bryozoa, 
echinoderms,  corals,  &c.  Some  silica  is  con- 
tributed, but  in  smaller  proportions,  by  anal- 
ogous process  performed  by  sponges,  polycys- 
tince,  and  diatomacece.  It  is,  in  a  word,  chalk 
in  process  of  formation,  and  has  been  found 
throughout  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions ; 
in  the  arctic  seas  observations  are  still  wanting. 
Along  the  coast  of  the  United  States  the  terrace 
is  principally  sand.  Mud  is  found  in  the  deep 
gulf  between  Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Sable,  S.  of 
Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  Block  isl- 
and, for  a  distance  of  nearly  80  m.  (Block  island 
soundings),  in  the  so-called  mudholes  off  the 
entrance  to  New  York  harbor,  and  in  a  few 
other  localities.  A  few  rocky  patches  of  small 
extent  are  found  off  the  New  England  coast, 
near  New  York,  and  along  the  coast  of  the 
Carolinas.  At  Cape  Florida  the  sand  is  re- 
placed by  the  coral  formation  which  envelops 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  and 
which  may  be  divided  into  two,  the  reef  for- 


mation and  the  deep-sea  coral  formation  ;  the 
former  extends  from  the  shores  to  a  depth  of 
about  90  fathoms,  but  receives  its  supplies  al- 
most solely  from  a  region  between  the  surface 
and  10  or  15  fathoms,  where  the  reef-building 
corals  live.  The  second  or  deep-sea  coral  for- 
mation extends  from  90  fathoms  to  about  300. 
Beyond  this  depth,  and  sometimes  even  from 
100  fathoms  downward,  the  deep-sea  ooze  or 
foraminifera  mud  is  found  everywhere.  IV. 
CURRENTS.  Columbus,  according  to  Dr.  Kohl's 
"History  of  the  Gulf  Stream,"  was  the  first 
navigator  who  observed  ocean  currents,  having 
noticed  that  in  sounding  in  the  Sargasso  sea 
the  lead  appeared  to  be  carried  away  from 
the  ship,  a  fact  which  he  rightly  interpreted 
by  the  ship  being  drifted  away  from  the  lead 
by  a  surface  current.  In  some  of  his  later 
voyages  he  also  observed  the  rapid  flow  of 
water  through  the  passages  among  the  Antilles, 
and  the  strong  currents  in  the  Caribbean  sea 
and  on  the  coast  of  Honduras.  Sebastian 
Cabot  noticed  the  Labrador  current  about  the 
same  time.  The  first  notice  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
the  most  important  of  the  currents  of  the  At- 
lantic, is  found  in  the  journal  of  Alaminos,  the 
pilot  of  Ponce  de  Leon  in  the  expedition  which 
led  to  the  discovery  of  Florida  in  1513.  Ala- 
minos, making  use  of  his  discovery,  led  the 
way  in  sailing  down  stream  through  the  strait 
of  Florida  when  carrying  Cortes's  despatches 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  Spain.  In  the  narratives 
of  the  navigators  of  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  ocean 
currents,  and  in  particular  of  the  Gulf  stream ; 
it  is  therefore  not  a  little  singular  that  their 
details  were  so  imperfectly  known  as  late  as 
the  second  half  of  the  18th  century  that  they 
were  rather  an  impediment  than  a  help  to  nav- 
igation, at  least  for  the  intercourse  between 
Europe  and  the  northern  parts  of  America. 
The  New  England  whalers  at  that  time  were 
the  best  acquainted  with  the  limits  of  the 
Gulf  stream,  and  from  one  of  them  Benjamin 
Franklin  obtained  the  information  which  he 
published  in  his  chart  of  that  current,  intended 
to  point  out  the  most  favorable  routes  between 
the  North  American  colonies  and  the  mother 
country.  Franklin  and  Blagden  also  pointed 
out  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  Gulf  stream  and  outside  of  it. 
Pownall  and  Jonathan  Williams  extended  our 
knowledge  of  this  current;  Capt.  Strickland 
remarked  its  extension  further  N.  and  E.  than 
was  before  suspected,  and  first  argued  the  exist- 
ence of  the  N.  E.  branch  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
about  which  there  has  been  so  much  contro- 
versy of  late.  Humboldt  and  Scoresby  also 
paid  much  attention  to  ocean  currents,  and 
particularly  to  the  Gulf  stream.  Finally,  Major 
Rennel  undertook  the  discussion  of  all  the  ob- 
servations of  currents,  and  published  the  results 
of  his  generalizations  under  the  title  of  "  In- 
vestigations of  the  Currents  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,"  a  work  which  remains  to  this  day  the 
principal  source  of  information  on  the  subject. 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


73 


The  circulation  of  the  water  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean  can  be  stated  in  very  general  terms  to 
consist  of  two  gigantic  eddies  orVrevolving 
streams,  the  one  in  the  northern  Atlantic,  the 
other  in  the  southern  or  Ethiopia  basin ;  the 
former  revolving  from  left  to  right,  the  other 
from  right  to  left ;  both  giving  out  offshoots  of 
greater  or  less  importance  on  their  outer  cir- 
cumference. Both  originate  in  the  equatorial 
current,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  parts,  the 
northern  and  southern,  separated  by  a  narrower 
return  current,  called  the  Guinea  current.  The 
southern  equatorial  current,  starting  from  the 
coast  of  Africa  and  striking  the  coast  of  South 
America  at  Cape  San  Roque,  divides  itself  into 
two  branches.  The  southern  one  follows  the 
coast  of  Brazil  under  the  name  of  the  Brazil- 
ian current,  dividing  about  the  latitude  of  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn  into  two  branches,  the 
smaller  one  following  the  coast,  but  gradually 
growing  narrower  and  weaker,  nearly  as  far  as 
the  extremity  of  South  America.  The  larger 
and  wider  portion  strikes  toward  the  southeast 
in  the  direction  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
under  the  name  of  the  southern  connecting 
current ;  a  short  distance  west  of  this  cape  the 
current  turns  north  and  follows  the  coast  of 
Africa,  under  the  name  of  the  South  Atlantic 
current,  toward  the  equator,  where  the  cir- 
cuit is  completed.  This  current  is  accom- 
panied in  its  northern  course,  and  between  it 
and  the  coast,  by  a  branch  of  the  cold  An- 
tarctic current,  the  waters  of  which  can  be 
traced  for  a  long  distance  by  their  temperature. 
The  northern  branch  of  the  south  equatorial 
current  follows  the  coast  of  South  America 
from  Cape  San  Roque  to  the  Antilles,  where  it 
penetrates  into  the  Caribbean  sea,  jointly  with 
the  larger  north  equatorial  current.  Thus  a  por- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  South  Atlantic  is  carried 
into  the  North  Atlantic,  for  which  apparently 
no  return  is  made  as  far  as  surface  currents 
are  concerned.  After  entering  the  Caribbean 
sea,  the  current  is  driven  through  the  straits 
of  Yucatan  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  prin- 
cipal mass  of  the  water  then  turns  to  the  east- 
ward along  the  northern  coast  of  Cuba,  while 
a  smaller  and  less  known  branch  is  said  to  fol- 
low the  western  and  northern  coasts  of  the 
gulf,  ultimately  falling  in  again  with  the  for- 
mer. After  passing  the  southern  extremity  of 
Florida  the  current  receives  the  name  of  the 
Gulf  stream,  and  passes  north  through  the  nar- 
rows of  Bernini  between  Florida  and  the  Ba- 
hama banks  into  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  now 
follows  the  coast  of  the  United  States  at  a 
somewhat  variable  distance  to  about  the  lati- 
tude of  Chesapeake  bay,  when  it  turns  east. 
On  the  S.  side  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland 
it  is  pressed  in  by  the  polar  current,  and  ac- 
cording to  some  authors  ceases  to  exist  as  a 
.special  current.  It  is  most  probable  that  a  por- 
tion of  its  waters  continues  its  course  eastward 
across  the  ocean,  bending  south  between  the 
Azores  and  the  coast  of  Portugal,  and  finally 
returning  along  the  coast  of  Africa  to  the  equa- 


torial current,  and  thus  completing  the  circuit. 
A  small  offset  enters  the  Mediterranean  through 
the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  Another  small  branch 
separates  at  Cape  Finisterre,  sweeps  around 
the  bay  of  Biscay  in  a  northerly  direction,  and 
dies  out  finally  on  -the  coast  of  Ireland.  This 
is  Rennel's  current,  named  so  after  its  dis- 

I  coverer.  From  the  region  east  of  the  banks 
"of  Newfoundland,  the  waters  of  the  Gulf 
stream  or  of  the  general  ocean  drift  (the  ques- 
tion being  disputed)  move  northward  toward 
the  coasts  of  northern  Europe,  to  which  they 
carry  their  heat,  passing  the  North  Cape,  and 

j  reaching  nearly  to  Nova  Zembla.  Interweav- 
ing with  the  polar  current,  a  branch  passes  up 
the  N.  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  another  around 
the  west  to  the  N.  coast  of  Iceland,  another 
along  the  W.  coast  of  Greenland  into  Davis 
strait.  A  polar  current,  carrying  large  quan- 
tities of  ice  at  certain  seasons,  descends  along 
the  W.  shore  of  Davis  strait  and  the  coasts 
of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  and  passes, 
part  of  it  under  the  Gulf  stream,  and  part  be- 
tween that  stream  and  the  coast  of  the  United 
States. — -Cause  of  currents.  The  various  theo- 
ries propounded  to  explain  the  circulation  of 
the  water  in  the  ocean  have  been  based — 1,  on 
the  effect  of  permanent  winds;  2,  on  differ- 
ences of  density  due  to  evaporation ;  3,  on  dif- 
ferences of  density  due  to  temperature ;  4,  on 
the  rotation  of  the  earth ;  5,  on  difference  of 
barometric  pressure ;  and  finally,  on  combina- 
tions of  these  causes.  The  first  author  to  leave 
a  theory  of  currents  was  Kepler,  who  attributed 
them  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  remarking 
that  as  the  water  is  only  in  loose  contact  with 
the  earth,  it  cannot  follow  the  rotation  east- 
ward as  fast,  and  remains  behind.  He  was 
followed  and  sustained  by  Varenius  in  1650. 
Vossius  and  Fournier  a  little  later  adopted  the 
heat  and  evaporation  theories,  but  in  a  rather 
extravagant  form,  the  former  supposing  the 
heat  of  the  sun  to  expand  and  attract  the  water 
of  the  ocean  into  a  kind  of  long  mountain  ridge, 
which,  following  the  sun,  broke  on  the  coast 
of  America,  producing  the  currents  running 
along  the  shore ;  a  curious  glimpse  of  the  usual 
tidal  theory.  Fournier  supposed,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  hollow  or  valley  formed  by  evapora- 
tion in  the  ocean  in  the  tropics,  causing  a  con- 
stant rush  of  the  polar  waters  to  fill  it  up. 
Coming  down  to  Franklin,  we  find  him  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  trade-wind  theory  for  the  Gulf 
stream,  while,  later,  Humboldt  explained  the 
phenomenon  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 
Major  Rennel,  in  his  work  on  ocean  currents, 
divides  the  currents  into  two  classes.  Drift 
currents,  according  to  him,  are  the  effect  of  the 
permanent  winds  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
by  which  the  superficial  layers  are  set  in  mo- 
tion ;  when  a  drift  current  meets  with  an  ob- 
stacle, the  general  surface  is  raised  by  accumu- 
lation, and  the  water  in  trying  to  return  to  its 
level  produces  a  deeper  and  generally  more 
rapid  fiow  called  a  stream  current.  The  equa- 
torial current  is  an  example  of  the  former,  the 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


Gulf  stream  of  the  latter.  It  would  take  too 
much  space  to  detail  all  the  theories  of  modern 
authors,  but  a  few  must  still  be  mentioned. 
Capt.  M.  F.  Maury  gave  an  exaggerated  weight 
to  differences  of  density  of  sea  water  in  north- 
ern and  southern  parts  of  the  ocean.  Sir  John 
Herschel,  in  his  article  on  physical  geography 
in  the  "  Encyclopsedia  Britannica,"  attributed 
the  currents  to  the  effect  of  the  trade  winds. 
Before  his  death  he  seems  to  have  fallen  in 
with  the  views  of  Prof.  Carpenter  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  Gulf  stream.  Dr.  Muhri  of 
Gottingen,  in  his  work  on  ocean  currents,  gives 
the  following  conclusions:  1.  There  are  in 
ocean  circulation  two  great  movements  per- 
pendicular to  each  other,  the  one  following 
the  equator,  the  other  the  direction  of  the  me- 
ridians. 2.  The  equatorial  circulation  results 
from  the  inertia  of  water  with  regard  to  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  ;  the  meridional  or  ther- 
mometric  circulation  is  caused  by  the  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  polar  and  equato- 
rial regions.  3.  The  meridional  as  well  as  the 
equatorial  circulations  exhibit  two  motions  in 
contrary  directions,  which  compensate  each 
other  and  are  superposed  to  each  other  in  part 
in  the  thermometric  circulation,  on  account  of 
their  unequal  density.  4.  The  unequal  distri- 
bution of  the  continents  impedes  the  regularity 
of  the  great  movements  of  circulation,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  the  unequal  relief  of  the  bot- 
tom and  the  action  of  the  winds,  induces  sec- 
ondary currents  disturbing  the  general  motion. 
—  Gulf  stream.  The  importance  of  this  great 
current  to  the  commerce  and  navigation  of 
North  America,  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  before,  the  great  scientific  interest  it  pre- 
sents by  its  size,  temperature,  and  influence  on 
climate,  have  made  it,  in  the  words  of  Prof. 
Bache,  "  the  great  hydrographic  feature  of  the 
United  States  coast."  Under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  late  Prof.  Bache,  the  United  States 
coast  survey  has  accumulated  a  large  number  of 
observations  of  that  part  of  the  stream  comprised 
between  its  entrance  into  the  straits  of  Florida 
and  the  region  where  it  leaves  the  coast  after 
having  changed  its  course  to  the  east.  The 
observations  were  directed  chiefly  toward  the 
determination  of  the  depth,  the  figure  and  con- 
stitution of  the  bottom,  and  the  temperature 
from  the  surface  down  through  the  whole 
depth.  The  instruments  used  for  temperature 
have  been  of  various  construction.  Metallic 
thermometers  in  the  watch  form  were  used, 
enclosed  in  strong  brass  vessels ;  they  answered 
well  enough,  and  were  employed  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  the  earlier  researches ;  but  in 
several  instances  the  brass  box  was  crushed  by 
the  pressure.  Self-registering  thermometers 
in  glass  globes  were  used  also,  but  they  had 
the  inconvenience  of  experiencing  the  changes 
of  temperature  too  slowly.  Six's  self-register- 
ing thermometers  were  used  extensively,  up  to 
about  100  fathoms,  beyond  which  they  are 
liable  to  be  crushed ;  and  in  all  cases  their  in- 
dications are  rendered  very  erroneous  by  the 


pressure.  For  great  depths  Saxton's  metallic 
thermometer  has  been  of  great  service.  This 
instrument  consists  in  a  ribbon  of  two  metals 
of  different  expansion,  soldered  together  and 
!  rolled  in  a  cylindrical  spiral  around  a  spindle, 
j  to  which  the  movement  of  expansion  or  con- 
traction is  communicated,  and  by  it  transferred 
to  a  hand  or  'needle  moving  an  index  over  a 
graduated  dial.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  suit- 
able case  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the  water. 
It  works  well,  but  is  affected  by  pressure  in  a 
manner  not  easily  explained.  At  present  the 
Miller-Casella  protected  thermometer  is  used, 
and  proves  an  excellent  and  trustworthy  instru- 
ment. It  is  in  the  main  a  Six's  self-registering 
maximum  and  minimum  thermometer,  the  bulb 
of  which  is  protected  from  pressure  by  an  outer 
bulb  blown  over  it  and  sealed  round  the  neck, 
a  space  being  left  between  the  two  bulbs,  par- 
tially filled  with  alcohol,  in  order  to  communi- 
cate the  temperature  more  rapidly  to  the  inner 
bulb.  The  observations  were  made  at  a  num- 
ber of  stations  in  lines  or  sections  at  right  angles 
to  the  stream.  The  thermometer  was  observed 
at  the  surface  and  at  different  depths,  generally 
at  every  ten  fathoms  as  far  as  50,  and  at  every 
hundred  fathoms  in  greater  depths.  When  the 
change  of  temperature  was  very  rapid,  the 
number  of  sections,  stations,  and  observations 
was  multiplied  to  keep  pace  with  it.  The  re- 
sults were  arranged  afterward  in  diagrams, 
where  the  changes  of  temperature  were  repre- 
sented by  curves,  thus  giving  at  a  glance  the 
distribution  of  heat  throughout  the  stream. 
From  these  observations  the  following  general 
deductions  were  made :  In  the  sections  between 
Florida  and  Cuba  the  highest  temperatures 
were  found  near  the  Cuban  coast,  where  also 
the  greatest  depth  was  recorded.  It  was  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Mitchell  that  very  near  the 
coast  of  that  island  the  stream  had  a  uniform 
velocity  and  constant  course  for  a  depth  of  600 
fathoms,  although  in  this  depth  the  temperature 
varied  40°.  The  stratum  of  warm  water  was 
found  to  be  of  much  greater  thickness  or  depth 
toward  the  middle  of  the  straits  than  nearer 
shore;  thus  at  a  distance  of  6  or  7  m.  from 
Havana  the  layer  of  water  above  the  tempera- 
ture of  70°  extended  only  to  a  depth  of  about 
70  fathoms,  while  some  30  m.  off  the  co.'ist 
its  thickness  was  about  180  fathoms.  The 
slope  of  the  bottom  is  very  abrupt  on  the 
Cuban  coast,  but  much  more  gradual  on  the 
Florida  side,  where  the  current  is  also  more 
irregular,  taking  sometimes  even  the  shape  of  a 
counter  current  running  west.  It  is  also  here 
affected  by  the  winds  and  tides.  The  same 
character  as  in  this  section  is  maintained 
throughout  the  straits  of  Florida  to  the  narrows 
of  Bernini.  No  permanent  current  was  found 
j  in  the  St.  Nicholas  and  Santarest  channels, 
I  sometimes  regarded  as  partial  feeders  of  the 
Gulf  stream.  Toward  the  narrows  of  Bernini 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  straits  diminish 
and  reach  their  minimum,  the  breadth  being 
only  44  m.  and  the  greatest  depth  370  fathoms. 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


75 


The  bottom  presents  here  some  inequalities 
in  the  shape  of  longitudinal  ridges^the  effect 
of  which  is  to  press  the  cold  watier  of  the 
bottom  toward  the  surface,  by  which  the  first 
indication  is  produced  of  those  alternate  bands 
of  warmer  and  colder  water  noticed  further 
north.  The  warmest  water  is  still  found  nearer 
the  eastern  or  right  bank  of  the  stream ;  but 
after  leaving  the  straits,  and  when  the  stream 
has  gradually  widened,  the  warmest  water 
is  on  the  left  or  western  edge.  The  stream 
now  runs  parallel  to  the  coast,  distant  from 
it  about  70  or  80  m.,  turning  gradually  to  the 
N.  E.  from  the  due  N.  course  it  had  on  leav- 
ing the  narrows.  It  approaches  nearest  to  the 
land  at  Cape  Hatteras,  takes  there  a  slightly 
more  northern  direction,  and  shortly  after  turns 
sharply  to  the  east,  its  rather  variable  western 
edge  being  then  about  lat.  38°.  The  space 
between  the  shore  and  the  stream  is  occupied 
by  the  cold  water  of  the  polar  current,  and  the 
contrast  between  it  and  the  warm  water  be- 
comes more  and  more  abrupt,  particularly  at 
some  depth,  so  that  the  plane  of  separation 
received  from  Lieut.  Bache,  who  first  noticed 
it,  the  name  of  the  cold  wall.  At  the  surface 
the  warm  water  overflows  the  cold,  forming  a 
thinned-out  superficial  layer,  the  limits  of  which 
vary  somewhat  according  to  the  seasons  and 
prevailing  winds,  certainly  much  more  than 
the  main  body  of  the  stream.  The  bands  of 
cold  and  warm  water  increase  in  number,  from 
three  warm  ones  when  coming  out  of  the 


narrows  to  six  or  seven  in  the  section  off  Sandy 
Hook ;  it  must  however  be  remarked  that  sev- 
eral of  them  are  very  vaguely  defined  and  far 
from  constant.  In  the  same  section  the  depth 
of  the  stream  is  still  very  considerable,  its  limits 
being  nearly  as  well  marked  by  the  difference 
of  temperature  at  400  fathoms  as  it  is  nearer 
the  surface.  In  the  following  tables  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  water  at  different  depths  are 
given  in  a  form  nearly  as  plain  as  in  a  diagram 
tor  two  of  the  sections.  The  first  is  for  the 
section  between  Cape  Florida  and  the  Bernini 
islands.  The  full  line  represents  the  surface ; 
above  it  are  given  the  distances  from  Cape 
Florida.  The  depths  are  given  on  the  side,  and 
are  indicated  across  the  table  by  dotted  lines 
for  every  hundred  fathoms.  The  figures  of  the 
first  line  give  the  temperature  from  the  average 
of  the  observations  taken  at  the  surface  and  at 
5,  10,  20,  and  30  fathoms;  of  the  second  line 
the  average  at  50,  70,  100,  and  150  fathoms ; 
and  in  the  third  are  combined  the  temperatures 
at  200  and  300  fathoms.  The  figures  arranged 
vertically  over  each  other  represent  observa- 
tions taken  at  the  same  station.  Table  II.  is  a 
similar  arrangement  of  the  observations  in  the 
section  off  Sandy  Hook  (New  York).  The  first 
line  gives  the  temperatures  at  the  same  depths 
as  the  first  line  of  Table  I. ;  the  second  line  gives 
the  averages  of  the  observations  at  40,  60,  80, 
and  100  fathoms;  the  third  of  the  same  at  200 
and  300  fathoms ;  and  the  fourth  the  observa- 
tions at  400  fathoms : 


TABLE    L 


0 

100 
200 

800 


10 


MILES   FROM    CAPE   FLORIDA. 
2O 


40 


78 


74 


77 


78 


78 


T9 
78 


79 
70 


80 
75 


44 


44 


47 


43 


64 


— -  ( : i ,  .11.  -I  depth. 


TABLE    II. 


FATHOMS. 
0 

100 
200 

300 
400 

100 

M  1  I.I  *   FROM 

200 

6ANDY  HOOK. 

800 

400 

500 

64 

50 

67 

H 

65     66 
50    52 

67 
61 

66 

50 

77 
60 

82 
72 

79 
68 

80 
68 

75 
64 

78 
67 

41 

48 

42    42 

48 

48 

60 

68 

69 

00 

60 

61 

87 

40 

8S    89 

40 

40 

48 

52 

56 

67 

67 

66 

Both  tables  show  the  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  Gulf  stream  and  the  inshore  cold 
water  or  polar  current  to  be  distinctly  traceable 
down  to  400  fathoms  at  least ;  indeed,  in  both 
cases  the  actual  difference  is  greater  near  the 
bottom  than  at  the  surface,  being  in  the  nar- 
rows of  10°  at  250  fathoms  against  7°  at  the 
surface,  and  off  Sandy  Hook  of  about  18°  at 


400  fathoms,  while  at  the  surface  it  is  only  14° 
or  15°.  The  surface  differences  would  of 
course  var.'  with  the  seasons,  but  it  is  proper 
to  call  attention  here  to  the  fact  that  the  stratum 
of  water  above  60°  is  still  nearly  300  fathoms 
thick  in  this  latitude.  The  theory  frequently 
propounded  that  the  polar  current  underlies 
the  Gulf  stream  and  penetrates  through  the 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


straits  of  Florida  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  is 
rendered  very  improbable  by  Mr.  Mitchell's 
observations  cited  above,  and  by  the  volume  of 
water  necessarily  passing  through  these  straits 
to  supply  as  large  a  cross  section  as  we  find 
otf  New  York.  It  is  much  more  probable  that 
the  cold  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  reaches  it  by  a  much  longer  circuit, 
and  perhaps  a  very  small  portion  by  the  coun- 
ter currents  at  Cape  Florida. — The  surface  ve- 
locity of  the  Gulf  stream  appears  to  be  vari- 
able, being  probably  aifected  by  the  wind ;  but 
although  we  have  as  yet  no  observations  of  the 
velocity  at  various  depths,  it  is  safe  to  assume 
a  much  greater  constancy  for  the  bulk  of  its 
waters.  According  to  the  chart  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean  published  by  the  hydrographic  office  in 
Washington,  the  rate  of  the  current  in  the 
straits  of  Florida  is  from  1  to  4  m.  per  hour ;  in 
the  narrows  of  Bernini,  from  1£  to  5  m. ;  off  the 
coast  of  Georgia,  1 J  to  4  m. ;  off  Cape  Fear  and 
Cape  Hatteras,  1£  to  3f ;  off  Chesapeake  bay, 
4  m. ;  and  in  the  longitudes  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  Newfoundland,  between  2  and  3  m.  Mr. 
Findlay  estimates  it  rather  less:  about  2f  m. 
per  hour  in  the  narrows  of  Bernini,  2£  off 
Charleston,  H  to  2  off  Nantucket,  and  a  little 
over  1  m.  S.  of  the  Newfoundland  banks.  Ac- 
curate observations  at  all  seasons  and  at  va- 
rious depths,  though  difficult  to  make,  are  very 
much  needed. — The  further  course  of  the  Gulf 
stream  after  passing  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land is  involved  in  some  doubt,  as  has  been 
mentioned  in  speaking  of  the  general  sys- 
tem of  currents  of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  That 
water  of  a  higher  temperature  than  is  due 
to  the  latitude  reaches  the  northern  and 
eastern  shores  of  the  Atlantic  appears  to  be 
universally  admitted.  Capt.  Strickland  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  attribute  this  fact 
to  the  extension  of  the  Gulf  stream,  and  was 
supported  in  this  opinion  by  the  authority 
of  Humboldt  and  Scoresby,  the  latter  having 
made  a  large  number  of  observations  of  tem- 
perature in  the  Arctic  ocean.  Leopold  von 
Buch,  struck  during  his  travels  along  the  coast 
of  Norway  with  the  luxuriance  of  the  vegeta- 
tion in  so  high  a  latitude,  the  high  level  of  the 
line  of  permanent  snow,  the  freedom  from  ice 
of  the  harbor  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
winter,  &c.,  attributed  to  the  Gulf  stream  the 
office  of  bringing  heat  to  these  coasts  ;  and  his 
reasoning  appeared  to  Humboldt  "  perfectly 
convincing."  Gen.  Sabine,  during  one  of  his 
voyages  for  pendulum  experiments,  made  nu- 
merous observations  in  the  Gulf  stream  proper, 
and  in  its  supposed  extension  across  the  ocean, 
and  along  the  coasts  of  Europe,  south  of  Eng- 
land and  Africa,  and  was  convinced  that  both 
were  one  and  the  same  system.  Rennel  was 
the  first  to  shake  this  belief,  at  the  time  almost 
universal,  attributing  the  whole  easterly  and 
northerly  movement  of  the  waters  to  a  super- 
ficial drift  produced  by  the  prevailing  S.  W. 
winds.  It  must  be  remarked  that  he  ignores 
entirely  the  effect  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 


and  of  the  heating  and  cooling  of  the  waters 
at  the  equator  and  pole,  joint  causes  which 
Arago  was  probably  the  first  to  exhibit,  with- 
out, however,  entering  into  their  discussion. 
In  very  recent  times  the  partisans  of  both 
opinions  have  shown  a  renewed  activity, 
partly  in  connection  with  arctic,  and  partly 
with  deep-sea  explorations.  It  was  in  ref- 
erence to  the  former  that  Dr.  Petermann 
gave  his  opinion  as  follows:  "Instead  of  a 
weak  and  insignificant  drift  from  Newfound- 
land toward  Europe,  as  heretofore  represent- 
ed, I  consider  the  northern  part  of  the 
Gulf  stream  one  of  the  mightiest  currents  of 
the  world,  although  comparatively  slow,  not 
very  perceptible  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
and  therefore  of  no  great  moment  to  naviga- 
tion. I  do  so  because  ocean  currents  have  to 
perform  other  functions  than  merely  those  of 
a  strong  surface  stream.  In  that  view  I  con- 
ceive the  Gulf  stream  to  be  a  deep,  perma- 
nently warm  current  from  Newfoundland  to 
the  coasts  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Scandina- 
via, and  Iceland,  up  to  Bear  island,  Jan  Mayen, 
and  Spitzbergen;  and  along  the  western  coa>t 
of  the  latter  up  to  the  80th  degree  of  north 
latitude,  thence  to  Nova  Zembla  into  the  polar 
sea,  passing  the  northernmost  capes  of  Siberia 
and  the  New  Siberian  islands,  where  it  appears 
on  the  charts  as  the  Polynia  of  the  Russians, 
...  its  influence  being  felt  perceptibly  even  as 
far  east  as  Cape  Yakan."  Numerous  opponents 
have  risen  against  these  assertions,  among 
them  Mr.  Findlay,  who  contends  that  the 
Gulf  stream  proper  has  not  sufficient  width 
and  depth  to  reach  the  coast  of  Europe  ;  that 
at  its  slow  rate  of  progress  it  must  lose  all  its 
heat  during  the  passage;  that  after  reaching 
Newfoundland  it  is  totally  annihilated  by  the 
Polar  stream,  and  cannot  be  perceived  beyond ; 
that  the  Gulf  stream  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  climate  of  northwestern  Europe,  which  is 
affected  only  by  the  general  drift  of  the  North 
Atlantic  ocean.  To  this  Dr.  Petermann  re- 
plies that  the  Gulf  stream  is  no  doubt  rein- 
forced by  a  drift  corresponding  to  it  in  direc- 
tion, in  the  same  way  that  a  river  is  swelled 
by  tributaries,  without  for  all  that  losing  its 
individuality  and  its  name.  Prof.  Carpenter, 
in  discussing  the  results  of  his  deep-sea  tem- 
perature observations,  doubts  if  the  Gulf 
stream  sends  any  but  a  very  small  and  super- 
ficial contribution  to  the  northern  seas,  and  is 
supported  by  the  companion  of  his  researches, 
Mr.  Jeffreys,  on  zoological  grounds,  the  latter 
rather  premature,  since  we  are  still  at  the  dawn 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  deep-sea  fauna.  Dr. 
Petermann  now  took  a  very  important  step  in 
the  question ;  the  differences  of  opinion  resting 
chiefly  on  belief  and  theory,  he  undertook  to 
collect  all  the  observations  of  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  construct 
charts  of  isotherms  for  every  month  in  the 
year.  The  large  amount  of  materials  buried  in 
Maury's  wind  and  current  charts  were  in.-nk 
available  by  much  labor ;  the  observations  pub- 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


77 


lished  by  the  Dutch  government  and  by  the 
Scottish  and  Norwegian  meteorolojjical  socie- 
ties, the  records  of  sea  temperatures  of  some 
of  the  transatlantic  steamship  lines,  those  of 
the  Danish  ships  sailing  to  Iceland  and  Green- 
land, collected  by  Admiral  Irminger,  and  those 
of  various  arctic  expeditions,  furnished  a  consid- 
erable array  of  data.  Of  the  twelve  monthly 
charts  contemplated,  two  only  have  been  pub- 
lished, those  for  January  and  July.  The  chart 
for  July  exhibits  the  core  of  the  Gulf  stream 
at  a  temperature  of  81 '5°  extending  northward 
as  high  as  lat.  38°,  and  with  a  temperature  but 
slightly  decreased  as  high  as  lat.  40°,  and  as 
far  east  as  Ion.  43°.  That  it  is  not  a  mere  drift 
is  shown  by  the  lower  temperatures  south  of 
this  tongue,  which  in  January  is  shortened  as 
might  be  expected.  At  Newfoundland  the 
curves  show  the  inroad  made  by  the  polar  cur- 
rent, but  in  a  less  marked  manner  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  In  July  the  polar  current 
brings  water  at  a  temperature  of  45  '6°  down 
to  lat.  50°,  while  further  east  the  Gulf  stream 
water  has  still  65°  in  the  same  latitude.  To  the 
east  of  Newfoundland  the  isotherms  set  tow- 
ard the  north  with  two  bends  more  marked  in 
summer  than  in  winter.  In  July  the  isotherm 
of  54'5°  advances  toward  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
islands  to  lat.  61°.  The  wanner  water  follows 
not  only  the  W.  coast  of  Iceland,  but  passes 
round  to  the  N.  side  of  it,  while  on  the  E.  and 
S.  coast  the  polar  current  preponderates,  pro- 
ducing a  temperature  lower  by  5°  or  6°.  Be- 
tween Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands  warm  and 
cold  bands  of  water  alternate,  the  result  of  the 
struggle  between  the  Gulf  and  polar  streams, 
the  latter  carrying  drift  ice  much  further  south 
in  this  region  than  anywhere  else  east  of  Ice- 
land, and  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
water  at  the  Faroe  islands  to  a  lower  point 
than  it  has  on  the  W.  coast  of  Iceland,  where 
the  winter  climate  is  not  as  severe  as  it  is  in 
many  parts  of  New  England.  The  isotherm  of 
36°,  which  touches  Iceland  in  winter,  extends 
at  the  same  season  beyond  North  cape ;  the 
sea  at  Fruholm,  North  cape,  is  in  January 
still  at  a  mean  temperature  of  37'9°.  Ob- 
servations are  wanting  to  show  the  further 
extension  of  the  Gulf  stream  toward  the  north- 
east. It  is  met  by  a  polar  current  running 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  cut  by  it  into 
two  branches,  of  which  one  runs  along  the 
W.  side  of  Spitzbergen,  the  other  eastward 
of  Bear  island.  The  further  progress  of  this 
branch,  which  is  the  main  one,  is  not  known. 
The  branch  of  the  polar  stream  separating  the 
two  arms  sets  toward  the  coast  of  Greenland, 
where  it  is  said  to  form  a  bight  in  the  drift  and 
field  ice,  reaching  nearly  to  the  coast. — In  high 
latitudes  deep-sea  temperatures  show  in  many 
localities  an  anomaly  in  this,  that  the  coldest  are 
observed  near  the  surface,  and  that  there  is  an 
increase  of  temperature  with  depth.  Observa- 
tions in  the  Antarctic  ocean  have  shown  the 
same  phenomenon.  It  is  frequently  explained 
by  comparison  with  the  same  phenomenon  in 


fresh  water,  the  maximum  density  of  which  is 
7'2°  higher  than  the  freezing  point.  Although 
with  regard  to  salt  water  the  question  appears 
still  unsettled,  the  weight  of  evidence  seems  to 
point  to  an  increase  of  density  in  the  latter 
down  to  the  freezing  point.  In  that  case  the 
colder  surface  temperature  might  be  attributed 
to  the  stratum  of  water  from  melting  ice,  float- 
ing over  warmer  layers  because  of  less  density. 
— Some  light  has  been  afforded  as  to  the  course 
and  origin  of  the  currents  in  the  northern  seas 
by  the  driftwood  and  other  materials  thrown 
by  them  on  the  shores.  The  northern  coast  of 
Spitzbergen  is  covered  with  immense  accumu- 
lations of  driftwood,  bark,  pumice  stone,  &c. ; 
'  among  them  Torrel  found  a  large  bean  of  en- 
tada  gigalobium,  a  product  of  tropical  Ameri- 
ca found  on  all  the  shores  washed  by  the  Gulf 
stream,  from  Florida  to  Norway.  These  beans 
are  found  even  in  the  Danish  colonies  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Greenland,  where  they  are  known 
under  the  name  of  vettenyrer  or  witches'  kid- 
neys. The  seeds  of  mucuna  ureru  and  mimosa 
scandens  are  generally  found  with  the  former. 
The  driftwood  was  pronounced  by  botanists  to 
be  nearly  all  Siberian  larch,  thus  proving  that 
the  sea  is  open  in  summer  as  far  as  the  mouths 
of  the  great  Siberian  rivers,  and  that  in  the 
locality  mentioned  the  waters  of  the  Gulf 
stream  mix  with  those  of  the  polar  current. 
The  saltness  of  the  water  in  different  parts  of 
the  ocean,  as  determined  by  Prof.  Forchham- 
mer,  was  laid  down  on  a  chart  by  Dr.  Peter- 
mann,  and  found  to  agree  remarkably  well  with 
his  temperature  charts,  the  warmer  or  Gulf 
stream  water  being  more  salt  than  the  colder  or 
polar  stream.  From  all  the  points  discussed 
in  his  paper,  Dr.  Petermann  draws  the  follow- 
ing conclusions:  1.  The  Gulf  stream  extends 
along  the  North  American  coast  with  a  tem- 
perature of  77°  and  upward  as  far  as  lat.  37° ; 
a  temperature  in  winter  higher  than  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  in  Africa  under  the  same 
latitude,  and  higher  than  the  temperature  of 
the  water  at  any  time  under  the  equator.  2. 
The  Gulf  stream  turns  away  from  the  Ameri- 
can coast  in  lat.  37°  to  38°  toward  the  east  be- 
yond the  banks  of  Newfoundland  to  Ion.  40° 
W.,  where  it  still  has  a  temperature  of  about 
75°  in  July  and  about  66°  in  January.  From 
there  it  proceeds  to  the  northeast,  surround- 
ing Europe  to  the  Arctic  and  the  White  sea 
with  a  permanent  current  of  warm  water,  still 
having  a  temperature  of  37'8°  in  a  latitude 
in  which  in  Asia  and  America  the  mercury 
remains  frozen  for  months.  3.  The  velocity 
and  strength  of  the  stream  are  still  imperfectly 
known.  Findlay  estimates  the  time  for  the 
water  to  travel  from  Florida  to  Europe  at  one 
or  two  years ;  Dr.  Petermann,  at  two  months. 
4.  The  Gulf  stream  must  be  a  deep  and  volu- 
minous body  of  water,  keeping  away  the  polar 
ice  from  the  coasts  of  Europe.  The  polar  cur- 
rent presses  at  three  places  against  it,  E.  of 
Newfoundland,  E.  of  Iceland,  and  at  Bear  isl- 
and. 5.  These  polar  currents  make  a  much 


78 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


deeper  impression  in  the  Gulf  stream  in  sum- 
mer than  in  winter,  fi.  In  winter  the  Gulf 
stream  is  out  in  upon  much  less.  The  polar 
streams  are  then  less  powerful,  the  polar  ice 
being  fast  in  the  north.  This  is  shown  by  Mr. 
RednehTs  observations  on  the  drift  ice  off 
Newfoundland.  Of  100  cases  of  ice  seen,  87 
occurred  in  April,  May,  June,  and  July ;  of  the 
remaining  13,  there  were  7  in  March,  3  in 
August,  2  in  February,  and  1  in  January ;  none 
at  all  in  September,  October,  November,  and 
December.  7.  The  relations  of  temperature 
within  the  Gulf  stream  itself  are  about  the 
same  in  winter  and  in  summer;  the  fluctua- 
tions between  its  maximum  and  minimum 
would  be  only  about  9°. — The  thermometrical 
results  of  the  deep-sea  expeditions  in  the  Eu- 
ropean seas  in  the  steamers  Lightning  and  Por- 
cupine in  1868,  '69,  and  '70,  have  been  used  by 
Prof.  Carpenter,  under  whose  charge  the  ob- 
servations were  made,  for  a  theory  of  ocean  cur- 
rents based  on  the  heating  and  cooling  of  the  wa- 
ter at  the  equator  and  pole  respectively.  The  re- 
markable fact  was  brought  out  during  the  first 
cruise  that  in  the  channel  between  the  Faroe 
islands  and  the  N.  coast  of  Scotland  a  warm 
nrea  exists  on  the  bottom  in  close  proximity 
to  a  very  cold  one.  The  warm  area,  S.  W.  of  the 
Faroe  islands,  had  a  temperature  of  41 '4°  at  a 
depth  of  767  fathoms ;  the  cold  area,  only  20 
m.  distant,  between  the  Faroe  and  Shetland 
islands,  only  29'7°  at  640  fathoms,  the  surface 
temperature  being  the  same.  Near  the  Rock- 
all  bank  off  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland  the  tem- 
perature of  41°  was  found  to  extend  to  775 
fathoms,  with  a  bottom  temperature  of  37'4° 
at  1,400  fathoms,  and  oft'  the  bay  of  Biscay 
to  800  fathoms,  with  a  bottom  temperature 
at  2,435  fathoms  of  36-5°.  Prof.  Carpenter 
remarked  on  these  results  that  the  elevation 
of  temperature  in  the  warm  area  above  the 
isotherm  of  its  latitude  could  only  be  attrib- 
uted to  a  supply  of  water  from  the  south- 
west ;  and  that  the  Gulf  stream,  meaning  the 
warm  water  coming  through  the  narrows  of 
Florida,  if  it  reached  this  locality  at  all,  which 
he  considers  very  doubtful,  could  only  affect 
the  most  superficial  stratum;  and  that  the 
same  could  be  said  of  the  surface  drift  caused 
by  southwesterly  winds.  He  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  presence  of  the  body  of 
water  ranging  from  100  to  600  fathoms  in 
depth,  and  the  range  of  temperature  of  which 
is  frqm  48°  to  42°,  can  scarcely  be  accounted  for 
on  any  other  hypothesis  than  that  of  a  great 
general  movement  of  equatorial  water  toward 
the  polar  area,  of  which  the  Gulf  stream  con- 
stitutes a  peculiar  case  modified  by  local  con- 
ditions. The  arctic  stream  in  the  cold  area  is 
also  a  peculiar  case  of  the  general  movement 
of  the  polar  water  toward  the  equator ;  for  it 
is  forced  to  pass  through  this,  the  deepest 
channel  between  Iceland  and  Europe,  and 
pressed  toward  its  S.  E.  shore  on  account  of 
the  channel's  oblique  position  with  regard  to 
the  N.  and  S.  flow  of  the  water.  Prof.  Car- 


i  penter  is  inclined  to  think  that  the  Arctic 
ocean  is  insufficient  to  supply  cold  water 
enough  for  so  great  a  reduction  of  tempera- 
ture as  is  found  in  the  body  of  water  below 
1,000  fathoms  in  the  Atlantic  basin,  and  thinks 
that  antarctic  water  may  also  flow  in  past  the 
equator  as  far  PS  the  tropic  of  Cancer  ;  a  ques- 
tion rather  difficult  to  settle  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge,  since  all  we  know  is  that 
under  the  equator  bottom  temperatures  havo 
been  observed  of  35-2°  at  1,806  fathoms,  and 
33-(>°  at  2,306  fathoms.  The  best  evidence 
adduced  by  Prof.  Carpenter  for  the  flow  of 
polar  water  on  the  bottom  toward  lower  lati- 
i  tudes  is  based  on  his  deep-sea  temperatures  of 
the  Mediterranean.  This  closed  body  of  water 
i  communicates  with  the  Atlantic  through  the 
strait  of  Gibraltar  alone,  and  that  is  too  shal- 
low to  allow  of  a  communication  between  the 
deep  waters  of  the  two  basins.  The  Mediter- 
ranean goes  down  in  some  parts  to  2,000 
fathoms.  The  surface  is  hot  in  summer,  as 
high  as  78°  sometimes,  but  the  hot  layer  is 
shallow,  10°  or  15°  being  lost  in  the  first  30 
fathoms.  At  100  fathoms  the  temperature  is 
generally  54°  or  55°  ;  beyond  that  depth  no 
further  reduction  was  observed  ;  "  whatever 
the  temperature  was  at  100  fathoms,  that  it 
was  at  the  bottom;"  and  this  temperature  is 
found  to  be  the  permanent  temperature  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  in  that  latitude.  The  same 
observer  concludes  that  the  ocean  is  subjected 
to  two  different  circulations :  a  horizontal  one 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  the  Gulf 
stream  being  an  example  of  it ;  and  a  vertical 
circulation  dependent  on  opposition  of  tem- 
perature. V.  LIFE  IN  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 
—  1.  Vegetation.  The  flora  of  the  ocean,  or 
nereis,  as  it  has  been  called,  is  confined  to  a 
narrow  belt  along  the  shores  and  to  the  surface 
layer  of  water  in  mid-ocean,  a  strong  light 
being  necessary  to  its  existence.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  species  of  the  family  of  zoste- 
racecE  (eelgrass,  turtlegrass,  grasswrack),  the 
whole  submarine  vegetation  belongs  to  the 
algse,  plants  of  low  organization.  The  limits 
of  depth  to  which  certain  families,  genera,  or 
species  are  confined,  are  much  more  definite 
than  they  are  for  animals ;  they  have  been 
called  zones  by  Edward  Forbes,  characterized 
by  the  prevailing  types  growing  in  each.  Com- 
mencing at  the  surface,  he  called  littoral  zone 
the  region  between  high  and  low  water,  which 
on  rocky  shores  is  characterized  by  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  fucaceas  principally,  of  which  dif- 
I  ferent  species  form  further  subdivisions  of  the 
I  zone,  according  to  their  preferences  for  a" 
j  longer  or  shorter  exposure  to  the  air.  Below 
l  low-water  mark  the  laminarian  zone  begins, 
and  extends  to  4  or  5  fathoms :  in  it  are  found 
in  abundance  the  chondrm  cri-spiis  or  carra- 
geen, the  thong  weed  (himanthalia),  and  the 
tangle  or  devil's  apron  (laminaria).  In  the 
!  lower  part  of  this  zone  are  found  the  red  and 
•  purple  seaweeds,  many  of  them  of  great  dfli- 
;  cacy  and  beauty.  The  next  zone  is  that  of  the 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


79 


corallines,  so  named  from  a  family  of  seaweeds 
having  their  tissues  filled  with  limer^and  simu- 
lating small  corals.  As  a  general  rule  sea- 
wwds  do  not  grow  much  deeper  than  8  or  10 
fathoms,  though  there  are  exceptions;  thus  the 
gigantic  macrocystis  pyrifera,  found  growing 
in  40  fathoms,  and  rising  to  the  surface  at 
an  angle  of  45°,  and  streaming  on  it  for  a 
distance  of  several  ships'  lengths,  has  been 
estimated  to  have  a  total  growth  of  700  feet. 
Low  forms  of  corallines  have  been  found  at 
more  than  200  fathoms,  and  diatomacea  at  all 
explored  depths.  The  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  seaweeds  depends  much  on  tem- 
perature and  currents.  The  luminaries,  for 
instance,  prefer  cold  water,  the  sargasso,  the 
warmest.  The  largest  forms  are  found  in 
colder  water,  as  the  laminarice  in  the  north, 
the  macrocystis,  Lessonia,  Durvillea,  &c.,  in  the 
south.  As  examples  of  the  influence  of  cur- 
rents on  the  distribution,  we  may  take  padina 
pavoiiia,  a  West  Indian  species,  not  found  in 
America  N.  of  the  Florida  keys,  but  carried  to 
the  S.  shore  of  England  probably  by  the  Gulf 
stream.  The  macrocystis  and  other  large  an- 
tarctic seaweeds  luxuriate  about  Tierra  del 
Fuego  and  the  Falkland  islands ;  they  are  car- 
ried far  toward  the  equator  by  the  Peruvian 
current  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  America, 
while  they  are  kept  back  on  the  E.  coast  by 
the  southerly  extension  of  the  Brazilian  cur- 
rent. A  very  remarkable  feature  of  ocean 
vegetation  is  the  Sargasso  sea.  This  name  is 
commonly  used  to  designate  a  region  of  the 
Atlantic  covered  by  a  peculiar  floating  sea- 
weed, either  in  tangled  masses  of  considerable 
extent,  compared  by  some  writers  to  floating 
prairies  or  submerged  meadows,  or  simply  in 
scattered  sprigs.  Columbus,  as  is  well  known, 
passed  through  these  fields  of  seaweed  in  his 
first  voyage,  to  the  great  alarm  of  his  com- 
panions, who  from  previous  association  would 
naturally  imagine  a  connection  between  sea- 
weeds and  rocks  or  shoals.  Since  that  time, 
for  nearly  four  centuries,  observation  has  shown 
that  the  geographical  position  and  the  abun- 
dance of  these  plants  remain  essentially  un- 
changed. Ilumboldt  found  that  the  gulf  weed, 
as  it  is  generally  called,  because  found  also 
in  the  Gulf  stream,  was  distributed  in  two 
principal  masses,  the  largest  situated  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  meridian  of  Fayal  and 
between  the  parallels  of  25°  and  36°  N.  North- 
west winds  are  said  to  carry  it  sometimes  to 
the  latitudes  24°  to  20°.  The  second  or  lesser 
bank  is  less  known,  according  to  the  same 
author,  and  occupies  a  space  between  the  Ba- 
hamas and  Bermudas.  Capt.  Leps  of  the 
French  navy  has  investigated  the  subject  more 
recently,  and  places  the  principal  bank  between 
Ion.  29°  and  45°  W.,  and  lat.  21°  and  33°  N., 
with  smaller  scattered  masses  extending 
several  degrees  beyond  these  limits  on  all 
sides.  The  smaller  bank  he  found  not  so  well 
defined,  the  denser  portion  forming  a  band  ex- 
tending to  the  N.  E.  of  Porto  Rico  and  to  the 
58  VOL.  ii.— 6 


latitude  of  Bermuda.  The  Sargasso  sea  corre- 
sponds to  the  great  centre  or  eddy  of  the  North 
Atlantic  system  of  currents,  of  which  the  Gulf 
stream  forms  so  important  a  part.  The  botani- 
cal name  of  the  gulf  weed  is  sarga&sum  bacci- 
ferum  (Agardh),  not  sargassum  natans,  as  it  is 
usually  called  in  books  of  navigation,  which  is 
a  species  growing  on  rocks  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  generally  found  in  sprigs  a  few  inches 
long,  with  a  main  stem  branching  into  secon- 
dary ones ;  the  main  stem  has  frequently  a  de- 
caying end,  while  the  other  gives  rise  to  fresh- 
growing  leaves ;  but  there  is  never  any  trace 
of  root  or  place  of  attachment.  Between  the 
leaves,  which  are  elongated  and  sharply  ser- 
rate, small  round  air  vessels,  the  size  of 
currants,  are  supported  on  short  peduncles. 
These  air  vessels  or  floats  are  vulgarly  taken 
for  the  seeds  or  fruits  ;  hence  the  name,  de- 
rived from  a  Portuguese  word  meaning  grapes, 
and  the  French  names  of  raisins  de  mer  and 
raisins  du  tropique  (sea  grapes  and  tropic 
grapes).  Far  from  being  seeds,  it  is  a  sin- 
gular fact  that  the  plant  has  never  been  ob- 
served to  produce  a  fructification,  and  that  it 
propagates  only  by  division.  Prof.  Agassiz  has 
observed  that  deprived  of  its  floats  the  plant 
sinks.  Humboldt,  in  his  personal  narrative, 
thought  it  might  possibly  grow  on  an  undis- 
covered bank  of  40  or  60  fathoms  depth.  This 
opinion  he  afterward  abandoned ;  but  as  it  is 
still  current  among  some  persons,  it  may  be 
stated  here  that  such  a  bank  in  mid-ocean 
would  have  revealed  itself  by  discoloration  of 
the  water  before  now,  and  to  produce  the  im- 
mense masses  of  floating  weed  would  have  to 
be  of  considerable  size ;  besides,  soundings  in 
different  parts  of  the  Sargasso  sea  have  re- 
vealed a  very  great  depth  of  the  ocean  in  that 
part.  It  is  furthermore  well  known  that  fu- 
coids  grow  only  in  very  moderate  depths,  the 
greater  number  of  species  being  confined  be- 
tween tide  marks.  Humboldt  in  later  works 
adopted  the  more  probable  supposition  that 
the  gulf  weed  originates  and  propagates  where 
it  is  found.  To  this  he  was  led  by  the  ob- 
servations of  Meyen,  who  examined  several 
thousand  specimens  during  a  voyage  across  the 
Sargasso  sea,  and  found  them  uniformly  desti- 
tute of  roots  or  fructifications.  Robert  Brown, 
however,  thought  the  question  of  origin  still 
obscure,  but  that  the  theory  of  propagation  by 
ramification  and  division  was  highly  probable. 
He  thought  it  possible  that  it  might  have  origi- 
nated from  some  nearly  allied  species  in  the 
gulf  of  Florida,  fucus  natans  for  instance, 
afterward  permanently  modified  by  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  it  had  been  placed  for 
ages.  Harvey,  a  high  authority  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  seaweeds,  who  explored  the  shores  of 
Florida  and  examined  the  fresh  gulf  weed,  is 
also  clearly  of  the  opinion  that  it  propagates 
only  by  division,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  species.  The  gulf  weed  harbors 
a  peculiar  fauna  consisting  of  fishes,  Crustacea, 
mollusks,  and  polyps.  Among  the  fishes,  a 


80- 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


small  chironecte*  is  most  abundant,  which  con- 
structs a  peculiar  nest  for  its  eggs,  by  fasten- 
ing several  sprigs  of  gulf  weed  together.  It 
has  been  said  that  no  similar  accumulation  of 
floating  seaweed  was  known  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world ;  but  a  Sargasso  sea,  bearing  the 
same  relations  to  the  North  Pacific  currents 
which  the  Atlantic  one  bears  to  the  Gulf 
stream,  is  found  to  the  northward  of  the  Sand- 
wich islands,  and  appears  to  occupy  a  still 
larger  space.  It  is,  however,  very  little  known. 
— 2.  Animals.  The  cold  seas  seem  to  be  more 
favorable  to  the  development  of  mammalia 
than  the  warmer  ones.  Thus  the  highest  in 
the  scale  among  those  inhabiting  the  ocean, 
the  polar  bear,  is  found  in  the  furthest 
north,  and  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  of 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  proper,  when  car- 
ried along  by  the  ice.  The  seal  family  is  also 
most  numerously  represented  in  the  arctic  re- 
gions ;  the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  harbor- 
ing only  earless  seals,  the  South  Atlantic  eared 
seals  likewise.  One  or  two  imperfectly  known 
species  are  reported  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
one  in  the  Mediterranean.  Of  the  manatees, 
which  are  more  fresh-water  than  marine  ani- 
mals, two  species  are  found  on  the  American 
tropical  shores  and  one  in  Africa.  The  walrus 
retreats  from  persecution  further  north  every 
year,  so  that  its  original  distribution  is  uncer- 
tain. The  same  may  be  said  of  some  of  the 
whales,  particularly  of  the  right  whales,  two 
species  of  which  have  been  described  from  the 
north,  the  one  confined  to  the  frozen  ocean, 
the  other,  almost  extinct,  inhabiting  the  region 
between  this  and  lat.  40°.  No  right  whales 
are  found  in  the  tropics,  but  a  third  species  is 
found  south  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The 
finback  whales  appear  to  frequent  all  the 
oceans  except  the  frozen  regions.  The  sperm 
whale  is  found  chiefly  in  the  warmer  seas,  S. 
of  lat.  45°  N. ;  it  is  said  to  pass  Cape  Horn, 
but  not  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Of  the 
smaller  cetaceans  known  as  porpoises,  the 
genus  phoc&na  is  chiefly  northern,  delphinus 
almost  universal. — Of  the  families  of  birds  fre- 
quenting the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  ducks  have 
their  greatest  development  in  the  far  north, 
visiting  the  temperate  regions  in  winter ;  they 
are  much  more  scantily  represented  in  the 
South  Atlantic.  The  auks  and  divers  are  also 
northern  birds,  and  are  in  a  great  measure  re- 
placed by  the  penguins  in  the  southern  cold 
regions.  The  pelican  family  flourishes  best  in 
the  tropics,  where  it  has  its  large  representa- 
tives, the  pelicans,  frigates,  phaetons,  &c.  ; 
while  cormorants  and  gannets  extend  as  far  as 
the  cold  temperate  zone.  The  petrels,  the  most 
pelagic  of  birds,  are  seen  in  all  latitudes,  but 
with  a  strong  preponderance  in  the  southern 
cold  region.  The  giant  of  the  tribe,  the  alba- 
tross, visits  the  coast  of  South  America  as  far 
X.  as  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  gulls  and  terns 
are  seen  everywhere. — Of  reptiles,  the  Atlan- 
tic has  only  four  species  of  turtles,  inhabiting 
the  wanner  seas,  and  only  occasionally  carried 


ATLAS 

to  higher  latitudes  by  warm  currents.  Marine 
snakes,  common  in  the  Pacific,  are  entirely  ab- 
sent in  the  Atlantic. — The  North  Atlantic  is 
perhaps  of  all  seas  the  best  provided  with  use- 
ful fishes.  The  gadoids  or  cod  family,  the 
pleuronects  (halibut,  turbot,  &c.),  the  her- 
rings and  mackerels  are  nowhere  else  in  such 
abundance  and  excellence  as  on  both  sides  of 
that  ocean.  In  the  tropics  the  large  serrani 
(gropers)  are  a  characteristic  group.  The 
bright-colored  tropical  fishes,  such  as  cheto- 
donts  and  others,  seem  to  be  confined  to  the 
same  limits  as  the  corals,  the  coasts  of  America 
bached  by  the  equatorial  current.  Large  repre- 
sentatives of  the  mackerel  tribe,  the  corypha-- 
nti,  improperly  called  dolphin,  and  the  flying 
fishes,  are  the  most  common  inhabitants  of  the 
high  seas. — Of  Crustacea  peculiar  to  the  At- 
lantic, the  king  or  horseshoe  crab  of  North 
America  deserves  mention,  only  one  other 
species  of  the  genus  being  known,  in  the  Mo- 
lucca islands.  The  mollusks  are  nearly  all  dif- 
ferent in  the  Atlantic  from  those  in  the  other 
oceans,  even  when  so  slender  a  barrier  as  the 
isthmus  of  Panama  is  interposed.  In  the  Fue- 
gian  and  South  African  provinces  alone  is 
there  a  gradual  merging  through  a  common 
fauna  with  that  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans.  Similar  remarks  might  be  made  with 
regard  to  most  of  the  radiates.  Most  of  the 
known  living  crinoids  inhabit  the  Atlantic.  The 
corals  are  distributed  altogether  in  accordance 
with  the  warm  current.  The  W.  coast  of  Af- 
rica, washed  by  comparatively  cold  currents,  has 
scarcely  any.  The  coast  of  South  America,  re- 
ceiving warm  water  from  the  equatorial  current, 
has  a  greater  abundance,  though  their  growth 
is  checked  by  the  fresh  water  and  mud  of  the 
great  rivers.  But  they  flourish  in  the  West 
Indies  and  as  far  north  as  Bermuda,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Gulf  stream  and  other  warm 
water  currents.  The  West  Indian  coral  fauna 
is  destitute  of  trnafungm  and  of  pocillipora, 
both  so  common  in  the  Pacific.  It  has  on  the 
other  hand  a  great  abundance  of  gorgoniacece 
(sea  fans,  sea  feathers). — For  ocean  life  at 
great  depths,  see  DKEDGING. 

ATLANTIS,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the 
Greek  geographers  (in  which  some  recognize  a 
vague  knowledge  of  America),  a  large  island 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  to  the  west  of  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  Africa  and  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  It 
was  fabled  to  possess  a  numerous  population, 
begotten  by  Neptune  of  mortal  women.  The 
sea  kings  of  Atlantis  were  said  to  have  invaded 
the  west  of  Europe  and  of  Africa,  and  to  have 
been  defeated  by  the  Athenians  and  their 
allies.  The  inhabitants  finally  became  despe- 
rately wicked,  and  the  island  was  swept  away 
by  a  deluge.  Plato  mentions  the  island  in  his 
Timseus.  On  the  old  Venetian  maps,  Atlantis 
is  put  to  the  west  of  the  Azores  and  Canaries. 

ATLAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Japetus 
and  Clymene,  and  brother  of  Epimetheus  and 
Prometheus.  Defeated  with  the  other  Titans 
by  Jupiter,  he  was  condemned  to  bear  heaven 


ATLAS 


ATMOSPHERE 


81 


on  his  head  and  hands.  Some  stories  repre- 
sent him  as  a  great  astronomer,  king,  and  demi- 
god, who  first  taught  man  that  heav?n  had  the 
form  of  a  globe.  Ovid  relates  that  Perseus, 
having  been  refused  shelter  by  Atlas,  changed 
him  by  means  of  the  head  of  Medusa  into 
Mount  Atlas,  on  which  rested  the  firmament. 

ATLAS  (Moorish,  Adrar,  Dir,  Jebel  Tidla, 
or  Jebel  Adla),  a  mountain  system  of  N.  W. 
Africa,  forming  the  watershed  between  the 
Mediterranean  sea  and  the  Sahara.  It  ex- 
tends under  various  names  from  Cape  Ghir 
on  the  Atlantic  to  the  gulf  of  Cabes  (or  Lesser 
Syrtis),  about  1,200  m.  It  is  generally  divi- 
ded into  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Atlas,  and 
a  middle  table  land.  The  Lesser  Atlas  is  the 
range  nearest  the  seacoast ;  the  Greater  bor- 
ders on  the  desert.  But  this  division,  originated 
by  Ptolemy,  is  unknown  to  the  natives,  and  no 
real  line  of  division  can  be  ascertained.  In 
Morocco  the  Atlas  is  a  continuous  chain  from 
which  the  country  slopes  N.  W.  and  S.  E. 
toward  -the  sea  and  the  desert ;  and  here  it 
attains  its  greatest  altitude,  some  of  the  peaks, 
as  Jebel  Miltzin,  approaching,  and  others  ex- 
ceeding 12,000  ft.  in  height.  The  height  of 
the  mountains  generally  diminishes  toward  the 
east.  The  middle  part  in  Algeria  is  divided 
into  the  range  of  the  Tell,  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Shott  plateau  or  salt  swamps, 
and  the  range  of  the  Sahara,  between  the  pla- 
teau and  the  desert.  The  Tell  consists  of  single 
groups  of  mountains  separated  from  each  other 
by  wide  valleys,  of  which  11  are  counted  from 
W.  to  E.  In  Algeria  the  highest  point  is  Jebel 
Sheliha,  S.  of  Constantino,  upward  of  7,000  ft. ; 
and  Jurjura  or  Jerjera,  between  Algiers  and 
Constantine,  is  upward  of  6,000.  The  chain 
mainly  follows  a  direction  parallel  to  the  coast, 
but  then  turns  S.  E.,  and  takes  the  name  of 
Jebel  Aures,  and  approaching  the  coast  again, 
it  penetrates  into  the  territory  of  Tunis.  There 
are  several  passes,  of  which  the  chief  is  in  the 
Jurjura,  the  famous  Biban,  a  long,  narrow  val- 
ley bordered  by  rocks  rising  precipitously  150  to 
200  yards.  In  the  western  part  of  the  range 
is  the  Bebaoum  pass,  leading  to  Tarudant  in 
Morocco,  also  bounded  by  perpendicular  rocks 
and  precipices.  Another  defile,  frequented  by 
caravans,  leads  from  Fez  to  Tafilet.  East  of 
the  city  of  Morocco  snow  covers  the  summits 
nil  the  year;  in  Algeria  it  falls  in  September 
and  melts  in  May.  The  climate  is  generally 
very  salubrious.  The  sides  of  the  mountains 
are  covered  •  with  forests  of  oak,  cedar,  pine, 
pistachio,  cypress,  olive,  and  oleander.  The 
Kabyles  occupy  the  habitable  parts  of  the  At- 
las. The  wild  animals  are  the  lion,  panther, 
guepard,  hyama,  boar,  and  bear;  and  several 
-p'Ties  of  monkey  are  also  found.  None  of  the 
rivers  are  navigable,  and  many  are  only  winter 
torrents.  The  Tensift  and  Draa  flow  into  the 
Atlantic;  the  Tafilet  is  lost  in  the  sands;  the 
Shelliif,  the  Seybuse,  the  Kebir,  the  Rumel, 
and  the  Mejerda  flow  into  the  Mediterranean. 
According  to  a  description  of  a  branch  of  the 


I  Greater  Atlas  from  S.  to  N.  near  Jebel  Miltzin 
given  by  the  English  naturalist  Washington, 
the  geological  constitution  of  this  part  of  the 
range  is  gneiss,  schist,  red  sandstone,  transition 
limestone,  and  marl.  Capt.  Rozet  gives  the 

j  following  description  of  the  Lesser  Atlas  after 

I  a  careful  study :  The  country  of  Algeria,  cover- 
ed by  branches  or  plateaus  of  the  Lesser  Atlas, 

'•  is  composed  of  transition  schist,  gneiss,  blue 
limestone  similar  to  English  lias,  deposits  of 
alluvium,  trachytic  porphyry,  diluvium,  and 

!  other  deposits.  The  prevailing  rock  is  a  whi- 
tish green  or  blue  schist  in  deformed  layers, 
broken  up  into  numerous  fissures  filled  with 
white  quartz  and  oxidized  iron.  The  limestone 
enclosed  in  the  schist  is  of  a  saccharoid  texture, 
and  of  a  gray  or  dark  blue  color ;  it  forms  con- 
siderable masses  in  the  mountains  of  Algeria. 
The  schistose  stratum  contains  garnet  and 
anthracite ;  it  gradually  changes  to  mica  schist 
and  then  to  gneiss.  The  alluvium  is  composed 
of  horizontal  strata  of  clay,  marl,  and  rounded 
pebbles.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Atlantic 
Atlas  is  but  imperfectly  known.  The  Greater 
Atlas  seems  to  be  crossed  by  veins  of  copper, 
iron,  tin,  antimony,  and  perhaps  gold  and  sil- 
ver. The  Lesser  Atlas  has  mines  of  lead  and 
iron;  silver,  copper,  mercury,  and  plumbago 
are  also  found.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs  in  different  parts. 

ATMOSPHERE  (Gr.  ar/i6f,  vapor,  and  o<j>aipa, 
sphere),  or  Air,  the  gaseous  envelope  of  a  celes- 
tial body  or  of  the  earth.  At  present  we  know 
that  the  sun  and  planets  possess  atmospheres, 
and  the  revelations  of  the  spectrum  begin  to 
show  what  these  atmospheres  consist  of.  That 
of  the  sun  contains,  besides  hydrogen  and  other 
gases,  the  vapors  of  solids  and  liquids,  so  highly 
heated  that  iron  vapor  is  one  of  its  principal 
constituents.  The  atmospheres  of  Venus  and 
Mars  appear  similar  to  that  of  the  earth  ;  those 
of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  Uranus  and  Neptune,  dif- 
fer so  much  from  our  terrestrial  atmosphere, 
that  it  is  highly  probable  that  these  planets 
possess  so  high  a  temperature  as  not  only  to 
keep  many  solids  in  the  state  of  vapor,  but 
even  to  be  slightly  self-luminous.  The  moon 
shows  no  trace  of  an  atmosphere.  When  we 
consider  the  great  amount  of  oxygen  and 
water  combined  with  the  solid  portions  of 
our  earth's  surface,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  volcanic  scoria?  and  lavas  of  the  moon 
have  long  ago  absorbed  all  the  air  and  water 
which  may  once  have  enveloped  it. — The  at- 
mosphere has  been  the  principal  agent  in 
transforming  the  surface  of  our  earth  into 
what  it  is:  first  by  disintegrating  the  rocks; 
then,  in  connection  with  solar  heat,  starting 
vegetation ;  then  causing  the  decay  of  organic 
substances,  and  so  forming  soil  for  more  pro- 
fuse organic  growth,  giving  sustenance  for  the 
animal  kingdom;  and  finally  fulfilling  all  the 
functions  necessary  for  the  development  of  all 
forms  of  life.  The  functions  of  the  atmosphere 
are :  to  act  as  the  principal  conductor  of  sound 
waves;  to  moderate  the  solar  heat,  admitting 


82 


ATMOSPHERE 


its  reception  during  the  day,  and  preventing 
too  rapid  a  loss  of  it  during  the  night ;  to  carry 
the  waters  of  the  ocean  in  the  form  of  clouds 
or  vapors  over  the  land ;  to  serve  as  a  mechani- 
cal force ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  to  diffuse  the 
element,  oxygen,  which  sustains  the  life  of  all 
conscious  beings.  1.  Mechanical  properties. 
The  first  property  of  the  air  is  weight ;  hence 
it  is  attracted  by  the  earth,  and  therefore  it 
exerts  a  pressure,  not  only  downward,  but, 
according  to  the  law  of  fluids,  sideways,  up- 
ward, &c.,  as  by  the  mobility  of  fluid  particles 
any  pressure  is  transmitted  in  all  directions. 
The  direct  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  air  has 
weight  is,  that  when  it  is  compressed  in  a 
strong  flask,  the  flask  is  heavier  than  before. 
If  this  flask  has  a  capacity  of  100  cubic  inches, 
and  100  more  cubic  inches  of  air  are  pressed 
in  by  means  of  a  compression  pump,  the  flask 
will  be  found  to  have  gained  31  grains  in 
weight.  This  is  the  result  when  the  barometer 
stands  at  30  inches,  and  the  thermometer  at 
60°  F. ;  but  as  the  air  expands  3V  Pal't  f°r 
every  inch  of  decrease  in  the  barometer,  and 
-ffa  part  for  every  degree  of  increase  of  the 
thermometer,  the  weight  will  be  so  much  less 
if  the  barometer  is  lower  or  the  thermometer 
higher,  and  vice  vena.  The  atmosphere  having 
weight,  and  being  perfectly  elastic,  causes  the 
lower  strata  to  be  denser  than  the  upper.  Con- 
sequently, if  the  experiment  described  be  per- 
formed on  the  top  of  a  high  mountain,  we  shall 
find  the  weight  of  the  100  cubic  inches  of  air 
considerably  less  than  31  grains;  at  a  height  of 
14,282  feet  the  air  will  weigh  only  half  as 
much ;  at  twice  that  height  it  will  weigh  only 
one  quarter ;  at  three  times,  one  eighth,  &c. 
In  general  the  law  is,  that  while  the  height 
increases  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
the  weight,  and  consequently  the  pressure,  de- 
crease in  a  geometrical  ratio,  £,  £,  ^,  ^  &c. 
On  this  property  is  founded  the  system  of 
estimating  heights  by  determining  the  pressure 
of  the  air,  either  by  weighing  by  the  barometer, 
or  by  noticing  the  temperature  at  which  water 
boils.  Near  the  surface  of  the  ocean  water 
boils  at  212° ;  if  we  go  550  feet  upward,  it  will 
boil  at  211° ;  1,100  feet,  at  210° ;  5,500  feet,  at 
202°;  11,000  feet,  at  about  192°.  The  cause 
of  this  difference  is,  that  in  order  to  boil  water 
the  heat  must  be  great  enough  to  cause  the 
expansive  force  of  the  vapor  or  steam  to  over- 
come the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  that  thus 
in  ascending,  this  pressure  becoming  less,  a  less 
amount  of  heat  is  required.  This  method, 
however,  is  only  a  rough  approximation,  and 
is  now  abandoned  for  more  delicate  methods. — 
The  atmosphere,  like  all  gaseous  bodies,  pos- 
sesses elasticity  in  a  most  remarkable  degree. 
The  effect  of  this  elasticity  is  seen  in  the  un- 
roofing of  houses  and  bursting  outward  of 
windows  in  hurricanes.  A  partial  vacuum 
being  produced  by  the  rotary  motion  of  the 
hurricane,  the  air  within  expands  and  lifts  off 
the  roof,  or  bursts  open  the  doors  and  win- 
dows. A  similar  effect  is  observed  in  the  ex- 


pansion of  air  confined  in  a  bladder,  arid  taken 
from  a  low  level  to  a  great  height.  The  ex- 
ternal pressure  being  reduced,  the  air  within 
tends  to  expand  to  the  same  degree  of  rarity 
as  that  without,  and  with  such  force  us  to 
burst  the  bladder.  It  is  this  property,  pos- 
sessed in  the  greatest  perfection  by  the  gasc.  u- 
bodies,  that  renders  air  so  excellent  a  material 
for  springs,  air  beds,  &c. — The  impenetrability 
of  air  is  its  property  of  preventing  another 
body  occupying  the  space  where  it  is.  The 
diving  bell  is  a  good  illustration  of  it,  as  also  of 
its  elasticity ;  for  when  sunk  to  the  depth  of 
34  feet,  the  water  will  be  forced  in,  so  as  to 
half  fill  it;  at  the  depth  of  100  feet  it  will  be 
three  quarters  filled ;  on  drawing  it  up  the  air 
will  expand  and  drive  out  the  water  again. 
This  also  shows  that  air  may  be  condensed  and 
expanded  by  mechanical  force.  A  remarkable 
law  prevails,  called  after  its  discoverer  the  law 
of  Mariotte,  to  the  effect  that  the  volume  of 
the  air  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  pressure 
employed,  and  therefore  also  to  the  reacting 
pressure  exerted  by  the  air  on  the  vessels  in 
which  it  is  confined.  This  pressure,  which  in 
the  ordinary  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
amounts  near  the  surface  of  the  ocean  to  about 
15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  is  thus  doubled 
or  tripled  if  we  introduce  double  or  triple 
the  amount  of  air  ill  the  same  space,  as  in  the 
experiment  above  referred  to  for  weighing  the 
air.  Mariotte's  law,  however,  does  not  hold 
for  excessive  pressures,  say  of  25  or  50  atmos- 
pheres, when  the  volume  is  not  exactly  inversely 
proportional  to  the  pressure;  our  atmospheric 
air  and  most  other  gases  are  condensed  more 
for  a  given  pressure,  while  hydrogen  gas  forms 
an  exception,  and  is  condensed  less  than  the 
amount  required  by  Mariotte's  law.  The  shape 
of  the  atmospheric  envelope  of  our  planet  is  of 
course  spheroidal  like  the  earth,  only  it  is  im  >st 
likely  that  its  upper  surface  is  still  more  de- 
pressed at  the  poles  than  the  earth  itself, 
while  the  air  is  there  colder,  consequently  more 
condensed  and  heavier,  than  at  the  equator. 
The  attempts  to  determine  the  absolute  height 
of  the  atmosphere  have  given  different  results. 
according  to  the  different  data  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  calculation.  The  most  trustworthy  data 
are  those  founded  on  the  time  that  on  a  clear 
evening  the  last  twilight  reaches  the  zenith, 
in  connection  with  the  laws  of  refraction  and 
reflection  of  light;  this  has  given  as  result  a 
height  of  about  40  miles  for  the  extreme  traces 
of  atmospheric  air,  in  so  far  as  these  laws  of 
refraction  act  in  an  appreciable  manner.  It 
is  most  likely,  however,  that  the  rarefaction 
expands  much  further,  till  at  the  utmost  limit 
of  some  thousands  of  miles  it  mingles  and  be- 
comes identical  with  the  interplanetary  medium 
or  so-called  ether,  which,  according  to  some  of 
the  latest  opinions,  is  only  infinitely  rarefied 
atmospheric  air,  or  inversely,  our  atmospheric 
air  is  nothing  but  the  interplanetary  medium, 
condensed  by  gravitation  on  the  surface  of  our 
planet.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is 


ATMOSPHERE 


83 


also  made  apparent  by  removing  the  air  from 
the  interior  of  any  tube,  the  lo\^r  end  of 
which  is  immersed  in  water  or  any  o'ther  fluid. 
This  fluid  will  be  pressed  up  the  tube  to  a 
height  corresponding  to  the  pressure  upon  its 
surface.  If  this  be  at  the  level  of  the  sea, 
water  will  rise  33  feet  and  mercury  29  inches. 
The  common  suction  pump  is  but  such  a  tube, 
furnished  merely  with  a  piston  for  lifting  out  the 
air,  and  then  the  water  follows  it.  The  power 
required  is  of  course  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
column  of  water  to  be  lifted.  The  pressure  of 
the  air  is  also  well  illustrated  by  the  common 
leather  toy  "sucker" — a  disk  of  soft  leather, 
with  a  string  knotted  at  one  end  passed  through 
its  centre.  When  moistened  and  applied  to 
any  smooth  surface,  care  being  taken  to  expel 
the  intervening  air,  it  is  attracted  to  it  by  the 
external  pressure.  By  the  same  principle  the 
patella  or  limpet,  and  some  other  shell  fish,  hold 
fast  upon  the  smooth  rock.  So  great  is  this 
pressure,  that  the  force  exerted  upon  the  body 
of  a  moderate-sized  man  must  be  about  15  tons 
— sufficient  to  crush  him,  as  it  inevitably  would, 
if  applied  to  only  a  portion  of  the  body,  but 
quite  harmless  when  pressing  with  perfect 
elasticity  everywhere  alike,  from  the  external 
parts  inwardly,  and  from  those  within  outward. 
Let  the  pressure  be  taken  off  from  any  portion, 
as  by  the  cupping  instrument,  and  one  is  im- 
mediately sensible  of  the  power  that  is  exerted 
npon  the  parts  around,  painfully  pressing  them 
into  the  vacant  space  of  the  instrument ;  or 
if  taken  from  the  whole  body,  as  is  the  case 
with  an  aeronaut  in  a  balloon  at  great  height, 
the  result  may  by  the  expansion  of  internal 
organs  prove  fatal.  Inversely,  a  great  increase 
of  atmospheric  pressure  may  be  equally  inju- 
rious and  even  fatal,  as  experienced  by  divers 
at  great  depth  under  water,  or  by  the  work- 
men engaged  in  labor  in  the  caissons  now  em- 
ployed in  forming  a  foundation  for  subaqueous 
structures.  2.  Physical  properties.  The  most 
important  physical  property  of  the  atmosphere 
is  its  expansion  by  heat  and  contraction  by  cold. 
The  amount  of  this  expansion  or  contraction  is 
f^g  of  its  bulk  at  32°  F.  for  every  degree  of 
temperature  above  or  below  that  point.  At 
very  low  degrees  of  temperature,  however,  this 
law  does  not  hold,  and  cannot  do  so,  as  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  if  it  were  absolute 
the  air  when  cooling  to  492°  below  32°,  that 
is,  at  — 460°  F.,  would  be  condensed  to  nothing. 
The  latter  temperature  has  for  this  reason  been 
accepted  by  C16ment  and  Desormes  as  that  of 
absolute  cold,  while  according  to  Pouillet  the 
temperature  of  the  outermost  limits  of  our  at- 
mosphere is  equal  to  that  of  the  interplan- 
etary space  beyond,  being  about  230°  below 
zero.  The  expansion  of  air  by  heat  is  easily 
exemplified  by  heating  air  confined  in  a  blad- 
der. Its  expansion  soon  swells  the  bladder  and 
ranges  it  to  burst.  As  its  bulk  increases,  its 
density  diminishes.  The  colder  and  heavier 
air  around  it  lifts  it  up.  On  this  principle  were 
constructed  the  first  balloons.  It  is  this  prin- 


ciple also  that  gives  rise  to  the  currents  of  air 
or  wind,  the  colder  air  flowing  along  the  surface 
to  fill  the  spaces  left  by  the  ascending  warm 
air.  Thus  the  trade  winds  blow  from  the 
temperate  regions  toward  the  torrid  equato- 
rial belt.  The  whirling  tornado,  and  all  the 
phenomena  of  the  winds,  owe  their  origin  to 
local  heating  and  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  rays  of  the  sun  pass  through  the  upper 
strata  of  the  atmosphere,  imparting  to  them 
little  heat.  This  the  air  receives  chiefly  near 
the  surface.  As  we  ascend,  the  temperature 
diminishes  one  degree  for  every  300  or  400  ft. 
Near  the  equator  perpetual  snow  covers  the 
mountains  at  the  height  of  15,207  ft. ;  in  lat. 
60°  it  is  found  at  3,818  ft.,  and  in  75°  at  1,016 
ft.  The  main  cause  of  this  is  not  that  the  solar 
rays  possess  less  heat  in  the  higher  regions,  as 
the  contrary  has  been  proved,  but  that  the 
portions  of  the  earth's  crust  projecting  far  up 
into  the  atmosphere,  as  is  the  case  with  high 
mountains,  possess  less  of  the  interior  heat  of 
the  earth,  being  more  subject  to  cooling  by 
radiation,  which  has  caused  their  temperature 
to  descend  to  such  a  very  low  degree,  that  even 
a  inidday  tropical  sun  cannot  raise  it  to  32°  F. 
Another  physical  property  of  the  atmosphere 
is  its  refraction  and  reflection  of  light.  If 
the  sun's  rays  did  not  illuminate  the  mass  of 
the  atmosphere,  it  would  be  of  a  black  color ; 
but  a  partial  refraction  of  the  most  refrangible 
rays  takes  place,  and  this  gives  the  blue  color 
to  the  sky,  while  that  of  the  clouds  comes  from 
the  reflection  of  the  light  upon  the  particles 
of  vapor  floating  in  the  atmosphere.  This  blue 
color  is  too  faint  to  be  perceived  in  any  small 
quantity  of  air ;  it  is  only  the  great  depth  of  the 
atmosphere  that  makes  it  visible,  as  the  color 
of  the  ocean  is  only  apparent  when  the  waters 
are  seen  in  mass.  3.  Chemical  properties. 
The  atmosphere  consists  chiefly  of  a  mixture 
of  three  gases,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid,  with  a  very  variable  quantity  of  watery 
vapor.  The  normal  quantities  are  by  weight 
23'2  per  cent,  oxygen,  76'7  nitrogen,  and  about 
O'l  carbonic  acid,  while  the  watery  vapor  varies 
from  almost  utter  absence  to  saturation  or 
more  than  80  per  cent.,  according  to  locality, 
climate,  season,  and  other  circumstances.  To 
this  must  he  added  the  fact  that  the  atmos- 
pheric oxygen  is  found  in  two  different  condi- 
tions according  to  circumstances,  one  being  the 
neutral  state  or  ordinary  oxygen,  the  other 
its  active  condition,  when  it  is  called  ozone. 
This  differs  from  ordinary  oxygen,  first,  by 
being  more  condensed  so  as  to  be  one  half 
heavier,  100  cubic  inches  of  ordinary  oxygen 
weighing  32  grains,  while  the  same  bulk  of 
ozone  has  a  weight  of  48  grains  ;  secondly,  by 
i  causing  many  chemical  reactions  which  ordi- 
nary oxygen  is  incapable  of  producing.  It  is 
also  a  most  powerful  disinfectant,  one  part  of 
ozone  purifying  3,000,000  parts  of  putrid  air, 
by  burning  up  as  it  were  the  miasmatic  exhala- 
tions. In  the  arts  it  has  already  been  applied 
as  a  bleaching  and  purifying  agent.  Its  great 


ATMOSPHERE 


ATMOSPHERIC   ENGINE 


chemical  activity  makes  it,  when  present  in 
large  quantity,  hurtful  to  animal  lite,  by  its 
very  irritating  action  on  the  respiratory  organs. 
A  heat  of  500°  F.  reconverts  it  into  ordinary 
oxygen.  Nature  produces  it  continually  by 
the  electric  discharges  during  thunderstorms, 
by  the  odors  of  flowering  plants  under  the 
influence  of  light,  by  vegetation  in  general,  and 
by  some  kinds  of  decay.  Its  formation  is 
chemically  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
molecule  of  oxygen  consists  of  a  double  atom, 
while  in  the  molecule  of  ozone  three  atoms 
occupy  the  same  space.  (See  OZONE.)  In 
unhealthy  localities  little  or  no  ozone  is  present, 
but  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  ammonia  is 
found,  and  nitric  acid  and  nitrate  of  ammonia 
are  generated  in  thunderstorms  by  the  chemical 
combination  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  induced 
by  the  electrical  spark.  These,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  accidental  impurities,  are  soon  dis- 
sipated in  the  great  bulk  of  the  atmosphere, 
precipitated  upon  the  earth,  washed  down  by 
the  rain,  and  decomposed  by  the  ozone.  The 
proportions  of  the  three  elements  of  the  air 
hardly  vary,  whether  this  is  taken  from  the 
summits  of  the  highest  mountains,  or  from  ex- 
tensive plains ;  nor  are  they  affected  by  season, 
climate,  or  weather.  In  closely  confined  places, 
exposed  to  putrescent  exhalations,  the  purity 
of  the  air  is  necessarily  much  affected ;  the  pro- 
portion of  oxygen  diminishes,  and  mephitic 
gases,  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  more  car- 
bonic acid,  are  introduced.  Prof.  Nicol  gives 
an  analysis  of  air  collected  in  a  filthy  lane  in 
Paris,  in  which  the  oxygen  constitutes  13 '79 
per  cent,  only,  instead  of  23  per  cent. ;  nitrogen 
was  present  to  the  amount  of  81-24  per  cent. ; 
carbonic  acid,  2'01  ;  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
2 '99  per  cent.  Such  air  contains  also  many 
other  vapors,  inorganic  as  well  as  organic, 
which  formerly  escaped  detection,  but  which 
at  present,  by  the  modern  refinements  in  the 
analysis  of  gases,  may  be  determined.  That 
the  air  is  a  simple  mixture  and  not  a  chemical 
compound  of  its  elements,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  water,  long  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, contains  in  solution  the  three  gases  in 
quite  different  proportions  from  those  in  the 
air ;  such  water  will  ordinarily  contain  most  car- 
bonic acid,  oxygen  in  the  next  largest  propor- 
tion, and  nitrogen  in  the  least,  because  nitrogen 
is  much  less  soluble  in  water  than  the  other 
gases.  When  carbonic  acid  gas  is  increased  in 
the  air  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  5  to  6  per 
cent.,  it  is,  according  to  Berzelius,  still  probably 
harmless.  Man  may  even  live  for  a  time  in  an 
atmosphere  containing  30  per  cent,  of  carbonic 
acid.  But  if  carbonic  oxide,  which  is  the  pro- 
duct of  imperfect  combustion  of  carbon  and 
contains  only  half  the  amount  of  oxygen  of  the 
carbonic  acid,  be  present  even  to  the  amount  of 
only  1  per  cent.,  it  may  prove  fatal.  Carbonic 
acid  is  the  product  of  perfect  combustion  of  car- 
bon, and  of  the  breathing  of  animals.  In  breath- 
ing, the  oxygen  in  part  unites  with  carbon  in 
the  system,  and  the  air  expired  contains  4|  per 


1  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  immediately 
dispersed  through  the  atmosphere  by  the  prop- 
erty of  diffusibility,  possessed  in  such  a  remark- 
able degree  by  the  gases;  but  if  confined  in 
close  places,  it  soon  accumulates,  contaminates 
the  air,  and  makes  it  unfit  for  breathing.  Mini 
requires  from  212  to  353  cubic  feet  of  pure  air 
per  hour,  containing  50  cubic  feet  or  about 
four  pounds  of  oxygen. — Growing  plants  are 
the  compensating  agents,  which,  besides  gene- 
rating ozone,  counteract  the  noxious  influences 
of  combustion  and  the  breathing  of  animals. 
Plants  as  well  as  animals  breathe  the  air,  but 
the  effect  of  this  respiration  is  just  the  reverse 
of  that  of  animals.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
decomposed  in  the  laboratory  of  their  leaves, 
the  solid  carbon  is  added  to  their  structure, 
and  the  pure  oxygen  is  expired.  This  action 
takes  place  only  by  the  influence  of  daylight, 
while  in  the  dark  the  plants  give  some  of  the 
carbonic  acid  back  to  the  atmosphere ;  there- 
fore plants  should  not  be  kept  in  sleeping  apart- 
ments. Oxygen  is  thus  the  life-sustaining  ele- 
ment of  the  air  for  animals,  and  carbonic  acid 
for  plants,  while  the  chief  function  of  nitrogen 
appears  to  be  for  dilution  ;  but  undoubtedly  it 
is  also  the  source  of  the  nitrogen  in  some  plants, 
and  consequently  in  animals. — Water,  in  the 
form  of  vapor,  has  already  been  noticed  as  one 
of  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
manifests  its  presence  by  condensing  in  visible 
moisture  and  drops  upon  cold  surfaces.  When 
the  air  is  warm,  its  capacity  of  holding  water 
is  great;  as  it  becomes  cool,  this  capacity  dimin- 
ishes, and  the  water  that  is  now  in  excess 
appears  as  dew,  or  mist,  or  rain.  The  atmos- 
phere is  said  to  be  dry  when  it  has  not  so 
much  moisture  in  it  as  it  is  capable  of  holding 

|  at  its  temperature  ;  evaporation  then  takes 
place.  But  let  the  temperature  fall,  and  the 
same  air  will  be  damp  without  the  absolute 
quantity  of  vapor  having  changed.  The  degree 
of  heat  at  which  air  is  saturated  with  the  water 
it  contains  is  called  the  dew  point.  If  it  is 
high,  the  absolute  quantity  of  vapor  in  the  air 
is  great;  if  low,  there  is  little  vapor  in  it. 

ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE.  Under  this  name 
was  formerly  understood  an  engine  operated 
by  the  simultaneous  pressure  of  cold  air  on  a 
small  piston  and  hot  air  on  a  large  piston,  the 
air  being  heated  and  expanded  during  its  pas- 
sage from  the  small  cylinder  into  the  large  one. 
Since,  however,  engines  have  been  built  to 
work  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  alone,  without 
the  addition  of  heat,  engines  operated  by  the 
latter  force  have  been  called  caloric  engines. 
(See  CALOHIO  EIMUNK.)  The  use  of  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  as  a  primary  source  of 
power  has  long  been  a  delusion  of  persons  of 
the  class  who  still  seek  for  perpetual  motion. 
All  that  has  been  accomplished  in  this  way  has 
been  by  making  use  of  the  continual  changes  in 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  as  for  instance  to 
move  the  mercurial  column  in  a  syphon  barom- 
eter of  which  the  two  vertical  tubes  were  very 
far  apart,  and  the  whole  balanced  on  a  central 


ATMOSPHERIC   ENGINE 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


85 


pivot.  An  increase  in  atmospheric  pressure 
would  drive  more  mercury  into  thejong  closed 
vnd,  and  cause  this  to  descend;  a  Decrease  in 
atmospheric  pressure  would  cause  the  mercury 
to  return  to  the  short  open  end,  and  cause  this 
in  its  turn  to  descend ;  while  wheelwork  was 
•so  arranged  as  to  produce  motion  by  a  descent 
either  way.  Such  a  contrivance,  however,  or 
any  other  based  on  the  same  principle  of  the 
changes  in  atmospheric  pressure,  even  when 
constructed  on  the  largest  practicable  scale,  can 
only  produce  a  weak  power.  It  is  evident  that 
in  order  to  produce  an  available  motive  power  , 
by  the  application  of  atmospheric  pressure,  this 
pressure  ought  to  be  made  as  strong  as  steam 
pressure;  for  which  purpose  the  air  must  be  | 
compressed  by  mechanical  means,  or  at  least  a 
vacuum  created.  In  this  way,  however,  the 
air  can  only  be  employed  for  the  transmission 
of  power,  and  this  is  actually  the  case  in  all 
atmospheric  engines.  None  of  them  are  prime  : 
movers,  but  the  air  which  drives  them  is  | 
compressed  by  another  power — either  steam, 
falling  water,  or  animal  force.  There  are  ! 
several  ways  of  using  this  compressed  air. 
One  is  to  fill  with  it  a  large  strong  cylin- 
der, the  equivalent  of  a  locomotive  boiler,  and 
use  this  compressed  air  to  work  the  piston,  in 
the  same  way  as  steam  is  used.  This  is  only 
applicable  upon  cars  traversing  short  distances, 
so  that  the  engine  can  periodically  receive  new 
supplies.  It  is  argued  that  a  very  large  steam 
engine,  creating  the  power  for  a  great  number 
of  small  engines,  by  compressing  air  in  large 
reservoirs,  to  supply  all  the  engines  of  a  city 
line  of  railroad  cars,  is  very  economical  in  com- 
parison with  several  scores  of  small  indepen- 
dent motors,  each  with  its  furnace  and  boiler. 
Another  method  of  supplying  atmospheric 
pressure  from  one  prime  motor  to  different  | 
small  engines,  is  to  conduct  the  air  in  tubes  ' 
from  the  former  to  the  latter.  This  was  sue-  j 
cessfully  employed  by  Soimneiller  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel ;  the  hy- 
draulic power  of  a  cataract  near  the  entrance 
of  the  tunnel  being  used  as  a  prime  motor 
to  compress  the  air  in  reservoirs,  whence  it 
was  conducted  by  flexible  tubes  to  the  rock-  ! 
boring  machines.  This  method  is  now  exten- 
sively in  use  in  the  United  States,  the  prime 
motor  being  ordinarily  steam  power.  One  of 
the  chief  advantages  of  atmospheric  engines 
of  this  class  is  that,  in  place  of  heat  and  steam 
escaping,  as  is  the  case  with  steam  engines,  pure 
atmospheric  air  escapes,  which  by  its  expan- 
sion becomes  cold,  and  thus  supplies  the  end 
of  the  mining  shaft  with  pure  and  cool  air, 
securing  a  most  perfect  ventilation ;  while  the 
use  of  steam  in  such  a  locality,  even  if  a  pro- 
vision were  made  to  carry  off  the  escaping 
steam,  would  raise  the  temperature  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  make  further  work  impossible.  It 
is  now  acknowledged  that  the  boring  of  such 
tunnels  as  the  Mont  Cenis,  the  St.  Gothard, 
and  the  Hoosac  would  be  impracticable  but  for 
drill*  worked  by  atmospheric  engines.  When 


the  boring  is  performed  by  percussion  of  steel 
drills,  the  atmospheric  pressure  moves  a  piston 
connected  with  them.  When  the  boring  is 
performed  by  rotation,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
diamond  drill,  the  atmospheric  engine  may  be 
either  a  rotary  or  a  reciprocating  one.  In 
fact'  the-  arrangement  of  all  atmospheric  engines 
is  nearly  identical  with  that  of  non-condensing 
steam  engines.  As  atmospheric  pressure  may 
be  easily  transmitted  through  tubes  in  any 
direction,  and  therefore  also  the  power  of  a 
prime  motor,  it  is  expected  that  in  the  course 
of  time  the  power  of  large  cataracts  will  be 
utilized  in  this  way  to  drive  atmospheric  en- 
gines for  several  miles  around.  A  piston  may 
also  be  propelled  through  a  very  long  tube  by 
atmospheric  pressure  or  by  a  vacuum ;  this  has 
been  applied  to  transmitting  small  packages, 
and  also  to  the  propulsion  of  railroad  trains. 
(See  PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH,  and  PNEUMATIC 
RAILWAY.) 

ATNAHS,  or  Atenis,  an  Indian  tribe  of  British 
America,  called  also  Shoushwap  or  Chin  In- 
dians. They  are  a  Selish  tribe  on  Frazer  and 
Salmon  rivers,  an  energetic,  industrious  people, 
manufacturing  blankets  of  good  quality  from 
the  wool  of  a  native  goat  or  sheep. — Another 
tribe  called  Atnas  is  mentioned  in  the  early 
accounts  of  the  northwest  as  living  on  Copper 
river,  Alaska,  and  seems  to  be  now  included  in 
the  Koloshians. 

ATOLL,  the  Malay  name  of  a  peculiar  form 
of  coralline  island  common  in  Polynesia  and 
the  Indian  ocean,  which  consists  of  a  circular 
reef,  seldom  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards 
wide,  enclosing  a  sheet  of  water  connected 
with  the  ocean  by  an  open  passage.  These  la- 
goons are  sometimes  30  m.  in  diameter  and 
from  100  to  400  feet  deep,  and  afford  safe  har- 
bors, the  opening  never  being  on  the  windward 
side.  The  reefs  generally  support  vegetation, 
and  are  sometimes  inhabited. 

ATOMIC  THEORY,  the  doctrine  that  matter 
consists  of  ultimate  particles  or  atoms  incapable 
of  division.  This  idea  was  first  maintained 
speculatively  in  opposition  to  the  notion  that 
matter  is  capable  of  being  divided  to  infinity. 
Modern  science  has  adopted  this  idea,  not 
merely  as  a  speculation  which  cannot  be  veri- 
fied, but  as  a  proposition  which  interprets  and 
harmonizes  a  wide  range  of  experimental  facts. 
Inasmuch  as  it  offers  an  explanation  of  the 
facts  and  principles  of  chemistry,  these  require 
to  be  noticed  before  we  can  understand  the 
use  and  necessity  of  the  theory.  Modern 
chemistry  took  its  rise  with  the  abandonment 
of  the  old  notion  of  phlogiston,  and  the  eluci- 
dation of  the  principles  of  combustion  by  La- 
voisier. He  introduced  the  balance  as  a  fun- 
damental instrument  of  chemical  inquiry,  and 
thus  placed  the  science  upon  a  firm  quantitative 
basis.  As  weighing  became  general  and  ac- 
curate, it  was  soon  discovered  that  chemical 
combination  is  definite,  and  chemical  compo- 
sition constant.  A  certain  weight  of  alkali,  for 
example,  combines  with  a  given  weight  of  acid 


86 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


to  produce  a  salt,  which  therefore  has  a  fixed 
numerical  constitution.  A  great  number  of  ex- 
periments showed  that  chemical  union  always 
takes  place  in  this  manner,  and  thus  was  estab- 
lished the  fundamental  law  of  definite  propor- 
tions. It  was  next  discovered  that'  combina- 
tion may  take  place  between  the  same  sub- 
stances in  different  proportions,  and  that  when 
this  is  the  case  these  proportions  have  simple 
numerical  relations  to  each  other.  Thus,  if 
two  elements  A  and  B  are  capable  of  uniting 
in  several  proportions,  they  may  be  represented 
as  A+  B,  A+  2B,  A+  3B,  A  +  4B,  &c.  The 
relations  are  not  always  so  simple  as  this,  but 
the  principle  is  general,  and  is  known  as  the 
law  of  multiple  proportions.  Again,  it  was 
found  that  if  two  elements  which  combine 
with  each  other  combine  also  with  a  third,  the 
proportions  in  the  first  combination  are  pre- 
served also  in  the  second.  If  a  body  A  unites 
with  certain  other  bodies  B,  C,  D,  then  the 
quantities  B,  0,  D,  which  combine  with  A,  or 
certain  simple  multiples  of  them,  represent  for 
the  most  part  the  proportions  in  which  they 
can  unite  among  themselves.  This  is  known 
as  the  law  of  equivalent  proportions  or  chem- 
ical equivalence.  It  having  thus  been  found 
that  chemical  actions  follow  strict  numerical 
methods,  and  that  each  body  has  its  fixed 
measure,  it  became  important  to  determine  ex- 
actly what  these  measures  are.  This  resulted  in 
the  scale  of  combining  numbers  or  equivalents, 
or,  as  they  are  now  more  commonly  termed, 
atomic  weights,  which  constitute  the  founda- 
tion of  the  science  and  are  given  in  all  text 
books. — But  if  all  kinds  of  matter  in  their 
chemical  transformations  are  ruled  by  these 
numerical  principles,  we  should  expect  that 
other  material  properties  would  be  affected  by 
them,  and  such  is  the  fact.  The  combining 
weights  of  those  elements  which  are  known  to 
exist  in  the  state  of  gas  or  vapor  are,  with  one 
or  two  exceptions,  proportional  to  their  specific 
gravities  in  the  same  state.  Thus,  the  specific 
gravity  of  hydrogen  being  1,  that  of  oxygen  is 
16,  sulphur  vapor  32,  chlorine  35-5,  iodine 
vapor  127 ;  but  the  figures  represent  also  the 
combining  numbers  of  these  elements.  Mr. 
Watts  thus  expresses  the  law  of  combination 
by  volume :  "  If  the  smallest  volume  of  a  gase- 
ous element  that  can  enter  into  combination 
be  called  the  combining  volume  of  that  element, 
the  law  of  combination  may  be  expressed  as 
follows :  The  combining  volumes  of  all  elemen- 
tary gases  are  equal,  excepting  those  of  phospho- 
rus and  arsenic,  which  are  only  half  those  of  the 
other  elements  in  the  gaseous  state ;  and  those  of 
mercury  and  cadmium,  which  are  double  those 
of  the  other  elements."  Gay-Lussac  showed 
that  combinations  by  volume  take  place  in  defi- 
nite and  multiple  proportions,  and  that  the  vol- 
ume of  a  compound  gas  always  bears  a  simple 
ratio  to  the  volumes  of  its  elements,  thus: 

1  vol.   hydrogen  and  1  chlorine  form  2  vols.  hydrochloric  acid. 

2  vols.  "    1  oxyiren      "    2     "     watery  vapor. 

"   1  nitrogen     "    2     "     ammonia. 


Again,  it  is  found  that  in  many  cases  two  or 
more  compounds  which  are  supposed  to  contain 
equal  numbers  of  equivalents  of  their  respective 
elements  crystallize  in  the  same  or  in  very  simi- 
lar forms,  and  such  compounds  are  said  to  be 
isomorphous.  Accordingly,  these  isoinorphoiis 
relations  are  often  appealed  to  for  the  purpo-e 
of  fixing  the  constitution  of  compounds,  and 
thence  deducing  the  atomic  weights  of  their 
elements,  in  cases  which  would  otherwise  be 
doubtful.  It  has  also  been  established  that 
substances  having  different  properties  may 
have  the  same  relative  proportion  of  constitu- 
ents, and  such  are  said  to  be  isomeric.  More- 
over, something  analogous  to  this  is  seen  among 
the  elements  themselves :  they  are  capable  of 
assuming  different  states,  which  capability  is 
called  allotropism.  In  both  cases  we  are  com- 
pelled to  assume  that  their  constituent  parts 
are  subject  to  differences  of  arrangement.  Com- 
bining quantities  are  also  intimately  related  to 
heat.  This  relation  is  thus  stated  by  Mr.  Watts : 
"  The  atomic  weights  of  the  elements,  deter- 
mined according  to  their  modes  of  combina- 
tion, are  for  the  most  part  inversely  propor- 
tional to  their  specific  heats ;  so  that  the  pro- 
duct of  the  specific  heat  into  the  atomic  weight 
is  a  constant  quantity.  The  same  quantity  of 
heat  is  required  to  produce  a  given  change  of 
temperature  in  7  grains  of  lithium,  56  of  iron, 
207  of  lead,  108  of  silver,  196-7  of  gold."  Final- 
ly, the  law  of  combining  proportions  is  impli- 
cated with  the  electrical  relations  of  matter. 
Prof.  Faraday  proved  that  an  equivalent  of  an 
element  consumed  in  a  battery  gives  rise  to  a 
definite  quantity  of  electricity,  which  will  pro- 
duce exactly  an  equivalent  of  chemical  decom- 
position. For  example,  the  consumption  of  32 
grains  of  zinc  in  a  battery  excites  a  current 
which  will  set  free  from  combination  1  grain 
of  hydrogen,  108  of  silver,  and  39  of  potassium ; 
these  being  the  combining  numbers  of  the  re- 
spective elements. — The  facts  above  stated  are 
independent  of  all  hypothesis,  and  are  the  re- 
sults of  pure  experiment.  They  demonstrate 
that  in  its  ultimate  and  minutest  form  matter 
is  in  some  way  numerically  constituted.  How 
it  is  constituted  was  a  question  which  the 
human  mind  could  not  escape.  It  was  neces- 
sary to  frame  some  clear  conception  of  its  ul- 
timate constitution  that  would  connect  and  in- 
terpret the  known  facts.  This  was  done  by 
Dr.  John  Dalton  of  Manchester,  England,  in 
constructing  the  atomic  theory.  He  was  aware 
of  the  law  of  definite  proportions,  and  he  dis- 
covered the  law  of  multiple  proportions  by  in- 
vestigation of  the  compounds  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  of  nitro- 
gen and  oxygen.  To  account  for  these  laws, 
he  assumed,  first,  that  all  matter  consists  of 
indivisible,  unchangeable  atoms  of  extreme 
minuteness ;  second,  that  all  the  atoms  of  the 
same  element  have  the  same  weight,  but  that 
in  different  elements  they  have  different 
weights ;  third,  that  these  relative  weights. 
correspond  with  the  combining  numbers. 


ATOMIC   THEORY 


87 


which  may  therefore  be  called  atomic  weights; 
fourth,  that  these  different  atoms  have  mutual 
attractions  and  combine  to  form  chSmical  com- 
pounds, not  by  interpenetration  of  their  sub- 
stance, but  by  atomic  juxtaposition.  If  this 
idea  be  admitted,  the  principles  of  chemical 
constancy  and  definite  proportions  follow  as 
inevitable  consequences.  The  definite  pro- 
portions in  which  bodies  combine  represent 
the  constant  ratio  between  the  weights  of  the 
combining  atoms.  The  principle  of  multiple 
proportions  is  equally  explained,  for  the  suc- 
cessive additions  must  be  made  by  whole 
atoms,  and  therefore  by  whole  numbers.  One 
atom  of  carbon  unites  with  one  atom  of  oxy- 
gen to  form  carbon  monoxide,  and  with  two 
atoms  of  oxygen  to  form  carbon  dioxide.  That 
the  atomic  weights  of  compounds  must  equal 
the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  their  ele- 
ments follows  with  equal  certainty.  Moreover, 
in  the  rearrangement  of  atoms  in  a  body,  with- 
out addition  or  subtraction  of  elements,  we 
have  a  ready  explanation  of  isomeric  and  allo- 
tropic  changes.  The  relations  of  chemical 
changes  to  heat,  now  expressed  by  the  phrase 
"atomic  heat,"  and  their  relation  to  volume, 
indicated  by  the  phrase  "atomic  volume,"  be- 
come in  like  manner  capable  of  explanation 
on  the  assumptions  of  the  atomic  theory.  It 
is  a  merit  and  a  test  of  this  theory  that  its  re- 
sources have  kept  pace  with  the  rapid  extension 
of  the  science,  but  it  has  required  to  be  itself 
developed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  hands  of 
Dalton  it  was  applied  to  a  few  simple  funda- 
mental facts ;  it  now  embraces  facts  of  many 
orders  and  of  greater  complication.  At  pres- 
ent the  conception  of  the  molecule  or  the 
group  of  combined  atoms  plays  a  much  more 
important  part  than  it  did  at  first.  Even  the 
atoms  of  the  elements  (as  will  be  presently 
explained)  are  now  conceived  not  to  exist 
separately,  or  as  units,  hut  as  combined  with 
each  other  in  a  molecular  condition.  An  atom 
is  defined  as  the  smallest  particle  of  simple 
matter  that  can  enter  into  the  composition  of 
a  molecule.  A  molecule  is  defined  as  a  group 
of  atoms  held  together  by  chemical  force,  and  is 
the  smallest  particle  of  any  substance  that  can 
exist  in  a  free  or  uncombined  state  in  nature. 
Molecules  are  of  two  kinds :  elemental  mole- 
cules, in  which  the  atoms  are  alike,  and  com- 
pound molecules,  in  which  the  atoms  are  un- 
like. Molecular  structure,  the  outgrowth  of 
the  conception  of  atoms,  is  now  the  funda- 
mental idea  by  which  chemistry  and  physics 
are  connected. — The  doctrine  of  Dalton  at 
first  seemed  to  aft'ord  an  easy  explanation  of 
chemical  equivalents,  by  which  one  body  may 
replace  another,  or  be  substituted  for  it  by 
simple  exchange  of  atoms.  But  recent  dis- 
coveries have  shown  that  it  fails  here  and  re- 
i|iiires  extension.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  when  one  element  replaces  another  in 
a  combination,  the  substitution  always  takes 
place  atom  for  atom,  and  hence  the  terms  atom 
and  equivalent  were  regarded  as  synonymous. 


But  it  is  now  known  that  this  is  only  true  for 
certain  elements,  which  are  accordingly  class- 
ed as  monogenic  elements.  There  are  others 
which  always  take  the  place  of  two  or  more 
atoms  of  a  monogenic  element,  and  these  are 
termed  polygenic  elements.  This  brings  us 
to  the  new  conception  of  atomicity,  which  has 
now  become  the  fundamental  idea  of  the 
science.  To  understand  it  properly,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  glance  at  the  steps  of  chemical 
theory  by  which  it  has  been  reached.  The 
name  of  Lavoisier  is  intimately  associated 
with  the  first  general  theory  of  chemical  com- 
bination. This  was  the  binary  or  dual  system 
of  chemistry.  An  acid  was  held  to  result  from 
the  union  of  a  simple  body  (generally  non-me- 
tallic) with  oxygen;  an  oxide  resulted  from 
the  combination  of  oxygen  with  a  metal ;  a 
salt  was  produced  by  the  union  of  an  acid 
with  an  oxide,  and  this  pairing  of  doubles  rep- 
resents its  constitution.  In  all  combinations 
affinity  is  assumed  to  he  exerted  upon  two  ele- 
ments, simple  or  compound,  which  attract  one 
another  and  unite  by  virtue  of  opposite  proper- 
ties, all  chemical  compounds  being  therefore 
binary.  This  is  dualism,  and  the  chemical 
nomenclature  was  constructed  upon  the  idea. 
The  view  proposed  by  Lavoisier  was  ably 
enforced  by  Berzelius.  Electro-chemistry,  by 
which  bodies  were  decomposed  into  pairs  that 
appeared  at  opposite  poles  of  the  battery,  lent 
powerful  aid  to  the  binary  theory ;  and  Berze- 
lius carried  it  out  by  arranging  the  elements 
on  a  scale  of  antithesis  as  electro-positive  and 
electro-negative.  In  1816  he  also  devised  a 
new  notation,  now  in  general  use,  by  which 
letters  symbolize  the  elements,  and  composi- 
tion can  be  compendiously  represented  to  the 
eye  by  means  of  formulas.  Prof.  Wurtz,  in  his 
"  History  of  Chemical  Theory,"  says :  "  By  the 
arrangement  of  these  formulas  in  which  the  acid 
appeared  on  one  side  with  the  train  of  oxygen 
atoms  belonging  to  it,  and  the  metallic  base  on 
the  other  with  the  oxygen  united  to  the  metal, 
Berzelius  gave  to  the  dualistic  system  a  degree 
of  precision  unknown  before  his  time."  But 
a  true  scientific  theory  must  embrace  all  orders 
of  facts  to  which  it  is  applicable.  Dualism 
was  well  fortified  in  mineral  chemistry,  but  it 
was  not  easy  to  bring  the  complexities  of  or- 
ganic chemistry  into  harmony  with  it.  Berze- 
lius, however,  made  this  his  great  task.  There 
were  organic  acids,  organic  bases,  and  organic 
salts ;  and  these  were  represented  on  the  bina- 
ry plan.  Organic  radicals  were  also  discovered 
— compounds  which  played  the  part  of  simple 
elements;  and  these  were  subordinated  to  the 
binary  system.  By  this  theory  of  compound 
radicals  dualism  was  extended  to  organic 
chemistry,  and  chemical  theory  was  apparent- 
ly unified.  Yet  the  victory  was  far  from  com- 
plete. The  deeper  study  of  organic  compounds 
led  eminent  chemists  to  question  the  validity 
of  the  dual  hypothesis  as  applied  to  them.  A 
school  arose  led  by  Dumas,  Laurent,  and  Ger- 
hardt,  which  took  a  new  view  of  the  constitu- 


88 


ATOMIC   THEORY 


tion  of  organic  bodies.  Its  first  idea  was  the 
doctrine  of  substitutions,  and  in  its  application 
a  breacli  was  made  at  the  outset  in  the  electro- 
chemical theory.  It  was  found  that  chlorine, 
a  powerful  electro-negative  element,  could  re- 
place hydrogen,  a  strong  electro-positive  ele- 
ment, in  an  organic  compound,  playing  the 
same  part  and  not  altering  the  character  of 
the  compound.  The  new  view,  rejecting  dual- 
ism, regarded  organic  bodies  as  units,  or  as 
unitary  structures ;  and  their  changes  by  sub- 
stitution were  likened  to  the  alteration  of  an 
edifice  by  successively  removing  its  individual 
bricks  and  stones  and  replacing  them  by 
others.  Laurent  compared  organic  compounds 
to  crystals,  whose  angles  and  edges  may  be 
replaced  by  new  atoms  or  groups  of  atoms, 
while  the  typical  form  is  preserved.  Thus 
to  the  dualistic  point  of  view  was  opposed 
the  unitary  system ;  to  the  idea  of  combination 
resulting  from  addition  of  elements  was  op- 
posed that  of  compounds  formed  by  substitu- 
tion of  elements.  An  acid  is  changed  to  a  salt 
by  substituting  a  metal  for  its  hydrogen,  with- 
out destroying  its  molecular  structure.  A  salt 
is  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  a  binary  com- 
pound, containing  an  acid  on  the  one  side  and 
an  oxide  on  the  other ;  it  is  a  whole,  a  single 
group  of  atoms,  among  which  are  one  or  more 
atoms  of  metal  capable  of  being  exchanged  for 
other  metallic  atoms  or  for  hydrogen.  This 
view  led  to  the  theory  of  chemical  types,  in 
which  certain  substances  are  taken  as  patterns 
of  molecular  structure  with  which  analogous 
bodies  are  classified.  Thus  we  have  the  water 
type,  the  hydrogen  type,  and  the  ammonia 
type,  under  which  bodies  are  grouped  with  no 
reference  to  their  former  relationships.  The 
binary  theory  here  disappears,  and  substances 
are  brought  together  not  so  much  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  composition  or  atomic  arrangement,  as 
by  analogies  of  reaction  and  decomposition. — 
But  the  doctrine  of  types  was  transitional,  and 
soon  developed  into  the  completer  theory  of 
atomicity,  by  which  is  meant  combining  capa- 
city. For  example,  there  are  some  acids  which 
require  for  saturation  only  one  equivalent  of  a 
certain  base;  there  are  others  which  require 
two  equivalents  of  the  same  base  to  saturate 
them ;  and  others  still  which  demand  three. 
Now  these  acids  are  clearly  not  equivalents  of 
each  other,  their  capacities  of  combination  va- 
rying as  1,  2,  3 ;  and  they  are  therefore  said  to 
have  different  atomicities.  This  conception  of  [ 
the  varying  combining  powers  of  bodies,  as  a 
controlling  chemical  principle,  was  worked  out 
in  the  field  of  organic  chemistry ;  but  it  is  now 
extended  to  the  inorganic  elements,  and  offers 
a  new  system  of  classification  and  a  new  chem- 
ical method. — In  the  new  chemistry  the  ele- 
ments are  arranged  into  six  groups,  although 
some  add  a  seventh.  These  are  named  mo-  j 
nads,  dyads,  triads,  tetrads,  pentads,  and  hex-  ! 
ads — terms  expressive  of  their  several  combin-  ; 
ing  capacities.  Monads,  of  which  hydrogen, 
chlorine,  and  potassium  are  examples,  are 


monogenic,  that  is,  they  can  combine  only 
with  single  atoms.  All  the  rest  are  polygenic, 
that  is,  they  can  combine  with  2,  3,  4,  5,  or  6 
monogenic  elements  or  their  equivalents.  Mole- 
cules are  also  designated  as  monatomic,  di- 
atomic, triatomic,  tetratomic,  pentatomic,  and 
hexatomic.  For  equivalence,  which  represent- 
ed the  old  idea,  the  term  valence  is  coming 
into  use;  and  a  series  of  words  is  derived  from 
it  describing  the  groups  as  univalent,  bivalent, 
trivalent,  quadrivalent,  quinquivalent,  and  sexi- 
valent,  while  the  atomicities  above  univalence 
are  termed  multivalent.  The  varying  equiva- 
lence, valence,  or  combining  power  of  atoms 
is  represented  in  several  ways  by  which  the 
idea  is  made  clear.  The  graphic  symbol  of  an 
atom  is  a  circle  with  lines  radiating  from  it, 
called  bonds,  which  indicate  the  valence  or 
atomicity.  They  are  represented  as  follows, 
the  first  line  giving  their  names,  the  second 
their  symbols,  and  the  third  examples : 

Monad.       Dyad.       Triad.      Tetrad.    Pentad.      Hexaci. 


Hydrogen.    Oxygen.      Boron.    Carbon.  Nitrogen.    Sulphur. 

Water,    OHj,  would  be  thus   represented  by 


graphic  formula: 


Hydrogen 


has  as  it  were  but  a  single  pole  of  attraction, 
represented  by  a  single  bond,  while  oxygen  has 
two  poles  and  two  bonds.  The  attractions  of 
the  two  atoms  of  monatomic  hydrogen  are 
satisfied  by  the  two  attractions  of  diatomic 
oxygen.  So  carbon-dioxide,  COS,  may  be 

Here  the 


represented  thus : 

four  attractions  of  tetratomic  carbon  are  satu- 
rated by  those  of  the  two  atoms  of  diatomic 
oxygen.  Marsh  gas,  CH<,  is  thus  represented  : 
The  circle  may  be  omitted, 
H  )  and  the  bonds  connected  di- 

rectly with  the  letters,  thus, 

—II,  -O-,  — C-,  it  being 

immaterial  how  the  bonds 
are  arranged.  The  compo- 
sition of  water  will  then  be  represented 
thus,  H— O— H,  and  carbon-dioxide  O  =  C=O. 
The  atomicity  is  often  represented  as  follows 
by  dashes :  H',  O",  B'",  C"",  N'"",  8""" ;  or 
again  thus  by  Roman  numerals :  HP,  0",  Bm, 
Olv,  NT,  SVI.  In  chemical  changes  and  the 
formation  of  new  compounds  all  attractions 
require  to  be  satisfied — every  bond  engaged. 
This  fact  fixes  a  limit  to  combination,  for  cer- 
tain groupings  become  impossible.  One  atom 
of  a  monad  cannot  unite  with  one  atom  of  a 
dyad,  because  one  attraction  cannot  neutralize 
two.  It  takes  two  atoms  of  a  monad  to  form 
a  compound  with  an  atom  of  a  dyad ;  four 
atoms  of  a  monad  or  two  atoms  of  a  dyad 
are  required  to  saturate  a  tetrad  ;  but  in  each 
case  all  the  polarities  have  to  be  provided  for. 


ATRATO 


ATREUS 


89 


There  are  seeming  exceptions  to  this  law. 
Two  atoms  of  a  monad  element,  a%j>otassium, 
may  unite  with  one,  two,  three,  four,  or  five 
atoms  of  a  polyad  element,  as  sulphur.  By 
an  examination  of  the  graphic  formulas  of 
these  compounds,  K — S— K,  K — S — S — K, 
K— S — S — S — K,  &c.,  it  is  seen  that  any 
number  of  atoms  of  a  polyad  element  may 
unite  with  two  atoms  of  a  monad,  provided 
they  be  interposed  between  the  latter.  When 
thus  placed,  they  are  said  to  perform  a  linking 
function  in  the  compound.  The  atomicity  of 
an  element  is  its  highest  equivalence,  and  the 
compound  form  is  then  said  to  be  normal  or 
saturated.  Yet  the  equivalence  of  atoms  is 
not  always  the  same ;  an  atom  may  form  sev- 
eral compounds  of  the  same  substance.  Ele- 
ments of  even  equivalence,  in  which  the  atomic 
poles  are  in  pairs,  are  called  artiads;  those  of 
uneven  equivalence,  in  which  the  poles  are 
odd,  are  termed  perissads.  Prof.  Barker  states 
that  the  equivalence  "  always  increases  or  di- 
minishes by  two ;  so  that  an  atom  of  the  same 
element  may  in  different  compounds  have  an 
equivalence  of  1,  3,  5,  or  7,  or  of  2,  4,  or  6.  A 
perissad  atom  can  never  become  an  artiad  atom 
by  such  a  change,  nor  can  an  artiad  become 
a  perissad."  This  variation  of  atomic  equiva- 
lence is  accounted  for  on  the  hypothesis  that 
the  bonds  of  an  atom  are  capable  of  saturating 
each  other  in  pairs.  A  pentad  may  thus  be- 
come a  triad  and  a  monad  successively,  and  a 
hexad  may  be  converted  into  a  tetrad  or  into 
;i  dyad,  as  follows: 


Pentad.        Triad.        Monad.      Hexad.       Tetrad. 


Dyad. 


It  follows  from  this  view  that  only  the  atoms 
of  those  free  elements  can  be  considered  as 
existing  separately  in  which  the  number  of 
bonds  is  even.  The  others  can  only  exist  in 
combination  with  each  other,  forming  poly- 
atomic molecules.  Free  hydrogen  cannot  be 
— H,  because  its  bond  is  unsatisfied ;  it  must 
therefore  be  H — H,  that  is,  united  with  itself, 
forming  what  we  might  call  hydride  of  hydro- 
gen. Chlorine  is  not  Cl— ,  but  01— Cl,  and 
free  oxygen  is  not  — O — ,  but  O=O.  Com- 
pounds are  formed  by  replacement,  and  chem- 
ical science  thus  becomes  rooted  in  atomic  ca- 
pacity.— While  therefore  in  the  last  quarter  of 
a  century  chemical  philosophy  has  undergone 
a  total  revolution,  the  atomic  theory  has  not 
only  been  maintained  and  strengthened,  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  the  advance  could  have  been 
made  without  its  assistance. 

ATRATO,  a  river  of  Colombia,  South  America, 
rises  near  lat.  5°  20'  N.  and  Ion.  76°  50'  W.,  and 
flows  nearly  due  N.  for  about  250  m.  to  the 
gulf  of  Darien.  The  bar  at  its  mouth  being 
crossed,  it  has  a  wide  channel  not  less  than  35 
ft.  deep  for  the  first  96  in.,  with  a  fall  not  ex- 
crcding  2J  inches  to  the  mile;  and  for  4-2  m. 


further  a  channel  exceeding  18  ft.  in  depth  can 
he  cleared ;  while  the  distance  across  to  the 
Pacific  ocean,  from  which  the  river  is  separated 
by  one  of  the  lowest  ranges  of  the  Andes,  does 
not  exceed  50  m.,  and  western  branches  of  the 
Atrato  are  said  to  almost  meet  rivers  from  the 
Pacific  having  their  source  in  this  dividing 
ridge.  Examinations  have  been  made  with  the 
view  of  determining  the  practicability  of  con- 
structing a  ship  canal  by  this  river,  to  connect 
the  Caribbean  sea  with  the  Pacific.  The  latest 
was  by  the  United  States  government  in  1871. 
The  route  which  promised  the  least  difficulty 
between  the  middle  branch  of  the  Atrato  and 
the  Jurador,  emptying  into  the  Pacific,  would 
require  48  m.  of  canal ;  the  height  of  the  water- 
shed, which  must  be  excavated  or  tunnelled, 
being  more  than  500  ft. — The  Atrato  for  nearly 
its  whole  length  runs  through  a  low  swampy 
region,  which  is  entirely  overflowed  by  fresh- 
ets. Quibdo,  on  its  upper  course,  is  the  only 
town  of  any  consequence  on  the  river.  It  is 
a  miserable  place  of  1,500  inhabitants,  mostly 
blacks,  with  some  Indians  and  a  few  whites.  It 
is  situated  on  several  isolated  hillocks  of  gravel 
and  clay,  in  the  midst  of  the  swampy  region 
which  extends  all  around.  The  temperature 
of  the  region  is  close  and  sultry,  and  the  rainy 
season  continues  all  the  year.  Gold  is  found 
in  tine  dust  in  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  Atrato, 
at  and  above  Quibdo,  and  also  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  river.  Some  portions  of  the 
country  are  described  as  highly  auriferous. 
Above  Quibdo  the  Atrato  receives  several 
branches,  of  which  the  Quito  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Were  it  not  for  the  incessant  fluctua- 
tions of  this  stream,  which  within  a  few  hours 
frequently  reduce  it  from  its  ordinary  ample 
channel  depth  of  7  ft.  or  more  to  5  or  6  It.  or 
even  less,  the  Quito  would  present  with  the 
Atrato  an  uninterrupted  steamboat  thorough- 
fare of  no  less  than  252  m.  from  the  gulf  of 
Darien.  The  Quito  is  wholly  in  the  gold  re- 
gion, and  its  branches  appear  to  lie  in  the  rich- 
est portion  of  it.  The  caoutchouc  tree  abounds. 
ATREBATES,  or  Atrebatii,  a  people  of  Belgic 
Gaul,  whose  name  appears  in  the  modern 
Artois.  They  joined  a  confederation  against 
Caesar,  and  furnished  a  contingent  of  15,000 
troops.  A  colony  of  them  settled  in  Britain, 
in  the  modern  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire. 

\TKKI  S,  a  legendary  hero  of  Greece,  son 
of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia.  On  the  death  of 
his  son  Plisthenes,  Atreus  married  his  widow 
Aerope,  who  was  or  became  the  mother  of 
Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  commonly  known 
as  the  Atridse.  She  was  seduced  by  Thy- 
estes,  the  brother  of  Atreus,  and  the  latter 
slew  the  twin  offspring  of  this  adultery  and 
served  them  at  a  banquet  to  the  seducer. 
Atreus  afterward  married  his  brother's  daugh- 
ter Pelopia,  who  was  already  pregnant  with 
/Egisthus  by  her  own  father.  The  child  was 
I  exposed,  but  miraculously  preserved,  and  the 
mother  committed  suicide.  The  crimes  and 
misfortunes  of  the  family,  springing  from  the 


.VIKII'M 


ATTACIIMKNT 


murder  of  M'-rciiry'M  nori  MyrtihiM  by  I'elopn, 
.illoided  '-inn.      them'-    l'ii-  il.'-  ol*    i'-  poeta. 

VI  KIIH.  I.  In  Uoman  MI-.  -hitccliii-c.  theeen- 
Inil  room  i  if  Hi'-  IIOIIHC.,  itlHii  culled  r.ii.r,u.m 
Odium.  In  tbh  room  Hi'-.  family  lived  aii'l  atf 

illl'l      here     stood     I  In-     /«;v»     Illl'l     fif/iillKH.       Til': 

mom    Wilt    iliiriivrril    ill    tin-    c.  litre,    towiinl 
which  Mm  roof  sloped,  to  l.lirow  tin;  ruin  water  ! 
ml.  i  :.  .  i  I.,  in  in  thii  lloor,  iiroiiml  which  ntood 
MM    hoiixchold  deities.      II.  Tin:   Ion-court  of  a 
Icmpl.  .      'I  he  ;itrniMi  ..I    Mi-    l'-ni|ili-  of  l.ilii-rt.v 

,-.l  frequently  iiii-iil.ioni-il.     III.   In  i  '  ' 
asticul   nrrliil'-rhii-i-,    mi    "pen    N|III(!<>  before  u 
church,  making  part  of  MM-  narthcx,  or  tuite- 
ii-in|.|i-.      1'i-nitiint.H  iiii'l   othcrM  utood    in   the 
iiiriiini  to  Molir.it  the  prayera  of  the  pioun. 

VHtOIMTKlVB.    Hee  AZKBHI./AN. 

ATKOI'IIV  (C-r.  ttr//«ft«,  hunger,  1'roin  «  pri- 
:mil  T/««^//,  nourishment),  iii  iiirdii-ini-, 
I  In:  wanting  away  of  liny  organ  or  portion  of 
the  hody  from  want  of  nutrition  in  the  part, 
IrreHpoctlve  of  Mm  general  nutrition  of  the 
body.  Tim  |.rinri|ili-  of  vitality  dccreaHC.H  in 
Mm  organ  when  it,M  functions  am  suspended, 
;ii»l  nutrition  MlackuiiM  where  the.  vital  principle 

inilk- 


iniirt.  Tin-  inaiiiinary  glandM  or  inil 
•ecrdhi(.r  organs,  in  the  liriniHl.H  of  WOIIH-II  wlio 
have  passed  the  age  of  <>hilil  bearing,  am  Kotne- 
tlineH  HO  inili'.h  iilro|>liii-d  Mint  traces  of  them 
oidy  '-mi  I"-  I'.  uii'l  iNiin'.lil.  il  in  large  lohcH  of 
inli|ioH(i  tlHMiie  or  Cut.  In  cotitniHt  with  al.ro 
I.II.Y  in  hypertrophy,  or  executive  nutrition  ami 
i  foment  of  nu  organ  or  Met  of  organs  in 
(In-  hody.  Any  limb  or  portion  ><\  :<  limb  arti- 
Ili-ially  comressed  for  along  time  will  be  de- 


In  il.M  vitality,  and  hick  the  power  to 
appropriate  nutrition  from  the,  blood;  it  will 
gradually  diniiliiHh  in  M'I/H  anil  force,  ami  lieroine 
atrophied,  llisuso  alone,  williout  comproMMion, 
will  i-aiiMi-  atrophy  In  the  upper  or  the  lower 
limbs,  or  even  ill  the  whole  body  ;  for  many 
pei-Noim  wiiMto  away  from  morbid  inactivity, 
«  birli  liriiiKH  on  by  di't/n-i--.  I'liiiirialioii  and 
debilily,  ri'NidtiiiK  ii;  decay  of  the  whole  HyHtcm. 
I'aralyMiN,  by  iirevent.in«  natural  exereinu  in 
I  he  limliH,  may  depreHM  the  vil.alily  of  the  piirl.H, 
and  diinini  li  Iheir  power.M  of  imti-ition.  Tin 
will  eairie  nli-o|iliy,  or  a  falling  away  of  the 
;•  i  .!•  .il  limb.  The  d'lMlocalion  of  a  .joint, 

il    ii.-i'lrrlril,    limy,    bv   nHIMin^    pf(>KNIire    on    the 

nerves,  cut.  oil'  a  portion  of  Ibe  iimervation  ne- 
i-'-'.Miii-y  lo  niiiini  ,n  Ibi-  in-live  I'unel  ioim  of  nu- 
trition in  MM  parts  below,  mid  thnsib-|,i. 
\ilalil  \  :in.l  l.rinn  on  atrophy.  In  rbildreii  of 
a  Heroluloii  :  iliiilln  i  ,  ,h  ,.:i  ...  n  ||,,.  Li|,  jn'mt 
oll'-n  all'ei'1  i  Ibe  nervt'M  of  the  purls  ami  Ibr 
Mtidilv  ol  Ib.-  u  bole  lltnb,  dimini'<liiiiK  the 
IIOHI-I-I  nl1  uiih-il.ioM,  and  caimltiK  Ihi-  b-^  to 
dHiiidle  in  .•IIIII|I:H  i  mi  \vil.li  tin  .....  i-  \\hieh  is 
ii"l  n  Hi  Tin  I.  In  Ib.  ,r  i  n  „..<  |||,-  al.ropliy  is  of  a 

iiiMibb-  oaton  ,  for  MM-  i-lui'-nl  muNeloM  \\»  i.- 

IIVMIV,    nil.  I    Ibe   lionc'l  decay    in     |,M|-|,    brforr    Ibe 

Iniil.   In  -i-.nm  to  dwindle   in    il  i  ^i-Mei-al  |iro|mr 
lion-i  Ir  .....  Ibe  u  eaKi-iird  POM  ei-  1  nf  mi  I  ri  I  ion. 

YI'KOm,    or    \li.i|,inr    ((,  i-   'A.,  -------  ,    DM    "f 

Ib.-  l''ntes|,  a  \-  ......  table    alkaloid   of  bi^blv   pm 


Minoil"    |«ropi-i-ti<-      •  •  tr:i'-t«-'l    from    Ib'-   «//•<;/"' 
/„  11,1,1,,,,,:,  i     '•<    deadly    iii;'bt-lni<le.      Il    i     ob 
I  lim  .!   liom   the   "ii'-i-  '•••.],  r'---.  "I   Irom    all    |.;ill  - 
of  the,  plant,    but    more   particularly   from    tb" 
leaven.      It  cryMtalli/.ns  in  white  silky  pri~m~, 
which  have  a  bitter  taHte,  but  no  smell.     Tln-y 
pOMteHM  an  alkaline  n-action,  i-'-dd'-nint'  lilmu- 
pup'  i  ;  they  me.lt  at  MM'  1'.,  and  are  volalili/.ed 
lit  2M4'1.      their  '•'.  mpo  itio  n  i    :    .  -ai  lion,  70-itH  ; 
oxy«'!ii,   l(>':!(>;    hydrogen,  7-HIi  ;   and   nitr..- 
4  -Hit.      Atropia   forms  erystallixablc  Halts  with 
acidn,  the  Miiliihate  bcin«  coiihiderably  used   in 
medicine.      When  in  solution  it    K'IVC    a  lemon 
yellow    precipitate     with    terchloride    of    (.'old. 
It  WftH  flrHt  obtained  by  Mein,  a  (iernian  KN 
eeary,    by  di«i:st.itm   the    roots,    powdered    ex- 
lrem«-ly  line,   for   several    days   in    alcohol,    and 
afterward    hC|iaratiii(.'    the  other  ili(.'i-edienl 
vnrioiiH  precijiitationti.     From  12  ounces  of  the 
root     be    ohlained    '^0    (.Tains    of     pure    alkali. 
Chloroform    and    pofa.ssu   are   also  used  for  ob- 
taining its  solution.       (See    P,I,I.I.AI>ONNA.) 

ATKOI'OS,  one  of  the  Kate  i  l/«w,  l,at.  /•<//• 
r<r)  of  (ircek  mytholoKy,  who  cut  the  thread 
of  life.  She  ii  represented  with  a  pair  of 
HcaleM,  or  a  MUD  dial,  or  a  culling  instrument. 

ATTACIINKNT  (Kr.  <ittui-l,,<\  to  Mtze),  in  law, 
the  Heiztjre  of  tin  per  "ii  or  properly.  The 
writ,  of  attachment  is  of  two  kinds:  I. 


the  person,  in  the  nature  of  a  criminal 
proceeding  for  contempt  of  court.  Il  may  In- 
iMHiied  itKiiiiiNt  uttorneyH,  MolicitorH,  Hherill's,  and 
other  ollieers  of  court,  for  any  misconduct  or 
neglect  of  duty.  The  object  of  the  atim  h 
rnent  in  in  MUCH  cases  to  bring  the.  offending 
party  personally  into  court,  to  answer  for  the 
alleged  contempt,  and  unless  he  can  clear  liim- 
ell  le  i  p..  111  h.-ilile  by  line  or  imprisonment.. 
Jurisdiction  has  formerly  been  e.xerci  -.cd  by 

i-olirl        o     .1     .:      .el-s      l.'M'-n       cl;|          of    CIISCS,     allll      II" 

precise  limit  has  been  lixed  to  the  power.     The 
statute  of    New    York   continues  the   jurisdic- 
tion   to    the   same   extent    that  has  been   hi-re- 
toliu-c   used.      In   the   famous  case  of   Yale-,  in 
New    York,    in    IHIu,    who   was    committed   to 
priHon  by   the  chancellor   for  misconduct   as  a 
master,     the    ipiestion     was    agitated     but     ii"l 
dclinilively  Hett.led  wln-lher   then-    \\.-r.   any   r. 
lief    upon    habeas   corpus   from   such    inipri  mi 
mcnf.      (I'eople  /-.  YaleH,  -I  .lohnson's  lU'p.  317, 
U  id.  '•':'':';.}     '2.    A  writ  us  lo  contempt  to  enforce 
the  civil  remedies  of  parlies  to  suils,  or  to  pro 
ted.  the  richl-i  of  such  parties.      In  the  Kn;'!i   li 
eh  ......  cry    this   wns    the    only   process    for   en 

foreinv  it.,  ordci  .  and  decrees.  In  Ibis  coun- 
Irv  il  hie-  been  rc-.orled  to  by  all  the  eoml  lo 
enforce  interlocutory  orders.  It  is,  however. 
no  longer  used  in  New  York  for  tin-  eolle.lh  n 
of  costs  or  any  money  demand,  except,  a-'.-nn  i 
allorneys,  solicitors,  and  oilier  ollieers  ol 
court.  (Act  of  IHIV.)  Attachment  against 
property  was  an  old  mode  of  proceeding  in 
Kn;'lisli  practice  to  compel  the  appearance  .'I 
a  defendant  in  nn  action.  To  ibis  bead  l>. 
loligH  also  Ibe  proceeding  Lnown  as  force-n 
at.tiiebnienl,  a  process  under  which  tin-  prop 


ATTAIN  I >KK 


crty  dC  u  foreign  or  absent  dclitdi1  is  seized. 
Tlic  proceeding  liuil  its  origin  ii^n  custom 
ot'  I  lie  city  nl'  London,  (>!'  wliirli  we  lilld  some 
Holier  in  the  hooks  as  curly  as  the  reign  of 
l-'.dward  IV.  By  this  custom,  mi  action  hav- 
ing been  brought  in  the  mayor's  court  against 
\.  and  the  writ  having  liccn  returned  nihil 
(that  is  to  say,  that  nothing  could  lie  found 
as  a  distress  to  compel  appearance  of  defen- 
dant), and  lhcrcu|ioii  it  being  IdggMted  \ty  the 
|il:iintiir  that  another  person  residing  in  I -on 
don  is  iudehted  to  A,  a  writ  is  issued  to  warn 
such  delitor,  who  is  thereafter  in  the  proceed 
inns  culled  "g'lrnishec;  "  and  if  ho  does  not 
deny  that  he  is  iudehted,  the  dcht  is  hy  virtue 
o!  such  writ  attached  in  his  hands  to  answer 
the  judgment  which  shall  he  recovered  against 
A.  Cowell  detines  a  foreign  iittachliielit  to  he 
•  an  attachment  of  foreign  (foods  found  within 
a  liherty  or  city  in  the  hands  of  a  third  person 
for  the  satisfaction  of  some  citi/.en  to  whom  the 
said  foreigner  o\\  elh  money."  Kut  there  is  no 
trace  of  such  proceeding  in  any  other  place  in 
Kngland  than  London.  This  proceeding  has 
hccii  introduced  into  our  eastern  states  and 
-.oine  others,  and  is  a  common  mode  of  collect- 
ing a  dcht  duo  by  a  non-resident  who  has  prop 
erty  within  the  state,  such  property,  whether 
lands,  chattels,  or  debts  duo  to  him,  being 
.sei/ed  at  the  commencement  of  the  action  to 
\  the  judgment  which  shall  ho  recovered. 
It  is  soinetinies  called  trustee  process,  the  per- 
son who  is  indebted  or  holds  property  of  the 
non  resident  defendant  being  designated  as  trus- 
tee. In  \e«  York  an  attachment  may  by  the 
code  issue  against  the  property  of  a  non-resi- 
denl  dcfeiidaiit  who  cannot  lie  served  with 
process,  hut  the  proceeding  is  Illoro  simple 
than  the  trustee  process  of  the  eastern  states. 
There  is  also  a  distinct  proceeding  for  the  at- 
tachment of  property  of  absconding,  concealed, 
absent,  or  non-resident  debtors,  which  is  not 
an  action  hut  a  sort  of  insolvent  proceeding  for 
the  hem-lit  of  all  the  creditor*  of  the  person 
vv  lio-e  property  i-  attached. 

ATTAINDER  (Kr.  trinitn;  I, at.  linger*,  to 
stain  I,  in  old  English  law,  the  extinction  of 
civil  rights,  and  the  forfeiture  of  estate  which 
followed,  when  a  person  was  condemned  to 
death  for  treason  or  felony,  or  where  judgment 
ol  outlawry  had  been  pronounced  against,  him 
lor  not  appearing  to  answer  to  a  capital  ('rime. 
It  might,  also  lake  place  by  act  of  parliament, 
called  bill  of  attainder.  In  the  case  of  high 
tiva-ou  the  clfecl  was  forfeiture  of  real  and 
personal  eitate,  and  corruption  of  blood,  so  as 
to  interrupt  hereditary  de-cent  of  any  civil 
right.  For  capital  crimes  le-,-,  than  high  Ircu 
son,  there  was  a  forfeiture  of  personal  property 
absolutely,  and  of  the  profits  of  freehold  estates 
during  life  ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  criminal 
all  bis  lands  in  fee  \\cnl  to  the  crown  for  a 

year  and  a  dav.    The  corruption  of  hi I  can  .ed 

also  an  escheat  of  lands.  Kut  in  its  operation 
escheat  was  subordinate  to  forfeit  lire.  In  high 
treason  the  forfeiture  in|ei-\  ened  to  defeat  the 


escheat  altogether,  and  in  the  lesser  otfenccs 
it  interrupted  it  for  the  sovereign's  year  and 
day.  Kut  the  escheat  did  not  take  place  mere 
ly  in  respect  to  the  lauds  held  by  the  olfender. 
Thus  if  a  father  was  seized  in  fee,  and  his  son 
committed  treason  and  was  attainted,  and  then 
the  father  died,  the  father's  lands  even  in  that 
case  escheated,  because  at  bis  death  the  son 
was  incapable  of  inheriting  them,  and  the  son's 
heirs  could  not  take  them  because  they  could 
only  deduce  their  title  through  the  son.  Hut 
I  here  was  no  forfeiture  in  such  a  case,  because 
the  criminal  never  had  the  lands.  This  cor- 
ruption of  blood  and  its  consequences  could 
not  be  remedied  save  by  act  of  parliament. 
Ky  statute  T  Anne,  eh.  21  (the  operation  of 
which  was  suspended  at  first  during  the  life  of 
the  pretender,  and  afterward  during  the  lives 
of  his  .on-,  but  which  suspension  was  repealed 
by  !t!l  (loorgo  III.,  cb.  !).'(),  it  was  enacted  that 
no  attainder  for  treason  should  extend  to  tho 
disinheriting  of  any  heir,  or  to  the  prejudice  of 
any  person  other  than  the  traitor  himself.  Ky 
the  statute  f>4  George  111.,  eh.  145,  it  was  pro- 
\idcd  that  no  attainder  for  a  felony,  except 
treason  or  murder,  should  extend  to  the  dis 
inheriting  of  any  person,  nor  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  right  or  title  of  any  person  other  than 
the  olfender  himself,  during  his  natural  life 
only;  and  any  person  who  might  otherwise  in- 
herit, might  on  his  death  claim  his  land.  There 
have  been  several  subsequent  enactments  of  a 
similar  tendency. — A  bill  of  attainder  was  a 
legislative  conviction  for  alleged  crimes  with 
judgment  of  death.  The  great  act  of  attainder 
passed  in  lliHN  by  the  parliament  of  James  II., 
by  which  more  than  2,000  persons  wore  at- 
tainted and  their  property  itiscaled,  is  one 

of  the  most  noteworthy  illustrations  of  thin 
sort  of  legislative  convictions.  Other  acts  of 
the  same  character  were  those  relating  to  the 
earl  of  Stratford  in  1(1-1 1,  to  Sir  John  Ken  wick  in 
hi'.nl,  to  Lord  Clarendon  in  Kill!),  and  to  Bishop 
Atterbury  in  1728.  The  so-called  bills  of  pains 
and  penalties  were  of  tho  same  character, 
though  of  a  milder  form,  indicting  punishment 
less  than  that  of  death.  —Not  only  probably  on 
account  of  the  mere  injustice  of  all  legislative 
acts  of  this  character,  lint  a«  well  in  the  fear 
that  the  power  to  intlict  such  punishments  in- 
trusted to  the  legislature  of  a  democratic  state 
might  lead  to  unusual  excesses  and  abuse  in 
times  of  political  excitement,  the  founders  of 
onr  government  by  a  distinct  constitutional 
provision  prohibited  the  enactment  of  any  such 
laws  here.  The  constitution  of  the  1'nitcd 
Stales  declares  that  no  bill  of  attainder  shall 
be  passed  either  by  congress  or  by  any  stale. 
Kut  as  it.  still  remained  competent  for  the  jn 
diciary  to  convict  of  I  reason  or  to  declare  at 
tainders,  the  constitution,  still  further  to  guard 
against  this  odious  form  of  enactments,  also 
provided  (art.  •'!,  sec.  )!)  that,  congress  should 
have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  trea- 
son, but  thai  no  alt  ainder  oft  reason  should  work 
complete  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture  c\ 


92 


ATTAKAPAS 


cept  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted.  In 
the  cases  familiarly  known  as  the  test  oath 
cases,  Cummings  v.  Missouri,  and  ex  parte  Gar- 
land, reported  "in  4th  Wallace,  U.  8.  Supreme 
Court  Reports,  pp.  277  to  399,  where  all  these 
constitutional  provisions  were  very  fully  dis- 
cussed, it  was  held  by  the  court  that  within  the 
meaning  of  the  constitution  bills  of  pains  and 
penalties  are  included  in  the  prohibition  of  bills 
of  attainder.  The  former  case  involved  the 
oath  of  loyalty  prescribed  by  the  constitution 
of  Missouri  adopted  in  1865.  Under  the  several 
sections  of  the  second  article  of  that  instru- 
ment priests  and  clergymen  (and  the  plaintitf 
fell  within  this  description)  were  required,  in 
order  that  they  might  continue  to  exercise 
their  functions  as  such,  to  take  this  oath  of  loy- 
alty, which  was  to  the  effect  that  they  had  not 
committed  certain  designated  acts  of  disloyalty 
to  the  United  States,  some  of  them  being  at 
the  time  of  their  commission  offences  involving 
penalties,  and  others  innocent  in  themselves; 
and  it  was  held  that  these  provisions  constituted 
a  bill  of  attainder  within  the  meaning  of  the 
federal  constitution.  The  case  of  Garland  in- 
volved an  act  of  congress  of  Jan.  24,  1865, 
which  provided  that  after  its  passage  no  per- 
son should  be  admitted  as  a  counsellor  to  the 
bar  of  the  supreme  court,  and  after  March  4, 
1865,  to  the  bar  of  any  circuit  or  district  court 
of  the  United  States,  unless  he  should  first  have 
taken  the  oath  required  by  the  act  of  July  2, 
1862.  This  oath  was  much  like  that  in  Cum- 
mings's  case,  and  was  to  the  effect  generally 
that  the  affiant  had  never  been  guilty  of  any 
disloyalty  to  the  United  States;  and  it  was 
held  that  exclusion  from  the  practice  of  the 
law  in  the  federal  courts  for  past  misconduct 
was  punishment  for  such  conduct ;  that  the  ex- 
action of  the  oath  was  the  means  provided  for 
ascertaining  the  persons  on  whom  the  act  was 
intended  to  operate ;  and  that  for  these  reasons 
the  act  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  bill  of  pains 
and  penalties,  and  was  within  the  constitu- 
tional inhibition  of  bills  of  attainder.  The 
court  in  both  these  cases  consisted  of  nine 
judges,  and  in  each  four  of  the  judges,  including 
the  chief  justice,  dissented ;  and  the  prevailing 
opinion  of  the  court  has  not  commanded  the 
concurrence  of  some  of  our  ablest  jurists. 

ATTAKAPAS,  a  large  and  fertile  section  of 
southwestern  Louisiana,  including  several  par- 
ishes. Though  often  mentioned  in  commercial 
reports,  it  is  not  the  legal  appellation  of  any 
subdivision  of  the  state.  Great  quantities  of 
sugar  and  molasses  are  produced  in  the  district 
and  shipped  at  Franklin,  St.  Mary's  parish. 

ATTAKAPAS,  an  Indian  tribe  of  southern  Lou- 
isiana, who  have  left  that  name  to  a  district 
of  the  state.  Their  real  name  is  not  known ; 
they  were  called  Attakapas  or  Men-Eaters  by 
the  Choctaws.  They  were  first  made  known 
to  the  French  by  the  adventures  of  Belleisle, 
who  was  left  on  shore  by  a  ship,  and  was  long 
in  their  hands.  They  aided  the  French  against 
the  Natchez  and  Chickasaws.  In  1803  there 


ATTALUS 

were  about  100  dispersed  through  the  Atta- 
kapas district,  chiefly  on  Bayou  Vermilion ; 
but  in  less  than  20  years  after  that  they  ceuM-d 
to  be  enumerated  at  all.  Their  language  was 
peculiar,  abounding  in  harsh  monosyllables. 

VITAL  I.  a  central  county  of  Missis.-ippi. 
bounded  W.  by  Big  Black  river ;  area,  750  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,776,  of  whom  5,948  wen- 
colored.  Its  surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil 
in  some  parts  fertile.  In  1870  the  county  pro- 
duced 9,544  bushels  of  wheat,  337,402  of  Indian 
corn,  35,150  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  8,912  bales 
of  cotton.  Capital,  Kosciusko. 

ATTALUS.  I.  A  general  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  and  uncle  of  Cleopatra,  whom  Philip  mar- 
ried, killed  about  336  B.  C.  At  the  wedding 
festivities  of  his  niece,  he  called  upon  the  com- 
pany in  the  presence  of  Philip  and  Alexander 
to  beg  of  the  gods  a  legitimate  successor  to  the 
throne.  This  Alexander  violently  resented, 
and  a  brawl  ensued,  in  which  Philip  took  the 
part  of  his  general  and  drew  his  sword  upon 
his  son.  Alexander  and  his  mother  Olympias 
then  withdrew  from  the  kingdom.  The  assas- 
sination of  Philip  by  Pausanias  was  the  con- 
sequence of  an  outrage  committed  by  Attalus 
which  Philip  refused  to  punish.-  Attalus,  who 
was  then  in  Asia,  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
against  Alexander,  but  soon  made  overtures 
for  submission,  which  the  king  disregarded. 
Hecataius  was  sent  into  Asia  with  orders  either 
to  bring  Attalus  to  Macedonia  or  assassinate 
him,  and  the  latter  course  was  adopted.  II. 
Altai  us  I.,  king  of  Pergamus,  reigned  from  241 
to  197  B.  C.  He  was  the  first  ruler  of  Per- 
gamus who  bore  the  title  of  king,  assuming 
that  dignity  after  a  victory  over  the  Gauls. 
'  He  made  himself  master  of  a  large  portion 
:  of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  driven  back  to  Per- 
gamus by  Seleucus  Ceraunus  and  Achieus. 
He  was  afterward  an  ally  of  Antiochus  the 
Great  against  Acheeus,  and  of  the  Romans  and 
Rhodians  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
i  Macedonians  invaded  his  territory,  but  failed 
|  to  capture  Pergamus.  III.  Attains  II.,  king  of 
Pergamus,  surnamed  Philadelphia,  second  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  200  B.  C.,  succeeded 
his  brother  Eumenes  II.  in  159,  died  in  138. 
!  He  adhered  to  the  Roman  alliance,  founded 
Philadelphia  in  Lydia,  and  encouraged  the  arts 
and  sciences.  IV.  Attains  III.,  king  of  Perga- 
!  mus,  surnamed  Philometor,  son  of  Eumenes  II. 
and  Stratouice,  succeeded  his  uncle  Attains  II. 
in  138  B.  C.,  died  in  133.  On  his  accession 
he  murdered  many  of  his  relatives  and  friends. 
After  a  short  reign  of  disorder  he  was  seized 
with  remorse  and  melancholy,  withdrew  from 
public  affair^,  and  devoted  himself  to  sculpture 
and  gardening.  He  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to 
the  Romans.  V.  Flavins  Priscus  Attains,  emperor 
of  the  West  in  409-'10.  He  was  born  in  Ionia, 
brought  up  as  a  pagan,  and  baptized  by  an  Arian 
\  bishop.  Being  a  senator  and  prefect  of  Rome 
\  at  the  time  of  the  second  siege  of  the  city  by 
Alaric,  lie  was  declared  emperor  by  the  barba- 
!  rians  in  place  of  Honorins,  and  sent  a  message 


ATTAMAN 


ATTERBURY 


to  Honorius,  commanding  him  to  cut  off  his 
hands  and  feet  and  retire  to  a  desert  island. 
At  the  end  of  a  year  he  was  deposed  by  Alaric 
on  the  plain  of  Ariminum.  After  the  death  of 
Alaric  he  was  again  put  forward  by  Ataulphus 
as  a  claimant  of  the  purple ;  but  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  sentenced  by  Honorius  to  lose  a 
thumb  and  forefinger  and  suffer  banishment  in 
the  island  of  Lipari. 

ATTAMUV,  the  title  of  the  supreme  chief  of 
the  Cossacks,  now  retained  only  by  those  of 
the  Don.  The  attaman  was  elected  by  the 
people  in  a  general  public  meeting ;  the  mode 
of  election  was  by  throwing  their  fur  caps  at 
the  favorite,  and  he  who  had  the  largest  heap 
of  caps  was  chosen.  When  in  the  16th  century 
the  Cossacks  submitted  to  the  Poles,  the  elec- 
tion of  the  attaman  was  confirmed  by  the 
Polish  king.  After  the  secession  of  the  Cos- 
sacks from  Poland  and  their  submission  to 
Russia  in  the  17th  century,  the  attamans  pre- 
served the  same  rights  until  after  the  insurrec- 
tion of  Mazeppa,  when  the  office  was  sup- 
pressed. In  1750  it  was  restored  in  the  person 
of  Count  Razutnovsky.  When  Catharine  II. 
destroyed  the  organization  of  the  Cossacks  of 
the  Ukraine,  the  dignity  of  attaman  was  con- 
fined to  those  of  the  Don.  The  last  elective 
attaman  of  these  Cossacks  was  Platoff,  after 
whose  death  the  emperor  Nicholas  made  the 
dignity  of  attaman  hereditary  in  the  cesare- 
vitch.  The  commanders  of  various  other  Cos- 
sack organizations  in  Russia  bear  the  title  of 
attaman,  but  only  by  custom  and  courtesy. 
From  the  word  attaman  was  derived  the  word 
hetman,  in  ancient  Poland  the  title  of  the  com- 
mander of  all  the  military  forces  of  the  nation. 

ATTAR  or  Otto  of  Roses,  a  delicious  perfume 
extracted  from  the  petals  of  the  rose.  It  is 
a  volatile  oil,  of  soft  consistency,  nearly  col- 
orless, and  deposits  a  crystallizable  substance 
partially  soluble  in  alcohol.  The  best  is  pre- 
pared at  Ghazipoor  in  Hindostan ;  but  it  is  apt 
to  be  much  adulterated  with  sandalwood  and 
other  oils.  It  is  obtained  from  rose  water  by 
setting  it  out  during  the  night  in  large  open 
vessels,  and  early  in  the  morning  skimming  off 
the  essential  oil,  which  floats  at  the  top.  It  is 
estimated  that  200,000  well  grown  roses  are 
required  to  produce  half  an  ounce  of  the  oil ; 
and  the  value  of  this  when  it  is  manufactured 
is  about  $40.  If  warranted  genuine  at  the 
English  warehouses,  it  sells  for  about  $50,  or 
$100  per  ounce. 

\  II  I:KI:O)|.  Peter  Daniel  Amadens,  a  Swedish 
poet,  born  Jan.  19,  1790,  died  in  Upsal,  July 
21,  1855.  At  the  university  of  Upsal  he  was 
one  of  several  students  who  formed  the  "  Au- 
rora" association,  with  the  purpose  of  eman- 
cipating Swedish  literature  from  French  in- 
fluence. His  essays  published  in  the  society's 
magazine,  the  "Phosphorus,"  and  directed 
against  the  academy  and  the  prominent  literary 
party  of  the  day,  provoked  a  feud  in  which  he 
was  the  chief  object  of  attack.  But  he  grad- 
ually gained  adherents,  and  in  1819,  after  a  tour 


of  two  years  in  Germany  and  Italy,  he  was 
made  German  tutor  to  Prince  Oscar,  the  future 
king  of  Sweden.  Subsequently  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  Upsal,  and  in  1839  was  received  as 
member  of  the  academy,  which  he  had  as- 
sailed in  the  "Phosphorus."  The  best  of  his 
satirical  contributions  to  that  magazine  was  a 
|  drama  in  prose  entitled  K  imarbandet,  "League 
of  the  Rhymers."  As  founder  and  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  Poetisk  Kalender,  he  exert- 
ed a  marked  influence  upon  aesthetic  culture  in 
Sweden.  His  lyrical  poems  are  contained  in 
his  Samlade  Dikter  (2  vols.,  Upsal,  1836-'7). 
His  Skrifter  or  confessions  (1835)  treat  of  histo- 
ry and  philosophy.  The  most  important  of  his 
other  works,  Svensfca  Siare  och  Skalder  ("  The 
Seers  and  Poets  of  Sweden  "),  is  a  review  of 
Swedish  literature.  The  6th  and  last  volume 
of  this  work  appeared  in  1856.  A  posthumous 
work,  Poesiens  ffistoria,  was  published  at  Ore- 
bro  in  1862.  The  best  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  there  in  1858. 

ATTERBURY,  Francis,  an  English  theologian 
and  politician,  born  at  Milton,  near  Newport- 
Pagnell,  Buckinghamshire,  March  6, 1 662,  died  in 
Paris,  Feb.  15, 1732.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergy- 
man, and  was  educated  at  Westminster  school, 
and  at  Christ  Church  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1684.  In  1687 
appeared  his  controversial  work,  "  A  Reply  to 
'  Considerations  on  the  Spirit  of  Martin  Luther 
and  the  Original  of  the  Reformation,'  "  a  pam- 
phlet written  by  Obadiah  Walker,  a  Roman 
Catholic,  master  of  University  college.  Atter- 
bury's  defence  of  Protestantism  was  long  classed 
among  the  best  of  such  arguments.  He  now 
acted  for  several  years  as  tutor  to  young  Boyle, 
afterward  earl  of  Orrery.  Taking  orders  in 
1691,  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher  procured  him 
several  offices  in  the  church,  and  finally  the 
appointment  of  chaplain  to  the  king  and  queen. 
He  was  constantly  involved  in  controversies 
on  theological  and  literary  subjects.  He  ac- 
quired special  notoriety  from  a  work  written 
principally  by  him,  but  published  in  1698  under 
the  name  of  Charles  Boyle,  who  was  then  a 
student  at  Christ  Church,  in  which  great  wit 
but  little  learning  was  used  in  a  violent  attack 
upon  Richard  Bentley,  who  had  declared  the 
reputed  letters  of  Phalaris,  previously  publish- 
ed by  Boyle,  to  be  entirely  spurious.  This  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  literary  controversies 
of  the  time,  and  before  it  closed  it  had  enlisted 
much  of  the  talent  of  the  two  universities  on 
one  side  or  the  other.  In  1700  Atterbury  en- 
gaged on  the  side  of  the  clergy  in  a  discussion 
of  the  rights  of  convocation,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  the  lower  house  of  convocation,  and 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Oxford.  In  1702  he 
was  appointed  a  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Queen 
Anne,  in  1704  dean  of  Carlisle,  and  in  1707 
canon  in  Exeter  cathedral.  During  several 
years  he  engaged  in  an  intricate  theological 
dispute  with  Benjamin  Hoadley.  In  1710  he 
was  made  prolocutor  to  the  lower  house  of 
convocation,  in  1712  dean  of  Christ  Church 


ATTICA 


ATTICUS 


(but  removed  on  account  of  his  quarrelsome 
temper),  and  in  1713,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Lord  Oxford,  bishop  of  Rochester.  It  has 
been  asserted,  though  never  proved,  that  on 
the  death  of  Queen  Anne  Atterbury  proposed 
an  immediate  attempt  in  favor  of  the  preten- 
der, James ;  at  all  events  be  soon  showed  him- 
self on  the  side  of  the  Stuarts,  and  vigorously 
opposed  the  measures  of  the  government.  He 
was  finally  convicted  of  participation  in  a 
treasonable  plot  for  the  forcible  restoration  of 
the  fallen  dynasty,  and  after  making  an  elo- 
quent defence  before  the  lords,  he  was  sen- 
tenced in  May,  1723,  to  expulsion  from  all  his 
offices  and  to  perpetual  exile.  In  June  he  left 
England  for  France,  with  his  daughter  Mrs. 
Morrice,  and  resided  in  Paris  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  For  several  years  of  his 
exile  he  continued  to  work  secretly  in  the  in- 
terest of  James ;  but  he  lost  favor  with  that 
prince  on  account  of  certain  differences  of 
opinion,  and,  though  afterward  reconciled  to 
him,  he  was  never  his  active  partisan  after 
1727,  when  he  wrote  to  him  a  letter  of  with- 
drawal. He  was  buried  in  Westminster  ab- 
bey, though  without  public  ceremony;  and  the 
government  afterward  caused  bis  coffin  to  be 
opened,  in  search  for  treasonable  papers  sup- 
posed to  be  hidden  in  it. 

ATTICA  (Gr.  'Amnf/,  probably  a  corruption 
of  'AKTIKJ/,  from  <JKT#,  shore  or  coast),  one  of 
the  political  divisions  of  ancient  Greece,  occu- 
pying a  triangular  peninsula,  bounded  N.  by 
Boeotia,  E.  by  the  ^Egean  sea,  S.  W.  and  W. 
by  the  Saronic  gulf  and  Megaris ;  area,  about 
840  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  several  moun- 
tain ranges,  having  their  centre  and  highest 
point  in  the  great  group  called  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  Cithaaron  (the  modern  Elatea,  the  moun- 
tain of  firs),  which  rises  at  the  N.  W.  extrem- 
ity of  the  country,  and  a  little  E.  of  the  Corin- 
thian gulf,  to  the  height  of  4,630  feet.  From 
this  extend  to  the  eastward  the  Parnes  moun- 
tains, forming  part  of  the  boundary  and  an 
almost  impassable  barrier  between  Attica  and 
Boeotia ;  and  to  the  southward  several  smaller 
ranges,  the  westernmost  separating  Attica  from 
Megaris,  while  the  others  divide  the  country 
into  districts  anciently  known  by  the  following 
names  (mentioned  in  their  order  from  west  to 
east) :  the  Eleusinian  plain,  N.  E.  of  the  bay  of 
Eleusis ;  the  Athenian  plain,  having  its  centre 
near  Athens ;  the  Mesogaaa  or  midland  district, 
an  undulating  plain,  enclosed  by  Mt.  Hymettus, 
Mt.  Pentelicus,  the  sea,  and  a  range  of  hills 
running  across  Attica  from  the  promontory  of 
Zoster ;  the  Paralia  or  coast  district,  including 
all  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  below 
the  promontory  of  Zoster  on  the  W.  and  Brau- 
ron  on  the  E. ;  and  finally,  the  Diacria  or  high- 
lands, bounded  by  the  Parnes  range,  Pentelicus, 
and  the  sea,  in  which  district  lies  the  plain  of 
Marathon.  The  rivers  of  Attica  are  insignifi- 
cant, and  in  summer  nearly  dry.  The  Cephis- 
sus  and  Ilissus,  the  two  watering  the  Athe- 
nian plain,  are  those  most  frequently  mentioned 


in  history.  The  soil  is  light ;  in  ancient  times 
it  appears,  by  careful  culture,  to  have  produced 
a  large  amount  of  grain,  and  figs  and  olives, 
the  excellence  of  which  was  famous  in  Greece ; 
but  in  modern  days  agriculture  is  neglected,  and 
the  products  are  inconsiderable. — The  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Attica  belonged  to  the  Ionic 
race;  of  their  origin  even  tradition  conveys  n<> 
information.  They  claimed  that  their  ances- 
tors had  sprung  directly  from  the  soil  of  the 
country.  At  the  beginning  of  authentic  Attic 
chronology,  placed  by  Grote  at  the  archonship 
of  Creon,  683  B.  C.,  they  were  divided  into 
four  tribes  or  classes  (0t>/ia/),  Geleontes,  Hop- 
letes,  ^Egikores,  and  Argades.  The  origin  of 
these  is  uncertain,  some  traditions  attributing 
the  quadruple  division  to  Cecrops,  others  to 
Pandion,  and  one  to  an  ancient  king,  Ion. 
Grote  does  not  share  the  belief  of  many  writers 
that  the  names  of  the  tribes  were  derived  from 
their  occupations,  like  those  of  the  Egyptian 
castes,  as  Hopletes,  the  warriors,  ^Egikores, 
the  goatherds,  &c. ;  and  he  says  of  both  tribes 
and  titles,  "  Neither  the  time  of  their  introduc- 
tion nor  their  primitive  import  are  ascertain- 
able  matters."  In  historic  times  each  tribe 
was,  divided  into  three  phratries  (<f>paTplcu  or 
<t>fi6Tpat),  and  each  phratry  generally  into  30 
gentes;  later  another  division  seems  to  have 
been  made — purely  for  political  and  military 
convenience  and  without  destroying  the  former 
— of  each  tribe  into  three  trittys  (Tpirrvef),  and 
of  each  trittys  into  four  naukraries  (vampdpiai). 
This  classification  of  the  people  continued 
till  the  revolution  of  Clisthenes,  in  509  B.  C. ; 
but  Solon  (about  594),  without  destroying  it. 
made  another  division  into  four  classes,  on  the 
basis  of  property.  Clisthenes  entirely  abol- 
ished both  methods  of  classification,  and  divid- 
ed the  people  anew  into  ten  tribes  (ijw'Xa.i) — 
Erechtheis,  ^Egeis,  Pandionis,  Leontis,  Aca- 
mantis,  (Eneis,  Cekropis,  Hippothoontis,  Man- 
tis, and  Antiochis — named  from  old  Attic  he- 
roes. Each  of  these  was  subdivided  into  a 
certain  number  of  demes  (HHi^oi)  or  cantons, 
every  considerable  place  constituting  a  deme, 
and  the  larger  towns  including  several.  The 
whole  number  of  demes  in  Attica  appears  to 
have  been  174,  of  160  of  which  the  names  arc 
known.  To  the  ten  tribes  of  Clisthenes  two 
more  were  afterward  added  for  political  pur- 
poses.— For  the  account  of  the  system  of  gen- 
eral government  of  Attica  under  the  archons 
and  other  rulers,  and  for  the  history  of  the 
country,  see  ATHENS,  and  GREECE.  Works  es- 
pecially devoted  to  Attica  are  Leake's  "Demi 
of  Attica"  (2d  ed.,  London,  1841),  and  Ross's 
Demen  ton  Attika  (Halle,  1846).— Joined  with 
Bo3otia,  Megaris,  and  the  adjoining  islands, 
Attica  as  an  eparchy  now  helps  to  form  one 
of  the  nomarchies  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
called  Attica  and  Boeotia ;  area,  2,481  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  136,804.  Capital,  Athens. 

ATTICIS,  Titns  Pomponins,  a  Roman  knight, 
born  in  109  B.  C.,  died  in  32.  During  the 
civil  wars  between  Sylla  and  Marius  he  re- 


ATTICUS  HEEODES 


ATTIRET 


95 


mpved  to  Athens,  where  he  spent  20  years 
and  rendered  many  services  to  the,  citizens, 
who  raised  statues  in  his  honor.  Retailed  hy 
Sulla  in  65  B.  C.,  he  resided  in  Rome,  and  was 
celebrated  for  his  hospitality,  numbering  among 
his  friends  Hortensius,  Pompey,  Caesar,  Brutus, 
and  above  all  Cicero.  He  had  no  ambition, 
iiade  a  generous  use  of  his  great  wealth,  and 
during  the  civil  wars  was  able  to  be  on  friendly 
terms  with  men  of  all  parties.  He  starved 
himself  to  death  to  avoid  other  physical  suffer- 
ings. He  possessed  a  very  extensive  library, 
and  employed  his  slaves  to  copy  MSS.,  selling 
the  copies.  His  annals,  a  general  history  ex- 
tending over  700  years,  were  highly  prized  by 
classical  writers,  but  have  not  come  down  to 
us.  His  name  has  been  preserved  by  the  let- 
ters addressed  to  him  by  Cicero,  and  by  a 
biography  written  by  Cornelius  Nepos. 

ATTICdS  IIKUonilS,  Tiberias  Claudius  a  rich 
citizen  of  Athens,  born  about  A.  D.  104,  died 
probably  in  180.  He  opened  a  school  of 
rhetoric  at  Athens  and  afterward  at  Rome, 
having  Marcus  Aurelius  for  one  of  his  pupils. 
His  speeches  are^said  to  have  excelled  those 
of  all  contemporary  orators,  but  none  of  them 
are  now  extant.  He  was  consul  in  143,  and 
for  a  time  administrator  of  the  free  towns  of 
Asia.  Having  inherited  an  immense  fortune, 
he  adorned  Athens  with  magnificent  public 
buildings,  constructed  a  theatre  at  Corinth, 
aqueducts  at  Olympia  and  Canusium,  a  race 
course  at  Delphi,  and  a  bath  at  Thermopylfe, 
and  restored  several  decayed  cities  of  the 
Peloponnesus. 

ATTIKAMEGl  ES,  or  Whitefish  Indians,  an  Al- 
gonquin tribe  residing  inland  back  of  Three 
Rivers,  Canada,  closely  allied  in  language  to 
the  Kilistenons  or  Crees.  They  were  noted 
for  their  singular  care  and  veneration  for  the 
dead.  War  and  disease  swept  them  away  about 
1058.  Father  Jacques  Buteux,  the  great  mis- 
sionary of  the  tribe,  was  killed  among  them  in 
May,  1652. 

ATTILA  (Magyar,  Etele ;  Ger.  Etzel),  king 
of  the  Huns,  died  in  453  or  454.  About  434, 
with  Bleda,  his  brother,  he  succeeded  Roas,  his 
uncle,  in  the  leadership  of  the  nation,  which 
then  included  or  swayed  the  northern  tribes 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Volga.  The  brothers 
threatened  to  invade  the  eastern  empire,  but 
Theodosius  II.  obtained  peace  by  the  surrender 
of  territory  south  of  the  Danube  and  the  pay- 
ment of  an  annual  tribute.  Attila  assured  the 
Huns  that  he  had  discovered  the  sword  of  the 
Scythian  god  of  war,  with  which  he  was  to 
procure  for  them  the  dominion  of  the  world. 
Ho  called  himself  the  scourge  of  God,  and 
his  subjects  looked  on  him  with  superstitious 
awe.  In  444  he  ordered  the  murder  of  his 
brother  as  a  dictate  of  the  divine  will,  and  the 
fratricide  was  celebrated  as  a  victory.  He  in- 
vaded the  Persian  dominions,  but  being  defeated 
in  Armenia,  he  turned  toward  the  eastern  em- 
pire. With  an  army  of  upward  of  half  a  mil- 
lion men,  mostly  cavalry,  he  overran  Illyria  and 
69  VOL.  ii. — 7 


all  the  region  between  the  Black  sea  and  the 
Adriatic.  Theodosius  II.  was  overpowered  in 
three  battles.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Greece 
were  devastated,  and  more  than  70  of  the  most 
flourishing  cities  destroyed.  Theodosius  ob- 
tained peace  again  only  by  an  enormous  ran- 
som. About  451  Attila  turned  west  toward 
Gaul,  marched  through  Germany,  crossed  the 
Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Seine,  and  en- 
camped before  Orleans.  The  inhabitants,  en- 
couraged by  their  bishop  Anianus,  resisted  the 
first  attacks  of  the  assailants,  and  were  soon 
relieved,  on  June  14,  by  the  approach  of  the 
army  of  Aetius,  the  commander  of  the  Ro- 
mans, with  their  allies  the  Visigoths  under. 
Theodoric,  the  Franks  under  Meroveus,  the 
Burgundians,  the  Alans,  and  other  barbarians. 
Attila  retired  into  Champagne,  and  took  his 
stand  in  the  Catalaunian  plains  where  Chalons- 
sur-Marne  is  now  situated,  and  there  fought 
about  the  end  of  June  the  most  murderous 
battle  ever  known  in  European  history.  (See 
AETIUS.)  Attila  was  defeated,  and  recrossed 
the  Rhine,  but  in  the  next  year  again  assailed 
the  empire,  invading  Italy.  He  destroyed 
Aquileia,  Padua,  Vicenza,  Verona,  and  other 
cities,  whose  fugitives  afterward  founded  Ven- 
ice ;  pillaged  Pavia  and  Milan,  and  established 
his  camp  at  the  confluence  of  the  Mincio  and 
the  Po,  near  Mantua.  Rome  was  saved  by  the 
personal  mediation  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  who  visited 
the  barbarian  in  his  camp,  and  is  said  to  have 
awed  him  by  his  sacred  character.  The  chron- 
iclers say  the  spirits  of  the  apostles  Peter 
and  Paul  appeared  to  him  with  menaces,  a  le- 
gend immortalized  by  Raphael.  In  July,  452, 
Attila,  having  concluded  a  truce,  returned  to 
the  Danube,  meditating  for  the  next  year  a 
new  invasion  of  the  eastern  empire,  or,  as  some 
maintain,  a  return  to  Italy.  But  he  died  in  his 
capital  or  camp  in  Pannonia,  the  night  of  his 
nuptials  with  the  beautiful  Ildico,  whom  he 
had  married  in  addition  to  the  many  wives  he 
already  possessed.  The  courtiers  found  him  in 
the  morning  dead,  either  through  sudden  ill- 
ness, or,  as  some  suspected,  through  the  treach- 
ery of  Ildico,  whose  people,  the  Burgundians, 
had  suffered  much  at  his  hands.  His  body  was 
put  in  a  coffin  of  iron,  over  which  was  one  of 
silver,  and  a  third  of  gold.  He  was  buried  se- 
cretly at  night  together  with  a  mass  of  treas- 
ure and  arms,  and  the  prisoners  who  dug  the 
grave  were  killed.  He  is  also  celebrated  as  a 
kind  of  national  hero  by  the  Hungarians. 

ATTIRET,  Jean  Denis,  a  French  Jesuit  and 
painter,  born  at  Dole  in  1702,  died  in  Peking 
in  1768.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  had  already 
produced  some  good  pictures  when  he  entered 
the  society  of  the  Jesuits  at  Avignon.  In  1737 
he  went  to  Peking,  at  the  solicitation  of  the 
French  Jesuit  missionaries  stationed  there,  and 
was  employed  by  the  emperor  Kien  Lung. 
He  produced  an  immense  number  of  paintings 
and  drawings,  mostly  in  water  colors,  accurate- 
ly depicting  Chinese  physiognomy,  dress,  and 
habits,  as  well  as  triumphs,  festivals,  and  pro- 


96 


ATTIWANDARONK 


ATTORNEY   GENERAL 


cessions.  A  series  of  drawings,  representing 
Chinese  battles,  were  engraved  in  France,  so 
gratifying  the  emperor  that  he  appointed  the 
artist  a  mandarin. 

ATTIWANDAROIVK,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the 
same  family  as  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois,  liv- 
ing in  early  times  on  both  banks  of  the  Ni- 
agara river,  but  chiefly  on  the  Canada  side. 
They  were  called  Atirhagenratha  by  the  Iro- 
quois, and  by  the  French  the  Neutral  Nation, 
as  they  at  first  took  no  part  in  the  war  between 
the  Iroquois  on  one  side  and  the  Hurons,  Tio- 
nontatez,  Algonquins,  and  Montagnais  on  the 
other.  They  were  however  at  war  with  the 
Mascoutins  beyond  Lake  Michigan.  Their  ter- 
ritory was  an  area  of  about  150  sq.  m.  They 
were  first  visited  by  the  Recollect  father  Dail- 
lon  in  1627,  and  by  Brebeuf  and  Chaumonot 
in  1642,;  but  no  missions  or  posts  were  estab- 
lished. On  the  fall  of  the  Hurons  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Iroquois  (1651-'3),  and  after 
severe  losses  a  part  submitted  and  joined  the 
Senecas  ;  the  rest  fled  west  and  joined  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Hurons  on  Lake  Superior. 

ATTLEBOROCGH,  a  township  of  Bristol  coun- 
ty, Mass.,  31  m.  S.  8.  W.of  Boston,  and  11  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Providence,  R.  I. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
6,769.  It  has  very  extensive  manufactures  of 
jewelry,  printed  calicoes,  metal  buttons,  and 
clocks,  for  which  there  is  abundant  water 
power  in  Mill  river. 

ATTOCK,  or  Atak,  a  fortified  town  of  India, 
in  the  Punjaub,  on  the  Indus,  nearly  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Cabool,  in  lat.  33°  54'  N., 
Ion.  72°  20'  E.,  40  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Peshawer ; 


pop.  about  2,000.  The  Indus  is  here  about 
800  feet  wide,  and  from  30  to  70  feet  deep  ac- 
cording to  the  season,  with  high  banks  and  a 
rapid  current.  The  fort  was  built  by  Akbar 
to  command  the  passage,  this  being  the  route 
by  which  invasions  from  the  northwest  have 
generally  entered  India.  Runjeet  Singh  took 
it  from  the  Afghans  by  treache'ry,  and  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  British  by  the  con- 
quest of  Sinde.  The  town  has  gone  to  decay 

ATTORNEY.     See  LAWYER. 

ATTORNEY  GENERAL,  a  law  officer  of  state. 
In  England  he  is  the  counsel  to  the  crown.  He 


may  be  required  by  either  of  the  houses  of  par- 
liament to  institute  prosecutions  for  offences 
against  the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  houses,  or 
against  the  public  laws  of  the  nation,  and  by  cus- 
tom may  prosecute  for  misdemeanors  by  infor- 
mation without  first  procuring  an  indictment. 
He  may  also  file  information  in  civil  causes, 
under  penal  statutes,  and  he  is  charged  by 
special  statutes  with  other  duties  in  the  public 
interest. — The  attorney  general  of  the  United 
States  is  the  first  law  officer  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  judiciary  act  of  1789,  which  first 
defined  his  office,  provided  that  there  should 
be  appointed  a  meet  person,  learned  in  the 
law,  whose  duty  it  should  bo  to  prosecute  and 
conduct  all  suits  in  the  supreme  court  in  which 
the  United  States  should  be  concerned,  and  to 
give  his  advice  and  opinion  upon  questions  of 
law  when  required  by  the  president  or  by  the 
heads  of  any  of  the  departments  touching  any 
matters  which  concerned  the  affairs  of  their 
offices.  By  an  act  of  1830  the  attorney  gen- 
eral was  required  to  consult  and  advise  with 
the  solicitor  general  of  the  treasury  as  to  the 
conduct  of  suits  and  other  proceedings  pertain- 
ing to  the  revenue  ;  and  by  an  act  of  1861  he 
was  charged  with  a  general  supervision  and 
direction  of  the  district  attorneys  and  marshals 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  their  discharge  of 
their  duties ;  and  they  were  required  to  report 
to  him  an  account  of  their  proceedings  and 
the  condition  of  their  offices.  In  practice  also 
it  has  been  conceded  that  either  house  of  con- 
gress may  call  upon  the  attorney  general  for 
information  on  any  matter  within  the  scope  of 
his  office,  and  that  it  is  his  duty 
to  communicate  such  informa- 
tion. He  has  also  conducted  all 
suits  of  the  United  States  in  the 
supreme  court.  It  has  been  al- 
ways understood  that  the  opin- 
ion of  the  attorney  general  is  not 
conclusive  upon  the  president  or 
the  secretaries ;  but  it  has  been 
the  practice,  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
serving harmony  and  uniformity 
of  decision  and  action  in  the 
different  departments,  to  gov- 
ern the 'administration  of  their 
affairs  according  to  the  attor- 
ney general's  advice.  The  opin- 
ions of  the  attorneys  general 
from  the  earliest  period  have 
thus  come  to  be  a  body  of  precedents  on 
questions  of  public  law  which  have  a  cer- 
tain authority,  of  the  same  character,  though 
not  of  the  same  imperative  force,  as  the  adju- 
dication of  courts  of  justice.  It  is  a  settled 
rule,  in  construction  of  the  functions  of  this 
officer,  that  he  has  no  right  to  give  an  opinion 
in  any  other  cases  than  those  in  which  the 
statutes  make  it  his  duty  to  give  it.  There- 
fore he  will  not  give  an  opinion  to  any  subor- 
dinate officer  of  any  of  the  departments;  nor 
will  he  give  an  opinion  to  individuals  in  re- 
spect to  their  claims  against  the  government ; 


ATTORNEY,   POWER  OF 


97 


nor  will  he  advise  upon  speculative  or  hypo- 
thetical cases,  nor  upon  any  point  of^law  un- 
less it  has  actually  arisen  in  a  case  presented 
for  the  action  of  a  department.  An  act  of 
June  22, 1870,  established  an  executive  depart- 
ment of  the  government,  called  the  department 
of  justice,  and  made  the  attorney  general  the 
head  of  it.  The  statute  provides  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  solicitor  general  and  of  assist- 
ants to  the  attorney  general,  and  transfers  to 
the  department  the  solicitors  of  the  treasury, 
of  the  navy,  and  of  the  internal  revenue,  the 
naval  judge  advocate,  and  the  clerks  and  as- 
sistants of  these  officers.  It  authorizes  the  at- 
torney general  to  refer  questions  submitted  to 
him  to  his  assistants,  and  their  opinions  ap- 
proved by  him  have  the  force  of  his  own.  He 
may  direct  the  solicitor  general  to  argue  causes 
in  the  court  of  claims  in  which  the  United 
States  is  interested,  and  appeals  from  that 
court  to  the  supreme  court  in  such  cases  as  are 
committed  to  him  and  to  the  solicitor  general. 
The  secretaries  of  the  war  and  navy  depart- 
ments may  also  by  this  act  require  opinions 
from  the  attorney  general  on  questions  of  law 
the  cognizance  of  which  is  not  given  by  stat- 
ute to  other  officers. — The  duties  of  the  attor- 
ney general  of  a  state  are  denned  by  constitu- 
tional or  statutory  provisions.  They  are  gen- 
erally to  prosecute  and  defend  all  kinds  of 
actions  in  the  event  of  which  the  people  of  the 
state  are  interested ;  to  recover  for  the  state 
escheated  lands  or  forfeited  estates  ;  to  test 
the  right  of  any  person  who  is  charged  with 
unlawfully  holding  or  exercising  any  public 
office  or  any  franchise  within  the  state,  or  the 
right  of  persons  who  are  alleged  to  be  acting 
as  a  corporation  without  authority;  to  bring 
actions  for  the  purpose  of  vacating  the  charters 
or  revoking  the  franchises  of  corporations  for 
violations  of  the  provisions  of  the  acts  which 
created  them,  or  when  they  have  incurred  for- 
feiture of  their  charters  by  nonuser  of  their 
franchises,  or  the  assumption  of  privileges  not 
conferred  upon  them.  It  is  also  his  function 
to  give  legal  advice  to  the  governor  and  to 
other  officers  of  the  state ;  to  prepare  legal  in- 
struments for  the  use  of  the  state;  and  at  the 
request  of  the  governor  or  other  state  officials 
to  indict  and  prosecute  persons  accused  by  such 
officers  of  violations  of  the  laws  which  they  are 
charged  with  enforcing. 

ATTORNEY,  Power  of,  an  authority  by  which 
one  person  is  empowered  to  act  in  the  place 
or  as  the  attorney  of  another.  The  one  who 
confers  the  power  is  called  the  constituent  or 
the  principal,  and  the  one  to  whom  it  is  given 
is  called  the  attorney  in  fact,  that  is  to  say,  in 
faction  or  for  a  special  purpose,  and  by  way 
of  general  distinction  from  a  professional  at- 
torney at  law. — All  persons  except  those  who 
have  not  a  legal  capacity  to  act  for  themselves, 
such  as  married  women  and  infants,  may  ap- 
point an  attorney  in  fact.  But  under  the  recent 
acts  which  give  married  women  separate  estates 
and  independent  powers  over  them,  they  also 


may,  as  to  such  property  at  least,  probably 
appoint  attorneys.  All  persons  who  have  suffi- 
cient intelligence  may  be  made  attorneys  in  fact, 
including  even  some  who  are  disqualified  from 
acting  for  themselves,  such  as  married  women 
and  minors,  provided  they  are  of  sufficient  age 
and  discretion.  The  power  of  attorney  may 
for  many  purposes  be  created  by  parol,  but 
usually  it  is  reduced  to  writing.  If  the  power 
contemplates  the  making  of  a  deed  by  the 
attorney,  his  authority  must  also  be  by  deed, 
that  is  to  say,  by  writing  under  seal,  and  must 
be  executed  and  acknowledged  with  the  same 
formalities  which  are  required  in  the  case  of 
deeds. — In  the  interpretation  of  powers  of  at- 
torney they  are  to  be  construed  strictly,  and 
this  rule  should  be  kept  in  view  in  framing 
such  instruments.  The  power  may  be  broad 
or  narrow.  It  may  be  general,  extending  to 
all  the  affairs  of  the  constituent,  or  it  may  be 
special,  and  limited  to  some  particular  subject 
or  to  some  particular  class  of  the  affairs  of  the 
principal.  In  view  of  the  rule  of  construction 
just  suggested,  a  special  power  should  be  very 
explicit,  enumerating  as  minutely  as  is  prac- 
ticable all  the  acts  which  the  attorney  may 
perform,  although  all  acts  will  be  sustained 
which  are  fairly  within  the  scope  and  design 
of  the  power,  even  though  they  are  not  spe- 
cifically named.  And  the  power  had  best  be 
thus  special  and  particular,  if  possible,  rather 
than  general ;  for  the  courts  incline  to  construe 
even  general  powers  narrowly  rather  than 
broadly,  and  even  the  general  clause  usually 
inserted  in  special  powers,  as  for  example,  to 
do  all  other  acts  which  the  constituent  might 
do  in  the  premises,  is  usually  interpreted  with 
reference  to  the  special  matters  enumerated, 
and  is  held  to  authorize  only  such  acts  as  are 
fairly  required  in  the  performance  of  them.  A 
general  authority  to  make  and  indorse  notes, 
the  power  being  apparently  conferred  to  enable 
the  attorney  to  carry  on  the  business  of  his 
principal  in  his  absence,  would  be  limited  to 
notes  to  be  used  in  that  business ;  an  authority 
to  collect  all  demands,  and  to  accomplish  a 
complete  adjustment  of  all  the  principal's  af- 
fairs, would  not  authorize  the  attorney,  in  the 
course  and  for  the  purposes  of  such  a  general 
settlement,  to  give  a  note  in  the  name  of  the 
principal ;  and  it  has  been  held  that  an  author- 
ity to  endorse  notes  does  not  empower  the  at- 
torney to  receive  notices  of  protest,  and  that 
a  general  power  given  by  a  member  of  a  firm 
to  his  copartner  to  transact  all  his  business, 
whether  relating  to  him  as  a  partner  or  as  an 
individual,  does  not  authorize  the  attorney  to 
transfer  the  individual  property  of  the  princi- 
pal to  a  trustee  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 
So  a  power  to  sell  or  convey  lands  does  not 
give  a  power  to  mortgage,  nor  does  it  authorize 
such  other  dealing  with  the  lands  as  a  license 
to  enter  and  cut  timber.  If  the  power  looks 
to  conveyance  of  real  estate-  and  to  the  giving 
of  deeds,  it  should  state  expressly  whether  the 
attorney  may  exchange  or  lease  or  mortgage 


98 


ATTRACTION 


the  lands  as  well  as  convey  them  absolutely ; 
and  if  the  attorney  is  to  give  deeds,  whether 
he  may  give  deeds  with  full  covenants ;  or  if 
he  is  to  make  a  mortgage,  whether  he  may 
give  with  it  a  power  of  sale;  though  it  has 
been  held  in  New  York  that  such  an  author- 
ity is  fairly  implied  in  a  power  to  mortgage, 
because  there  a  power  of  sale  is  a  usual  and 
virtually  essential  incident  of  a  good  mort- 
gage, but  it  is  not  or  may  not  be  so  in  all 
the  states.  The  power  conferred  may  be  a 
mere  naked  authority  to  the  attorney,  in 
which  case  it  is  revocable  at  the  will  of  the 
constituent,  and  necessarily  expires  with  his 
death ;  or  it  may  be  coupled  with  an  interest 
in  the  attorney,  as  the  phrase  is,  and  in  that 
case  the  power  cannot  be  revoked  by  the  prin- 
cipal, nor  does  his  death  annul  it.  Thus  a  mere 
power  to  collect  debts  due  the  principal  is  such 
a  naked  and  revocable  power.  But  if  by  as- 
signment or  by  virtue  of  an  agreement  with 
the  principal,  or  in  any  other  way,  the  attor- 
ney has  an  interest  in  the  very  debts  them- 
selves, the  power  is  then  coupled  with  an  in- 
terest, and  the  attorney  cannot  be  compelled 
by  the  constituent  to  surrender  it.  A  mere 
recital  in  the  instrument  that  it  is  irrevocable 
will  not  make  it  so,  unless  one  or  other  of 
these  conditions  exist.  All  conditions  in  the 
power  must  be  strictly  observed;  as  for  ex- 
ample, if  the  consent  of  third  persons  is  re- 
quired, it  must  be  procured;  and  if  the  con- 
sent of  several  persons  were  required,  the 
death  of  one  of  them  would  prevent  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  power,  for  the  consent  even 
of  all  the  survivors  is  not  the  consent  that 
the  power  calls  for. — It  is  a  general  rule  of 
law  that  an  authority  given  to  one  person 
cannot  be  delegated  by  him  to  another;  and 
accordingly,  when  it  is  desired  to  give  an 
authority  to  the  contrary  to  the  attorney, 
it  must  be  expressly  set  forth  in  the  power. 
Such  a  power,  commonly  called  a  power  of 
substitution  and  revocation,  is  visually  inserted 
in  powers  of  attorney.  When  an  attorney 
having  such  a  power  has  appointed  another 
attorney  in  his  stead,  his  death  annuls  the 
power  of  his  substitute.  The  death  of  the 
principal  cancels  the  power  of  the  attorney  at 
once.  And  his  power  is  annulled  upon  an 
actual  revocation  by  the  principal  when  the 
revocation  is  communicated  to  him,  and  as  to 
third  persons  when  it  is  made  known  to  them. 
In  executing  the  power,  the  attorney  should  act 
in  the  name  of  his  principal.  For  example,  if 
he  gives  a  deed,  the  deed  should  run  in  the 
name  of  the  principal,  and  be  signed  first  with 
his  name,  the  attorney  adding  his  name  and 
authority  afterward. 

ATTRACTION.  See  ADHESION,  COHESION, 
GEAVITY,  and  MAGNETISM. 

ATTliCKS,  Crlspus,  a  mulatto,  or  half-Indian, 
resident  of  Framingham,  Mass.,  one  of  the  per- 
sons killed  on  the  evening  of  March  5,  1770,  in 
the  affray  known  as  the  "  Boston  Massacre." 
John  Adams,  in  his  defence  of  the  soldiers, 


AUBER 

accuses  him  of  having  been  the  principal  leader 
of  the  attack  on  the  British  troops.  His  body 
was  placed  with  that  of  Caldwell  in  Faneuil 
hall,  and  from  that  building  it  was  borne  witli 
great  ceremony  by  the  people,  and  buried  in 
the  city  burial  ground,  in  one  vault  with  the 
other  victims  of  the  riot. 

ATTWOOD,  Thomas,  an  English  composer, 
born  in  1767,  died  in  1838.  At  the  age  of 
16  he  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  the 
prince  of  Wales,  who  sent  him  to  Italy  to  be 
educated.  At  Vienna  he  was  the  pupil  of  Mo- 
zart till  1786,  when  he  returned  to  England. 
He  wrote  operas,  songs,  glees,  trios,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  sacred  music.  His  works 
are  marked  by  knowledge  of  orchestral  effects, 
and  are  vigorously  written. 

ATYS,  or  Attys,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of 
Nana,  a  nymph,  according  to  some  legends,  by 
a  Phrygian  king.  The  traditions  differ  about 
the  fate  of  Atys,  the  most  current  ones  making 
him  beloved  by  Cybele,  who  made  him  her 
priest  on  his  taking  a  vow  of  perpetual  chas- 
tity ;  this  he  broke,  and  was  punished  by  the 
goddess  with  madness,  in  which  he  castrated 
himself  and  attempted  suicide;  but  the  goddess 
restored  him  to  his  senses,  and  allowed  him  to 
continue  in  her  service,  decreeing  at  the  same 
time  that  all  her  priests  thereafter  should  be 
eunuchs.  A  festival  was  annually  celebrated 
in  memory  of  Atys  at  Pessinus.  The  myth  is 
supposed  by  many  writers  to  typify,  in  the 
powerlessness,  death,  and  subsequent  revival 
of  Atys,  the  death  of  nature  in  the  winter, 
and  its  revival  in  the  spring  through  the  agency 
of  superior  power. 

Al'BAGNE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  10  m.  E.  of  Mar- 
seilles; pop.  in  1866,  7,408.  The  town  is 
known  for  its  excellent  red  wines.  Near  it  the 
abb6  Barthelemy  was  born. 

Al  I!AIM.,  Right  of  (low  Lat.  albanm,  a  cor- 
ruption of  alibi  natus,  foreign  born).  See 
ALIEN,  vol.  i.,  p.  313. 

Al'BE,  a  department  of  France,  in  Cham- 
pagne, bounded  by  Marne,  Haute-Marne,  C6te 
d'Or,  Yonne,  and  Seine-et-Marne ;  area,  2,145 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  255,687.  The  surface  is 
mostly  level;  the  soil  in  the  southeast  is  pro- 
ductive, but  in  the  remaining  portions  it  is 
poor.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Seine  and  its  east- 
ern affluent  the  Aube,  which  rises  in  the  plateau 
of  Langres  in  Haute-Marne.  The  department 
has  manufactories  of  pottery,  tiles,  and  glass. 
It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Troyes, 
Arcis-sur-Aube,  Bar-sur-Aube,  Bar-sur-Seine, 
and  Nogent-sur-Seine.  Capital,  Troyes. 

\ri!K.V\s,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardeche,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ardeche  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Cevennes, 
13  m.  S.  W.  of  Privas;  pop.  in  1866,  7,694.  It 
has  a  college  and  a  theological  seminary,  and 
is  the  centre  of  the  wine  and  corn  trade  of  the 
department. 

AlBER,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit,  a  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Caen,  Jan.  29,  1782,  died  in 


AUBERT 


AUBURN 


99 


Paris,  May  13,  1871.  His  father,  a  print- 
seller  at  Paris,  in  prosperous  circumstances, 
allowed  him  to  devote  much  attention  to  the 
study  of  music,  merely  as  an  amusement  or  an 
elegant  accomplishment.  After  a  brief  expe- 
rience in  mercantile  life  in  London,  he  returned 
to  Paris,  and  devoted  himself  to  music,  giving 
forth  a  number  of  little  compositions,  vocal  and 
instrumental,  including  a  new  arrangement  of 
the  opera  Julie.  After  a  course  of  study  with 
Cherubini,  he  produced  in  1813  the  opera  of 
Sejour  militaire,  which  failed ;  and  its  recep- 
tion so  discouraged  him  that  for  several  years 
he  abandoned  the  art.  The  death  of  his  father, 
however,  compelled  him  seriously  to  devote 
himself  to  it  as  a  means  of  support,  and  in  1819 
he  produced  at  the  op6ra  comique  Le  testament 
et  let  billets-doux,  an  opera  in  one  act,  which 
was  likewise  unsuccessful.  Next  he  wrote 
La  bergere  chdtelaine,  which  was  produced  in 
the  same  theatre  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1820,  and  completely  turned  the  tables  in  his 
favor.  From  this  time  forward  he  produced  a 
great  number  of  works,  almost  all  of  which 
were  well  received,  while  some  are  among 
the  most  successful  operas  now  represented 
on  the  stage.  An  imitator  of  Rossini  at  the 
outset,  he  gradually  acquired  greater  inde- 
pendence of  style,  and  in  La  muette  de  Por- 
tiei  (also  known  as  Masanlello)  he  formed  a 
Btyle  of  his  own.  In  addition  to  the  works 
mentioned,  Le  chenal  de  bronze,  Fra  Diavolo, 
Le  domino  noir,  Les  diamanU  de  la  couronne, 
L 'elixir  tfamour,  Le  dieu  et  la  bayadere,  Gtts- 
tave,  La  sirene,  and  Haydee  are  among  his 
most  popular  operas.  Many  of  them  have 
been  translated  into  English  and  German,  and 
almost  all  into  Italian,  and  their  melodies  are 
familiar  wherever  music  is  known.  Marco 
Spada  was  produced  when  he  was  71  years 
of  age ;  La  Circassienne  when  he  was  79  ;  La 
fiancee  du  roi  de  Garbe  when  he  was  82 ;  and 
his  last  work,  Le  premier  jour  de  bonheur,  at 
the  age  of  86.  The  successful  production  of  this 
opera  in  February,  1868,  was  made  the  occa- 
sion of  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of  the  old 
maestro's  popularity.  He  wrote  a  march  for 
the  opening  of  the  world's  exhibition  in  Lon- 
don in  1862.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
institute  in  1829,  became  a  chevalier  of  the  le- 
gion of  honor  in  1825  and  grand  officer  in  1861, 
and  succeeded  Cherubini  as  director  of  the 
conservatory  in  1842.  The  characteristics  of 
Auber's  music  are  sprightliness  and  grace,  with 
clearness  and  simplicity  in  dramatic  effect. 

AlBKRT,  Constance.     See  ABBANTES. 

AUBERVILLIERS,  a  village  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Seine,  1  m.  N.  of  the  en- 
ceinte of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1806,  9,240.  E.  of  it 
is  a  fort  of  the  same  name,  built  in  1842. 
The  village  church  formerly  possessed  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Virgin  which  was  believed  to  be 
miraculous,  and  on  that  account  was  called 
Notre  Dame  des  Vertus. 

AUBIGNE,  J.  II.  Merle  d'.  See  MERLE  o'Au- 
BIOXE. 


ore  Agrippa  d',  a  French  Prot- 
estant soldier  and  historian,  born  at  St.  Maury, 
Feb.  8,  1550,  died  in  Geneva,  April  29,  1630. 
Even  as  a  child  his  attachment  to  his  religion 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Roman  Catholics, 
and  his  refusal  to  abjure  it  caused  him  to  be 
sentenced  to  death  before  he  was  13  years  of 
age.  Aided  by  a  friend,  the  boy  escaped,  and 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Orleans.  This  end- 
ed, he  went  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Geneva ; 
but  in  1567  he  joined  the  Huguenot  army  under 
the  prince  of  Conde,  and  served  nearly  two 
years  with  such  bravery  and  ability  as  to  se- 
cure the  marked  favor  of  the  young  Henry 
of  Navarre,  the  future  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
whose  service  he  subsequently  entered,  remain- 
ing with  him  through  the  war,  and  living  at 
court  after  the  peace.  But  he  quarrelled  with 
the  king,  his  blunt  candor  and  rude  sarcasm 
constantly  giving  offence,  and  several  times 
left  or  was  compelled  to  leave  Henry's  service, 
though  the  king  trusted  him,  and  at  one  time 
bestowed  offices  of  some  honor  upon  him.  He 
produced  during  his  residence  at  court  Circe, 
a  tragedy,  abounding  in  sarcasm  directed 
against  the  king  and  various  members  of  the 
royal  family.  After  the  king's  death  he  pub- 
lished his  first  three  volumes  of  the  history  of 
his  time  (from  1556  to  1601).  The  third  vol- 
ume was  seized  and  burned  by  order  of  parlia- 
ment, and  he  fled  to  Geneva,  thus  escaping  the 
sentence  of  death  that  was  soon  pronounced 
against  him.  While  under  this  condemnation, 
he  offered  his  hand  to  a  Genevese  lady  of  the 
name  of  Burlamaqui,  who  did  not  hesitate  to 
accept  him  as  husband  after  he  had  revealed 
his  dangerous  position  with  his  wonted  candor. 
By  a  former  marriage  he  had  one  son,  Con- 
stantine,  who  became  the  father  of  the  cele- 
brated Madame  de  Mamtenon.  D'Aubigne' 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Ren6  at  Ge- 
neva. Besides  those  already  mentioned,  he 
wrote  many  less  noteworthy  works. 

Al  I!I >,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Aveyron,  16m.  N.  E.  of  Villefranche ;  pop. 
in  1866,  8,863.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  coal 
region,  which  has  of  late  been  yielding  about 
5,000,000  quintals  of  coal  annually.  The  neigh- 
boring village  of  Le  Gua  has  five  furnaces  for 
the  smelting  of  iron. 

AUBLET,  Jean  Baptist*  Chrlstophe  Fnsec,  a 
French  botanist,  born  at  Salon,  in  Provence, 
in  1720,  died  in  Paris  in  1778.  He  is  cele- 
brated for  his  botanical  labors  in  Mauritius 
and  in  French  Guiana.  His  herbarium  was 
purchased  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  is  now  in 
the  possession  of  the  British  museum. 

AUBURN,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Cayuga 
county,  N.  Y.,  174  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Albany,  and 
2  m.  N.  of  Owasco  lake,  the  outlet  of  which 
intersects  the  town ;  pop.  in  1860,  10,986 ;  in 
1870, 17,225.  It  stands  on  high,  uneven  ground, 
and  is  handsomely  built,  with  wide  streets 
planted  with  shade  trees.  It  has  16  churches, 
of  which  3  are  Methodist,  4  Presbyterian,  3 
Roman  Catholic,  2  Episcopal,  2  Baptist,  1  Dis- 


100 


AUBURN 


ciples',  and  1  Universalist ;  and  it  is  the  seat  of 
a  Presbyterian  theological  seminary  founded  in 
1821.  To  this  has  been  recently  added  a  large 
building  for  a  library,  the  gift  of  William  E. 
Dodge  of  New  York  and  E.  B.  Morgan  of  Au- 
rora. Auburn  also  has  an  orphan  asylum,  a 
home  for  the  friendless,  a  young  men's  Chris- 
tian association  with  reading-rooms,  one  high 
school,  six  district  schools,  and  a  young  ladies' 
institute,  eight  banks,  several  hotels,  and  two 
opera  houses.  Two  daily  newspapers,  four 
weeklies,  and  one  monthly  are  published  he»e. 
Water  works  on  the  Holley  plan  supply  the 
city.  The  Auburn  state  prison,  founded  in 
1816,  is  conducted  on  the  "  silent  system."  It 
is  a  fine  massive  structure  of  limestone,  cover- 
ing, with  its  cells,  yards,  and  workshops,  12 
acres.  The  prison  buildings  are  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  square,  standing  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  outer  wall,  which  surrounds 
them.  This  wall,  which  is  3,000  ft.  long,  4  ft. 
thick,  and  12  to  35  ft.  high,  is  manned  night 


Auburn  State  Prison. 

and  day  by  guards.  The  prison  has  usually 
over  1,000  convicts  (in  1872,  1,100),  who  are 
employed  in  a  variety  of  manufactures,  the 
proceeds  of  which  are  generally  sufficient  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  institution.  Each 
convict  on  arrival  is  assigned  to  work  at  the 
trade  with  which  he  is  familiar,  or,  if  ignorant 
of  any,  is  taught  one.  Among  the  principal  of 
these  are  the  hame  shop,  tailors',  shoemakers', 
cloth  and  carpet  weaving,  cabinet,  sash  and 
blind,  cooper,  stone-cutters',  tool,  axletree, 
smith,  and  machine  shops.  The  convicts  make 
such  articles  as  they  use,  and  build  such  struc- 
tures as  they  occupy.  They  sleep  in  separate 
cells,  but  at  meals  and  in  the  shops  are  together. 
No  communication  by  word  or  sign  is  allowed. 
In  an  adjoining  enclosure  of  nine  acres  is  the 
state  asylum  for  insane  criminals,  founded  in 
1857.  It  has  usually  80  to  100  inmates.  The 
Owasco  lake  supplies  one  of  the  best  water 
powers  in  the  state,  which  is  utilized  by  nine 


AUBUSSON 

dams,  the  river  falling  within  the  city  limits 
160  ft.  There  are  upward  of  20  factories  and 
mills,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  cotton  and 
woollen  fabrics,  carpets,  agricultural  imple- 
ments (many  of  which  are  exported  to  Europe), 
machine  shops  and  tool  factories,  flouring  mills, 
and  breweries.  These  manufactories  employ 
a  capital  of  from  $4,000,000  to  $5,000,000. 
Valuable  limestone  quarries  are  worked  within 
the  city  limits.  One  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  New  York  Central  railroad  runs  through 
Auburn.  The  Southern  Central  railroad  also 
passes  through  it,  connecting  it  with  Lake  On- 
tario and  the  Pennsylvania  coal  mines.  Au- 
burn, formerly  called  Hardenburgh's  Corners, 
was  first  settled  by  Capt.  John  L.  Hardenburgh 
in  1793.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  court 
house  stands  an  elevation  called  Fort  Hill, 
in  the  forest  on  the  summit  of  which  were 
found  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Indian  fortifica- 
tion and  relics  of  its  former  occupants,  such  as 
arrow-heads,  tomahawks,  and  pottery.  It  is 
now  the  site  of  a  cemetery, 
-  -  -  —  ,  prominent  among  whoso  monu- 
ments is  one  to  the  memory  of 
Logan,  the  Cayuga  chief. 

Al  l!l  SS<»,  a  town  of  central 
France,  capital  of  an  arrondis- 
sement  of  the  department  of 
Creuse,  built  in  a  picturesque 
gorge  near  the  river  Creuse,  20 
m.  S.  E.  of  Gu6ret;  pop.  in 
1866,  6,625.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  manufacture  of  carpets, 
which  employs  the  majority  of 
the  inhabitants.  Woollen  and 
cotton  goods  are  also  made,  and 
there  are  dye  houses,  tan  yards, 
and  factories  of  various  kinds. 
The  town  was  founded  in  the 
8th  century,  and  was  subject  to 
a  feudal  lord,  the  ruins  of  whose 
castle  are  still  visible. 

A!  IJISSOX  Pierre  d',  grand 
master  of  the  hospitallers,  or 
knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  born  at  La- 
marche,  France,  in  1423,  died  in  1503.  He 
is  said  to  have  first  served  in  the  Hungarian 
armies  against  the  Turks.  In  1444  he  accom- 
panied the  dauphin,  afterward  Louis  XI.,  in 
his  campaign  against  the  Swiss.  He  next  re- 
paired to  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he  was 
admitted  as  a  knight  of  St.  John.  He  soon 
became  a  prominent  member  of  the  order,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  grand  master  Des  Ursins 
he  was  unanimously  elected  his  successor. 
When  Mohammed  II.  threatened  Italy,  D'Au- 
busson  had  Rhodes  strongly  fortified,  at  the 
same  time  forming  an  alliance  with  the  bey  of 
Tunis  and  sultan  of  Egypt.  Mohammed  sent 
against  Rhodes  a  fleet  of  160  sail,  carrying  an 
army  of  100,000  men,  under  the  command 
of  the  apostate  Misach  Palseologus  (Messih 
Pasha).  The  Turks  invested  the  town  of 
Rhodes  at  the  end  of  May,  1480.  D'Aubnsson, 
who  made  an  admirable  defence,  was  so  se- 


AUCH 


AUCKLAND 


101 


Terely  wounded  that  his  life  was  despaired  of; 
but  he  compelled  the  Turks  to  raise,the  siege 
after  two  months.  He  now  became  'active  in 
the  intrigues  that  troubled  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  received  at  Rhodes  Zizim  or 
Jem,  the  brother  of  Sultan  Bajazet,  who  be- 
came in  his  hands  a  powerful  instrument  of  in- 
fluence on  the  Turkish  court.  Zizim  was  first 
transferred  to  France,  then  delivered  to  Pope 
Innocent  VIII.,  who  rewarded  D'Aubusson 
with  the  title  of  cardinal  and  the  office  of  legate 
of  the  holy  see  in  Asia.  But  the  failure  of  a 
plan  he  had  long  cherished  for  the  union  of 
Europe  against  the  Turks,  together  with  other 
disappointments,  caused  him  to  retire  from 
affairs,  and  his  last  years  were  spent  in  Rhodes. 

AUCH,  an  old  city  in  southern  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Gers,  on  the  river  Gers, 
41  m.  W.  of  Toulouse;  pop.  in  1866, 12,500.  Its 
upper  part  is  situated  on  a  high  hill  crowned 
by  an  old  Gothic  cathedral,  and  connected 
with  the  lower  by  a  long  bridge  of  stairs. 
Auch  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  a  tribunal 
of  commerce,  and  a  college.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  thread  and  cotton  stuffs,  and  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade,  particularly  in  the 
brandies  of  Armagnac. 

AUCHMCTY.  I.  Robert,  an  American  lawyer, 
born  probably  in  England,  died  in  Boston  in 
April,  1750.  He  was  of  Scotch  descent,  set- 
tled at  Boston  early  in  the  18th  century,  at- 
tained a  high  position  in  his  profession,  and 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  admiralty 
in  1733.  In  1741  he  was  in  England  as  agent 
for  the  colony,  and  published  there  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "  The  Importance  of  Cape  Breton  to 
the  British  Nation,  and  a  Plan  for  Taking  the 
Place."  II.  Robert,  son  of  the  preceding,  died 
in  London  in  1788.  He  was  distinguished  as 
an  advocate  and  jury  lawyer  at  Boston,  and  in 
1767  was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  ad- 
miralty, which  office  he  exercised  as  long  as 
the  royal  authority  was  recognized ;  but  in 
1776,  being  a  zealous  tory,  he  went  to  England. 
He  was  associated  with  John  Adams  in  the 
defence  of  Capt.  Preston.  III.  Samuel,  an 
American  clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Boston,  Jan.  26,  1722,  died  in  New 
York,  March  6,  1777.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1742,  and  went  to  England  to 
study  for  holy  orders.  After  his  ordination  he 
was  appointed  by  the  society  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  gospel  an  assistant  minister  of  Trin- 
ity church,  New  York,  and  in  1764  succeeded 
to  the  charge  of  all  the  churches  in  the  city. 
When  the  American  troops  took  possession  of 
New  York  in  1775,  he  was  forbidden  by  Lord 
Stirling  to  read  the  prayer  for  the  king;  but 
he  persisted  in  doing  so,  although  his  church 
was  entered  by  a  company  of  soldiers  with 
drums  beating  and  with  the  threat  of  pulling 
him  out  of  the  pulpit.  He  then  shut  up  the 
church  and  chapels  and  took  the  keys  with 
him  to  New  Jersey,  leaving  orders  that  the 
churches  should  not  be  opened  until  the  lit- 
urgy could  be  read  without  interruption.  New 


York  being  again  in  the  British  possession,  he 
attempted  to  return,  and  succeeded  after  great 
hardships  only  to  find  his  church  and  parson- 
age burnt,  and  his  papers  and  the  records  of 
the  church  destroyed.  The  next  Sunday  he 
preached  for  the  last  time  in  St.  Paul's.  The 
various  trials  he  had  undergone  brought  on  an 
illness  which  carried  him  off  in  a  few  days. 
IV.  Sir  Samuel,  a  British  general,  son,  of  the 
preceding,  bora  in  New  York,  June  22,  1758, 
died  in  Dublin,  Aug.  11,  1822.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  college  in  1775,  and  the  next  year 
entered  the  army  under  Sir  William  Howe,  and 
took  part  in  three  campaigns.  From  1783  to 
1796  he  served  in  India,  and  was  at  the  siege 
of  Seringapatam  in  command  of  a  company 
under  Lord  Cornwallis.  He  was  adjutant  gen- 
eral in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in  1800.  In 
1806  he  took  command  of  the  troops  ordered 
to  South  America,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier 
general,  and  in  1807  carried  the  strongly  forti- 
fied city  of  Montevideo  by  assault.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  made  lieutenant  general.  In  1810 
he  was  commander-in-chief  in  the  Carnatic, 
and  in  1811  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  col- 
onies of  Java  and  Sumatra.  On  his  return  to 
Europe  in  1813  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  forces  in  Ireland. 

Alt  kUM>.  I.  William  Eden,  baron,  a  British 
diplomatist,  born  about  1750,  died  in  1814.  In 
1778  he  was  employed  with  Lord  Carlisle  in 
the  attempt  at  a  settlement  of  the  rupture  be- 
tween the  British  government  and  the  Ameri- 
can colonies.  He  entered  parliament,  was  sec- 
retary of  Ireland,  and  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
Louis  XVI.,  where  he  negotiated  a  commercial 
treaty.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 
of  1789  he  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  as  envoy 
extraordinary ;  and  for  the  manner  in  which  he 
discharged  his  duties  there  he  was  called  to  an 
account  by  the  house  of  commons  on  his  return. 
He  was  created  a  baron  in  the  Irish  peerage 
in  1789,  and  also  in  the  British  peerage  in 
1793.  He  wrote  "Principles  of  the  Penal 
Laws  "  (1771),  and  various  pamphlets,  includ- 
ing one  on  the  "  State  of  the  Poor  in  England." 
II.  George  Eden,  earl  of,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  August,  1784,  died  Jan.  1,  1849.  He 
was  president  of  the  board  of  trade  under 
Earl  Grey  in  1830,  and  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty under  Lord  Melbourne  in  1834.  The 
next  year  he  went  to  India  as  governor  general. 
During  his  administration  of  this  office  the 
opium  war  with  China  broke  out,  and  the  dis- 
astrous expedition  against  Afghanistan  took 
place.  Lord  Auckland's  chief  personal  action 
was  exercised  upon  a  system  of  native  free 
schools,  and  an  improved  administration  of 
justice.  In  1841  he  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Ellenborough,  and  on  his  return  was  created 
earl  of  Auckland  and  Baron  Eden. 

AUCKLAND.  I.  A  province  of  New  Zealand, 
occupying  the  north  and  centre  of  North  isl- 
and; area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
62,335,  besides  16,000  Maoris.  II.  A  city,  cap- 
ital of  the  preceding  province  and  formerly  of 


102 


AUCKLAND  ISLANDS 


AUCTION 


Auckland,  New  Zealand. 


New  Zealand,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Waitemafa  har- 
hor,  in  lat.  36°  51'  S.,  Ion.  174°  45'  E. ;  pop.  in 
1871, 12,937 ;  with  suburbs,  18,000,  chiefly  Eng- 
lish, Irish,  Scotch,  and  Germans.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1840,  and  became  a  borough  in  1851. 
It  includes  an  area  of  16  by  7  m.,  is  surrounded 
by  four  villages  for  pensioned  soldiers,  and  di- 
vided into  14  wards,  11  of  which  are  outside 
of  the  town.  The  streets  are  well  laid  out. 
There  are  several  churches,  including  an  Eng- 
lish cathedral.  St.  John's  college  is  4  m.  from 
the  town.  The  number  of  registered  vessels 
is  upward  of  100.  Gold  was  first  discovered 
near  Auckland  in  1852,  but  the  mines  are  not 
as  productive  as  those  in  other  parts  of  New 
Zealand.  Coal  fields  and  petroleum  were  found 
in  1859  and  1867.  The  chief  exports  are  gold, 
wool,  and  gum ;  the  imports  are  manufactured 
goods,  tea,  tobacco,  sugar,  wine,  spirits,  and 
beer.  Emigration  to  Auckland  is  checked  by 
the  insurrection  of  the  Maoris,  who  in  Novem- 
ber, 1871,  committed  several  murders  in  the 
province,  including  that  of  Bishop  Patterson. 
The  seat  of  the  colonial  government  has  within 
a  few  years  been  removed  to  Wellington. 

AUCKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  lying  between 
lat.  50°  24'  and  51°  4'  S.,  and  Ion.  163°  46'  and 
164°  3'  E.,  180  m.  S.  of  New  Zealand,  and  900 
m.  S.  E.  of  Tasmania.  They  were  discovered 
Aug.  16, 1806,  by  Abraham  Briseoe,  master  of 
Messrs.  Enderby's  English  whaler  Ocean,  and 
called  after  Lord  Auckland.  They  are  of  vol- 
canic formation,  and  consist  of  three  principal 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  Auckland  pro- 
per, 30  m.  long  and  15  m.  wide,  with  an  area 
of  100,000  acres  and  a  mountain  1,350  feet 
high.  Port  Ross,  at  the  \V.  extremity  of  the 
island,  contains  an  inlet  called  Laurie  harbor, 
the  station  of  the  southern  whale-fishing  com- 


pany of  the  Messrs.  Enderby,  to  whom  the 
islands  were  granted  by  the  British  government, 
and  who  obtained  a  charter  for  this  company 
in  1849  ;  but  the  establishment  was  broken  up 
in  1852.  The  most  northerly  of  the  group  are 
called  Enderby  islets.  The  island  of  Ichaboe 
contains  guano  deposits.  The  soil  of  the  Auck- 
land islands  is  very  productive. 

AUCTION  (Lat.  auctio,  the  act  of  increasing), 
a  public  sale,  whereat  persons  openly  compete, 
the  property  being  sold  to  him  who  will  give 
the  most  for  it.  In  Holland,  and  at  what  are 
called  Dutch  auctions  elsewhere,  this  process 
is  reversed,  the  seller  naming  a  price  beyond 
the  value  of  his  goods,  which  is  gradually  low- 
ered until  some  one  closes  with  the  offer. 
Rome,  so  far  as  is  known,  invented  the  auction, 
which  was  at  first  held  for  the  sale  of  military 
spoils  among  the  soldiers  behind  a  spear  stuck 
in  the  ground,  whence  it  was  called  auctio 
mb  Jtaita  (under  the  spear),  or  subhattatio. 
The  signal  of  the  spear  was  afterward  put  up 
at  all  sorts  of  auctions,  and  the  name  was  re- 
tained long  after  the  signal  was  disused.  After 
the  death  of  Pertinax,  A.  D.  193,  the  prreto- 
rian  guards  put  up  the  Roman  empire  at  auc- 
tion, which,  after  a  number  of  bids  by  Sulpician 
and  Didius  Julianus,  the  sole  competitors,  was 
knocked  down  to  the  latter  for  6,250  drachms 
(about  $1,000)  to  each  soldier. — In  England  sales 
"by  the  candle"  or  "by  the  inch  of  candle," 
which  are  still  occasionally  advertised,  derive 
their  name  from  an  ancient  practice  of  measur- 
ing the  time  within  which  the  biddings  must  be 
completed  by  a  candle,  the  highest  bidder  at  the 
moment  the  inch  burns  out  becoming  the  pur- 
chaser. The  minimum  price  at  which  the 
owner  was  willing  to  part  with  his  property 
was  sometimes  put  under  a  candlestick — "  can- 


AUDE 


AUDOUIN 


103 


dlestick  biddings ;  "  and  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land still  occur  sales  where  the  bidders  do  not 
know  each  other's  offers — "dumb  biddings." — 
In  point  of  law,  the  auctioneer  is  the  seller's 
agent,  and  as  such  has  a  special  property  in  the 
goods,  a  lien  upon  them  or  upon  the  purchase 
money,  where  he  is  authorized  to  receive  it, 
for  his  commission,  the  auction  duty,  and  the 
charges  of  the  sale.  If  he  exceed  his  authority, 
or  refuse  to  give  the  name  of  his  principal,  he 
renders  himself  personally  liable.  In  sales  of 
real  estate  he  is  usually  authorized  to  receive 
the  deposit,  but  not  the  residue  of  the  purchase 
money.  The  conditions  of  sale  and  the  plans 
and  description  of  the  property,  if  printed  or 
written,  control  the  oral  statements  of  the  auc- 
tioneer. Slight  inaccuracies  of  description  do 
not,  but  substantial  ones  do  avoid  the  sale.  A 
bid  at  an  auction  may  be  retracted  before  the 
hammer  is  down,  and,  in  cases  where  a  written 
entry  is  required  to  complete  the  sale,  before 
that  is  made.  For  a  bid  is  only  an  offer,  which 
does  not  bind  either  party  until  assented  to. 
Fraud  upon  either  side  avoids  the  sale.  The 
employment  of  bidders  by  the  owner  is  or  is 
not  illegal,  according  as  circumstances  tend  to 
show  bad  or  good  faith.  To  employ  them  in 
order  to  prevent  a  sacrifice  by  buying  in  the 
property  is,  except  where  the  sale  is  adver- 
tised as  being  "without  reserve,"  allowable; 
but  it  is  a  fraud  to  use  them  for  the  purpose  of 
enhancing  the  price  through  a  fictitious  com- 
petition. On  the  other  hand,  the  sale  is  void 
if  the  purchaser  prevails  upon  others  to  desist 
from  bidding  by  appeals  to  their  sympathy  or 
false  representations. 

Al'DE,  a  maritime  department  of  France,  in 
Languedoc,  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  departments  of  Pyr6nees-Orientales,  Ari6ge, 
Haute-Garonne,  Tarn,  and  Herault;  area, 
2,437  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  285,927.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  violent  gales.  The  surface  is  mountain- 
ous and  hilly,  the  soil  generally  productive. 
The  canal  of  Languedoc  intersects  the  northern 
part  of  the  department  from  W.  to  E.,  and  the 
canal  of  Robine  or  Narbonne  crosses  the  east- 
ern portion  from  N.  to  8.  Corn  and  wine  are 
abundant,  and  are  exported.  The  river  Aude 
rises  near  its  S.  border  in  Pyr6n6es-Orientales, 
flows  N".  as  far  as  Carcassonne,  and  then  along 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Languedoc  canal  to  Nar- 
bonne, a  few  miles  E.  of  which  it  falls  into  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Lers,  an  affluent  of  the 
Ariege,  flows  along  the  W.  border.  The  de- 
partment is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Carcassonne,  Castelnaudary,  Limonx,  and 
Narbonne.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollen 
cloths,  paper,  iron  ware,  brandy,  salt,  and 
earthenware.  Capital,  Carcassonne. 

AUDEBERT,  Jean  Baptist*,  a  French  painter 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Rochefort  in  1759,  died 
in  1800.  He  studied  painting  in  Paris,  and  be- 
came distinguished  for  his  miniatures.  Haying 
been  employed  to  paint  some  specimens  of 
natural  history,  he  acquired  an  absorbing  in- 
terest in  the  science.  A  journey  through 


England  and  Holland  furnished  materials  for  a 
number  of  admirable  designs,  which  appeared 
shortly  afterward  in  Olivier's  Histoire  des  in- 
sectes.  The  artist  next  prepared  his  Histoire 
naturelle  des  singes,  des  makis  et  des  galeopi- 
theques  (Paris,  1800),  containing  16  colored 
plates,  and  showing  an  equal  facility  in  the 
author  as  designer,  engraver,  and  writer.  The 
splendor  of  his  coloring  had  never  been  equalled, 
and  by  certain  ingenious  processes,  such  as  the 
application  of  gold  leaf  variously  tinted,  he  was 
enabled  to  reproduce  the  most  gorgeous  plu- 
mage of  birds  and  insects.  His  substitution  of 
oils  for  water  colors  is  also  considered  a  great 
improvement  in  the  art  of  animal  illustration. 
His  other  works,  Histoire  generate  des  colibrix, 
des  oiseaux-mouches,  des  jacamars  et  des  pro- 
merops  (Paris,  1802),  and  Histoire  naturelle  des 
ffrimpereaux  et  des  oiseaux  de  paradis,  were 
published  after  his  death,  and  are  still  among 
the  most  esteemed  of  their  kind. 

AUDLEY,  Thomas,  lord,  lord  chancellor  of 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  supposed 
to  have  been  born  at  Earl's  Colne,  in  Essex, 
died  at  his  London  residence  in  1544.  In  1529 
he  was  made  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons 
in  that  long  parliament  which  broke  up  the 
smaller  religious  houses  throughout  the  king- 
dom. In  1532  he  was  knighted,  and  succeeded 
Sir  Thomas  More  as  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
and  on  Jan.  26,  1533,  became  lord  chancellor 
of  England,  which  office  he  retained  until  his 
death.  Audley  presided  at  the  trial  of  Sir 
Thomas  More.  In  the  distribution  of  the  church 
lands,  the  priory  of  the  canons  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  usually  called  Christ  church,  in  Lon- 
don, with  all  the  real  estate  of  the  establish- 
ment, and  the  great  abbey  of  Walden  in  Essex, 
fell  to  his  share.  The  former  he  altered  into  a 
town  residence  for  himself.  In  1538  he  was 
created  Baron  Audley  of  Walden.  In  1542  he 
gave  certain  lands  toward  the  support  of  the 
institution  then  known  as  Buckingham  college, 
Oxford,  which  was  thereupon  incorporated 
under  the  name  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen. 

AUDOUARD,  Olyntpe,  a  French  traveller  and 
writer,  born  about  1830.  Having  separated 
from  her  husband,  who  was  a  notary  of  Mar- 
seilles, she  visited  Egypt,  Turkey,  Russia,  and 
the  United  States,  contributing  to  newspapers 
and  delivering  lectures  in  New  York  (1868) 
and  in  Paris  (1869).  Her  principal  works  are : 
Comment  aiment  les  hommes  (1861 ;  3d  ed., 
1865) ;  Les  mysteres  du  serail  et  des  harems 
turcs  (1863) ;  Les  mysteres  de  VEgypte  devoiles 
(1865) ;  Guerre  aux  hommes  (1866) ;  V  Orient, 
et  ses  peupladei  (1867) ;  Lettre  aux  deputes, 
les  droits  de  la  femme  (1867);  and  A  trotters 
VAmerique  du  Nord  (Paris,  1871). 

AtDOUIlV,  Jean  Victor,  a  French  entomologist, 
born  in  Paris,  April  27,  1797,  died  Nov.  9, 
1841.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Alexandre 
Brongniart,  with  whom  and  with  Dumas  he 
established  in  1824  the  Annales  des  sciences 
naturelles.  He  succeeded  Latreille  as  profes- 
sor of  entomology  at  the  museum,  obtained  his 


104 


ATIDRAIN 


AUDUBON 


diploma  as  a  physician  in  1826,  became  sub- 
director  of  the  library  of  the  institute,  founder 
and  president  of  the  entomological  society, 
and  in  1838  member  of  the  academy.  At  the 
request  of  the  government  he  investigated  the 
injury  caused  by  insects  to  the  silk  and  vine 
culture,  and  published  the  results  of  his  obser- 
vations in  the  annals  of  the  academy  and  of 
the  entomological  society.  He  described  Sa- 
vigny's  zoological  designs  in  the  great  work 
on  Egypt  published  under  the  auspices  of  the 
government,  contributed  to  various  cyclopaedias, 
and  published  with  Milne-Edwards,  his  colla- 
borator in  many  other  works,  Eecherches  pour 
aenir  d  Vhistoire  naturelle  du  littoral  de  la 
France  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1830) ;  and  with  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Blanchard,  Histoire  de»  insectes 
nuisilles  d  la  viyne,  et  partieulierement  de  la 
pyrale,  qui  devatte  les  vignolles  (Paris,  1842). 

AUDRAIN,  a  X.  E.  county  of  Missouri ;  area, 
680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,307,  of  whom 
1,070  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  or 
undulating;  the  soil  is  generally  fertile  and 
suitable  for  grazing.  In  1870  the  county  pro- 
duced 44,545  bushels  of  wheat,  648,963  of  In- 
dian corn,  292,435  of  oats,  12,226  tons  of  hay, 
6,850  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  28,223  of  wool,  and  241,- 
855  of  butter.  Capital,  Mexico,  on  the  North 
Missouri  railroad. 

AI'DKA.V  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  of 
French  engravers,  all  descending  from  Louis 
Audran,  an  officer  of  the  wolf-hunt  under  Hen- 
ry IV.,  whose  son  CLAUDE,  born  in  1592,  set- 
tled at  Lyons,  became  professor  of  engraving 
at  the  academy  of  that  city,  and  died  in  1677. 
GERARD,  son  of  Claude,  born  at  Lyons  in  1640, 
studied  three  years  at  Rome  under  Carlo  Ma- 
ratti,  and  acquired  fame  by  his  engraving  of  a 
portrait  of  Pope  Clement  IX.  Colbert  invited 
him  to  Paris,  where  he,  with  almost  unparal- 
leled ability,  engraved  for  Louis  XIV.  the  best 
pictures  of  Le  Brun.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  work  on  the  proportions  of  the  human 
figure,  published  in  folio,  with  27  plates  of 
ancient  statues.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1703. 
JEAN,  brother  of  Gerard,  born  about  1667,  had 
his  studio  in  the  Gobelins,  and  left  a  number 
of  fine  works  of  art,  the  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  his  engraving  of  the  Enlevem.ent  des 
Salines,  after  Poussin.  He  died  in  1756.  Sev- 
eral others  of  the  family  attained  considerable 
distinction. 

AUDUBON,a  8.  W.  county  of  Iowa;  area,  630 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,212.  It  is  intersected 
by  an  affluent  of  the  Missouri.  In  1870  the 
county  produced  26,174  bushels  of  wheat,  98,- 
150  of  Indian  corn,  7,100  of  oats,  and  3,457 
tons  of  hay.  Capital,  Exira. 

AI'Dl  li<».  John  James,  an  American  ornithol- 
ogist, born  on  a  plantation  in  Louisiana,  May 
4,  1780,  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  27,  1851.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  French  navy. 
When  very  young  he  showed  the  greatest 
fondness  for  birds,  keeping  many  as  pets.  He 
made  sketches  of  these,  and,  disclosing  con- 
siderable talent  as  a  draughtsman,  was  taken 


to  France  to  be  educated,  and  placed  in  the 
studio  of  the  celebrated  painter  David.  He 
was  17  years  old  when  he  returned  to  his 
native  country,  and  he  afterward  became  pos- 
sessed of  a  fine  farm  on  the  banks  of  the 
Schuylkill  in  Pennsylvania.  His  researches 
into  the  habits  of  birds,  and  his  drawings  of 
them,  absorbed  his  attention,  and  though  un- 
successful at  first  in  bringing  his  drawings  be- 
fore the  public,  he  laid  during  the  years  of  his 
life  in  Pennsylvania  the  foundations  of  the 
great  work  which  he  afterward  produced.  A 
severe  trial  befell  him  when,  after  having  ac- 
cumulated a  large  stock  of  the  most  carefully 
executed  designs,  he  discovered  that  the  whole 
of  them  had  been  destroyed  by  mice.  After 
10  years'  residence  in  Pennsylvania,  he  removed 
to  Henderson,  Kentucky,  where  he  embarked 
in  trade.  In  1810  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Scotch  ornithologist  Alexander  Wilson, 
who  was  then  prosecuting  his  own  researches 
in  the  American  wilderness,  and  accompanied 
him  in  his  excursions.  The  next  year  Audubon 
visited  the  bayous  of  Florida,  gathering  with 
his  rifle  and  pencil  new  subjects  for  study.  In 
1824  he  went  to  Philadelphia  and  New  York, 
to  make  arrangements  for  the  publication  of 
the  results  of  his  labors ;  and  for  the  same  pur- 
pose he  sailed  for  England  in  1826.  He  was 
everywhere  received  by  learned  societies  and 
scientific  men  with  the  utmost  cordiality  and 
enthusiasm.  Among  his  warmest  admirers  in 
Great  Britain  were  Jeffrey,  John  Wilson,  and 
Sir  Walter  Scott ;  and  in  Paris,  Cuvier,  Geoft'roy 
St.-Hilaire,  and  Humboldt.  Of  the  170  sub- 
scribers at  $1,000  each  to  his  splendid  volume, 
the  "Birds  of  America,"  nearly  one  half  camo 
from  England  and  France.  This  volume  was 
issued  in  numbers,  containing  five  plates  each, 
every  object  being  of  the  size  of  life.  By  Nov. 
11,  1828,  eleven  numbers  of  the  work  had  ap- 
peared, with  nearly  100  plates.  In  1829  he  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  where  he  gathered 
materials  for  a  new  work,  which  he  termed 
his  "Ornithological  Biographies."  In  1832  he 
made  another  visit  to  England,  where  in  the 
course  of  two  years  the  second  volume  of  the 
"  Birds  of  America  "  was  published,  and  a  sec- 
ond volume  also  of  the  "  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphies." In  1833,  having  returned  for  the 
last  time  to  this  country,  he  established  him- 
self in  a  beautiful  residence  on  the  banks  of 
the  Hudson,  near  the  city  of  New  York,  where 
he  commenced  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Birds  of 
America,"  in  imperial  octavo.  This  was  finished 
in  seven  volumes  in  1844.  During  this  interval 
Audubon  exhibited  in  the  hall  of  the  New  York 
lyceum  of  natural  history  a  collection  of  his 
original  drawings  containing  several  thousand 
specimens  of  birds  and  animals,  all  of  which 
had  been  gathered  by  his  own  hand,  all  drawn 
as  large  as  life,  and  all  represented  in  their 
natural  habitats  or  localities.  He  next  pro- 
jected a  work  on  the  "  Quadrupeds  of  America," 
on  the  same  imperial  scale  with  that  on  the 
birds.  For  this  purpose  he  began,  in  company 


AUENBRUGGER 


AUERSPERG 


105 


with  his  sons,  Victor  Gilford  and  John  Wood- 
house,  wlio  both  inherited  much  of  bis  talent 
as  an  artist  as  well  as  a  naturalist^  a  new 
course  of  travel.  But  the  approach  of  old  age 
induced  his  friends  to  dissuade  him  from  the 
more  toilsome  expeditions  which  he  thought 
necessary  to  complete  this  scheme.  A  great 
deal  of  the  labor  was  performed  for  him  by  his 
friend  Dr.  Bachman,  of  Charleston,  S.  0.,  and 
he  was  largely  assisted  in  the  other  depart- 
ments by  his  sons.  He  died  before  the  work 
was  ended.  His  sons  completed  and  published 
the  "Quadrupeds  of  America,"  in  folio  and 
imperial  octavo  volumes,  uniform  with  the  two 
editions  of  the  "  Birds,"  but  died  without  exe- 
cuting their  cherished  design  of  writing  a  biog- 
raphy of  their  father.  Mrs.  Audubon,  now 
(1873)  upward  of  80  years  of  age,  prepared, 
with  the  aid  of  a  friend,  a  memoir  which  ap- 
peared in  New  York  in  1869,  entitled  "  The 
Life  of  John  James  Audubon  the  Naturalist," 
accompanied  by  a  portrait  after  Henry  Inman's 
well  known  picture,  and  a  view  of  Audubon's 
residence.  The  work  was  also  published  in 
London.  Audubon  was  a  fellow  of  the  Lin- 
noean  and  zoological  societies  of  London,  of  the 
natural  history  society  of  Paris,  of  the  Wer- 
nerian  society  of  Edinburgh,  of  the  lyceum  of 
natural  history  at  New  York,  and  an  honorary 
member  of  the  society  of  natural  history  at 
Manchester,  of  the  royal  Scottish  academy  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  and  of 
many  other  scientific  bodies. 

AI  KMSIU <.<;KK  vo.\  AIEVBRIG  (often  called 

AVENBBDGGEB),  Leopold,  the  inventor  of  the 
method  of  investigating  internal  diseases  by 
percussion,  borninGratz,  Styria,  Nov.  19, 1722, 
died  in  Vienna,  May  18,  1809.  He  was  physi- 
cian to  the  Spanish  hospital  in  Vienna,  and 
first  made  known  his  discovery  in  a  treatise 
entitled  Inventum  Novum  ex  Percusiione  Tho- 
racic Humani  Interni  Pectoris  Morbos  Dete- 
gendi  (Vienna,  1761),  which  was  translated  into 
French  by  Roziere  (1770),  and  again  by  Cor- 
visart  (1808),  and  into  English  by  Dr.  John 
Forbes  (1824.)  (See  AUSCULTATION.) 

\l  Klti:  U  II,  Berthold,  a  German  author,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Nordstetten  in  the 
Black  Forest,  Feb.  28, 1812.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy and  jurisprudence  at  Tubingen,  and  phi- 
losophy and  history  at  Munich  and  Berlin.  His 
earliest  historical  novels  treat  of  Judaism,  as 
Spinoza  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1837),  and  Dichter 
und  Kitnfmann  (2  vols.,  1839);  and  in  1841 
he  published  a  German  translation  of  Spinoza's 
works  in  5  vols.,  with  a  highly  appreciative 
biographical  notice.  Subsequently  he  became 
celebrated  by  his  descriptions  of  German  vil- 
lage life,  remarkable  for  an  abundance  of  phil- 
osophical reflections  and  poetical  feeling,  es- 
pecially by  his  Schwarzwalder  Dorfgesehichten 
(-t  vols.,  1843-'54;  English  translation,  "Black 
Forest  Village  Stories, "  1869) ;  his  popular  polit- 
ical almanac,  Der  G-evattersmann  (1845-'8;  re- 
published  in  Schatzkaatlein  des  Gevattertmanns, 
1856) ;  Schrift  und  Volk  (1846)  ;  Neues  Leben 


(1851) ;  and  still  more  by  his  SarfAssele  (1856 ; 
English  translation,  "Little  Barefoot,"  1867); 
Joseph  im  ScJinee  (I860 ;  English  translation, 
"Joseph  in  the  Snow,"  1867);  Edelweiss 
(1861 ;  English  translation,  1869) ;  Avf  der 
Hohe  (1865  ;  English  translation,  "  On  the 
Heights,"  1868) ;  and  Das  Landhaus  am  Rhein 
(1869),  of  which  there  are  several  English 
translations  under  the  titles  of  "  Villa  Eden  " 
and  "Villa  on  the  Rhine."  The  tale,  Die 
Frau  Professorin  (1848 ;  English  translation, 
"The  Professor's  Lady,"  new  ed.,  1871),  used 
by  Madame  Birch-Pfeiffer  in  her  drama,  Dorf 
und  Stadt,  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  most 
characteristic  works.  A  number  of  his  tales 
were  published  in  an  English  translation  in 
1869  under  the  title  of  "  German  Stories,"  and 
in  French  in  1853  under  that  of  Contes  d1  Auer- 
bach. There  are  various  other  translations 
from  his  works  in  English,  French,  Dutch, 
and  Swedish.  He  has  also  written  a  tragedy, 
Andree  Hofer  (Leipsic,  1850),  and  a  drama, 
Der  Wahlspruch  (1856),  but  they  were  not  as 
successful  as  his  tales.  His  principal  political 
work  is  Tagebuch  aus  Wien  (Breslau,  1849  ; 
English  translation,  "  Events  in  Vienna,"  Lon- 
don, 1849).  Since  1858  he  has  edited  in  Ber- 
lin a  popular  almanac,  Deutscher  VolksTcalen- 
der,  and  he  chiefly  resides  in  that  city.  A 
new  edition  of  his  complete  works  was  pub- 
lished in  Stuttgart  in  1871.  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  he  accompanied  for  some  time  one 
of  the  German  princes,  and  wrote  letters  for  a 
German  newspaper. 

AUERBACH,  Heinrich,  a  medical  professor  and 
senator  in  Leipsic,  born  in  1482,  died  in  1543. 
His  real  name  was  Stromer,  but  he  adopted 
the  name  of  his  native  town,  Auerbach,  in  Ba- 
varia, and  in  1530  erected  a  large  building  in 
Grimma  street,  Leipsic,  which  is  still  known  as 
the  Auerbachshof.  Auerbach  was  a  friend  of 
Luther,  and  when  the  discussions  between  the 
reformer  and  Eck  took  place  at  Leipsic,  he  of- 
fered to  his  friend  the  use  of  his  house  and 
table.  A  principal  feature  of  the  Auerbachs- 
hof is  the  cellar  in  which  Luther  drank,  and 
out  of  which,  according  to  popular  tradition, 
Dr.  Faust  rode  upon  a  barrel,  an  event  illus- 
trated by  a  painting  which  still  decorates  the 
subterranean  walls. 

AUERSPERG,  Anton  Alexander,  count  (popular- 
ly known  as  ANASTASIUS  GBUN,  his  nom  de 
plume),  a  German  poet,  born  at  Laybach,  April 
11,  1806.  He  belongs  to  an  ancient  family 
which  originated  in  Swabia,  and  subsequently 
settled  in  Carniola,  where  it  acquired  extensive 
estates.  He  early  became  prominent  in  the  lib- 
eral party  of  Austria,  was  a  member  of  the 
Frankfort  preliminary  parliament,  and  of  the 
national  assembly  in  the  same  city  (1848),  in 
which  he  was  esteemed  eloquent,  and  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  diet  of  Carniola  from 
1861  to  1867,  after  which  his  ultra-German  ten- 
dencies made  his  position  in  that  assembly  so 
unpleasant  that  he  procured  his  election  to 
the  diet  of  Styria.  Since  1861  he  has  been  a 


106 


AUERSPERG 


AUGIER 


life  member  of  the  upper  house  of  the  Aus- 
trian Reichsrath,  and  in  1868  he  was  unani- 
mously chosen  first  president  of  the  Cisleithan 
delegation.  The  degree  of  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy was  conferred  upon  him  in  1865,  on  oc- 
casion of  the  500th  anniversary  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Vienna.  He  holds  a  high  rank  among 
the  lyrical  and  epic  poets  of  Germany,  espe- 
cially excelling  as  a  humorist  and  a  politi- 
cal satirist.  Among  his  most  renowned  works 
are:  Der  letzte  Bitter  (Stuttgart,  1830;  Eng- 
lish version  by  John  O.  Sargent,  New  York, 
1871),  Spaziergange  eines  Wiener  Poeten  (Ham- 
burg, 1831),  Schutt  (Leipsic,  1835),  and  Oe- 
dichte  (1837). 

Al  ERSPERG,  Carlos,  prince,  an  Austrian  states- 
man, born  May  1,  1814.  Thougn  the  head  of 
the  principal  branch  of  his  family,  one  of 
the  oldest  in  the  empire,  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment on  his  estates  till  the  reestablishment  of 
constitutional  government  by  the  imperial  pat- 
ent of  February,  1861.  He  was  appointed  by 
Schmerling  president  of  the  upper  chamber  of 
the  Vienna  Reichsrath,  and  has  since  in  vari- 
ous capacities,  in  that  assembly  and  as  represen- 
tative of  the  Bohemian  landed  nobility  at  the 
diet  of  Prague,  performed  a  very  conspicuous 
part  in  defence  of  the  constitutional  system 
against  clerical  and  feudal  reaction,  of  the  in- 
terests of  the  German  nationality  against  the 
Czechs,  and  of  the  unity  of  the  empire  against 
federation.  He  readily  accepted,  however, 
the  dualistic  platform  of  1867,  and  cooperated 
in  establishing  and  maintaining  the  new  order 
of  things  in  Austro-Hungary.  Early  in  1868 
he  became  president  of  the  so-called  "  citizens' 
cabinet"  in  Cisleithan  Austria,  but  the  trans- 
actions of  Count  Beust,  the  imperial  chancellor, 
with  the  Czechs  obliged  him  to  retire  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year.  He  remained  in 
opposition  during  the  administrations  of  Count 
Potocki  and  Hohenwart,  and  is  now  (1873)  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  liberal  cabinet  headed 
by  his  brother  Adolph  (born  July  21,  1821). 

AlERSTADT,  a  village  of  Thuringia,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  10  m.  W.  of 
Naumburg,  famous  for  Davoust's  great  victory 
over  the  Prussian  army  under  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  on  the  same  day  on  which  Napo- 
leon defeated  the  main  army  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.  at  Jena,  Oct.  14,  1806.  Davoust, 
with  35,000  men,  beat  50,000,  and  Napoleon 
made  him  duke  of  Auerstadt.  (See  JENA.) 

AUGEiS,  or  Anglas,  a  mythical  king  of  Elis, 
the  cleansing  of  whose  stables  was  one  of  the 
12  labors  of  Hercules.  (See  HEECULES.)  When 
the  hero  demanded  the  stipulated  reward,  Au- 
geas  refused  to  give  it  to  him ;  whereupon  Her- 
cules slew  him  and  all  his  sons  save  Phyleus, 
whom  he  made  king  in  the  room  of  his  father. 

AUGER.     See  BOEING. 

AIGEREAU,  Pierre  Francis  Charles,  duke  of 
Castiglione,  a  French  soldier,  born  in  1757, 
died  in  June,  1816.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  Neapolitan  army,  in  which  he  continued  a 
private  until  he  was  30  years  old,  when  he  set- 


tled at  Naples,  and  gained  his  livelihood  by 
teaching  fencing,  until,  being  suspected  of  rev- 
olutionary principles,  he  was  ordered  to  quit 
Italy.  Entering  the  French  republican  army 
of  the  south,  he  rose  rapidly  from  grade  to 
grade,  merely  by  intrepidity,  for  he  had  no 
military  genius.  His  numerous  and  contemp- 
tible vices  made  him  everywhere  hated,  but  he 
had  great  physical  courage.  In  1794  he  was 
made  brigadier  general  in  the  army  of  the  east- 
ern Pyrenees,  and  afterward  general  of  divi- 
sion. Oft  the  peace  with  Spain  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  army  of  Italy,  and  served  in 
all  its  campaigns  under  Bonaparte.  By  his 
charge  at  Lodi  he  decided  the  victory,  and  he 
still  more  distinguished  himself  by  storming 
the  position  of  Castiglione  (1796).  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  directory,  on  the  18th 
Fructidor  (1797),  he  expected  the  succession 
to  one  of  the  expelled  directors;  but  being 
disappointed,  he  affected  the  severe  republican, 
and  on  Bonaparte's  return  from  Egypt  held 
aloof  from  him  until  after  the  revolution  of 
Brumaire  (1798).  Shortly  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  empire  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
baton  of  a  marshal,  and  created  duke  of  Casti- 
glione (1805).  He  fought  bravely  in  the  wars 
with  Austria  and  Prussia  (1805  and  1806),  es- 
pecially at  Jena.  At  Eylau  (1807),  when  so  ill 
that  he  could  hardly  sit  upright,  he  compelled 
his  servants  to  tie  him  to  his  saddle,  and  thus 
led  his  column  into  the  fight.  Being  wounded, 
however,  he  was  compelled  to  fall  back,  his 
men  were  thrown  into  disorder,  and  Napoleon 
unjustly  sent  him  home  in  disgrace.  In  1810 
he  served  in  Spain,  and  in  1813  distinguished 
himself  at  Leipsic ;  and  when  France  was  in- 
vaded in  1814,  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
defence  of  Lyons,  which  he  pledged  himself 
to  maintain  to  the  last;  but  failing  through 
want  of  means  to  make  good  his  word,  he  was 
again  unjustly  disgraced.  While  in  retirement 
at  Valence,  a  proclamation  appeared  in  his 
name  stigmatizing  the  emperor  as  "an  odious 
despot,  and  a  mean  coward,  who  knew  not 
how  to  die  as  becomes  a  soldier;"  and  al- 
though the  authenticity  of  the  document  has 
been  denied  by  his  defenders,  Napoleon  believ- 
ed in  it.  On  the  way  to  Elba,  Napoleon  met 
his  ex-marshal,  on  the  road  near  Valence ;  and 
both  descending  from  their  carriages,  an  inter- 
view followed,  which  terminated  in  an  alterca- 
tion. Angereau  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  Louis 
XVIIL,  received  the  cross  of  St.  Louis  and 
the  command  of  the  14th  division,  and  was 
appointed  a  peer  of  France.  On  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he  remained  inactive 
until  the  emperor  was  actually  in  Paris,  when 
he  would  have  returned  to  his  party,  but  Na- 
poleon would  not  trust  him.  On  the  second 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  would  again 
have  made  his  peace  with  the  king;  but  finding 
no  encouragement,  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  La 
Houssaye,  where  he  died. 

AIMER,    Gnlllanme   Victor    Kniilo,   a    French 
playwright,  born  in  Valence,  Sept.  17,  1820. 


AUGITE 


AUGSBURG 


107 


He  produced  his  first  play,  La  eigue,  in  1844. 
His  comedy  Gabrielle  (1849)  placed  b^m  at  the 
head  of  the  so-called  common-sense  school  of 
dramatists.  Many  of  his  subsequent  comedies 
were  of  a  lower  tone,  hut  more  brilliant. 
Among  the  most  successful  are :  Le  gendre  de 
M.  Poirier  (jointly  with  M.  Sardou,  1855), 
Le  mariage  (TOlympe  (1855),  Lea  effrontei 
(1861),  and  Maitre  Guerin  (1864).  He  suc- 
ceeded Salvandy  as  member  of  the  French  acad- 
emy, Jan.  2,  1858. 

Al'GITK,  a  mineral  species  synonymous  with 
pyroxene ;  also  used  by  Prof.  Dana  to  designate 
a  section  or  group  of  species  of  the  class  of  anhy- 
drous silicates.  (See  PYROXENE.) 

Al  I.LAI/K,  a  W.  county  of  Ohio ;  area,  399 
«q.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,041.  The  Miami  canal 
and  the  Dayton  and  Michigan  railroad  pass 
through  the  county.  Near  the  western  boun- 


dary is  a  reservoir  9  m.  long,  formed  to  supply 
the  canal,  and  occupying  the  most  elevated 
site  between  the  channel  of  the  Ohio  river  and 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  drained  in  part  by  Auglaize 
river,  a  tributary  of  the  Maumee  at  Defiance. 
The  surface  is  nearly  level,  well  wooded,  and 
the  soil  is  good.  In  1870  the  county  produced 
269,756  bushels  of  wheat,  13,046  of  rye,  245,- 
277  of  oats,  34,584  of  barley,  379,015  of  Indian 
corn,  14,694  tons  of  hay,  76,650  ibs.  of  wool, 
and  246,085  of  butter.  There  were  29,678 
sheep  and  18,867  hogs.  Capital,  Wapakoneta. 
AUGSBURG,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  situated  be- 
tween the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech,  at  their 
confluence,  83  m.  N.  AT.  of  Munich ;  pop.  in 
1871,  51,284.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
German  cities.  Augustus,  having  conquered 
the  Vindelicians  in  12  B.  0.,  established  there 
a  colony  called  Augusta  Vindelicorum,  on  a 


Augsburg. 


spot,  according  to  some,  already  inhabited  and 
called  Damasia.  The  Huns  destroyed  it  in  the 
5th  century ;  and  during  the  wars  between 
Thassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Charlemagne, 
it  suffered  much.  In  1276,  having  become 
rich  by  trade  and  industry,  the  city  bought 
its  freedom  from  the  duke  of  Swabia.  Its 
prosperity  increased  continually.  It  was  the 
principal  emporium  for  the  trade  between 
northern  Europe,  the  countries  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  East,  previous  to  the  dis- 
covery of  America  and  the  doubling  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Its  merchants,  includ- 
ing the  celebrated  Fuggers,  possessed  vessels 
on  all  the  seas  then  known.  Its  greatest 
prosperity  was  toward  the  end  of  the  loth 
and  the  first  part  of  the  16th  century.  The 
arts  had  here  their  focus,  and  the  Holbeins 
and  other  names  known  in  the  history  of  Ger- 


man art  belonged  to  it.  After  the  war  against 
the  league  of  Smalcald  the  decline  of  Augsburg 
began.  Here  on  June  25,  1530,  the  Protestant 
princes  submitted  to  Charles  V.  the  confession 
of  their  faith,  which  bears  in  history  the  name 
of  the  "Confession  of  Augsburg."  In  1555 
the  religious  peace  between  that  emperor  and 
the  Protestants  was  concluded  here.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  Augsburg 
lost  its  privileges  as  a  free  city,  and  was  incor- 
porated with  Bavaria.  It  is  now  the  capital  of 
the  circle  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  and  is  the 
seat  of  various  superior  administrative,  judicial, 
and  clerical  boards.  In  Augsburg  is  published 
the  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  one  of  the  foremost 
political  and  literary  journals  of  the  world,  issued 
by  the  great  publishing  house  of  Cotta.  The  city 
possesses  a  large  public  library,  which  is  in- 
creasing daily.  The  collection  of  various  manu- 


108       AUGSBURG  CONFESSION 


AUGURS 


scripts,  records,  and  official  documents  in  the 
archives  of  the  city,  is  of  great  importance, 
chiefly  for  the  history  of  the  reformation.  In 
1870  there  were  10  book-printing  establish- 
ments, 34  publishing  houses,  5  great  cotton 
factories,  74  breweries,  and  manufactories  of 
gold  and  silver  wares,  machinery,  paper,  &c. 
Among  the  new  public  buildings  is  a  syna- 
gogue opened  in  1867.  Augsburg  is  a  consid- 
erable commercial  and  financial  centre,  having 
24  bankers.  The  history  of  the  ancient  free 
city  is  contained  in  vols.  iv.  and  v.  of  the  Chro- 
niken  der  deutachen  St&dte  (Leipsic,  1865-'7). 

VI  t;sitl  K<;  CONFESSION,  the  first  Protestant 
confession  of  faith,  and  the  basis  of  the  present 
faith  in  Protestant  Germany.  Charles  V.,  soon 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Germany, 
eummoned  Luther  to  the  diet  of  Worms  (1521), 
and  afterward  issued  an  edict  of  outlawry 
against  him  and  his  adherents.  But  the  insur- 
rection in  Castile  and  the  war  with  France  and 
Italy  called  him  away.  The  edict  of  outlawry 
was  inefficiently  enforced,  and  the  influence  of 
the  Lutherans  was  permitted  to  increase  dur- 
ing the  nine  years  of  the  emperor's  absence. 
The  diet  of  Spire  (1529)  had  issued  a  decree 
for  the  purpose  of  conciliating  the  Lutherans 
by  a  proposed  Roman  Catholic  reform,  and 
uniting  them  against  the  Sacramentarians  and 
Anabaptists.  The  Lutherans  protested  (hence 
Protestants),  and  made  an  unsuccessful  effort 
to  unite  with  Zwingli.  At  this  juncture  the 
emperor  returned  (1530).  The  German  princes 
and  estates  were  summoned  to  convene  in  diet 
at  Augsburg  in  June.  The  summons  called  for 
aid  against  the  Turks,  making  no  reference  to 
the  religious  difficulties  of  the  kingdom,  fur- 
ther than  to  promise  at  no  distant  time  a 
speedy  adjustment  of  them.  On  the  25th  of 
the  month  a  confession,  prepared  by  Melanch- 
thon  and  approved  by  Luther,  was  read  in  the 
diet.  Two  days  later  it  was  delivered  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  for  a  reply.  This 
was  read  in  the  diet  on  the  3d  of  August  fol- 
lowing, and  called  forth  from  Melanchthon  a 
defence  (Apologia  Confessionis),  which  was 
afterward  enlarged  and  published  in  Latin,  and 
then  in  German.  The  object  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  was  not  attained,  and  the  edict  of 
the  emperor  (Sept.  22)  gave  the  Lutherans  until 
the  following  April  to  bring  themselves  into 
conformity  with  the  requirements  of  the  church, 
and  demanded  their  cooperation  with  the  throne 
against  the  Zwinglians  and  Anabaptists.  The 
Augsburg  Confession  and  Melanchthon's  de- 
fence were  generally  circulated  in  western  Eu- 
rope, and  became  a  rallying  point  among  the 
reformers.  About  1540  Melanchthon  made 
some  important  changes  in  the  Confession. 
This  form,  known  as  the  Confenio  variata  (the 
"  altered  Confession  "),  was  received  until  1580, 
when  the  Confessio  intariata  (the  "  unaltered 
Confession  ")  was  formally  adopted  as  the  stan- 
dard of  the  Lutheran  churches. — The  Augsburg 
Confession  comprises  two  parts,  besides  the 
appended  Apologia,  or  defence.  Part  I.  com- 


prises 21  articles,  of  the  contents  of  which  the 
following  is  an  abstract :  1  treats  of  God  and  the 
Trinity,  in  accordance  with  the  Nicene  creed ; 
2  asserts  that  all  men  since  the  fall  are  born 
with  sin ;  3  treats  of  the  person  and  mediation  of 
Christ,  in  accordance  with  the  Apostles'  creed. 
4.  Justification  is  the  effect  of  faith,  exclusive 
of  good  works.  5.  The  Word  of  God  and  the 
sacraments  are  the  means  of  conveying  the 
Holy  Spirit,  but  never  without  faith.  6.  Faith 
must  produce  good  works,  but  not  to  merit 
justification.  7.  The  true  church  consists  only 
of  the  godly.  8.  Sacraments  are  valid  though 
the  administrators  are  evil.  9.  Infant  baptism 
is  necessary.  10.  The  real  presence  in  the 
eucharist  exists  only  during  the  period  of  re- 
ceiving ;  the  sacrament  to  be  received  in  both 
kinds.  11.  Absolution  is  necessary,  but  not 
particular  confession.  12  is  against  the  Ana- 
baptists. 13.  All  who  receive  the  sacraments 
must  have  actual  faith.  14.  No  one  can  teach 
in  the  church  or  administer  the  sacraments 
without  having  been  lawfully  called.  15.  Holy 
days  and  church  ceremonies  to  be  observed. 
16.  Of  civil  matters  and  marriage.  17.  Of  the 
resurrection,  last  judgment,  heaven,  and  hell. 
18.  Of  free  will.  19.  God  is  not  the  author 
of  sin.  20.  Good  works  are  not  wholly  un- 
profitable. 21  forbids  the  invocation  of  saints. 
Part  II.  comprises  seven  articles :  1  enjoins 
communion  in  both  kinds,  and  forbids  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  sacramental  elements ;  2  con- 
demns the  law  for  the  celibacy  of  priests ;  3 
condemns  private  masses,  and  directs  that  some 
of  the  congregation  shall  always  cominunicate 
with  the  priest ;  4  denies  the  necessity  of 
auricular  confession;  5  is  against  tradition 
and  human  ceremonies ;  6  condemns  monastic 
vows ;  7  discriminates  between  civil  and  reli- 
gious power,  the  power  of  the  church  consist- 
ing only  in  preaching  and  administering  the 
sacraments.  The  Apologia  consists  of  16  arti- 
cles, treating  of  original  sin,  justification  by 
faith,  fulfilment  of  the  law,  penitence,  repent- 
ance, confession,  satisfaction,  sacraments,  ordi- 
nances, invocation  of  saints,  communion  in  both 
kinds,  celibacy,  monastic  vows,  and  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction.- — Gieseler's  "Church  His- 
tory," edited  by  Prof.  II.  B.  Smith,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
432  (New  York,  1861),  furnishes  a  summary  of 
documents  relating  to  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

AL'GUR,  Hezeklah,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  21,  1791,  died 
there,  Jan.  10,  1858.  In  early  life  he  produced 
several  works  of  statuary,  of  which  his  "  Jeph- 
thah  and  his  Daughter,"  in  the  Trumbull  gal- 
lery of  Yale  college,  is  the  best.  In  addition 
to  his  skill  as  a  sculptor,  he  possessed  much 
mechanical  genius.  His  most  celebrated  achieve- 
ment is  his  invention  of  the  carving  machine, 
which  is  at  the  present  day  in  general  and 
successful  operation. 

U  I.I  KS.  diviners  among  the  Romans.  The 
practice  of  divination  flourished  in  Chaldea 
and  Egypt ;  from  the  latter  country  it  passed 
to  Greece,  whence  the  Romans  received  it 


AUGUST 


AUGUSTA 


109 


In  Greece  and  Rome  astrology  proper  ceased 
to  have  the  importance  in  augury  which  it  had 
maintained  in  Chaldea,  while,  as  lite  word 
augury  (avigerium)  itself  would  indicate,  the 
preeminence  had  been  given  to  omens  taken 
from  the  flight  of  birds.  Both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  much  of  the  art  of  augury 
depended  on  the  cardinal  points  of  the  com- 
pass. The  Greek  augurs  always  faced  the 
north,  while  the  Roman  augurs  faced  the 
south.  Omens  in  the  east  were  generally 
lucky,  while  those  in  the  west  were  unlucky. 
Hence  the  Greek  had  his  right  hand  synony- 
mous with  good  fortune,  the  Roman  originally 
his  left.  Later  in  Roman  history,  however, 
sinister  (left)  became  a  synonyme  for  bad  for- 
tune, and  dexter  (right)  for  good.  Auguries  were 
made  both  from  the  flight  and  cries  of  birds. 
Lightning  was  also  observed  by  the  augurs,  as 
well  as  other  striking  phenomena,  such  as 
meteors,  winds,  and  eclipses.  The  direction 
in  which  a  bird  flew,  the  crowing  of  a  cock, 
the  line  of  the  electric  flash,  and  the  manner 
in  which  a  cooped  chicken  picked  his  corn, 
were  prominent  augurial  elements.  Some  even 
more  trivial  and  accidental  occurrences  were 
reckoned  ominous,  such  as  an  animal  crossing 
one's  path,  a  fit  of  sneezing  or  sudden  melan- 
choly, the  spilling  of  salt  on  the  table,  or  of 
wine  upon  one's  clothes.  The  power  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  augurs  was  very  great. 
They  held  their  offices  for  life,  regardless  of 
character.  In  Rome  they  were  at  first  three 
in  number,  and  were  chosen  one  from  each  of 
the  three  tribes  of  the  patricians.  They  were 
elected  by  the  comitia  euriata,  a  patrician  as- 
sembly, until  the  Ogulnian  law  (300  B.  C.) 
admitted  the  plebeians  and  enlarged  the  num- 
ber of  augurs,  then  four,  to  nine,  subsequent- 
ly increased  to  15.  Every  election  had  to 
bo  ratified  by  the  college  itself.  This  original 
power  of  veto  afterward  resulted  in  the  usur- 
pation by  the  college  of  the  right  to  elect 
its  own  members  by  cooptation  (452  B.  0.), 
which  right  they  retained,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first  election  of  plebeian  augurs,  for 
348  years,  until  the  passage  of  the  Domitian 
law  (104),  which  removed  the  power  of  elec- 
tion to  the  tribes.  The  most  authoritative 
enactments  of  the  comitia  were  repeatedly  an- 
nulled by  the  entrance  of  an  augur  into  the 
assembly,  pronouncing  the  words  Alia  die 
("On  another  day").  The  order  of  augurs 
gradually  declined  after  the  admission  of  the 
plebeian  element,  until  it  was  abolished,  with 
paganism  in  general,  by  Theodosius  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  390. 

AUGUST,  the  8th  month  of  the  year,  derived 
from  the  Roman  calendar.  The  Romans  called 
it  originally  Sextilis,  or  the  6th  month  of  their 
year,  which  began  with  March.  Julius  Caesar 
made  it  30  days  in  length,  and  Augustus  in- 
creased it  to  31.  As  it  was  the  month  in 
which  Augustus  Csesar  had  entered  upon  his 
first  consulship,  had  celebrated  three  triumphs 
in  the  city,  had  received  the  allegiance  of  the 


soldiers  who  occupied  the  Janiculum,  had  sub- 
dued Egypt,  and  put  an  end  to  civil  war,  the 
senate,  in  order  to  flatter  him,  changed  the 
name  of  the  month  to  Augustus,  in  the  same 
way  that  Quinctilis  had  been  changed  to 
Julius  under  Julius  Caesar.  The  Flemings  and 
Germans  have  adopted  the  word  August  to 
signify  harvest.  Thus  oogst  maend  (Flemish) 
is  the  harvest  month;  so  the  German  Augst- 
wagen,  a  harvest  wagon ;  and  the  Dutch 
oogsten,  to  gather  corn  from  the  field.  The 
Spaniards  use  the  verb  agostar,  to  gather  in 
harvest;  and  the  French  and  Spaniards  have 
the  phrases  faire  Paotit  and  hacer  su  augusta, 
to  signify  harvesting.  The  Saxons  in  Britain 
named  August  the  weed  month.  The  old  Ger- 
mans named  it  Weinkoch,  the  wine-press  month. 

AUGUST  FRIEDRICH  EBERHAKD,  prince  of 
Wilrtemberg,  uncle  of  King  Charles  I.,  a  Prus- 
sian general  of  cavalry,  born  Jan.  24,  1813.  He 
entered  the  Prussian  service  in  1830,  became 
in  1858  commanding  general  of  the  Prussian 
guards,  and  took  part  in  the  wars  against  Aus- 
tria (1866)  and  France  (1870),  favorable  men- 
tion of  his  name  being  made  in  the  reports  of 
the  battles  of  Gravelotte  and  Sedan. 

AUGUST  WILHELM,  prince  of  Prussia,  brother 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  general  of  the 
Prussian  army,  born  in  Berlin  in  1722,  died  in 
1758.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Silesian 
campaigns,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Hohenfriedberg  (June,  1745) ;  but 
in  the  seven  years'  war,  owing  to  the  fatal 
retreat  of  Zittau  in  1756,  he  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  brother,  and  withdrew  from 
the  army.  This  conflict  between  the  two 
brothers  led  to  a  corresp'ondence,  which  was 
published  in  1769. 

AUGUSTA,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Virginia,  border- 
ing on  West  Virginia  and  the  Blue  Ridge  ; 
area,  900  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  28,763,  of 
whom  6,737  were  colored.  It  was  distin- 
guished for  its  loyalty  to  the  revolutionary 
cause,  for  which  it  was  commended  by  Wash- 
ington. The  surface  is  elevated  and  uneven; 
the  soil,  which  is  drained  by  the  sources  of  the 
Shenandoah  and  James  rivers,  is  calcareous, 
and  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  state.  In 
1870  the  county  produced  463,276  bushels  of 
wheat,  29,835  of  rye,  280,380  of  Indian  corn, 
234,492  of  oats,  19,671  tons  of  hay,  23,291  Ibs. 
of  wool,  and  353,335  of  butter.  The  quantity 
of  hay  was  greater  than  in  any  other  county  of 
the  state,  and  of  wheat  and  butter  than  in  any 
other  except  Loudon.  Fine  limestone  under- 
lies much  of  the  surface.  The  celebrated 
Weyer's  or  Wier's  cave,  Madison  cave,  and 
the  Chimneys  are  in  this  county.  Capital, 
Staunton. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city  of  Maine,  capital  of  the  state 
and  of  Kennebec  county,  situated  at  the  head 
of  sloop  navigation  on  the  Kennebec  river,  43 
m.  from  its  mouth,  63  m.  by  railroad  N.  N.  E, 
of  Portland,  72  ra.  S.W.  of  Bangor,  and  171 
m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in  1860,  7,609 ;  in 
1870,  7,808.  The  city  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 


110 


AUGUSTA 


river,  which  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  520  ft. 
long.  It  is  well  laid  out,  and  has  many  hand- 
some buildings  and  a  great  abundance  of  shade 
trees  and  shrubbery.  The  state  house,  built 
of  white  granite,  is  considered  the  handsomest 
in  New  England  except  that  of  Montpelier, 
Vt. ;  the  court  house  is  the  best  and  most  con- 
venient in  the  state ;  and  the  Maine  insane 
asylum  is  a  splendid  granite  structure,  over- 
looking a  landscape  of  peculiar  beauty.  The 
United  States  arsenal  is  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
river.  Just  above  the  city  a  dam  1,000  ft. 
long  provides  an  immense  water  power,  while 
canals  at  the  E.  end  render  the  river  navigable 
N.  of  Augusta.  The  Maine  Central  railroad 
(Augusta  division)  runs  through  the  city.  There 
are  8  churches,  7  hotels,  5  newspapers  (1  daily 
and  4  weekly),  3  banks,  and  2  savings  institu- 
tions. Lumber  forms  the  chief  manufacturing 
interest.  An  extensive  cotton  factory  has  re- 
cently been  erected  here. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city  of  Georgia,  capital  of  Rich- 
mond county,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Savannah  river,  132  m.  by  railroad  N.  N.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Savannah,  and  137  m.  N.  W. 
of  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  pop.  in  1860,  12,493,  of 
whom  4,049  were  colored ;  in  1870,  15,386,  of 
whom  6,390  were  colored.  It  was  laid  out  in 
1735,  and  became  an  important  point  in  mili- 
tary operations  during  the  revolutionary  war, 
being  alternately  in  the  possession  of  the  royal 
troops  and  the  Americans.  The  city  was  in- 
corporated in  1798,  and  the  chief  magistrate 
bore  the  appellation  of  intendant  until  1818, 
when  the  first  mayor  was  elected.  The  city 
is  very  handsomely  laid  out  on  an  extended 
plain  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Savannah  river, 
with  wide  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  principal  business  thoroughfare, 
Broad  street,  is  2  m.  long  and  165  ft.  wide. 
Greene  street,  the  most  beautiful  in  the  city,  is 
168  ft.  wide,  and  has  a  row  of  stately  shade 
trees  on  either  side  along  its  entire  length. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  ma- 
sonic hall,  odd  fellows'  hall,  and  the  opera 
house.  The  city  hall  was  completed  in  1824 
at  a  cost  of  $100,000.  In  front  of  it  stands  a 
granite  monument  45  ft.  high,  erected  by  the 
city  in  1849  to  the  memory  of  Hall,  Gwinnett, 
and  Walton,  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. An  orphan  asylum,  178  ft.  by  78, 
is  building  at  a  cost  of  $150,000.  The  medical 
college  of  Georgia,  situated  here,  in  1868  had 
8  professors,  97  students,  and  a  library  of  4,000 
volumes.  The  city  water  works  were  com- 
pleted at  a  heavy  cost  in  1861.  The  water  is 
drawn  from  the  canal  and  forced  into  a  tank 
holding  185,000  gallons  in  a  cylindrical  brick 
tower  standing  115  ft.  above  the  general  level 
of  the  city.  The  Augusta  canal,  9  m.  long, 
brings  the  waters  of  the  Savannah  river  near 
the  city,  some  40  ft.  above  the  level,  and  thus 
affords  inexhaustible  power  for  factories.  Chief 
among  these  is  the  "Augusta  Factory,"  with 
508  looms,  employing  500  hands  and  producing 
in  1871  8,527,728  yards  of  cloth.  There  are  5 


extensive  flouring  mills,  which  in  1871  con- 
sumed about  409,000  bushels  of  corn  and 
wheat.  In  1871  the  city  contained  6  banks,  4 
founderies  (besides  the  extensive  foundery  and 
machine  shops  of  the  Georgia  railroad),  2  to- 
bacco factories,  4  hotels,  21  churches  (8  ef 
which  are  for  colored  people),  2  academies,  an 
arsenal,  several  hospitals,  and  many  benevo- 
lent societies.  There  were  700  white  and  500 
colored  pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools. 
There  are  2  daily  newspapers,  2  weekly,  1 
semi-monthly,  and  1  monthly  published  here. 
In  1869  the  assessed  value  of  real  estate,  ex- 
elusive  of  the  Augusta  factory  property,  was 
$6,300,000,  and  in  1871,  $6,593,420.  For  the 
year  ending  April  1,  1869,  the  sales  of  cotton 
amounted  to  $8,246,867,  and  for  the  year  end- 
ing April  1,  1871,  $11,575,846.  The  bonded 
debt  of  the  city  on  Jan.  1,  1871,  was  $1,355,- 
250,  while  the  assets  amounted  to  $1,302,610. 
Augusta  has  railroad  communication  with  all 
the  leading  markets  of  the  country.  The  Cen- 
tral railroad  extends  from  Augusta  to  Savan- 
nah and  Macon  ;  the  Charlotte,  Columbia,  and 
Augusta,  from  Augusta  to  Charlotte,  N.  C., 
via  Columbia,  S.  C.,  being  an  important  link 
in  the  great  short  passenger  route  between 
New  York  and  New  Orleans ;  the  main  line  of 
the  Georgia  railroad  extends  from  Augusta  to 
Atlanta,  with  branches  to  Washington,  War- 
renton,  and  Athens.  The  Macon  and  Augusta 
railroad  affords  connection  with  the  former 
city,  and  the  South  Carolina  railroad  connects 
Augusta  with  Charleston,  Columbia,  and  Cam- 
den,  and  with  the  Wilmington  and  Manchester 
railroad  at  Kingville.  Several  other  railroads 
are  projected,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
the  Port  Royal  railroad  to  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  a 
distance  of  110  m.,  which  will  give  Augusta  a 
shorter  route  to  the  seaboard. — The  arsenal  at 
Augusta  was  seized  by  the  confederate  authori- 
ties Jan.  24,  1861. 

ACGl'STA,  John,  a  Bohemian  theologian,  born 
in  Prague  in  1500,  died  Jan.  13,  1575.  He 
studied  theology  at  the  school  of  Waclaw  Ko- 
randa.  On  the  death  of  this  master  Augusta 
went  to  Wittenberg,  and  entered  into  close 
communion  with  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  He 
became  later  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren, 
brought  about  an  agreement  between  that  sect 
and  the  Protestants,  and  induced  the  Brethren 
to  refuse  their  cooperation  to  Ferdinand  I.  in 
the  Smalcaldic  war  against  the  Protestants ;  a 
contumacy  which  Ferdinand  avenged  after  the 
war  was  over  by  banishing  the  whole  sect  and 
arresting  the  principal  preachers.  Augusta, 
who  had  attempted  to  escape  in  the  garb  of  a 
peasant,  was  taken  in  chains  to  Prague,  and 
thrown  into  prison.  He  was  offered  his  liberty 
on  condition  of  making  public  recantation  and 
becoming  either  a  Catholic  or  a  Utraquist.  He 
was  ready  to  profess  himself  a  Utraquist,  but 
not  to  recant  in  public,  and  he  accordingly  re- 
mained in  prison  16  years.  The  death  of  Fer- 
dinand (1564)  released  him,  but  he  was  obliged 
to  promise  not  to  preach  again. 


AUGUSTA  HISTORIA 


AUGUSTIN 


111 


AUGUSTA  HISTORIA,  the  name  gwen  to  a 
series  of  Roman  biographers  of  the  ?mperors 
from  the  accession  of  Hadrian  (117)  to  the 
death  of  Carinus  (385),  the  predecessor  of  Dio- 
cletian. The  writers  included  in  this  collection 
are  /Elins  Spartianus,  Julius  Capitolinns,  ./Elius 
Latnpridius,  Vulcatius  Gallicanus,  Trebellius 
Pollio,  and  Flavius  Vopiscus  of  Syracuse.  Some 
editors  have  included  others,  as  Eutropius  and 
Paulus  Diaconus.  There  is  a  break  in  the  Au- 
r/'tnta  Hiatoria  in  the  absence  of  the  lives  of 
Philippus,  Deems,  and  Gallus.  The  Bipontine 
edition  is  the  best. 

AUGUSTA,  Maria  Louisa  Catharine,  empress  of 
Germany  and  queen  of  Prussia,  born  in  Wei- 
mar, Sept.  30,  1811.  She  is  the  daughter  of 
the  grand  duke  Charles  Frederick  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  (died  July  8,  1853),  and  her  mother 
(died  June  23,  1859)  was  a  daughter  of  Paul  I., 
emperor  of  Russia.  She  was  brought  up  at 
the  court  of  her  grandfather  Charles  Augustus, 
the  friend  of  Goethe,  who  speaks  in  one  of  his 
letters  of  the  "  many-sided  and  harmonious  cul- 
ture of  the  princess  Augusta."  Her  elder  sis- 
ter Maria  married  Prince  Charles  of  Prussia, 
and  she  married  the  prince's  brother,  the  pres- 
ent Emperor  William,  June  11,  1829.  She 
attended  personally  to  the  education  of  her 
two  children,  the  present  crown  prince  and 
the  princess  Louisa,  since  1856  grand  duchess 
of  Baden.  She  is  much  respected  for  her  love 
of  science,  letters,  and  art,  and  for  her  benevo- 
lent disposition,  displayed  especially  in  1870-'71 
in  labors  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  soldiers. 
In  1872  she  founded  at  Charlottenburg  a  semi- 
nary for  the  education  of  orphan  daughters  of 
officers  who  fell  in  the  war,  and  has  designed 
buildings  for  the  poor  in  Berlin  after  the  plan 
of  those  of  Mr.  Peabody  in  London. 

AUGUSTAN  AGE,  the  Roman  literary  epoch 
which  culminated  in  the  reign  of  Augustus 
Csesar.  During  this  period  Cicero,  Horace, 
Ovid,  Virgil,  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  other  writ- 
trs  flourished;  also  great  patrons  of  literature 
like  Maecenas.  The  purest  Latinity  belongs  to 
the  authors  of  the  Augustan  age.  In  English 
literature  it  was  common  in  the  last  century  to 
apply  the  phrase  "  Augustan  age  of  English  lit- 
erature "  to  the  times  of  Addison,  Steele,  Swift, 
and  Defoe,  and  the  writers  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  gitcle  (CAvgwteof  French 
literature  is  the  latter  years  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  This  metaphor  has  no  modern  ap- 
plication beyond  the  literature  of  France  and 
England. 

AUGUSTEXBURG,  a  village  on  the  formerly 
Danish  and  now  German  island  of  Alsen;  pop. 
about  500.  It  grew  up  round  the  palace  of  the 
same  name,  built  in  1651  by  Duke  Ernst  Gun- 
ther,  and  rebuilt  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century  on  a  magnificent  scale  by  Fried- 
rich  Christian  the  elder,  duke  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Aufrnstenburg,  whose  son 
Christian  August  (bom  July  9,  1708,  died  May 
28,  1810)  was  in  1810  adopted  by  the  childless 
King  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden,  and  was  suc- 
60  VOL.  ii.— 8 


ceeded  by  Bernadotte  as  crown  prince.  The 
male  lineage  of  the  ancient  royal  Holstein-Den- 
mark  dynasty  became  extinct  in  1863,  and  its 
female  lineage  has  since  been  known  as  the  Hol- 
stein-Sonderburg  family,  the  present  king  of 
Denmark  belonging  to  the  junior  or  Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg  branch,  and 
the  dukes  of  Augustenburg  to  the  senior  or 
Schleswig-Holstein  -  Sonderburg  -Augustenburg 
branch.  Prominent  among  the  latter  was  Chris- 
tian Karl  Friedrich  August  (born  July  19,  1798, 
died  March  11,  1869).  His  father  was  the  duke 
Friedrich  Christian  the  younger,  and  his 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Christian  VII.  of 
Denmark.  He  sold  his  hereditary  estates  to 
Denmark  in  1852,  and  in  1863  relinquished  his 
claims  to  the  succession  in  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  which  were  unsuccess- 
fully revived  during  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
war  by  his  elder  son  Friedrich  Christian  Au- 
gust (born  July  6,  1829),  who  has  since  the 
annexation  of  his  former  possessions  to  Prussia 
chiefly  resided  in  Gotha.  His  eldest  son,  Au- 
gust, was  born  in  1858. 

AUGUST!,  Johann  Christian  Wilhelm,  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Eschenberg,  in  Gotha,  about 
1772,  died  in  Coblentz  in  1841.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  became  professor  of  philosophy  and 
oriental  languages  in  that  university,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  in  1812  at  Bres- 
lau  and  in  1819  at  Bonn,  and  some  years  later 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  ecclesiastical 
affairs  of  the  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia  as 
director  of  the  consistory  of  Coblentz.  The 
most  important  of  his  numerous  works  is  the 
Denkwurdiglceiten  aus  der  christlichen  Archa- 
ologie(\1  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1817-'31).  As  an 
oriental  scholar  he  was  eminent.  In  doctrine 
he  was  an  orthodox  Lutheran. 

AUGCSTIN,  or  Austin,  Saint,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  sometimes  called  the  apostle  of  the 
English,  born  probably  in  the  first  half  of  the 
6th  century,  died  at  Canterbury  between  604 
and  614.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Andrew  at  Rome,  when  he 
was  selected  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  with  other 
monks  to  convert  the  Saxons  of  England  to 
Christianity.  He  landed  in  the  dominions  of 
Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  in  596  or  597,  and 
was  hospitably  received  and  allowed  to  preach 
to  the  people,  although  the  king  himself  firm- 
ly refused  to  forsake  the  gods  of  his  fathers. 
The  influence  of  his  wife,  a  Christian  princess, 
aided  by  the  preaching  of  Augustin,  finally  pre- 
vailed, and  Ethelbert  was  baptized,  after  which 
the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  were  crowned 
with  complete  success  throughout  the  whole 
Saxon  heptarchy.  The  ascetic  habits  of  Au- 
gustin and  his  brethren,  a  reputation  for  mirac- 
ulous power  in  the  restoration  of  sight  and  even 
of  life,  the  example  of  the  king,  and  the  fact 
that  the  southern  races  of  Europe  which  had 
embraced  Christianity  were  far  before  them  in 
civilization  and  prosperity,  made  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  the  Saxon  people,  never  very 
devotedly  attached  to  their  national  religion, 


112 


AUGUSTINE 


and  their  conversion  seems  to  have  been  gen- 
eral ;  it  is  said  that  10,000  persons  were  bap- 
tized in  a  single  day.  Their  temples  were 
dedicated  to  the  new  faith  and  used  as  churches, 
and  many  of  their  rude  festivals  were  converted 
into  religious  feasts,  without  losing  their  origi- 
nal social  character.  Augustin,  it  is  said,  al- 
lowed no  coercive  measures  to  be  used  in  prop- 
agating the  gospel.  His  success  caused  him  to 
be  appointed  by  the  pope  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, with  supreme  authority  over  the  churches 
of  England.  The  see  of  York  was  soon  after- 
ward established,  and  a  number  of  other  bish- 
oprics. Augustin  wished  to  establish  conform- 
ity of  religious  customs  over  the  whole  of  Brit- 
ain, and  for  that  purpose  appointed  several 
conferences  with  the  British  bishops  of  Wales, 
who  were  successors  of  converts  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury, and  had  declared  their  independence  of 
the  church  of  Rome.  The  conferences,  how- 
ever, failed  of  any  result.  A  number  of  Welsh 
monks  were  soon  after  put  to  death,  and  Au- 
gustin  has  been  charged  with  the  deed,  but  on 
no  very  good  authority.  His  relics  were  pre- 
served in  the  cathedral  at  Canterbury. 

AUGUSTINE  (AtJEELius  AUGUSTINUS),  Saint, 
a  doctor  of  the  Latin  church,  born  at  Tagaste, 
a  small  town  of  Numidia  in  Africa,  not  far 
from  Carthage,  Nov.  13,  354,  died  Aug.  28, 
430.  His  father,  Patricius,  was  a  pagan  noble- 
man of  moderate  fortune,  while  his  mother, 
Monica,  who  has  been  canonized  by  the  church, 
was  an  earnest  Christian.  Augustine  was  sent 
to  the  best  schools  of  Madaura  and  Carthage. 
His  own  "  Confessions "  tell  us  that  his  con- 
duct at  this  period  of  his  life  was  far  from 
exemplary.  His  studies,  chiefly  in  the  heathen 
poets,  were  more  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  fancy  and  his  style  than  to  his 
Christian  growth.  The  death  of  his  father, 
which  threw  him  upon  his  own  resources,  and 
the  influence  of  some  philosophical  works,  es- 
pecially the  Hortensius  of  Cicero,  roused  him 
to  a  diligent  search  after  Jruth.  Unable  to 
find  this  in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man sages,  and  dissatisfied  with  what  seemed 
to  him  the  crude  and  fragmentary  teachings 
of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  he 
adopted  the  dualism  of  the  Manich»ans.  At 
the  age  of  29  he  went  to  Rome.  There  his  repu- 
tation as  a  teacher  of  eloquence  soon  rivalled 
that  of  Symmachus,  then  at  the  height  of  his 
renown.  On  the  recommendation  of  that  ora- 
tor, he  was  called  to  Milan  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric.  Ambrose  was  then  bishop  of  Milan, 
and  Augustine's  first  care  was  to  know  so 
famous  a  preacher.  After  repeated  interviews 
with  Ambrose,  the  conversion  of  his  own  ille- 
gitimate son,  and  the  entreaties  of  his  mother, 
he  resolved  to  embrace  Christianity.  The  history 
of  his  conversion  forms  the  most  striking  chap- 
ter in  his  "  Confessions."  After  eight  months 
of  seclusion,  which  he  spent  with  his  mother 
and  brother  and  son,  preparing  for  his  confir- 
mation in  the  church,  and  maturing  his  plans 
for  the  future,  Augustine  in  the  Easter  week 


of  387  was  baptized,  together  with  his  son  and 
brother,  by  the  hand  of  Ambrose.  He  at  once 
set  out  on  his  return  to  Africa.  On  the  way 
his  mother  died,  and  a  small  chapel  among  the 
ruins  of  Ostia  marks  the  traditional  spot  of  her 
burial.  The  death  of  his  son,  which  took  place 
soon  after  his  return,  confirmed  his  inclination 
to  the  monastic  life.  He  retired  to  Tagaste,  and 
passed  nearly  three  years  in  studious  seclusion, 
varied  only  by  occasional  visits  to  the  neigh- 
boring towns.  On  one  of  these  visits,  when 
he  was  present  at  the  church  in  Hippo,  a  ser- 
mon which  the  bishop  Valerius  delivered,  ask- 
ing for  a  priest  to  assist  him  in  his  church," 
turned  all  eyes  toward  this  famous  scholar. 
No  refusals  were  allowed,  and  Augustine  was 
ordained.  Preaching  was  soon  added  to  his 
duties,  an  exception  being  made  in  his  case  to 
the  usual  rule,  and  the  periods  of  the  African 
orator,  in  harsh  Latin  or  the  harsher  Punic 
tongue,  were  received  with  vehement  applause. 
He  was  soon  called  to  be  assistant  bishop,  and 
then,  on  the  death  of  the  elder  prelate,  the 
whole  charge  of  the  church  of  Hippo  was  in- 
trusted to  his  care.  He  retained  the  office  un- 
til his  death,  a  period  of  35  years.  The  details 
of  his  episcopal  life  are  minutely  related  by  his 
friend  Possidius.  He  preached  every  day  and 
sometimes  twice  in  the  day ;  was  frugal  in  his 
domestic  arrangements,  being  a  strict  ascetic, 
and  requiring  of  his  attendant  priests  and  dea- 
cons an  equal  simplicity  of  diet  and  dress; 
given  to  hospitality,  yet  without  display; 
warmly  interested  in  every  kind  of  charity; 
courteous  in  his  bearing,  welcoming  even  in- 
fidels to  his  table ;  bold  against  all  wickedness 
and  wrong,  whatever  the  rank  of  the  trans- 
gressor; and  untiring  in  his  visits  to  widows 
and  orphans,  to  the  sick  and  the  afflicted. 
He  disputed  with  Manichojans,  Arians,  the 
followers  of  Priscillian,  of  Origen,  and  Tertul- 
lian,  the  Donatists,  and  the  Pelagians,  and  al- 
lowed no  doubtful  utterance  of  doctrine  to  pass 
without  his  questioning.  To  his  industry  in 
controversy  must  be  added  his  vast  corre- 
spondence with  emperors,  nobles,  doctors,  mis- 
sionaries, bishops,  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
on  questions  of  dogma,  of  discipline,  and  of 
policy — his  solid  works  of  commentary,  criti- 
cism, morality,  philosophy,  and  theology,  and 
even  his  poetry,  for  to  him  are  attributed  sev- 
eral of  the  sweetest  hymns  of  the  Catholic  an- 
thology. The  titles  alone  of  the  works  of  Au- 
gustine make  a  long  catalogue.  The  single 
volume  of  "  Sermons "  contains  nearly  700 
pieces,  shorter  indeed  and  less  ornate  than  the 
celebrated  sermons  of  Basil  and  Chrysostom, 
but  justifying  Augustine's  reputation  for  sa- 
cred oratory.  The  volume  of  "Commenta- 
ries on  the  P.salms  "  is  more  rich  in  practical 
remarks  than  in  accurate  learning.  His  re- 
marks upon  the  "Four  Gospels"  are  more 
valuable.  His  work  on  the  "  Care  that  should 
be  taken  for  the  Dead"  contains  some  striking 
views  concerning  the  relation  of  the  living  to 
disembodied  souls.  The  volume  of  his  "Epis- 


AUGUSTINE 


AUGUSTOWO 


113 


ties"  is  remarkable,  as  illustrating  his  best 
style  and  the  finest  traits  in  his  chardfcter.  The 
name  of  Augustine,  in  the  dogmatic  history  of 
the  church,  is  best  known  in  connection  with 
the  heresy  of  Pelagius ;  but  his  works  which 
are  most  widely  known  are  the  "  Confessions  " 
and  "  The  City  of  God."  In  the  former,  writ- 
ten just  after  his  conversion,  he  gives  a  history 
of  his  life  up  to  that  time,  not  so  much  in  its 
outward  circumstance  as  in  its  inward  expe- 
rience and  change.  It  has  been  translated  into 
every  Christian  tongue,  and  is  classed  with  the 
choicest  memorials  of  devotion,  both  in  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant  oratories.  His  treatise  on 
"  The  City  of  God  "  (De  Civitate  Dei)  is  the 
monument  of  highest  genius  in  the  ancient 
church,  and  in  its  kind  has  never  been  surpassed. 
Its  immediate  purpose  was  to  vindicate  the 
faith  of  the  gospel  against  the  pagans,  who  had 
just  devastated  Rome.  The  first  five  books 
confute  the  heathen  thesis  that  the  worship  of 
the  ancient  gods  is  essential  to  human  pros- 
perity, and  that  miseries  have  only  come  since 
the  decline  of  this  worship.  The  five  following 
books  refute  those  who  maintain  that  the  wor- 
ship of  pagan  deities  is  useful  for  the  spiritual 
life.  The  remaining  twelve  books  are  employed 
in  setting  forth  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
religion,  under  the  somewhat  fanciful  form  of 
"  two  cities,"  the  city  of  the  world  and  the 
city  of  God.  The  influence  of  Augustine  upon 
his  own  age,  and  upon  nil  succeeding  ages  of 
Christian  history,  cannot  be  exaggerated.  It 
is  believed  that  he  was  at  once  one  of  the 
purest,  the  wisest,  and  the  holiest  of  men ; 
he  was  equally  mild  and  firm,  prudent  and  fear- 
less ;  at  once  a  philosopher  and  a  mystic,  a  stu- 
dent and  a  ruler.  Of  his  singular  humility 
manifold  instances  are  recorded.  His  severe 
self-discipline  matches  the  strictest  instances 
of  the  hermit  life.  In  his  "  Retractations,"  be- 
gun after  the  close  of  his  70th  year,  he  reviews 
his  writings,  taking  back  whatever  is  doubtful 
or  extravagant,  and  harmonizing  discordant 
opinions.  The  aid  of  a  coadjutor  relieved  Au- 
gustine in  his  latter  years  of  a  portion  of  his 
responsibility ;  yet  questions  of  conscience  were 
constantly  presented  to  him.  When  Genseric 
and  his  Vandals  showed  themselves  on  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  the  question  was  put  to  him 
if  it  were  lawful  for  a  bishop  at  such  a  season 
to  fly  and  leave  his  flock.  The  answer  which 
he  made  was  illustrated  by  his  own  course.  He 
calmly  waited  for  the  threatened  approach, 
and  when  the  fleet  of  the  foe  was  in  the  bay  of 
Hippo,  and  the  army  was  encamped  before  the 
walls,  exerted  himself  only  to  quiet  the  fears 
and  sustain  the  faith  of  his  brethren.  He  died 
of  fever  before  the  catastrophe.  The  bishop 
Possidius,  who  watched  at  his  bedside,  gives 
an  edifying  account  of  his  last  days,  and  of  the 
grief  of  the  people  at  his  loss.  His  relics  were 
transported  to  Italy,  and  mostly  rest  at  present 
in  the  cathedral  of  Pavia.  Within  the  present 
century  the  bone  of  his  right  arm  has,  with 
solemn  pomp,  been  returned  to  the  church  of 


Bona  in  Algeria,  which  occupies  the  site  of  an- 
cient Hippo. — The  best  edition  of  Augustine's 
works  is  that  of  the  Benedictines,  published  at 
Paris  and  at  Antwerp  at  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  in  11  vols.  folio.  An  edition  in  11 
volumes  was  also  published  in  Paris  in  1836-'9. 
An  additional  volume  of  sermons,  before  un- 
published, found  at  Monte  Casino  and  Florence, 
was  published  at  Paris  in  1842.  An  English 
translation  by  various  hands  has  been  under- 
taken at  Edinburgh,  under  the  editorship  of 
the  Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  the  3d  and  4th  vol- 
umes of  which  appeared  in  1872. 

VI  <;i  STIMA>s,  or  Hermits  of  St.  Angnsttoe,  a 
religious  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
which  traces  its  origin  to  the  great  bishop  of 
Hippo,  and  professes  to  have  received  its  rule 
from  him,  although  many  Catholic  writers  dis- 
pute the  fact.  St.  Augustine  in  the  year  388,  be- 
fore his  ordination,  erected  a  kind  of  hermitage 
on  a  little  farm  belonging  to  himself  near  Ta- 
gaste,  where  with  several  friends  he  passed  his 
time  in  seclusion.  After  he  became  a  priest  at 
Hippo  he  established  a  similar  retreat  in  a  gar- 
den presented  to  him  by  the  bishop,  and  dur- 
ing his  episcopate  he  had  his  clergy  living  with 
him  in  his  house,  under  a  kind  of  monastic 
rule.  From  these  circumstances  he  has  been 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  and  special  patron 
of  a  certain  class  of  religious  communities,  and 
many  of  their  rules  have  been  drawn  from  his 
writings.  The  present  order  of  Hermits  of  St. 
Augustine  was  formed  by  uniting  several  socie- 
ties previously  distinct.  This  was  done  by 
Alexander  IV.  in  the  year  1256,  and  a  rule  was 
given  them  attributed  to  St.  Augustine.  In 
1567  the  Augustinians  were  enrolled  among 
the  mendicant  orders.  In  England  they  were 
usually  called  Black  Friars,  from  the  color  of 
their  habit.  There  are  several  distinct  branch- 
es of  Augustinians  whose  rule  is  more  severe 
than  that  of  the  principal  body ;  they  are  gov- 
erned by  vicars  general,  who  are  subordinate 
to  the  general.  Rome  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
order.  The  number  of  convents  in  1862  was 
271,  with  about  4,000  members;  but  since 
then  their  number  has  been  greatly  reduced 
by  the  suppression  of  monastic  orders  in  Italy. 
There  is  a  large  and  beautiful  church  belonging 
to  the  Augustinians,  with  a  convent  adjoining, 
in  Philadelphia ;  also  a  college,  with  a  monas- 
tery and  a  well  cultivated  farm  adjoining,  at 
Villanova,  Delaware  county,  Pa.,  about  15  m. 
from  Philadelphia. — Angnstlnlan  Canons  are  a 
separate  body  of  canons  regular  attached  to  the 
Lateran  basilica  and  a  few  other  churches. — 
Several  religious  orders  of  females  belong  also 
to  the  Augustinian  family. 

AUCCSTOWO.  I.  Formerly  the  X.  E.  govern- 
ment of  the  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland.  Its 
territory  now  forms  the  government  of  Suwal- 
ki  and  a  part  of  Lomza.  II.  A  city  in  the  pres- 
ent government  of  Suwalki,  from  which  the 
preceding  government  received  its  name,  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Karew,  near  a  considerable 
lake,  and  140  m.  K  E.  of  Warsaw ;  pop.  in  1867, 


AUGUSTDLUS 


AUGUSTUS 


9,364.  It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  cattle  and 
woollen  and  cotton  goods.  It  was  founded  in  . 
lotiO  by  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  from  whom 
it  was  named. — The  canal  of  Augustowo  con- 
nects the  Narew  with  the  Niemen,  making  a 
continuous  navigation  between  the  upper  Vis- 
tula and  the  mouth  of  the  Niemen  in  the  Bal- 
tic. It  is  150  m.  long  and  5  to  6  ft.  deep. 

Al  U'sTI  I.I  s.  Komulns,  the  last  Roman  em- 
peror of  the  West.  He  was  placed  on  the 
throne  A.  D.  475,  by  his  father  Orestes,  a  na- 
tive of  Pannonia,  who  had  been  a  favorite  of 
the  emperor  Julius  Nepos,  but  who  at  last 
succeeded  in  usurping  the  power  of  his  patron, 
and  conferring  it  upon  his  son.  The  young 
man  was  remarkable  only  for  his  weakness  and 
the  beauty  of  his  person.  On  the  defeat  of 
Orestes  by  Odoacer  at  Pavia,  and  his  subse- 
quent execution  (470),  Augustulus  was  ban- 
ished to  the  castle  of  Lucullus  in  Campania, 
where  he  received  yearly  6,000  pieces  of  gold. 

1 1  (.  I  sil  s,  Cains  Jnlins  Caesar  Oetavianns  (named 
at  his  birth  simply  Caius  Octavius),  first  emperor 
of  Rome,  born  at  Velitraa,  Sept.  23,  63  B.  C., 
died  at  Nola,  Aug.  19,  A.D.  14.  lie  was  the 
son  of  Oaius  Octavius,  a  rich  senator,  who  in 
60  B.  C.  was  appointed  prater  of  Macedonia, 
and  of  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  the  young- 
er sister  of  Julius  Omar.  His  father  dying 
just  after  retiring  from  his  prajtorship,  Octa- 
vius was  educated  in  Rome  at  the  wish  of  his 
mother,  and  afterward  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  Lucius  Marcius  Philippus,  who  became 
his  stepfather.  He  soon  attracted  the  notice 
of  his  great-uncle  Julius  Ccesar,  who  treated 
him  as  his  own  son,  and  by  his  will  made  him 
his  principal  heir.  On  March  15,  44,  when 
the  dictator  was  assassinated  at  Rome,  Octa- 
vius was  at  Apollonia  on  the  W.  coast  of  Epirus 
Nova,  pursuing  his  studies.  The  news  of  the 
murder  and  of  his  own  adoption  as  heir  reached 
him  almost  immediately.  Against  the  warn- 
ing of  friends,  he  went  at  once  to  Rome,  chang- 
ing his  name  Octavius  to  Octavianus,  and  de- 
manded his  inheritance,  which  Mark  Antony, 
who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  principal 
power  in  the  state,  after  some  hesitation  was 
obliged  to  yield.  Octavius,  who  was  now 
universally  known  by  the  name  of  C»sar, 
began  a  struggle  with  Antony  for  the  control 
of  Rome.  Each  tried  every  means  to  gain  the 
favor  of  the  people.  Octavius  was  already 
beginning  to  gain  the  advantage,  when  Antony 
left  Rome  to  secure  for  himself  the  legions  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  Octavius  took  advantage  of  his 
rival's  absence  to  win  still  further  the  popular 
favor,  and  was  aided  by  the  refusal  of  Decimus 
Brutus,  preetor  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  to  give  up 
that  province  to  Antony.  Cicero  now  came 
forward  in  Octavius's  favor,  thinking  thus  to 
advance  the  cause  of  a  freer  government.  The 
senate,  the  people,  and  the  soldiers  were  soon 
won.  In  January,  43,  having  received  the  rank 
of  praetor  and  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  those  troops  whose  good  will  he  had  se- 
cured, he  went  with  the  two  consuls  to  the  as- 


sistance of  Decimus  Brutus,  whom  Antony  was 
besieging  in  Mutina  (Modena).  Antony  was 
defeated  and  driven  beyond  the  Alps.  But  the 
senate,  dreading  any  increase  of  the  power  of 
the  successful  general,  and  relieved  of  their  fear 
of  Antony,  now  made  a  change  of  policy,  ap- 
pointed Decimus  Brutus  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  army,  and  denied  Octavius  a  triumph. 
The  latter  thereupon  began  to  treat  with  Anto- 
ny for  a  reconciliation  and  division  of  power, 
Antony  having  in  the  mean  time  allied  himself 
with  Lepidus  and  recrossed  the  Alps.  First 
of  all  Octavius  secured  the  consulship,  which 
the  senate  was  persuaded  almost  against  its 
will  to  permit  him  to  assume.  He  paid  the 
people  the  sums  left  by  the  will  of  Caesar,  and 
secured  for  himself  the  command  of  an  army 
to  be  sent  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  against 
whom  a  decree  of  outlawry  was  passed.  Under 
the  guise  of  moving  first  against  Antony,  Octa- 
vius marched  his  army  into  northern  Italy  and 
met  Antony  and  Lepidus  at  Bononia  (Bologna). 
Here  an  open  reconciliation  took  place,  and  he 
formed  with  them  the  triumvirate,  agreeing  to 
merge  his  own  power  in  this  equal  division  of 
the  empire  among  the  three.  The  triumvirs 
returned  to  Rome  immediately,  though  they 
entered  the  city  separately.  In  the  general 
proscription  and  massacre  of  their  enemies 
which  followed,  Octavius  displayed  cruelty 
fully  equal  to  that  of  his  associates.  After  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  take  Sicily  from  Sex- 
tus  Pompey,  who  had  an  excellent  fleet,  and 
with  whom  many  Romans  took  refuge,  Octa- 
vius and  Antony  turned  their  arms  against 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  whom  they  defeated  at 
Philippi  (42).  On  his  return  to  Rome — Antony 
now  being  with  Cleopatra  in  Egypt — Octavius 
found  that  Fulvia,  Antony's  wife,  aided  by 
Antony's  brother,  Lucius  Antonius,  had  en- 
deavored to  excite  'popular  feeling  against  him 
by  declaring  that  a  new  proscription  was  about 
to  begin,  and  by  other  means.  Antonius  had 
even  assembled  an  army.  Octavius  put  a 
speedy  end  to  this  revolt  by  taking  Perusia 
(Perugia),  where  Lucius  Antonius  had  fortified 
himself,  rind  cruelly  putting  to  death  400  Peru- 
sians  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  manes  of  Cajsar  (40). 
Fulvia's  death  prevented  a  renewal  of  the  war, 
and  Octavius  and  Antony  were  reconciled  at 
Brundusium,  Octavia,  Octavius's  sister,  being 
given  in  marriage  to  his  fellow  triumvir.  Sex- 
tus  Pompey,  however,  still  held  Sicily,  the  grain 
storehouse  of  Rome,  and  Octavius  was  obliged 
to  bribe  him  by  the  offer  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Cor- 
sica, and  the  province  of  Achaia,  to  make  peace 
and  supply  Rome  with  food.  No  sooner  had 
Octavius  thus  secured  Pompey  than  he  IK  pm 
to  seek  for  a  pretext  to  recapture  the  provinces 
given  him.  Alleging  that  Pompey  allowed 
piracy  near  his  coasts,  Octavius  declared  war 
against  him  (38).  Antony  at  first  refused  his 
aid,  but  was  persuaded  by  the  mediation  of 
Octavia,  and  sent  a  considerable  fleet  to  join 
that  of  Octavius.  After  some  vicissitudes, 
Agrippa,  the  commander  of  the  navy,  ended 


AUGUSTUS 


115 


the  war  by  an  overwhelming  defeat  of  Pompey, 
who  fled  to  Asia  (36).  Lepidus,  the  pnly  one  of 
the  triumvirs  who  had  actually  succeeded  in 
landing  in  Sicily,  now  aspired  to  the  govern- 
ment of  that  island ;  but  Octavius  won  over 
his  troops,  and  he  suffered  himself  to  be  called 
to  Rome  and  consigned  to  submissive  quiet  by 
the  appointment  of  pontifex  maximus.  Octa- 
vius now  divided  among  his  soldiers  the  lands 
taken  from  his  enemies.  He  was  received  with 
the  greatest  honors  at  Rome,  but,  with  his 
wonted  hypocrisy,  assumed  a  modest  and  lib- 
eral mien;  he  improved  the  city,  and  even 
talked  of  fully  restoring  the  republican  forms. 
But  while  gaining  for  himself  the  favor  of  the 
people,  he  steadily  undermined  the  influence 
of  his  only  remaining  rival,  Antony,  whom  he 
pretended  to  support.  Much  of  his  time  in  the 
two  years  that  followed  (35-34)  was  occupied 
in  the  suppression  of  revolts  in  various  parts 
of  the  Roman  provinces.  The  repudiation  by 
Antony  of  his  wife  Octavia  served  to  widen 
the  breach  between  the  triumvirs ;  and  soon 
afterward  the  arrogant  and  dangerous  assump- 
tions of  Cleopatra,  who  now  held  Antony  as 
her  complete  slave,  afforded  Octavius  the  pre- 
text he  desired.  Convincing  the  people  of  the 
dangerous  designs  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  he 
brought  about  a  declaration  of  war,  defeated 
her  and  Antony  in  the  battle  of  Actiutn  in 
September,  81,  rapidly  followed  up  this  vic- 
tory, and  by  the  succeeding  events,  ending  in  the 
death  of  this  only  remaining  opponent  (30),  he 
was  left  sole  ruler  of  Rome,  and  celebrated  his 
victories  by  a  three  days'  triumph.  He  had 
some  thought  of  laying  aside  his  power,  but  in 
counsel  with  his  friends  Agrippa  and  Maecenas, 
the  advice  of  the  latter  prevailed,  probably 
coinciding  more  nearly  with  his  own  wishes, 
and  he  kept  his  rulership.  Rome  was  now  in 
complete  peace.  Octavius,  although  himself 
supreme,  reestablished  many  of  the  old  repub- 
lican forms,  and  benefited  the  city  by  numer- 
ous wise  measures.  In  his  seventh  consulship 
(27),  he  astonished  the  senate  by  proposing  to 
lay  down  the  chief  power  and  to  restore  en- 
tirely the  old  order  of  things.  The  senators 
begged  him  to  retain  his  position,  and  he,  pre- 
tending great  reluctance,  consented.  This  ruse 
was  several  times  repeated  during  his  life. 
On  Jan.  16,  27,  he  received  from  the  Roman 
people  and  the  senate  the  name  Augustus  (the 
venerated  or  sanctified),  and  by  this  title  he 
was  generally  known  from  this  time  forth. 
Within  the  next  few  years  the  powers  of  tri- 
bune, pontifex  maximus,  and  of  many  other 
magistrates,  were  gradually  assumed  by  Augus- 
tus, with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  and  he  be- 
came finally  the  absolute  ruler  of  the  empire. 
In  26  and  25  he  established  order  in  Spain, 
defeating  the  rebellious  Astures  and  Can- 
tabri,  who,  however,  afterward  revolted,  and 
were  not  finally  subdued  till  19.  In  21,  after 
four  years  spent  at  Rome,  during  which  sev- 
eral conspiracies  had  been  discovered  against 
his  life,  he  visited  Sicily  and  the  eastern  part 


of  the  empire,  establishing  order  everywhere. 
He  left  Agrippa,  who  married  his  daughter  Ju- 
lia, as  governor  of  Rome  in  his  absence.  Dur- 
ing this  journey  he  visited  Athens  and  Samos. 
In  20  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  Parthians,  by 
which  they  peacefully  restored  standards  and 
captives  taken  from  Crassus  (53)  and  Antony 
(36).  In  16  he  went  to  Gaul,  where  he  re- 
mained three  years,  and  established  many  colo- 
nies. Agrippa  died  in  12,  leaving  two  sons, 
who  had  been  adopted  by  Augustus  and  called 
Caius  and  Lucius  Csesar.  Within  the  year  Julia 
was  married  again  to  her  stepbrother  Tiberius, 
the  son  of  the  crafty  Livia,  who  in  this  year 
also  was  sent  against  the  Pannonians  and  de- 
feated them.  In  10  Augustus  went  again  to 
Gaul,  and  at  the  same  time  sent  his  step- 
son Drusus,  the  younger  brother  of  Tiberius, 
against  the  western  German  tribes.  Drusus 
conquered  them,  but  was  killed  by  an  acci- 
dent, and  Augustus  pronounced  his  funeral  ora- 
tion in  the  senate  (9).  In  8  B.  C.  the  senate 
flattered  Augustus  on  his  victories  by  nam- 
ing after  him  the  month  of  August,  before 
called  Sextilis.  A  short  time  after  this  Au- 
gustus sent  into  exile  his  daughter  Julia,  whose 
dissolute  life  had  become  an  open  scandal. 
Her  two  sons  had  now  assumed  the  toga  viri- 
lis,  and  were  looked  upon  as  the  heirs  of  the 
emperor.  But  Lucius  died  at  Massilia  in  A.  D. 
2,  and  Caius  in  Lycia  in  4 ;  and  Augustus, 
upon  whom  these  family  misfortunes  made  a 
deep  impression,  adopted  Tiberius,  thus  fulfil- 
ling the  desire  of  Livia,  and  sent  him  to  con- 
duct a  campaign  against  the  Germans.  Tibe- 
rius was  victorious,  but  in  the  year  9  the 
overwhelming  defeat  of  the  Roman  general 
Varus  by  Arminius  lessened  the  value  of  these 
conquests.  A  period  of  peace  now  followed, 
and  Augustus  turned  his  attention  to  the  af- 
fairs of  the  city,  which  he  administered  wisely 
and  with  the  popular  favor.  In  14  his  health 
suddenly  declined,  and  just  after  taking  the 
census,  the  third  during  his  administration, 
he  died  at  Nola,  whither  he  had  gone  on  ac- 
count of  his  illness.— The  period  of  Augustus 
is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Roman  history. 
In  it  flourished  those  men  who  have  caused 
it  to  be  named  the  "Augustan  age  of  litera- 
ture " — Catullus,  Cicero,  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid, 
Tibullus,  the  great  patron  of  art  and  letters 
Maecenas,  and  others.  Augustus  himself  wrote 
several  works,  of  which  only  fragments  re- 
main. These  have  been  collected,  and  a  good 
edition  of  them  was  published  by  Weichert 
(Grimma,  1841).  The  emperor's  rule  was 
most  beneficial  to  the  city.  He  boasted  that 
he  had  found  it  of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble. 
He  encouraged  all  useful  arts,  and  his  laws  in 
matters  of  municipal  government  were  gen- 
erally admirable.  In  person  Augustus  was  of 
middle  height,  with  a  well  knit  and  fine  fig- 
ure, and  a  quiet  face,  with  much  dignity  and 
firmness  of  expression.  His  hair  was  light,  his 
eyes  large  and  clear.  In  his  character  tho 
crafty  traits  predominated,  but  he  displayed  in 


116 


AUGUSTUS  I. 


AUK 


the  latter  part  of  his  life  much  generosity. — 
See  the  life  of  Augustus  in  Suetonius,  Plu- 
tarch's life  of  Antony,  and  the  histories  of  Ar- 
nold, Merivale,  and  Ihne. 

Al'Gl'STl'S  I.  (as  king,  II.)  FREDERICK,  sur- 
named  the  Strong,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of 
Poland,  second  son  of  the  elector  John  George 
III.,  bora  in  Dresden,  May  12,  1670,  died  in 
Warsaw,  Feb.  1,  1733.  After  a  careful  educa- 
tion he  visited  all  the  countries  and  courts  of 
Europe,  Rome  alone  excepted.  During  these 
journeys  he  began  the  collection  of  pictures 
and  other  objects  of  art  composing  the  gallery 
in  Dresden,  which,  increased  by  his  son,  became 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  hi  1691,  and  of  his  elder 
brother,  John  George  IV.,  in  1694,  he  became 
sovereign  of  Saxony ;  and  after  the  death 
of  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  in  1696, 
he  was  elected  as  his  successor  by  the  nobil- 
ity of  that  country.  To  obtain  this  election 
he  changed  his  religion  from  Protestantism  to 
Catholicism.  To  restore  to  Poland  some  prov- 
inces wrested  by  Sweden,  Augustus  attacked 
Charles  XII.  jointly  with  Denmark  and  with 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia ;  but  after  a  long 
struggle,  in  which  both  Poland  and  Saxony  suf- 
fered terribly,  he  was  obliged  at  the  bidding  of 
Charles  XII.  to  give  up  the  royal  crown,  which 
the  victor  gave  to  Stanislas  Leszczynski  (July 
12,  1704),  and  to  give  his  own  consent  formally 
to  this  act,  in  the  peace  of  Altranstadt  (Sept. 
24,  1706).  When  Charles  was  defeated  at  Pol- 
tava, July  8,  1709,  Augustus  renewed  his  alli- 
ance with  Peter  the  Great,  broke  the  peace 
with  Sweden,  entered  Poland  with  an  army, 
expelled  Leszczynski,  and  recovered  the  crown. 
His  reign  was  one  of  great  luxury  and  splen- 
dor, his  court  a  scene  of  uninterrupted  festiv- 
ity, with  artists,  adventurers,  alchemists,  and 
numberless  beautiful  women,  one  of  whom,  the 
celebrated  Countess  Konigsmark,  was  by  Au- 
gustus the  mother  of  that  Maurice  so  celebrated 
at  the  court  of  Versailles  and  in  the  history  of 
France  under  the  name  of  Marshal  Saxe.  Au- 
gustus was  elegant,  affable,  and  of  extraor- 
dinary bodily  strength,  but  without  any  trait 
of  real  excellence.  He  impoverished  Saxony 
and  corrupted  Poland. — Augustus  II.  (III.)  Fred- 
erick, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1696,  died 
Oct.  5,  1763.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  both 
Saxony  and  Poland,  in  the  first  by  inheritance, 
in  the  second  by  election,  though  he  was  op- 
posed by  Stanislas  Leszczynski,  whose  claims 
were  supported  by  Louis  XV.  and  a  portion 
of  the  Polish  nobles.  Augustus  continued  the 
gorgeous  reign  of  his  father,  his  greatest  pas- 
sion being  hunting  and  festivities.  His  reign 
over  Poland  was  quiet,  but  in  every  respect 
demoralizing.  Count  Bruhl,  his  favorite,  ruled 
in  the  sovereign's  name.  Augustus,  being 
married  to  an  Austrian  princess,  had  no  other 
policy  than  subserviency  to  Austria,  and  he  be- 
came entangled  in  the  wars  against  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.  In  1742  he  concluded 
an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  with  Maria 


Theresa,  and  promised  afterward  to  bring  into 
the  field  50,000  men.  This  army,  united  with 
the  Austrians,  was  beaten  at  the  battle  of 
Hohenfriedberg  in  Silesia,  June  4,  1745,  when 
Frederick  invaded  Saxony  and  entered  Dres- 
den, while  Augustus  fled  to  Poland,  which  was 
at  peace  with  Prussia.  By  a  treaty  concluded 
at  the  close  of  the  same  year  he  was  restored 
to  his  electorate.  In  the  seven  years'  war, 
however,  Augustus,  as  elector  of  Saxony,  again 
participated  on  the  side  of  Austria.  At  the 
beginning  his  Saxon  army  was  compelled  to 
surrender  to  Frederick  (October,  1756),  and 
he  himself  fled  to  Warsaw,  persisting  in  his 
alliance  with  Austria,  and  resided  there  until 
the  pacification  by  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg 
(1763),  when  he  returned  to  Dresden. 

AUGUSTUS  FREDERICK,  prince  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  duke  of  Sussex,  the  6th  son 
of  George  III.  of  England,  born  in  Bucking- 
ham palace,  Jan.  27,  1773,  died  in  Kensington 
palace,  April  21,  1843.  He  studied  at  Gottin- 
gen,  and  subsequently  travelled  in  Italy.  While 
at  Rome  in  1 793  he  married  Lady  Augusta  Mur- 
ray, daughter  of  the  Catholic  earl  of  Dunmore ; 
but  as  there  were  some  doubts  as  to  the  valid- 
ity of  the  marriage,  the  wedding  ceremony  was 
repeated  in  London,  Dec.  5,  1793.  This  mar- 
riage was  annulled,  however,  by  the  preroga- 
tive court  of  Canterbury,  as  contrary  to  the  act 
12  George  III.,  cap.  3,  which  declared  that  no 
descendant  of  George  II.  should  marry  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  crown.  Lady  Augusta 
separated  from  the  duke  immediately  after 
the  publication  of  this  sentence,  having  borne 
him  a  son  and  daughter,  who  took  the  name 
D'Este.  In  1801  the  prince  was  made  a  peer, 
and  received  a  parliamentary  grant  of  £12,000 
per  annum,  which  was  subsequently  increased 
by  the  addition  of  £9,000.  In  the  house  of 
lords  the  duke  took  the  liberal  side  on  most 
public  questions,  as  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade,  Catholic  and  Jewish  emancipation,  the 
reform  bill,  and  free  trade.  In  1810  he  was 
elected  grand  master  of  the  freemasons ;  in 
1816,  president  of  the  society  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  useful  arts;  and  in  1830,  president 
of  the  royal  society.  He  was  a  munificent 
patron  of  literature  and  art,  and  possessed  one 
of  the  finest  libraries  of  England.  His  lib- 
eral opinions  in  politics,  and  the  part  which 
he  took  in  favor  of  Queen  Caroline,  made  him 
unpopular  at  court,  but  before  the  death  of 
George  IV.  a  reconciliation  took  place  between 
them. 

AUK,  the  name  of  certain  sea  birds  of  the 
family  aleadce,  including  the  subgenera  alca, 
Jratercula,  mergulus,  and  phaleru.  The  true 
auks  (alca)  are  strictly  ocean  birds,  and  scarcely 
ever  leave  the  water,  except  to  build  their  nests 
and  breed  in  immense  flocks  in  caverns  and 
crannies  of  rocks,  laying  one  disproportionately 
large  egg.  The  young  are  fed  from  the  crops 
of  their  parents,  even  after  they  can  move 
about  freely  and  shift  for  themselves.  This 
genus  contains  but  two  species,  the  great  auk 


AUK 


AULAF 


lit 


and  the  razor  bill.  The  former  (A.  impennis, 
Linn.)  is  remarkable  for  the  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  its  wings,  which  are  totally  unfit  for 
flving.  They  are  set  very  far  baci  on  the 
body,  and  not  mucli  more  than  rudimental; 
but  they  are  used  by  the  bird  as  oars,  and  in 
conjunction  with  its  feet  it  plies  them  with  such 
power  and  velocity  that  it  has  been  known  to 
escape  from  a  six-oared  barge  pulled  by  vigor- 
ous oarsmen.  It  rarely  leaves  the  arctic  circle 
and  the  waters  adjoining,  nor  is  it  often  seen 
off  soundings,  but  dwells  in  great  numbers 
about  the  Faro  islands  and  Iceland,  and  it  has 
been  asserted  that  it  breeds  in  Newfoundland. 
In  summer  all  the  upper  parts  of  this  bird's 
plumage  nre  of  a  deep  sooty  black,  which  is 
changed  in  winter  to  white  on  the  cheeks,  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  the  throat.  It  breeds  in 
June  and  July,  and  lays  one  large  yellowish 
egg,  as  big  as  a  swan's,  irregularly  dashed  with 
black  marks,  which  have  been  compared  to 
Chinese  characters.  It  has  a  large  decurved 


Great  Auk  (Alca  impennis). 

bill  with  sharp  cutting  edges;  and  its  feet 
being  situated  at  the  extremity  of  its  body,  it 
stands  or  sits  erect,  propped  up  by  its  short 
stiff  tail,  after  the  manner  of  the  penguins, 
which  it  not  a  little  resembles. — The  black- 
billed  auk,  razor  bill,  or  mnrre  (A.  torda,  Linn.) 
belongs  to  the  northern  latitudes,  in  the  ex- 
treme height  of  which  these  birds  swarm  in 
multitudes  during  the  breeding  season,  afford- 
ing food  and  clothing  to  the  Esquimaux,  who 
place  on  them  their  chief  dependence.  The 
bill  of  the  black  auk  has  a  sharp  hook  at  its 
extremity,  and  a  denticulated  process  at  about 
two  thirds  of  its  length,  which  is  of  great  use 
in  securing  its  slippery  prey.  Its  general  color 
is  dusky  above  and  white  below ;  it  flies  suffi- 
ciently well,  but,  like  the  species  last  described, 
uses  its  wings  as  oars  in  diving,  which  it  does 
to  perfection.  It  is  very  abundant  on  all  the 
rocky  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  sits  in 
long  horizontal  rows  on  the  steps  or  ledges  of 
the  crags,  towering  one  above  the  other. — The 
genus  fratercula,  consists  of  a  single  species, 


the  Labrador  auk,  common  puffin,  or  coulter- 
neb  (F.  arctica),  this  last  name  being  admira- 
bly descriptive  of  its  strong  massive  beak,  the 
mandibles  of  which,  when  separated,  especially 
the  upper  one,  almost  exactly  resemble  the 
coulter  of  a  plough.  The  upper  parts  of  this 
bird  are  dusky,  its  cheeks  and  belly  white.  It 
has  a  black  collar,  legs  and  feet  orange,  beak 
broad,  cutting-edged,  bluish  gray  next  to  the 
head,  but  scarlet  thence  to  its  obtuse  point. 
Although  it  extends  to  the  high  arctic  regions, 
it  is  in  England  only  a  summer  visitor,  breed- 
ing in  the  low  sandy  islands  in  rabbit  bur- 
rows, of  which  it  dispossesses  their  legitimate 
owners ;  or,  where  there  are  no  rabbits,  bur- 
rowing itself.  In  rocky  places,  as  Dover  cliffs, 
Flamborough  head,  and  the  Bass  rock,  at  all 
which  places  these  birds  abound,  they  lay  their 
single  egg  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.  When 
they  have  reared  their  young,  they  'pass  from 
England  to  the  southern  coasts  of  France  and 
Spain,  where  they  winter.  Their  burrows  are 
curiously  excavated,  by  means  of  their  bills, 
to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  often 
have  two  entrances  for  escape  in  case  of  sur- 
prise. The  length  of  the  puffin  is  about  12 
inches. — The  mergulus  .has  likewise  but  one 
representative,  the  little  auk,  common  rotche, 
or  sea  dove  (M.  melaru>leucos),  which  is  the 
smallest  of  the  family,  and  a  native  of  the  very 
highest  latitudes,  congregating  in  large  flocks 
near  the  arctic  circle ;  Greenland,  Spitzbergen, 
and  Melville  island  being  its  favorite  stations. 
Its  plumage  is  black  and  white ;  and  in  winter 
the  front  of  the  neck,  which  is  black  in  sum- 
mer, turns  white.  It  lays  but  a  single  egg,  of 
pale  bluish  green,  on  the  most  inaccessible 
ledges  of  the  precipices  which  overhang  the 
ocean.  It  is  about  9  or  10  inches  long. — The 
last  division,  phaleris,  contains  also  but  a  sin- 
gle species,  the  paroquet  auk  (P.'psittacula), 
an  extreme  northern  bird,  about  11  inches 
long.  Its  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  are 
black,  blended  into  ash  color  on  the  forward 
parts  of  the  neck ;  the  breast  and  belly  white ; 
the  legs  are  yellowish,  the  beaks  in  the  adults 
red.  This  bird  swims  and  dives  admirably, 
and  is  said  to  be  of  a  singularly  unsuspicious 
character,  and  easily  captured.  About  mid- 
summer it  lays  one  large  egg,  nearly  of  the 
size  of  a  hen's,  with  brown  or  dusky  spots,  on 
a  whitish  or  yellowish  ground. 

\l  I.\K.  or  Anlaf,  a  name  borne  by  several 
Northumbrian  kings  of  Danish  origin,  about  the 
second  half  of  the  10th  century.  I.  A  North- 
umbrian petty  king  and  a  pagan,  died  in 
980.  His  family  having  been  expelled  from 
Northumbria  by  Athelstan,  he  fled  into  Ire- 
land, fought  against  the  native  tribes  in  that 
island,  in  937  endeavored  to  recover  Northum- 
bria,  but  was  repulsed  by  Athelstan,  returned 
to  Ireland,  and  ravaged  Kilcnllen.  After  the 
death  of  Athelstan,  Northumbria  fell  away 
from  the  English  crown,  and  Aulaf  recovered 
his  inheritance  after  defeating  Edmund  at 
Tamworth  and  Leicester.  Edred,  the  Eng- 


118 


AULIC  COUNCIL 


AUMALE 


lish  king,  successor  of  Edmund,  made  him 
do  homage  and  embrace  Christianity.  In  952 
Aulaf  was  driven  out  by  the  Christian  North- 
umbrians, and,  tired  of  struggling  against  the 
English,  he  went  over  to  lead  the  Ostmen  of 
Dublin  against  the  Irish.  He  defeated  Mur- 
doch, king  of  Leinster,  in  956,  and  put  him 
to  death  the  next  year.  Two  more  Leinster 
princes  suffered  the  same  fate  in  977.  At  this 
time  he  called  himself  king  of  Ireland  and  the 
Isles.  In  980  Aulaf  lost  his  son  and  heir,  Regi- 
nald or  Regnell,  in  an  engagement  against  the 
Hibernian  aborigines,  and  in  the  same  year, 
heart-broken,  he  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  lona, 
where  he  died,  after  a  stormy  life.  II.  Son  of 
Guthfrith,  and  uncle  of  the  preceding,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  10th  century.  He  joined 
in  the  wars  of  his  nephew  against  the  Saxons 
in  south  Britain  and  the  Celts  of  Erin.  He 
ravaged  Armagh  in  932,  and  Kilcullen  in  938. 
In  939  he  was  obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in 
Dublin.  He  made  an  irruption  into  England 
with  his  nephew,  conquered  Edmund,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Athelstan,  in  943,  and  recovered 
Northumbria.  He  lived  and  died  a  pagan  and 
a  hater  of  the  Christian  clergy. 

AILIC  COUNCIL  (Lat.  aula,  a  court  or  hall ; 
Ger.  Heichihofrath),  a  tribunal  under  the  old 
German  empire,  standing  at  its  first  institution 
next  in  authority  to  the  supreme  imperial 
chamber  (Reichslcammergerichf),  to  which  it 
was  afterward  made  equal  in  power.  It  was 
formed  in  1501  by  the  emperor  Maximilian, 
chiefly  from  members  of  his  tribunal  for  the 
administration  of  justice  in  the  Austrian  do- 
minions, and,  as  ultimately  organized,  con- 
sisted of  a  president,  vice  president,  and  18 
councillors,  all  appointed  and  paid  by  the 
emperor.  The  authority  of  the  aulic  council 
was  confirmed  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
made  equal  to  that  of  the  chamber,  and 
sharply  defined  in  the  decrees  concerning 
it  (ReichsJiofratJis-Ordnungeri)  of  1559  and 
1654.  Six  of  the  councillors  must  be  of  the 
Protestant  religion,  and  the  unanimous  vote  of 
these  six  could  not  be  entirely  overruled  by  the 
others,  no  matter  what  their  majority.  The 
council  was  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  no- 
bles (Graf en  und  fferren),  the  other  of  legal 
scholars  or  experts  (Gelehrte),  all  equal  in  rank, 
though  the  last  named  class  received  higher 
salaries  than  the  others.  The  vice  chancellor 
appointed  by  the  electorate  of  Mentz  also  had 
a  seat  in  the  council.  This  tribunal  had  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  over  feudal  affairs  con- 
nected with  the  empire,  appeals  in  criminal 
cases  in  the  states  immediately  subject  to  the 
emperor,  and  questions  concerning  the  im- 
perial government  itself.  The  members  of  the 
council  held  office,  except  in  extraordinary 
cases,  during  one  reign  ;  each  emperor,  imme- 
diately on  his  accession,  appointing  new  ones. 
The  council  passed  out  of  existence  with  the 
old  German  empire  itself  in  1806. 

H  US,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of  Hel- 
las, in  Boiotia,  situated  on  the  strait  of  Euripus, 


which  separates  Bceotia  and  Euboea ;  it  had  a 
temple  of  Diana.  Here  Agamemnon  assem- 
bled his  fleet  preparatory  to  crossing  the 
^Egean  sea  to  Troy,  and  here  his  daughter 
Iphigenia  was  presented  as  a  sacrifice  to  Di- 
ana. In  the  time  of  Pausanias  only  a  few 
potters  inhabited  it. 

AILNAY  Hi:  CHAKMSE,  Charles  de  Monou,  sei- 
gneur d',  a  French  proprietor,  who  figured  large- 
ly in  the  history  of  Acadia  or  Nova  Scotia,  died 
in  1650.  He  was  sent  out  about  1632  by  Com- 
mander Isaac  de  Razilly,  the  proprietor  of  Aca- 
dia, and  on  his  death  acted  as  agent  for  his 
brother  Claude  de  Razilly,  whose  rights  he 
purchased  in  1642.  A  civil  war  broke  out  soon 
after  between  him  and  La  Tour,  a  neighboring 
proprietor,  in  which  both  parties  committed 
excesses,  and  both  sought  the  aid  of  New  Eng- 
land. D'Aulnay  secured  the  favor  of  the 
French  government,  and,  after  capturing  Ma- 
dame de  la  Tour  in  her  fort  in  1645,  was  appoint- 
ed governor.  His  authority  extended  to  the 
Kennebec.  His  widow,  Jeanne  Motin,  married 
his  old  rival  La  Tour. 

AUMALE  (formerly  Albemarle),  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Seine-Inf6rieure, 
40  m.  N.  E.  of  Rouen ;  pop.  in  1866,  2,929.  In 
1592  a  battle  was  fought  here  between  the 
French  and  the  Spaniards,  in  which  Henry  IV. 
was  wounded.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  Aumale  was  a  county  belonging  to 
Claude  de  Lorraine,  5th  son  of  Ren6  II.,  duke  of 
Lorraine,  who  was  afterward  created  duke  of 
Guise  by  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  became  the 
head  of  the  illustrious  family  of  that  name.  It 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy  by  Henry  II., 
and  held  as  such  by  Claude  II.,  3d  son  of  Claude 
I.,  and  brother  of  the  celebrated  Francis  of 
Guise.  This  duke  of  Aumale  distinguished 
himself  during  the  war  of  the  French  against 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was  one  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre,  and 
was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball  before  La  Rochelle 
in  1573.  His  son  Charles  de  Lorraine  fought 
against  Henry  IV.,  assisting  the  duke  of  llay- 
enne  in  the  battles  of  Arques  and  Ivry,  where  the 
troops  of  the  league  were  defeated. — The  title  of 
duke  of  Aurnale,  after  being  extinct  for  years, 
was  given  to  HENBI  EUGENE  PHILIPPE  Louis 
D'ORLEANS,  4th  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  16, 1822.  Like  his  brothers,  he  was 
educated  at  one  of  the  public  colleges  of  Paris. 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  4th 
regiment  of  the  line ;  he  took  part  in  the  Afri- 
can expedition  of  M6d6ah,  served  a  second 
campaign  in  Algeria,  and  returned  to  France 
in  1841  on  account  of  ill  health.  While  enter- 
ing Paris,  Sept.  13,  1841,  at  the  head  of  the 
17th  regiment,  of  which  he  had  been  appointed 
colonel,  a  man  of  the  name  of  Quenisset  dis- 
charged a  gun  at  him,  but  missed  his  aim.  In 
1842  he  was  made  brigadier  general,  and  com- 
mander of  the  district  of  Med6ah.  On  May  16, 
1843,  he  attacked  and  routed  Abd-el-Kader, 
and  as  a  reward  was  made  lieutenant  general 
and  commander  of  the  province  of  Constantino. 


AUXGERVYLE 


AUEELLE 


119 


In  1847  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Algeria 
in  place  of  Marshal  Bugeaud,  and  soon  after- 
ward received  Abd-el-Kader's  surreVler.  In 
1848,  on  hearing  of  the  revolution  in  Paris,  he 
exhorted  the  population  to  wait  calmly  for  fur- 
ther developments ;  and  on  March  3  he  resigned 
and  joined  the  other  members  of  his  family  in 
England.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
German  war  in  1870  he  offered  his  services  to 
the  government,  but  they  were  not  accepted. 
After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  III.  lie  returned 
to  France,  and  in  1872  took  his  seat  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  assembly.  His  eldest  son, 
prince  de  Conde,  died  in  Australia  in  18G6, 
aged  21,  and  his  wife,  a  Neapolitan  princess,  in 
18G9.  His  only  remaining  child,  the  duke  de 
Guise,  born  Jan.  5,  1854,  died  in  Paris,  July  25, 
1872.  He  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  the 
Conde  family.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  academy.  Besides  pamph- 
lets and  articles  on  political  and  military  mat- 
ters, he  is  the  author  of  Histoire  des  princes  de 
Conde  (2  vols.,  Paris,  18G9),  translated  into 
English  by  the  Rev.  K.  Brown-Borthwick  (2 
vols.,  London,  1872). 

Al.NGERV  YLE,  Richard  (known  in  history  as 
Richard  de  Bury),  an  English  statesman  and 
bibliographer,  born  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds  in 
1287,  died  at  Bishop's  Auckland,  April  24, 1345. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  appointed  tutor 
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  after  the  accession 
of  his  pupil  to  the  throne  as  Edward  III.  re- 
ceived successively  the  appointments  of  coiffeur 
to  tlie  king,  treasurer  of  the  wardrobe,  and 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal.  In  1333  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Durham.  In  1334  he  suc- 
ceeded Archbishop  Stratford  as  lord  high 
chancellor  of  England,  which  office  he  resigned 
in  1335  for  that  of  treasurer.  lie  went  several 
times  abroad  as  ambassador,  once  to  Rome  and 
thrice  to  Paris.  Aungervyle  was  a  diligent 
purchaser  of  rare  and  costly  books,  and  when 
bishop  of  Durham  his  collection  was  one  of  the 
largest  in  England.  He  founded  also  for  the 
use  of  the  students  at  Oxford  a  library,  which 
was  then  the  best  in  the  kingdom.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  gave  up  entirely  to  books. 
He  left  a  Latin  treatise  on  bibliography  (the 
earliest  by  any  English  writer),  entitled  Philo- 
billon  (Cologne,  1473 ;  English  translation  by 
J.  B.  Inglis,  London,  1832) ;  Epistolas  Familia- 
rium,  including  some  letters  to  his  friend 
Petrarch ;  and  Orationes  ad  Principes. 

VI  UKI.I  \\  (Lucius  DOMITICS  AUBELIANUS),  a 
Roman  emperor,  born  in  Pannonia,  or  accord- . 
ing  to  some  authorities  on  the  southern  con- 
fines of  Dacia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury, assassinated  between  Heraclea  and  By- 
zantium, A.  D.  275.  His  parents  were  poor 
and  of  the  lowest  class.  He  entered  a  Roman 
legion  at  an  early  age,  and  by  his  bravery  and 
the  remarkable  feats  of  arms  which  bis  almost 
gigantic  stature  and  great  strength  enabled 
him  to  perform  he  secured  rapid  promotion, 
anil  great  personal  popularity  with  the  soldiers, 
among  whom  he  was  designated  as  Aurelianus 


manw  ad  ferrvm  (Aurelian  Sword-in-Hand). 
He  distinguished  himself  under  Valerian  and 
Claudius  II.  in  campaigns  against  the  Goths; 
and  when  Claudius  died,  although  his  brother 
Quintillus'  assumed  the  purple  as  his  heir,  Au- 
relian was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army  of 
the  Danube,  of  which  he  was  then  in  command 
(270).  Qnintiilus  committed  suicide  after  a 
nominal  reign  of  several  weeks,  and  Aurelian 
took  the  throne  without  opposition.  He  drove 
the  Goths  beyond  the  Danube,  carried  on  suc- 
cessful campaigns  against  the  Alemanni  and 
other  German  tribes,  and  to  protect  Rome 
against  them  built  a  line  of  strong  walls,  the 
ruins  of  which  may  still  be  traced  about  the 
city.  He  next  undertook  a  war  against  Palmyra, 
then  a  magnificent  city  in  the  height  of  its 
prosperity,  ruled  by  Zenobia,  the  widow  of 
King  Odenathus.  He  captured  the  city  after 
one  of  the  ablest  defences  in  history,  treated 
the  people  with  comparative  kindness,  and  re- 
fused to  put  Zenobia  to  death,  though  his 
troops  demanded  her  execution.  After  his 
departure  the  Palmyrenes  rose  and  massa- 
cred the  Roman  garrison;  upon  this  he  re- 
turned, destroyed  the  city,  and  put  the  people 
to  the  sword  (273).  Zenobia  was  carried  to 
Rome,  and  appeared  in  the  emperor's  triumph. 
Aurelian  next  defeated  an  attempt  at  rebellion 
made  by  the  Egyptians  under  their  Roman 
governor.  Tetricus,  who  had  made  himself 
the  independent  ruler  of  the  greater  part  of 
Gaul,  now  surrendered  after  little  more  than 
the  threat  of  a  war ;  and  the  Roman  empire 
resumed  something  of  its  old  territorial  im- 
portance. The  senate  bestowed  upon  Aurelian 
the  title  of  "  restorer  of  the  empire."  After  ef- 
fecting many  improvements  in  the  government 
of  the  city,  the  discipline  of  the  army,  and  the 
condition  of  the  people,  the  emperor  was  assas- 
sinated while  on  the  way  to  a  campaign  against 
the  Persians,  at  the  instigation  of  his  secretary, 
whom  he  had  threatened  with  punishment. 

AIRELUS,  Marcos.     See  ANTONINUS. 

AURELLE  (or  D'AITRELLE)  DE  PALADINES,  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  1803.  lie  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Crimean  war.  Before  the  out- 
break of  the  war  with  Germany  in  1870  he 
was  commander  of  the  5th  military  division  of 
France,  at  Metz.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire 
he  was  charged  by  the  provisional  government 
at  Tours  with  the  formation  of  the  army  of 
the  Loire.  After  a  battle  near  Coulmiers,  he 
drove  Gen.  von  der  Tann  from  Orleans  (Nov. 
9-10),  winning  the  first  French  victory  over 
the  Germans.  For  this  he  was  appointed 
(Nov.  15)  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Loire.  On  Nov.  28  he  attacked  the 
left  wing  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  at 
Beaune-la-Rolande,  but  encountered  a  severe 
repulse.  On  Dec.  2  he  was  beaten  by  the 
grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg  at  Artenay,  and 
on  Dec.  3  Frederick  Charles  drove  him  back 
to  the  forest  of  Orleans,  renewing  the  at- 
tack the  next  day  and  taking  possession  of 
the  town  at  midnight,  after  brisk  fighting. 


120 


AUEICH 


AURORA 


On  the  same  day  the  French  had  been  thor- 
oughly routed  by  another  detachment  of  Fred- 
erick Charles's  army  near  Chevilly  and  Chil- 
leurs,  and  driven  either  across  or  along  the 
Loire  above  Orleans,  thus  splitting  the  army 
of  the  Loire  into  two  portions.  D'Aurelle 
was  removed  from  his  command.  He  refused 
the  command  of  the  camp  of  Cherbourg,  as 
well  as  the  appointment  of  successor  to  Gen. 
Chanzy.  As  member  of  the  national  assembly 
at  Bordeaux  he  opposed  the  continuation  of 
the  war,  and  was  one  of  the  committee  of  fif- 
teen appointed  to  assist  Thiers  and  Favre  in 
arranging  the  preliminaries  of  the  treaty  of 
peace.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
national  guard  of  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
and  in  1872  a  member  of  the  court  martial 
for'the  trial  of  Marshal  Bazaine. 

Al  ItH'll,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hanover,  capital  of  an  administra- 
tive division  of  the  same  name,  and  formerly 
capital  of  the  principality  of  East  Friesland, 
60  m.  N.  W.  of  Bremen;  pop.  in  1871,  4,261. 
It  has  a  castle  which  was  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  prince  of  East  Friesland,  a  college 
(gymnasium),  and  a  normal  school. 

AURIFABER,  the  Latinized  name  of  JOHANN 

GOLDSOHMIED,     Or    GOLDSOHMIDT,     OU6    of     the 

companions  of  Luther,  born  near  Mansfeld  in 
1519,  died  at  Erfurt  in  1579.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  and  became  Luther's  amanuensis 
in  1545.  In  the  Smalcaldic  war  he  was  chap- 
lain to  a  Saxon  regiment,  and  in  1551  court 
chaplain  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  but  he  be- 
came involved  in  theological  disputes  and  was 
removed  in  1562.  He  collected  the  unpub- 
lished manuscripts  of  Luther,  and  was  one  of 
the  collaborators  of  the  Jena  edition  of  the  re- 
former's works.  He  edited  the  Epistolce  Lu- 
theri  and  the  "Table  Talk."  In  1566  he  be- 
came pastor  at  Erfurt. 

Al  HILL  AC,  a  town  of  southern  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Cantal,  in  a  valley  on 
the  Jourdanne,  here  spanned  by  a  fine  bridge, 
about  60  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Clermont ;  pop.  in 
1866,  10,998.  It  is  well  built,  with  wide 
streets,  kept  clean  by  the  overflowing  of  a 
large  reservoir,  into  which  two  fountains  dis- 
charge. The  old  buildings  include  the  castle 
of  St.  Stephen,  the  church  of  St.  G6raud,  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame  of  the  13th  century,  and 
the  college,  which  contains  a  valuable  library 
and  a  cabinet  of  mineralogy.  The  manu- 
factures are  copper  utensils,  jewelry,  woollen 
stuffs,  blondes,  laces,  and  paper. — Aurillac  was 
founded  in  the  9th  century.  The  wall  former- 
ly surrounding  it  has  been  destroyed.  The 
town  suffered  much  in  the  wars  of  the  14th, 
15th,  and  16th  centuries. 

AI'BIOL,  a  French  borough  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  16  m.  N.  E.  of 
Marseilles;  pop.  in  1866,  5,182.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  flags,  and  near  it  are  coal  mines. 

Al  KIVII.LII  s,  Karl,  a  Swedish  orientalist, 
born  at  Stockholm  in  1717,  died  in  1786.  He 
mastered  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  Sanskrit,  and 


other  oriental  languages.  After  1754  he  re- 
sided at  Upsal,  at  first  giving  private  instruc- 
tion in  the  poetry  of  different  nations,  and  in 
1772  was  appointed  professor  of  oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  university.  He  succeeded  Lin- 
naaus  as  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
Upsal,  and  was  an  active  member  of  the  com- 
mission for  preparing  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Swedish. 

AUROCHS,  the  bos  luon  of  Europe,  one  of 
the  contemporaries  of  the  mammoth  (elephat 
primigeniwi),  an  animal  of  the  ox  family,  once 
abundant,  but  now  existing  only  in  the  forests 
of  Lithuania  belonging  to  the  czar  of  Russia, 
and  possibly  in  the  Caucasus.  It  would  long 
ago  have  become  extinct  but  for  the  protection 
of  man.  The  ure-ox  (B.  uriis  or  B.  primi- 
genius),  found  in  the  post-tertiary  deposits,  is 


believed  to  be  the  same  as  was  described  by 
Csesar  in  his  Commentaries  as  abounding  in 
the  forests  of  Germany ;  it  existed  in  Switzer- 
land as  late  as  the  16th  century.  Both  species 
are  found  abundantly  in  the  post-tertiary  of 
Europe,  and  corresponding  species  in  America, 
and  no  doubt  furnished  a  large  share  of  the 
food  of  prehistoric  man. 

AURORA  (in  Greek,  Eos),  the  goddess  of  the 
morning,  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and 
Thia,  the  wife  of  Astrteus,  and  the  mother  of 
the  winds.  She  carried  off  Orion  to  the  island 
of  Ortygia,  and  detained  him  there  till  he  was 
slain  by  Diana.  She  bore  away  Cephalus,  and 
had  by  him  a  son  named  Phnethon.  To  Ti- 
thonus,  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  she 
bore  Memnon  and  yEmathion.  Aurora  is  some- 
times represented  in  a  saffron-colored  robe, 
with  a  wand  or  torch  in  her  right  hand, 
emerging  from  a  golden  palace,  and  ascending 
her  chariot ;  sometimes  in  a  flowing  veil,  which 
she  is  in  the  act  of  throwing  back,  opening  the 
gates  of  morning ;  and  sometimes  as  a  nymph, 
wearing  a  garland  and  standing  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  winged  horses,  with  a  torch  in  one 
hand  and  flowers  in  the  other,  which  she  scat- 
ters as  she  goes. 


AURORA 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


121 


ACRORA,  a  city  of  Kane  county,  111.,  on  Fox 
river  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and«yuincy 
railroad,  40  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago;  pop.  in 
1860,  6,011 ;  in  1870,  11,162.  It  contains  14 
churches,  a  handsome  city  hall,  a  college,  and 
many  important  manufactories,  the  power  for 
which  is  furnished  by  the  Fox  river.  The 
construction  and  repair  shops  of  the  railway 
situated  here  employ  about  700  men.  A  semi- 
weekly  newspaper,  and  3  weeklies,  one  of 
which  is  German,  are  published  here. 

AURORA  BOREALIS  (more  correctly  Aurora 
Polaris,  since  the  phenomenon  is  not  confined 
to  northern  latitudes),  called  also  NOETHERN 
STREAMERS  and  NORTHERN  LIGHTS,  a  luminous 
appearance,  associated  with  energetic  disturb- 
ances of  the  earth's  magnetism  and  electrical 
condition.  It  is  seldom  seen  save  in  high  lati- 
tudes, though  occasionally  the  tropics  are  visit- 
ed by  auroral  displays. .  In  polar  regions  au- 
roras are  very  common,  and  usually  far  more 
brilliant  than  in  the  temperate  zones.  Hum- 
boldt  gives  the  following  description  of  the 
appearances  presented  when  the  auroral  phe- 
nomena are  fully  developed,  although  it  must  be 
understood  that  there  is  considerable  variety  in 
these  displays :  "  An  aurora  borealis  is  always 
preceded  by  the  formation  of  a  sort  of  nebular 
veil  which  sl'owly  ascends  to  a  height  of  four,  six, 
eight,  or  even  to  ten  degrees.  It  is  toward  the 
magnetic  meridian  of  the  place  that  the  sky, 
at  first  pure,  commences  to  become  brownish. 
Through  this  obscure  segment,  the  color  of 
which  passes  from  brown  to  violet,  the  stars 
are  seen  as  through  a  thick  fog.  A  wider  arc, 
but  one  of  brilliant  light,  at  first  white,  then  yel- 
low, bounds  the  dark  segment.  Sometimes  the 
luminous  arc  appears  agitated  for  entire  hours 
by  a  sort  of  effervescence  and  by  a  continual 
change  of  form,  before  the  rising  of  the  rays 
and  columns  of  light,  which  ascend  as  far  as 
the  zenith.  The  more  intense  is  the  emission 
of  the  polar  light,  the  more  vivid  are  its  colors, 
which  from  violet  and  bluish  white  pass  through 
all  the  intermediate  shades  to  green  and  purple 
red.  Sometimes  the  columns  of  light  appear 
to  come  out  of  the  brilliant  arc  mingled  with 
blackish  rays  similar  to  a  thick  smoke.  Some- 
times they  rise  simultaneously  in  different  parts 
of  the  horizon;  they  unite  themselves  into  a 
sea  of  flames,  the  magnificence  of  which  no 
painting  could  express,  and  at  each  instant 
rapid  undulations  cause  their  form  and  bril- 
liancy to  vary.  Motion  appears  to  increase 
the  visibility  of  the  phenomenon.  Around  the 
point  in  the  heavens  which  corresponds  to  the 
direction  of  the  dipping  needle  produced,  the 
rays  appear  to  assemble  together  and  form  a 
boreal  corona.  It  is  rare  that  the  appearance 
is  so  complete  and  is  prolonged  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  corona;  but  when  the  latter  ap- 
pears, it  always  announces  the  end  of  the  phe- 
nomenon. The  rays  then  become  more  rare, 
shorter,  and  less  vividly  colored.  Shortly 
nothing  more  is  seen  on  the  celestial  vault  than 
wide,  motionless  nebulous  spots,  pale  or  of  an 


ashen  color ;  these  disappear  while  the  traces 
of  the  dark  segment  whence  the  phenomenon 
originated  remain  still  on  the  horizon."  Al- 
though auroras  are  more  commonly  seen  in  high 
latitudes  than  near  the  tropics,  it  is  not  toward 
the  true  poles  of  the  earth  that  the  increase 
takes  place,  nor  does  the  increase  continue 
after  certain  high  latitudes  have  been  reached. 
Thus  the  frequency  of  auroras  is  different  at 
different  stations  in  the  same  latitude ;  and  in 
passing  poleward  from  places  in  a  given  lati- 
tude, the  region  of  maximum  frequency  is 
reached  more  quickly  in  some  longitudes  than 
in  others.  Thus  an  inhabitant  of  St.  Peters- 
burg would  have  to  travel  to  lat.  71°  N.  before 
reaching  the  place  of  greatest  auroral  activity ; 
while  an  inhabitant  of  Washington  need  travel 
northward  only  to  lat.  56°  to  reach  the  region 
where  auroral  displays  are  most  frequent.  The 
zone  on  the  earth's  northern  hemisphere  where 
auroras  occur  most  commonly  and  attain  their 
greatest  splendor,  may  be  represented  by  con- 
structing a  ring  of  card  or  paper,  of  such  di- 
mensions as  to  agree  with  the  60th  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  and  then  pushing  the  ring  south- 
ward on  the  side  of  America  and  northward 
on  the  side  of  Asia,  until  it  passes  through  the 
most  southerly  part  of  Hudson  bay  and  the 
most  northerly  part  of  Siberia.  The  position 
of  the  corresponding  zone  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  has  not  yet  been  determined ;  but 
it  is  believed  that  the  southern  zone  of  maxi- 
mum auroral  frequency  is  nearly  antipodal  to 
the  northern  zone.  From  what  we  kno.w  of 
the  connection  between  the  occurrence  of  au- 
roras and  disturbances  of  the  earth's  magnet- 
ism, we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  as 
the  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth  are  slowly 
shifting,  so  the  zone  of  maximum  auroral  fre- 
quency must  also  change  in  position.  It  can- 
not be  doubted,  for  example,  that  in  the  17th 
century,  when  the  northern  magnetic  pole  lay 
between  England  and  the  north  pole,  terrestrial 
conditions  were  more  favorable  for  the  occur- 
rence of  auroras  in  England  than  they  now 
are,  or  than  they  then  were  in  corresponding 
latitudes  in  North  America.  At  present,  on 
the  contrary,  the  northern  magnetic  pole  lies 
between  the  north  pole  and  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  the  American  continent;  hence 
auroras  are  more  frequent  and  more  brilliant 
in  North  America  than  in  corresponding  lati- 
tudes iA  Europe. — To  the  description  given  by 
Humboldt  we  should  add  that  sometimes  in 
high  latitudes,  instead  of  extending  from  the 
horizon,  the  auroral  arch  appears  in  the  form 
of  a  complete  oval.  Hansteen  relates  that  at 
Christiania  he  twice  saw  the  auroral  arch  in 
this  form.  Sometimes  more  than  one  arch  has 
been  seen.  Thus  the  observers  who  were  sent 
by  the  French  government  to  winter  at  Bos- 
sekop  in  Finland,  saw  on  one  occasion  no  fewer 
than  nine  arches,  separated  by  dark  spaces, 
"  and  resembling  in  their  arrangement  magnifi- 
cent curtains  of  light,  hung  behind  and  below 
each  other,  their  brilliant  folds  stretching  com- 


122 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


pletely  across  the  sky."  The  position  of  the 
luminous  region  is  not  known.  Arago  was  of 
opinion  that  each  observer  sees  his  own  aurora, 
somewhat  as  each  observer  of  a  rainbow  sees 
the  luminous  arc  differently  placed.  Sir  John 
Herschel  says  "  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  light 
of  the  aurora  originates  nowhere  but  in  the 
place  where  it  is  seen."  But  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
the  determination  of  the  height  of  auroral 
gleams  are  presented  when  the  auroral  corona 
is  formed.  Now  this  corona  always  surrounds 
the  point  toward  which  the  magnetic  dip- 
ping needle  points.  Yet  the  magnetic  dipping 
needles  at  different  stations  are  not  directed 
toward  one  and  the  same  point ;  so  that  what- 
ever the  auroral  corona  may  be,  it  does  not 
seem  to  hold  a  definite  place,  in  such  sort  that 
its  distance  can  be  determined  by  simultaneous 
observations ;  for  it  is  the  essential  principle  of 
the  method  of  simultaneous  observations  that 
the  lines  of  sight  should  be  directed  to  one  and 
the  same  point.  Nor  is  it  easy,  on  Herschel's 
theory,  to  interpret  the  fact  that  the  auroral 
corona  has  been  seen  at  stations  distant  more 
than  1,000  miles  from  each  other,  and  always 
around  the  part  of  the  heavens  pointed  to  by 
the  magnetic  dipping  needle.  For  a  point  im- 
mediately overhead  at  one  station,  and  100 
miles  from  the  earth's  surface,  would  be  be- 
low the  horizon  of  a  station  1,000  miles  dis- 
tant. We  seem  forced  to  adopt  the  conclusion 
that  though  there  is  no  analogy  whatever  be- 
tween the  aurora  and  the  rainbow,  yet  Arago 
was  right  when  he  asserted  his  belief  that  as 
each  observer  sees  his  own  rainbow,  so  each 
observer  sees  a  different  aurora.  We  should 
thus  be  led  to  consider  whether  the  nature  of 
the  luminous  emanations — the  direction,  for  in- 
stance, of  the  luminous  flashes  composing  them 
— may  not  explain  the  formation  of  the  auroral 
corona.  In  this  case  the  position  of  the  observer 
would  affect  the  appearance  of  the  phenomenon. 
— If  we  assume  that  reliance  can  be  placed  on 
the  observations  by  means  of  which  the  height 
of  the  auroral  arch  has  been  estimated,  we 
must  assign  a  considerable  elevation  to  many 
of  these  lights.  On  Oct.  17,  1819,  an  aurora 
was  observed  simultaneously  at  Gosport,  Kes- 
wick,  and  Newtown  Stewart,  in  Great  Britain ; 
and  from  the  calculations  made  by  Dalton  the 
meteorologist,  the  arch  was  estimated  to  be 
101  or  102  miles  above  the  earth.  More  re- 
cently Sir  John  Herschel  estimated  that  the 
arch  in  the  aurora  of  March  9,  1861,  was  83 
miles  above  the  earth.  But  he  remarks  that 
"the  auroral  light  has  been  seen  below  the 
clouds,  as  in  the  polar  seas  by  Parry,  Sherer, 
and  Ross,  on  Jan.  27,  1825 ;  near  the  chain  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  on  Dec.  2,  1850,  by  liar- 
disty ;  and  at  Alford  in  Scotland  on  Feb.  24, 
1842,  by  Farquharson  ;  nay,  even  habitually 
seen  as  if  hovering  over  the  Coreen  hills  in  the 
last-mentioned  neighborhood,  at  a  height  of 
from  4,000  to  6,000  miles."  Herr  Galle,  from 
observations  made  during  the  aurora  of  Feb. 


4,  1872,  estimates  the  height  of  the  auroral 
corona  on  that  occasion  at  2fi5  miles  above  the 
sea  level.  Prof.  Olmsted's  conclusion  that  the 
auroral  arch  is  seldom  below  70  miles  in  height 
or  above  160  miles,  would  thus  appear  to  be 
negatived.  But  probably  all  such  estimates 
must  be  abandoned,  and  "our  meteorological 
catalogues,"  as  Arago  advised,  "  must  be  disen- 
cumbered of  a  multitude  of  determinations  of 
height,  though  due  to  such  great  names  as  Mai- 
ran,  Halley,  Krafll,  Cavendish,  and  Dalton. "- 
The  extent  of  the  earth's  surface  over  which 
the  same  aurora  has  been  visible  has  some- 
times been  remarkable.  Kamtz  mentions  that 
on  Jan.  5,  1769,  a  splendid  aurora  was  seen 
simultaneously  in  France  and  in  Pennsylvania ; 
and  that  the  remarkable  aurora  of  Jan.  7,  1831, 
was  seen  from  all  parts  of  central  and  northern 
Europe,  in  Canada,  and  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  United  States.  But  even  these  instances, 
and  others  of  the  same  kind  which  might  be 
cited,  are  surpassed  in  interest  by  the  circum- 
stance that  auroras  of  great  brilliancy  occur 
simultaneously  over  the  major  part  of  both  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  Kamtz 
mentions  that  when  Capt.  Cook's  observations 
are  analyzed,  it  appears  that  on  every  occasion 
when  he  observed  an  aurora 'australis  an  aurora 
borealis  had  been  seen  in  Europe,  or  else  the 
agitation  of  the  magnetic  needle  proved  that 
around  the  northern  magnetic  pole  an  auroral 
display  must  have  been  in  progress.  The 
aurora  of  Feb.  4,  1872,  was  seen  not  only  in 
America  and  Europe,  and  over  the  northern 
hemisphere  generally,  as  far  S.  as  lat.  14°  N., 
but  in  Mauritius,  in  South  Africa,  in  Australia, 
and  probably  over  the  greater  part  of  the  south- 
ern hemisphere  (for  Mauritius  is  much  further 
north  than  southern  auroras  are  ordinarily  seen). 
— Mairan  and  Cassini  were  the  first  to  point 
out  that  auroras  do  not  occur  at  all  times  with 
equal  frequency  or  in  equal  splendor.  The 
former  mentions  that  a  great  number  of  auroras 
were  seen  at  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century 
(a  misprint  probably  for  the  17th,  as  the  con- 
text seems  to  imply)  to  beyond  the  year  1624, 
after  which  nothing  more  was  heard  of  them 
till  1686.  Kamtz  mentions  that  between  1707 
and  1790  there  was  a  remarkable  increase  fol- 
lowed by  decrease  of  auroral  action,  the  max- 
imum frequency  being  attained  in  1790.  Prof. 
Olmsted  considered  that  there  was  sufficient  evi- 
dence to  establish  a  period  of  20  years  during 
which  auroral  displays  are  frequent,  precede " 
and  followed  by  intervals  of  from  60  to  65  year 
during  which  few  are  witnessed.  But  it  is  open 
to  question  whether  the  existence  of  this  long 
period  is  as  yet  established.  The  actual  fri 
quency  of  auroras  cannot  be  inferred  from  ob- 
servations made  in  temperate  latitudes,  where 
alone  hitherto  any  attempt  has  been  made 
to  determine  long  periods.  The  longest 
riod  which  lias  been  thoroughly  established 
one  of  about  11  years.  This  period  is  associ- 
ated with  the  occurrence  of  magnetic  disturb- 
ances in  cycles  of  11  years.  The  connection 


AURORA  BOEEALIS 


123 


between  auroral  action  and  disturbances  of  the 
earth's  magnetism  appears  to  have  be«n  dem- 
onstrated, though  doubt  still  remains  as  to  the 
exact  nature  of  the  association.  The  perturba- 
tions of  the  magnetic  needle  undoubtedly  attain 
their  maximum  extent  at  intervals  separated  by 
about  11  years.  The  researches  of  Sabine,  La- 
mont,  and  Wolf  appear  to  have  established 
that  fact  beyond  dispute.  Hence  we  may  infer 
that  the  auroral  action  waxes  and  wanes  with- 
in the  same  period. — A  remarkable  associa- 
tion also  appears  to  exist  between  disturbances 
of  the  earth's  magnetism  and  the  occurrence 
of  spots  on  the  sun.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  the  solar  spots  increase  and  diminish  in 
a  period  of  about  11  years;  and  that  this  peri- 
odicity corresponds  exactly  with  the  periodicity 
of  the  magnetic  perturbations.  A  great  solar 
outburst  witnessed  by  Carrington  and  Hodg- 
son, Sept.  29,  1859,  was  not  only  accompanied 
by  extensive  magnetic  disturbances,  but  on  the 
same  day  remarkable  auroras  occurred  in  both 
hemispheres.  Telegraphic  communication  was 
interrupted  on  all  the  principal  lines ;  the  ope- 
rators at  Washington  and  Philadelphia  received 
sharp  electric  shocks ;  and  the  pen  used  in 
Bain's  system  of  telegraphy  was  followed  by  a 
flame.  Some  doubt  has  been  thrown  on  the 
supposed  connection  between  these  circum- 
stances and  the  solar  outburst,  in  consequence 
of  the  failure  of  observers  to  obtain  any  corrob- 
orative evidence  during  the  past  13  years;  but 
the  connection  between  the  condition  of  the  so- 
lar surface  and  the  earth's  magnetic  state,  and 
therefore  the  connection  between  the  solar 
spot  period  and  auroral  displays,  has  been  thor- 
oughly established.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  number  of  auroras  seen  in  each 
month,  in  America  and  Europe,  according  to 
the  observations  of  Prof.  Loomis  of  Yale  college 
and  Kamtz  of  Germany.  These  observations, 
however,  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  indi- 
cating the  relative  frequency  of  auroras  in 
America  and  Europe,  because  the  observations 
of  Loomis  and  Kamtz  range  over  a  different 
number  of  years : 


January.  .. 

Loomii. 

...  173 

Kamtz. 
229 

July  

LoomU. 

..  244 

Kamtz. 

87 

February  .  . 

...  210 
240 

807 

440 

August  .  .  . 

..  233 
293 

217 
405 

267 

812 

236 

im 

1S4 

215 

2S5 

.... 

June  .  .  . 

..  179 

65 

..   159 

2'25 

In  each  case  there  is  a  double  maximum,  the 
two  equinoxes  being  the  epochs  at  which  auro- 
ras are  most  frequent ;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
in  these  mouths  the  solar  poles  are  most  inclined 
toward  the  earth,  the  southern  pole  in  March,  I 
the  northern  pole  in  September ;  so  that  the 
southern  spot  zone  is  nearer  to  the  centre  of 
the  sun's  face  in  March  than  at  any  other  time, 
while  the  northern  spot  zone  holds  a  cor- 
responding position  in  September. — As  to  the 
electrical  character  of  the  phenomenon  no 
question  can  be  entertained,  though  there  are 
few  problems  of  greater  difficulty  than  the 
determination  of  the  exact  manner  in  which 


the  electrical  action  is  excited.  It  has  been 
held  by  some  that  the  aurora  is  due  to  elec- 
trical discharges  from  the  earth.  Through 
some  cause  the  earth,  regarded  as  a  vast  mag- 
net, becomes  overcharged  (according  to  this 
theory)  with  electrical  energy,  and  it  is  as  this 
energy  is  gradually  dissipated  that  the  splen- 
dors of  the  aurora  are  displayed.  It  has  been 
noticed  that  whenever  the  earth's  magnetism 
is  unusually  intense  an  auroral  display  is  to  be 
expected.  As  soon  as  the  aurora  has  made  its 
appearance  the  intensity  of  the  magnetic  force 
begins  to  diminish.  The  more  brilliant  the 
aurora,  the  more  rapidly  is  the  extra  energy 
of  the  earth's  magnetism  dissipated.  "  It  has 
also  been  observed  by  .operators  of  the  Bain 
or  chemical  telegraph,  that  very  singular  effects 
are  produced  by  the  aurora  upon  the  telegraph 
wires.  The  atmospheric  electricity  generated 
during  thunderstorms  passes  from  the  wire  to 
the  chemically  prepared  paper,  emitting  a 
bright  spark  and  a  sound  like  the  snapping  of 
a  pistol.  It  never  remains  long  upon  the 
wires,  though  it  travels  sometimes  40  or  50 
miles  before  discharging  itself.  But  the  elec- 
tricity produced  by  the  aurora  passes  along  the 
wires  in  a  continuous  stream  with  no  sudden 
discharge,  effecting  the  same  result  as  that  by 
the  galvanic  battery.  A  colored  mark  upon 
the  paper  is  made  by  the  positive  current  of 
the  aurora  as  by  the  positive  pole  of  the  bat- 
tery; the  negative  current,  on  the  contrary, 
produces  a  bleaching  effect.  Preceding  tho 
appearance  of  the  aurora  faint  blue  lines  appear 
on  the  paper,  which  gradually  become  stronger 
and  darker  so  as  to  burn  through  several  thick- 
nesses of  it.  The  effect  then  disappears,  and  is 
soon  followed  by  the  bleaching  process,  which 
entirely  overcomes  the  artificial  current  of  the 
batteries.  When  these  effects  have  been  ob- 
served, the  aurora  follows,  and  presents  some 
of  its  most  beautiful  displays  along  the  lines 
of  these  telegraphs ;  and  so  familiar  have  the 
operators  become  with  the  disturbance  which 
the  aurora  causes,  that  they  can  predict  its  ap- 
pearance with  much  certainty.  They  regard 
the  electricity  generated  by  it  as  precisely  that 
of  the  electro-galvanic  battery,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  voluminous  current  without 
intensity  of  action,  differing  from  atmospheric 
electricity  or  the  kind  developed  by  friction, 
which  may  be  dissipated  by  placing  a  wire 
conductor  leading  to  the  ground  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  line  of  wires."  Capt.  McClintock 
observed  in  the  arctic  regions  that  the  aurora 
was  never  visible  above  ice  fields,  but  that 
whenever  an  aurora  was  in  progress  the  light 
appeared  always  to  be  gathered  over  the  sur- 
face of  tho  open  water.  Water  being,  as  is 
well  known,  an  excellent  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity, while  ice  is  a  non-conductor,  we  may 
infer  that  the  peculiarity  observed  by  McClin- 
tock was  due  to  this  difference  in  tho  conduct- 
ing powers  of  ice  and  water.  In  fact,  on  the 
theory  that  the  aurora  is  due  to  electrical  dis- 
charges from  the  earth,  these  discharges  were 


124 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


AURUNGABAD 


interrupted  by  the  fields  of  ice.— The  study  of 
the  aurora  with  the  spectroscope  hus  revealed 
some  important  facts,  though  it  has  as  yet 
thrown  no  light  on  the  nature  of  the  phe- 
nomenon. Angstrom  of  Sweden,  in  the 
winter  of  1867-'8,  recognized  the  existence  of 
a  bright  yellow-green  line  in  the  auroral  spec- 
trum ;  and  Otto  Struve  of  Russia  presently 
confirmed  this  result.  It  was  at  the  time  sup- 
posed that  this  line  constituted  the  whole  of 
the  spectrum ;  and  Dr.  Huggins,  commenting 
on  the  discovery,  remarked  in  1868  that  the 
result  seemed  surprising  when  the  ordinarily 
ruddy  hue  of  the  aurora  was  taken  into  ac- 
count. "  But  Gen.  Sabine  tells  me,"  he  adds, 
"  that  in  his  polar  expeditions  he  lias  frequently 
seen  the  aurora  tinged  with  green,  and  this 
appearance  corresponds  with  the  position  of 
the  line  seen  by  M.  Struve."  Later  observa- 
tions, however,  and  especially  those  made  by 
Prof.  Winlock  in  this  country,  have  shown  that 
the  auroral  spectrum  is  far  more  complex 
than  had  been  supposed,  and  that  it  is  also 
variable.  It  would  appear  that  the  bright 
green  line  is  always  present,  and  that  it  is 
nearly  always  the  brightest  line  of  the  spec- 
trum. But  there  is  also  a  band  in  the  red 
which,  though  usually  much  less  intense,  yet 
becomes  even  brighter  than  the  yellow-green 
line  when  the  red  streamers  of  the  aurora  are 
exceptionally  brilliant.  The  wave  lengths  of 
the  green  and  red  light  correspond  respectively 
to  558  and  635.  Besides  these  there  are  faint 
greenish  and  bluish  lines  corresponding  to  wave 
lengths  544,  531,  522,  518,  501,  and  485.  Two 
other  bands  in  the  blue  and  violet  between  the 
lines  F  and  G  (one  of  them  very  close  to  G) 
have  been  detected  in  the  spectrum  of  white 
parts  of  the  aurora.  They  disappear  or  be- 
come faint  in  the  parts  having  an  intense  red 
tint.  During  the  great  auroral  display  of 
Feb.  4, 1872,  Father  Perry  of  the  Stonyhurst  ob- 
servatory (England)  remarked  that  "  the  green 
line  could  always  be  detected,  even  where  the 
unassisted  eye  failed  to  notice  any  trace  of 
auroral  light.  This,"  he  adds,  "  might  sug- 
gest the  advisability  of  a  daily  observation 
with  a  small  hand  spectroscope  for  those  who 
are  desirous  of  forming  a  complete  list  of 
auroral  phenomena.  Magnetic  disturbances 
are  a  sure  guide  in  the  case  of  grand  manifesta- 
tions of  aurora ;  but  might  not  a  very  slight 
aurora  be  observable  without  the  magnetic 
needle  being  sensibly  affected  ? "  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  circumstances  hitherto  ascer- 
tained respecting  the  aurora  is  the  partial 
agreement  of  its  spectrum  with  that  of  the 
solar  corona.  It  is  not  indeed  the  case,  as  is 
sometimes  stated,  that  the  principal  line  in  the 
coronal  spectrum  (known  as  the  1474  line,  be- 
cause agreeing  with  the  corresponding  line  of 
KirchhofFs  scale)  coincides  with  the  bright 
yellow-green  auroral  line ;  but  another  and 
fainter  auroral  line  agrees  with  Kirchhoff  s  1474, 
and  there  is  sufficient  general  resemblance  be- 
tween the  coronal  and  auroral  spectra  to 


justify  the  theory  that  a  real  resemblance 
exists  between  the  aurora  and  the  solar  corona. 
This  theory  was  first  worked  out  and  published 
by  Prof.  W.  A.  Norton  of  Yale  college ;  but 
Prof.  Winlock  of  Cambridge  also  formed  and 
published  a  similar  theory. — Some  doubt  seems 
still  to  prevail  on  the  question  whether  the 
bright  green  line  of  the  auroral  spectrum  be- 
longs also  to  the  spectrum  of  the  zodiacal 
light.  Angstrom  and  Respighi  have  asserted 
that  this  is  the  case ;  but  others  deny  that  the 
auroral  green  line  is  ever  seen  in  the  zodiacal 
spectrum  save  when  an  aurora  is  in  progress. 
Mr.  Webb  observes  of  the  zodiacal  light,  Feb. 
2,  1872 :  "  It  seemed  to  show  a  ruddy  tinge 
not  unlike  the  commencement  of  a  crimson 
aurora  borealis ;  this  may  have  been  a  decep- 
tion, but  it  was  certainly  redder  or  yellower 
than  the  galaxy.  At  7  I  examined  it  with  a 
pocket  spectroscope  which  shows  very  dis- 
tinctly the  greenish  band  of  the  aurora ;  but 
nothing  of  the  kind  was  visible,  nor  could  any- 
thing be  traced  beyond  a  slight  increase  of 
general  light,  which  in  closing  the  slit  was  ex- 
tinguished long  before  the  auroral  band  would 
have  become  imperceptible."  M.  Liais  also, 
who  has  for  several  years  studied  the  zodiacal 
light  in  tropical  countries,  finds  its  spectrum 
to  be  ordinarily  continuous.  Yet  undoubtedly 
the  yellow-green  line  is  seen  in  the  spectrum 
received  from  the  region  occupied  by  the  zodi- 
acal, during  auroral  displays;  though  whether 
it  is  then  simply  the  auroral  line  seen  in  the 
direction  of  the  zodiacal  as  well  as  in  others, 
or  partly  received  from  the  zodiacal  itself,  re- 
mains an  open  question.  In  the  latter  case  it 
would  follow,  of  course,  that  there  is  an  intimate 
connection,  as  Mairan  long  ago  suspected, 
between  the  zodiacal  light,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly a  cosmical  phenomenon,  and  the  aurora, 
which  is  as  undoubtedly  a  terrestrial  manifesta- 
tion, though  not  improbably  of  cosmical  origin. 
Prof.  Olmsted  had  several  years  ago  assigned 
to  the  aurora  an  interplanetary  origin.  "  The 
nebulous  matter,"  he  reasoned,  "like  that 
which  furnishes  the  material  of  the  meteoric 
showers  or  the  zodiacal  light,  and  is  known  to 
exist  in  the  interplanetary  spaces,  is  probably 
the  cause  of  the  auroral  displays.  The  peri- 
odical return  of  the  phenomena  indicates  such 
a  position ;  so  too  its  rapid  motion,  which  ex- 
ceeds that  of  light  or  electricity,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  surface  over  which  the  phenomenon  is 
seen  at  the  same  time."  It  should  be  added 
that  during  the  months  of  January,  February, 
and  March,  1872,  when  auroras  occurred  witli 
unusual  frequency,  the  zodiacal  light  shone  with 
exceptional  brilliancy. 

AURUNGABAD,  a  city  of  western  Hindostan, 
in  the  native  state  of  Hyderabad  or  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Nizam,  on  the  Doodna,  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Godavery,  175  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Bombay.  It  was  an  unimportant  village  called 
Gurka  until  the  time  of  Aurungzebe,  who 
made  it  a  favorite  residence,  and  built  here 
a  mausoleum  to  the  memory  of  his  daugh- 


AURUNGZEBE 


AUSCULTATION 


125 


tor.  The  town  is  well  laid  out,«.but  the 
buildings  are  in  a  dilapidated  condition,  and 
the  climate  is  unhealthy.  The  population  was 
estimated  in  1825  at  60,000,  hut  is  now  much 
smaller.  Water  is  supplied  by  means  of  con- 
duits and  pipes,  and  a  considerable  trade  is 


Mosque  of  Aurungzebe. 

carried  on.  The  town  was  formerly  the  capi- 
tal of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  contain- 
ing about  60,000  sq.  m.,  which  was  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Mogul  empire  in  1633.  In  more 
recent  periods  it  belonged  partly  to  the  Mahrat- 
tas  and  partly  to  the  Nizam,  but  is  now  mostly 
under  British  rule. 

AURUNGZEBE,  or  Annmgzeb,  the  last  great 
emperor  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  in  India,  born 
Oct.  22,  1618,  died  at  Ahmednuggur,  Feb. 
21,  1707.  He  was  appointed  by  his  father, 
Shah  Jehan,  to  be  viceroy  of  the  Deccan.  Here, 
while  affecting  an  entire  indifference  for  world- 
ly things,  he  acquired  military  experience  and 
amassed  great  wealth.  In  1657  the  emperor 
was  taken  suddenly  ill,  and  Dara,  the  heir  ap- 
parent and  eldest  brother  of  A«rungzebe,  as- 
sumed the  administration.  Aurungzebe  united 
with  a  younger  brother  in  defeating  Dara,  and 
soon  succeeded  by  his  energy  and  treachery  in 
putting  to  death  all  his  brothers  and  their  sons. 
His  father,  having  meantime  recovered,  was 
confined  for  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  prisoner 
in  his  own  palace,  and  Aurungzebo  grasped  the 
imperial  power.  His  reign  was  the  most  bril- 
liant period  of  the  domination  of  the  race  of 
Akbarin  India,  and  his  empire  included  nearly 
all  the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  with  Cabool  on 
the  west  and  Assam  on  the  east.  The  first  10 
years  of  his  administration  were  marked  by  a 
profound  peace,  and  his  wisdom  was  especially 
signalized  in  the  measures  which  he  took  in 
anticipating  and  assuaging  a  famine,  and  in  sup- 
pressing an  insurrection  of  Hindoo  devotees 
lieaded  by  a  female  aaint.  A  greater  misfor- 
tune to  him  was  the  rise  of  the  Mahratta  em- 


pire, the  foundation  of  which  had  been  almost 
imperceptibly  laid  by  an  adventurer  named 
Sevajee.  Against  this  leader  Aurungzebe  sent 
in  vain  his  most  experienced  generals,  and  he 
therefore  marched  into  the  Deccan  himself  to 
superintend  the  war.  He  resided  in  the  Dec- 
can  22  years,  subduing  the  Carnatic  and  ruling 
an  empire  which  hi  wealth  and  population  was 
probably  unsurpassed  by  that  ever  held  by  any 
other  monarch.  The  proper  name  of  Aurung- 
zebe was  Mohammed,  and  that  by  which  he 
is  commonly  known,  meaning  the  "orna- 
ment of  the  throne,"  was  given  him  by  his 
grandfather.  He  himself  preferred  the  title 
of  Alum-Geer,  "conquerer  of  the  world," 
and  he  was  accustomed  to  have  carried  before 
him  a  globe  of  gold  as  his  symbol.  Yet  to 
show  that  he  as  yet  held  but  three  fourths  of 
the  earth,  he  used  to  tear  off  a  corner  from 
every  sheet  of  paper  which  he  used  in  his  cor- 
respondence. India  owes  to  him  several  of 
her  finest  bridges,  hospitals,  and  mosques.  In 
his  personal  habits  he  was  remarkable  for  an 
ascetic  simplicity ;  and  in  his  zeal  for  the  Mo- 
hammedan faith  he  became  a  persecutor  of 
the  Hindoos. 

AUSCHWITZ  (Pol.  Oswiecim),  a  town  of 
western  Galicia,  in  Austria,  32  m.  W.  of  Cra- 
cow, and  about  3  m.  from  the  frontier  of  Prus- 
sian Silesia;  pop.  3,600.  It  is  the  principal 
town  of  the  former,  originally  Polish,  then 
Silesian,  and  then  again  Polish,  duchies  of  Au- 
schwitz und  Zator,  with  an  area  of  about  1,000 
sq.  m.,  which  in  1564  were  united  into  one 
duchy  by  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  and  in 
1773  incorporated  with  Austria.  Although 
belonging  to  Galicia,  the  territory  of  the  duchy 
was  in  1818  declared  by  Austria  to  belong  to 
the  Germanic  confederation.  Only  about  one 
tenth  of  the  population  of  the  duchy  speak 
German.  In  the  war  of  1866  there  was  an 
engagement  at  Auschwitz  on  June  27  between 
Prussian  and  Austrian  troops. 

AUSCULTATION  (Lat.  augcultare,  to  listen), 
a  branch  of  medical  art  by  which  the  states 
and  motions  of  internal  organs  are  discerned 
through  the  sounds  which  they  produce.  Pulsa- 
tions, respirations,  and  the  vibratory  move- 
ments in  the  body  produce  sounds  which  may 
be  distinctly  heard  by  placing  the  ear  upon 
the  walls  of  the  chest,  or  other  parts  of  the 
external  frame.  The  heart  beats  strongly 
many  times  per  minute,  and  each  pulsation 
gives  a  shock  to  the  surrounding  parts,  and  also 
produces  a  double  sound  within  the  heart  itself. 
At  every  breath  the  air  is  first  drawn  into  the 
lungs,  and  again  passes  out  by  expiration.  The 
passage  of  the  air  into  the  lungs  produces  one 
kind  of  sound  peculiar  to  the  act  of  inspiration, 
and  its  exit  another  peculiar  to  expiration.  In  a 
state  of  healthy  action,  the  sounds  of  the  heart 
and  those  of  the  lungs  and  air  passages  are  of 
a  peculiar  nature,  and  a  little  practice  enables 
the  ear  to  become  familiar  with  each  special 
sound.  In  a  diseased  state,  the  action  of  both 
heart  and  lungs  is  modified  to  some  extent,  and 


12G 


AUSONES 


AUSTERLITZ 


the  sounds  produced  are  also  modified  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner.  To  assist  the  ear  in  distinguishing 
these  sounds,  Laennec  constructed  the  stetho- 
scope (Gr.  <T7T70of,  chest  or  breast,  and  OKOTTCIV,  to 
examine),  by  the  aid  of  which  all  the  sounds  of 
the  heart  and  lungs  may  be  distinctly  heard, 
and  the  differences  between  healthy  and  dis- 
eased action  readily  discerned  and  classified. 
The  art  of  auscultation  has  since  then  made 
rapid  progress. — Auscultation  is  very  useful  in 
obstetrics,  as  well  as  in  diseases  of  the  heart 
and  lungs.  In  difficult  cases  of  parturition,  it 
is  often  necessary  to  know  whether  the  child 
is  dead  or  alive  in  the  womb  before  delivery. 
After  the  fifth  month  of  pregnancy  the  pulsa- 
tions of  the  foetal  heart  may  be  distinctly  heard, 
and  the  "  placental  murmur,"  caused  by  the 
uterine  circulation  of  the  blood,  may  also  be 
distinguished  by  the  ear. — Percussion  is  a 
branch  of  auscultation  by  which  artificial 
sounds  are  obtained  as  a  means  of  discerning 
the  state  of  the  parts  from  which  these  sounds 
proceed,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  air  or  liquids. — The  art  of  auscul- 
tation is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  but  it 
was  long  believed  to  be  a  useful  aid  in  diag- 
nosis. In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
Hooke  observed  that  "  there  may  be  a  possibil- 
ity of  discovering  the  internal  motions  and  ac- 
tions of  bodies  by  the  sounds  they  make.  ...  I 
have  been  able  to  hear  very  plainly  the  beating 
of  a  man's  heart."  In  1761  Leopold  Auenbrug- 
ger,  a  Gernjan  physician  residing  at  Vienna, 
published  a  small  volume  in  Latin  explaining 
an  artificial  method  of  producing  sounds  in 
various  regions  of  the  body,  by  which  the  phy- 
sician might  judge  of  the  state  of  the  subja- 
cent parts.  This  method  was  percussion.  The 
book  remained  almost  unknown  till  1808, 
when  Corvisart  translated  it  into  French,  and 
made  the  method  known  to  all  the  countries  of 
Europe.  The  practice  of  percussion  has  since 
become  general,  and  in  many  cases  is  found 
highly  useful.  The  method  of  studying  dis- 
eases from  sounds  made  by  percussion  led  to 
the  method  of  observing  sounds  made  nat- 
urally, by  the  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 
Corvisart  took  up  the  subject  with  great  zeal, 
and  three  of  his  disciples,  Double,  Bayle,  and 
Laennec,  continued  the  same  course,  resulting 
in  the  discovery  of  the  stethoscope,  and  the 
general  use  of  auscultation. 

ACSONES,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient tribes  of  Italy,  whose  origin  is  unknown. 
Tradition  made  them  descendants  of  Auson, 
son  of  Ulysses  and  Calypso.  They  are  held 
by  Niebuhr  to  have  been  a  portion  of  the  great 
Oscan  nation.  From  them  the  southern  part 
of  Italy,  later  known  as  Magna  Gracia,  was 
called  Ausonia. 

Al'SO.MUS,  Decimns  Ma?nns,  a  Latin  poet  and 
grammarian,  born  at  Burdigala  (Bordeaux) 
about  A.  D.  310,  died  about  39-t.  He  practised 
law  for  a  time  in  his  native  town,  and  afterward 
became  a  teacher  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  In 
307  he  was  selected  by  the  emperor  Valentinian 


to  be  tutor  to  his  son  Gratian,  whom  he  accom- 
panied into  Germany  the  following  year.  He 
rose  successively  to  the  honorary  titles  and  dig- 
nities of  count  of  the  empire,  qua;stor,  gover- 
nor of  Gaul,  Libya,  and  Latium,  and  lastly,  in 
379,  of  consul.  His  poetry  is  characterized 
by  extreme  licentiousness  and  pruriency,  and  is 
bald  of  invention  and  redundant  in  ornament. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  whether  Au- 
sonins  was  a  Christian  or  a  pagan.  The  best 
editions  of  Ansonius  are :  a  very  rare  one  by 
Tollius  (Amsterdam,  1671),  with  a  commen- 
tary of  Scaliger,  and  selected  notes  by  various 
critics ;  the  Delphin  edition ;  and  the  Bipont 
of  1783,  which  is  correct  and  of  authority. 

AISSIG,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  the  circle  of 
Leitmeritz,  at  the  junction  of  the  Bila  with  the 
Elbe,  44  m.  (direct)  N.  N.  W.  of  Prague,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway ;  pop.  in  1869, 
10,933.  It  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  but 
in  1426  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Hussites,  and 
in  1639  it  was  seized  by  the  Swedish  general 
Baner.  It  has  a  church  said  to  have  been  built 
in  826,  containing  a  Madonna  by  Carlo  Dolce, 
presented  to  the  town  by  the  father  of  Raphael 
Mengs,  who  was  born  here.  The  town  has  an 
active  trade  in  fruit,  mineral  waters,  timber, 
and  especially  in  coal.  The  battlefield  of  Kulm 
is  in  the  vicinity. 

AUSTEN,  Jan*,  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Steventon,  in  Hampshire,  Dec.  16,  1775,  died 
in  Winchester,  July  18,  1817.  She  was  edu- 
cated by  her  father,  who  was  rector  of  Steven- 
ton.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  she  com- 
menced authorship.  In  her  youth  she  was 
beautiful  and  graceful,  but  a  disappointment  in 
love  determined  her  against  marriage.  "  North- 
anger  Abbey"  (which  was  published  with 
"  Persuasion  "  after  her  death)  was  the  earliest 
and  weakest  of  her  works,  all  of  which,  except 
the  posthumous  ones,  appeared  anonymously. 
"  Sense  and  Sensibility  "  was  published  in  1811, 
and  immediately  obtained  popularity.  "  Pride 
and  Prejudice,"  "Mansfield  Park, ""and  "Em- 
ma" succeeded  at  regular  intervals — the  la*t 
in  1816.  Her  father  was  compelled  by  ill 
health  to  pass-his  latter  years  in  Bath,  and  on 
his  death  his  widow  and  two  daughters  return- 
ed to  Hampshire,  and  removed  in  May,  1817,  to 
Winchester.  Her  novels  have  long  been  popu- 
lar as  "  distinct  delineations  of  English  domes- 
tic life,  with  a  delicate  discrimination  of  female 
character."  Her  own  opinion  was  that  one  of 
her  novels  was  "  a  little  bit  of  ivory  two  inches 
wide,"  on  which  she  "worked  with  a  brush  so 
j  fine  as  to  produce  little  effect  after  much 
j  labor."  Her  life  has  been  written  by  J.  E. 
Austen-Leigh  (London,  1871). 

ACSTERLITZ,  a  town  of  Moravia,  in  the  circle 
and  12  m.  E.  of  Brunn  on  the  Littawa  river; 
pop.  about  2,400.  It  owes  its  celebrity  to  the 
battle  won  here  by  Napoleon  over  the  united 
Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  Dec.  2,  1805. 
After  the  capture  of  the  Austrian  general 
Mack  at  Ulm,  Oct.  17,  and  the  occupation  of 
1  Vienna  by  the  French,  Nov.  13,  the  Austrian 


AUSTIN 


127 


and  Russian  forces  were  concentrated  near 
Olmutz,  and  tinder  command  of  the  pz&r  ad- 
vanced upon  Napoleon,  whose  forced  were 
ranged  in  a  semicircle  having  its  centre  near 
Brunn.  The  allies  chose  their  position  wrongly ; 
and  Napoleon,  perceiving  their  error,  ordered 
an  instant  attack,  and  routed  them  after  a  most 
severe  contest.  The  allies  lost  about  30,000 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  Austria  was 
compelled  to  make  the  peace  of  Presbnrg ;  the 
emperor  of  Russia  to  return  to  his  dominions ; 
and  the  campaign  ended  leaving  a  large  part 
of  central  Europe  subject  to  Napoleon.  The 
news  of  this  disastrous  battle  is  said  to  have 
hastened  the  death  of  William  Pitt. 

AUSTIN,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  Brazos  river ;  area,  1,024  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,087,  of  whom  6,574  were  colored. 
The  Texas  Central  railroad  passes  through  the 
county.  Stock-raising  is  carried  on  to  a  largo 
extent.  Timber  is  abundant.  In  1870  the 
county  produced  444,544  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  65,745  of  sweet  potatoes,  11, 967  bales  of 
cotton,  and  19,362  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
60,058  cattle,  5,768  horses,  7,554  sheep,  and 
15,657  hogs.  Capital,  Bellville. 

AUSTIN,  a  city  of  Texas,  capital  of  the  state 
and  of  Travis  county,  on  the  Colorado  river, 
160  m.  (direct)  from  its  mouth,  and  200  m.  N. 
W.  of  Galveston ;  pop.  in  1860,  3,494 ;  in  1870, 
4,428,  of  whom  1,615  were  colored.  The 
Colorado  is  navigable  to  this  point  in  winter  by 
steamboats.  Austin  is  built  on  an  amphithea- 
tre of  hills,  and  overlooks  the  valley  of  the  Col- 
orado and  the  rich  prairies  beyond.  The  pub- 
lic buildings  are  of  a  white  stone  called  marble, 
but  too  soft  to  admit  of  polish.  An  artesian 
well  has  been  sunk  just  north  of  the  capitol,  to 
the  depth  of  1,300  feet,  from  which  a  small 
stream  constantly  issues.  The  water  is  im- 
pregnated with  lime,  and  has  some  medicinal 
qualities.  It  has  been  proposed  to  supply  the 
city  with  water  from  the  Colorado  by  an  aque- 
duct. There  are  8  or  10  churches  in  the  city,  and 
about  20  schools.  The  first  free  public  schools 
in  Texas  were  opened  at  Austin  in  1871 .  There 
are  2  weekly  newspapers  published  here,  1  tri- 
weekly, and  3  daily.  The  western  division  of 
the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  railroad  con- 
nects the  city  by  way  of  Hempstead  with 
Houston  and  the  diverging  railroads. 

AUSTIN,  Jonathan  Luring,  secretary  and  treas- 
urer of  Massachusetts,  born  in  Boston,  Jan.  2, 
1748,  died  May  10,  1826.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1766,  was  a  merchant  and 
secretary  of  the  board  of  war  in  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1777  was  sent  to  Paris  to  the  American 
commissioners  with  the  news  of  Burgoyne's 
capture.  Dr.  Franklin  made  him  an  additional 
private  secretary,  and  sent  him  as  his  agent  to 
England,  where  he  resided  in  the  family  of 
Lord  Shelburne.  On  his  return  with  de- 
spatches in  May,  1779,  he  was  liberally  re- 
warded by  congress.  In  1780,  in  his  passage 
to  Spain  as  agent  of  the  state,  he  was  taken 
and  carried  to  England,  but  soon  liberated. 
61  VOL.  ii. — 9 


He  was  afterward  state  secretary  and  treasurer 
of  Massachusetts. 

AUSTIN,  Moses,  an  American  pioneer,  born  in 
Durham,  Conn.,  died  June  10,  1821.  He  led 
an  adventurous  life,  engaged  in  lead-mining  in 
Virginia  and  Missouri,  and  in  1820  went  to 
Bexar,  Texas,  where  he  obtained  from  the 
Mexican  authorities  permission  to  colonize  300 
families  in  some  part  of  Texas.  He  died  soon 
after,  and  the  plan  was  carried  out  by  his  son. 
(See  AUSTIN,  STEPHEN  F.) 

AUSTIN,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  7,  1760, 
died  at  Glastenbury,  Dec.  4,  1830.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  college  in  1783,  and,  after  study- 
ing divinity  two  years,  was  ordained  as  pastor 
of  the  church  in  Fairhaven,  Conn.  In  1790  he 
became  the  minister  of  the  first  Congregational 
society  in  Worcester,  and  in  1815  president  of 
the  university  of  Vermont.  After  holding  that 
office  for  six  years,  he  removed  to  Newport, 
R.  I.,  and  thence  at  the  end  of  four  years  re- 
turned to  Worcester.  During  the  last  three 
years  of  his  life  his  reason  was  clouded.  He 
left  several  controversial  and  other  works. 

AUSTIN,  Sarah,  an  English  authoress,  born  in 
1793,  died  at  Weybridge,  Aug.  8,  1867.  She 
was  one  of  the  famous  Taylor  family  of  Nor- 
wich, and  the  wife  of  Mr.  John  Austin,  a  Lon- 
don barrister.  Her  reputation  rests  upon  the 
unusual  ability  of  her  translations  from  Ger- 
man authors.  Her  first  and  most  remarkable 
achievement  in  this  kind  was  her  version  of 
the  travels  of  Prince  Pflckler-Muskau,  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  The  Travels  of  a  Ger- 
man Prince  in  England."  The  idiomatic  paint- 
ing and  fluent  ease  of  this  translation  were  so 
admirable  that  for  a  long  time  it  was  difficult  to 
persuade  many  persons  that  the  work  was  not 
the  composition  of  an  English  author.  The 
first  work  which  Mrs.  Austin  gave  to  the  world 
under  her  own  name  was  a  translation  of  Falk's 
"  Characteristics  of  Goethe  "  (1833),  with  many 
additions  by  herself.  This  book  won  an  imme- 
diate and  deserved  success.  She  afterward 
published  translations  of  Carov6's  "  Story  with- 
out an  End,"  and  Ranke's  "History  of  the 
Popes,"  a  "Collection  of  Fragments  from  the 
German  Prose  Writers,"  an  excellent  treatise 
on  "Education,"  and  "Sketches  of  Germany 
from  1760  to  1814." 

AUSTIN,  Stephen  F.,  founder  of  the  first  Ameri- 
can colony  in  Texas,  son  of  Moses  Austin,  died 
Dec.  27,  1836.  Setting  out  from  Natchitpches, 
July  5, 1821,  to  follow  up  the  grant  previously 
issued  to  his  father  authorizing  the  formation 
of  a  colony,  he  went  to  the  city  of  Mexico,- 
where  it  was  specially  confirmed  Feb.  18, 
1823.  By  it  he  was  clothed  with  almost  abso- 
lute power  over  the  colonists,  and  only  obliged 
to  report  to  the  captain  general.  The  colony, 
since  become  Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas,  of 
which  he  selected  the  site  after  a  careful  re- 
connoitring of  the  country,  had  been  previ- 
ously organized  by  him  upon  the  basis  of 
giving  to  each  man  640  acres  of  land,  820  for  a 


128 


AUSTIN 


AUSTRALIA 


wife,  160  for  each  child,  and  80  acres  for  each 
slave;  and  the  immigrants  being  made  up  in 
great  part  of  young  unmarried  men,  he  in- 
duced them  to  unite  in  pairs,  making  one  of 
them  the  head  of  the  family  thus  constituted, 
which  singular  arrangement  is  said  to  have  re- 
sulted to  the  satisfaction  of  all  concerned.  In 
spite  of  frequent  trouble  with  the  Indians,  the 
colony  prospered,  and,  being  followed  by  a  con- 
siderable number  of  similar  associations,  the  in- 
flux of  Americans  was  so  large  that  they  met 
March  1,  1833,  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
Mexican  population,  in  a  convention  to  form  a 
constitution  for  the  as  yet  Mexican  state  of 
Texas.  Austin  was  one  of  the  delegates  chosen 
to  carry  the  result  of  their  deliberations  to  the 
central  government  at  Mexico,  and  obtain  its 
ratification.  The  delays  and  frequent  revolu- 
tions at  Mexico  leading  him  to  despair  of  suc- 
cess in  his  mission,  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  people  of  Texas,  recommending  a  union  of 
all  the  municipalities  to  organize  a  state.  For 
this  he  was  arrested  and  kept  in  prison  three 
months,  until  released  by  Santa  Anna,  who 
continued  to  hold  him  as  a  sort  of  hostage.  In 
September,  1835,  he  returned  to  Texas,  took 
part  with  the  revolutionary  party,  which  had 
been  forming  in  his  absence,  and  was  put  in 
command  of  their  little  army.  His  first  act 
was  to  send  into  eastern  Texas  for  Gen.  Hous- 
ton, who  was  soon  elected  to  the  chief  com- 
mand, Austin  being  appointed  a  commissioner 
to  the  United  States.  Here  he  acted  with 
prudence,  and  was  very  successful  in  prepar- 
ing the  public  mind  for  the  independence  and 
annexation  of  the  new  republic.  After  spend- 
ing some  time  in  advocating  this  measure,  he 
returned  to  Texas  in  July,  1836  ;  and  he  died 
while  still  engaged  in  negotiations. 

AUSTIN,  William  (BILLY),  the  reputed  natural 
son  of  Queen  Caroline.  He  was  known  as  a 
poor  lad  of  Deptford,  near  London,  who  bore 
a  striking  resemblance  to  the  queen  ;  and 
though  her  majesty  was  judicially  acquitted  in 
1808  of  the  charge  of  being  his  mother,  she  in- 
sisted upon  keeping  him  near  her  person.  In 
1830  he  was  sent  to  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Milan, 
and  remained  there  till  1845.  Being  then 
brought  back  to  England  and  subjected  to  a 
medical  examination  at  the  request  of  his 
guardians,  the  Right  Hon.  S.  Lushington  and 
Sir  J.  P.  Wilde,  he  was  transferred  to  a  private 
asylnm  in  London. 

AUSTRALASIA  (South  Asia),  the  S.  "W.  division 
of  Oceania,  extending  from  the  equator  to  lat. 
47°  S.,  and  from  about  Ion.  112°  to  about  170° 
E.  It  embraces  Australia,  Tasmania  or  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  New  Zealand,  and  Chatham 
isle,  on  the  west  and  south ;  Papua,  the  Ad- 
miralty isles,  New  Ireland,  and  the  Solomons 
archipelago  on  the  north;  Queen  Charlotte's 
isles,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia, 
on  the  east ;  and  all  the  interjacent  islands.  On 
account  of  the  black  color  of  its  natives,  Aus- 
tralasia is  also  called  Melanesia,  chiefly  by 
French  geographers.  (See  OCEANIA.) 


AUSTRALIA,  formerly  called  NEW  HOLLAND, 
an  island,  classed  as  a  continent  by  most  geogra- 
phers, lying  S.  E.  of  Asia  and  the  Sunda  islands, 
between  the  Indian  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
oceans,  and  extending  from  lat.  10°  43'  to  39° 
9'  S.,  and  from  Ion.  113°  to  153°  E.  From  its 
western  extremity,  Steep  point,  to  its  extreme 
eastern  point,  Cape  Byron,  its  length  is  2,500 
m. ;  and  its  breadth,  from  Cape  York,  its 
northernmost  point,  to  its  southern  extremity 
at  Cape  Wilson,  is  1,900  m.  Its  entire  coast 
line  embraces  a  circuit  of  8,000  m.,  and  its  area 
is  estimated  at  3,000,000  sq.  m.  The  configura- 
tion of  the  Australian  coast  displays  little  irreg- 
ularity ;  there  are  but  two  or  three  large  penin- 
sulas, and  although  small  bays  are  found  along 
almost  the  whole  coast  line,  the  gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, and  the  large  inlet  leading  to  Cambridge 
gulf  and  Queen's  channel  on  the  north,  and 
Spencer  and  St.  Vincent  gulfs  on  the  south, 
are  the  only  deep  indentations.  A  long  curve 
of  the  southern  coast  forms  the  vast  bay  called 
the  Great  Australian  bight,  but  this  is  only  a 
portion  of  the  open  ocean. — From  the  N.  E. 
extremity  of  the  continent,  where  the  long, 
triangular  peninsula  of  York  lies  between  the 
gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the  Pacific,  its  northern 
extremity  only  separated  from  New  Guinea  by 
the  narrow  Torres  strait,  the  coast  trends 
southeastward  for  more  than  1,400  m.  to  Cape 
Byron,  where  its  direction  suddenly  changes  to 
southwest.  Along  the  greater  part  of  this 
N.  E.  stretch  of  coast,  from  Cape  York  nearly 
to  the  Great  Sandy  island,  lie  the  Great  Barrier 
reefs,  the  most  extensive  range  of  coral  reefs 
known  in  the  world.  Frequent  though  often 
dangerous  passages  through  this  barrier  permit 
the  entrance  of  vessels  into  the  sea  lying  be- 
tween it  and  the  mainland,  a  body  of  water 
varying  in  breadth  from  its  southern  entrance, 
where  it  is  a  broad  open  sea,  the  reefs  lying  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  coast,  to  its  central 
point  at  Cape  Tribulation,  where  it  hardly 
affords  even  a  passage.  Further  N.  it  again 
stretches  away  from  the  coast,  extending  across 
the  E.  end  of  Torres  strait.  Near  the  southern 
entrance  of  the  sea  thus  enclosed,  and  a  little 
N.  of  Sandy  island,  are  numerous  good  harbors. 
The  coast  is  here  made  up  of  high  and  precip- 
itous cliff's,  and  this  formation  continues  to 
characterize  its  whole  extent,  as  far  as  its 
southern  extremity,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  portion  S.  of  Cape  Howe.  Below  Cape 
Byron,  where  it  trends  to  the  southwest,  it 
contains  some  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world, 
chief  among  them  that  of  Port  Jackson  at  Syd- 
ney. The  S.  coast,  from  Cape  Wilson  W.  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  Australian  bight,  is 
also  celebrated  for  its  excellent  harbors ;  only  a 
short  strip  of  coast  E.  of  Encounter  hay  is  with- 
out good  shelter.  But  with  the  Australian 
bight  begins  a  long  uniform  line  of  cliffs  with- 
out refuge  of  any  kind  for  vessels,  steep  and 
rugged,  and  continuing  W.  as  far  as  the  Re- 
cherche archipelago.  West  of  this  are  a  few  safe 
ports.  The  W.  and  N.  W.  coasts  are  the  least 


longitude  We*t       l&f       Itom    tfaiilii 


I..' 


vt 


.n^ituatf    East       UtT      froii 


/  'JM: 

.C  ARVK  N  TAJRJA 

U  e«*- 


AUSTRALIA 


129 


favorable  of  all  to  navigators ;  they  aje  gener- 
ally destitute  of  harbors,  only  a  few  really  use- 
ful ones  being  found  near  the  Buccaneer  archi- 
pelago. The  N.  W.  coast  is  high  and  rocky, 
the  western  low  and  sandy.  The  N.  coast, 
made  most  irregular  of  all  by  the  two  peninsu- 
las of  Arnhem  Land  and  York,  and  by  the  gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  has  in  its  western  part  some  of 
the  best  harbors  of  the  continent,  though  they 
are  not  as  well  known  as  the  southern  ports. 
The  gulf  of  Carpentaria  itself  has  a  sandy,  low, 
and  dangerous  E.  coast,  but  its  western  side  has 
numerous  sheltered  bays  and  safe  navigation. 
That  portion  of  the  Indian  ocean  which  washes 
this  coast,  extending  between  New  Guinea  and 
Australia  to  the  Torres  strait,  is  called  the  Ara- 
fura  sea. — The  interior  has  been  only  partially 
explored.  It  seems  to  have  the  character  of 
a  table  land  of  moderate  height  studded  with 
groups  of  small  mountains,  and  hi  the  interior 
sometimes  sinking  into  low  swampy  valleys; 
while  on  the  general  level  of  the  table  land 
itself  are  vast  plains,  sometimes  fertile,  but 
oftener  sandy,  or  covered  with  the  long  stiff 
grass  called  spinifex.  There  are  many  swamps, 
but  few  ponds  or  useful  watercourses.  Large 
desert  tracts,  covered  with  stones  or  low  shrub- 
bery, are  frequently  found.  Near  the  coasts, 
however,  greater  and  sometimes  luxuriant  fer- 
tility prevails,  and  here  the  varied  surface 
of  the  country  displays  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  scenery  in  the  world.  The  south- 
eastern and  eastern  portions  of  Australia  are 
all  that  have  thus  far  been  thoroughly  and  scien- 
tifically explored.  Along  the  whole  E.  side  of 
the  continent  lie  ranges  of  mountains  of  con- 
siderable height,  sometimes  actually  touching 
the  coast,  but  generally  in  their  southern  por- 
tion lying  at  an  average  distance  of  40  to  50  m. 
from  it,  while  in  the  north  they  are  still  more 
distant.  These  are  often  considered  as  a  single 
range,  but  are  more  correctly  divided  into  sev- 
eral distinct  portions.  The  Australian  Pyrenees 
and  the  Grampian  Hills,  which  run  parallel  to 
the  S.  coast  E.  and  W.  of  Melbourne,  may  be  con- 
sidered a  western  offshoot  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  this  system.  Their  summits  are 
generally  low,  but  in  two  or  three  places  near 
their  junction  with  the  principal  range  they  at- 
tain a  height  of  between  5,500  and  6,000  ft. 
The  first  of  the  main  chain  of  the  E.  coast,  be- 
ginning at  Cape  Wilson,  are  the  highest  moun- 
tains of  the  country,  the  Australian  Alps,  hav- 
ing their  principal  peaks,  according  to  Peter- 
mann's  map  of  1872,  in  Mt.  Kosciusko,  7,176 
ft.  high,  the  loftiest  peak  yet  discovered  in 
Australia,  and  Mt.  Ilotham,  6,414  ft.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  these  mountains  lies  the  grand- 
est scenery  of  the  continent.  Ragged  cliffs  of 
great  height,  crowned  with  forests,  hem  in  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Murray  river,  which  has 
its  source  in  this  range.  These  rugged  Al- 
pine features  characterize  the  entire  chain,  and 
the  smaller  parallel  ranges  and  offshoots  are 
scarcely  less  picturesque.  N.  of  the  Austra- 
i  Alps  and  W.  of  Sydne 


lian  Alps  j 


,  of  Sydney  are  the  Blue  moun- 


tains, the  next  group  in  the  chain.  They  no- 
where reach  a  greater  height  than  4,100  ft., 
but  the  same  wild  scenery  prevails  through 
their  whole  extent.  N.  of  these  again  lies 
the  Liverpool  range,  trending  toward  the  east, 
where  the  somewhat  isolated  Mt.  Sea  View 
rises  to  the  height  of  6,000  ft.,  and  lying  al- 
most at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction 
of  the  system.  W.  of  the  Blue  mountains  are 
two  other  chains,  offshoots  of  the  main  forma- 
tion— the  Honeysuckle  range  and  the  Canobo- 
las  group,  the  latter  of  greater  height  than  any 
peaks  of  the  Blue  mountains  themselves.  N. 
of  the  Liverpool  range  the  mountains  become 
more  scattered,  extending  E.  and  W.,  and  no 
longer  preserving  the  narrow  and  regular  line 
their  principal  peaks  have  heretofore  kept.  In 
this  irregular  mountain  region  the  principal 
summit  is  Mt.  Lindsay,  S.  W.  of  Brisbane,  5,700 
ft.  high.  From  this  point  the  same  wide  and 
irregular  formation  extends  to  the  north,  at 
least  into  York  peninsula,  and  probably  even 
to  its  extremity.  It  appears,  from  such  explo- 
rations as  have  been  made,  to  attain  its  greatest 
height  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  peninsula. 
Along  the  S.  coast,  near  the  head  of  Spencer 
gulf,  are  low  chains  of  mountains  little  more 
than  3,000  ft.  high.  The  Darling,  Herschel, 
and  Victoria  ranges,  which  have  been  discov- 
ered on  the  S.  W.  coast,  have  seldom  a  height. 
of  more  than  2,000  ft.  One  peak,  however,  Mt. 
Bruce,  near  King  George's  sound,  is  a  little 
more  than  3,100  ft.  high.  No  considerable 
mountains  have  been  discovered  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent. — Very  few  of  the  rivers 
of  Australia  are  navigable,  and  in  most  of 
them  running  water  is  only  found  during  a 
small  portion  of  the  year.  The  most  remark- 
able peculiarity  of  these  streams  is  the  sudden- 
ness with  which,  even  when  full  of  water,  they 
disappear  into  a  quicksand  or  marsh.  Thus, 
although  these  creeks  and  rivers  are  almost 
innumerable,  they  fail  to  irrigate  the  soil. 
Only  a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found. 
Among  these  the  chief  is  the  Murray  or  Goolwa, 
which  rises  in  the  Australian  Alps,  and  flows 
about  W.  N.  W.  for  more  than  500  m.,  when, 
by  a  sharp  turn  in  its  course,  called  the  Great 
Bend  of  the  Murray,  it  changes  direction  to  the. 
S.,  and  empties  100  m.  further  into  Lake  Alex- 
andrina,  a  basin  connected  with  the  sea.  The 
Murray  and  its  tributaries,  the  Murrumbidgee 
and  Lachlan,  are  lasting  streams;  but  of  its 
other  tributaries  there  are  none  which  do  not 
become  partially  dry  in  the  summer.  Even 
the  Darling,  a  river  of  considerable  size  flowing 
into  the  Murray  from  the  north,  shares  this 
peculiarity.  The  other  permanent  streams  of 
Australia  are  short  and  of  comparatively  little 
importance ;  the  best  known  are  those  which 
flow  from  the  coast  ranges  directly  into  the 
sea.  Among  them  are  the  Hawkesbury,  Hun- 
ter, Clarence,  Brisbane,  Fitzroy,  and  Burdekin, 
on  the  eastern  coast;  the  Glenelg,  Hopkins, 
Yarra-Yarra,  and  others,  on  the  southern ;  the 
Swan,  Murchison,  Gascoyne,  and  Fortescue,  on 


130 


AUSTRALIA 


the  western ;  and  on  the  northern,  the  Vic- 
toria, Alligator,  Roper,  and  Flinders.  The 
lakes  of  Australia  consist,  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  of  swamps  full  of  weeds  and 
grass,  or  of  mere  heds  of  mud  or  sand.  This 
applies  even  to  the  largest  inland  bodies  of 
water  yet  discovered,  which  lie  grouped  to- 

f ether  near  the  centre  of  the  8.  coast,  N.  of 
pencer  gulf.  Here  is  Lake  Torrens,  ahout 
140  m.  in  length,  hut  very  narrow,  lying  about 
40  m.  from  the  head  of  the  gulf;  and  50  m. 
further  N.,  Eyre  lake,  still  larger.  E.  of  this  is 
Lake  Gregory,  which  might  be  more  correctly 
called  Gregory  lakes,  since  it  is  divided  into  nu- 
merous parts,  between  which  no  considerable 
communication  has  been  discovered.  TV.  of 
Lake  Torrens  lies  the  extensive  Lake  Gairdner, 
and  E.  of  it  Lake  Frome.  The  water  of  this  group 
of  lakes  contains  a  large  proportion  of  salt,  and 
salt  also  abounds  in  the  marshes  and  innumera- 
ble swampy  ponds  which  lie  in  this  region. — 
The  geological  structure  of  Australia  has  not 
been  thoroughly  ascertained.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  the  main  table  land  rests  on  terti- 
ary sandstone,  directly  overlying  the  primary 
rocks,  the  fact  that  no  traces  of  a  secondary 
formation  have  been  found  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  Australian  geol- 
ogy. The  mountains  rising  from  the  table 
land  in  the  interior  ace,  on  the  contrary,  gen- 
erally of  volcanic  structure.  In  the  range 
of  the  8.  W.  coast  primary  rocks  are  most 
prominent — granite,  syenite,  &c. ;  and  all  the 
greater  coast  ranges  probably  resemble  these. 
In  several  of  the  great  valleys  in  the  S.  E.  part 
is  found  a  limestone  containing  numerous  fossils. 
Bituminous  coal  is  abundant  near  Newcastle  at 
the  mouth  of  Hunter  river  in  the  eastern  part  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  large  mines  are  already 
worked  there.  Rich  deposits  of  copper  are 
also  found  at  Burra-Burra,  Wallaroo,  and  Ka- 
punda  in  South  Australia — that  at  Burra-Bur- 
ra being  probably  the  richest  in  the  world. 
The  famous  gold  fields  are  in  the  Bathurst  dis- 
trict and  the  N.  W.  part  of  Victoria.  Every 
indication  shows  that  only  in  the  latest  geo- 
logical period  has  Australia  risen  from  the  sea. 
The  recent  deposits  following  directly  on  the 
primary  rocks,  the  salt  lakes,  the  whole  con- 
struction of  the  continent,  indicate  this;  and 
geologists  affirm  that  the  southern  coast  is  still 
in  process  of  imperceptible  but  constant  up- 
heaval.— The  climate  of  Australia  is  exceed- 
ingly hot,  but  dry  and  healthy  in  such  southern 
parts  as  are  already  colonized,  where  it  appears 
favorable  to  European  constitutions,  and  re- 
sembles in  many  particulars  the  climate  of 
Spain.  In  the  extreme  north,  beyond  the  tro- 
pic of  Capricorn,  which  crosses  the  continent 
near  its  centre,  the  heat  is  more  oppressive, 
and  the  absence  of  large  streams  gives  almost 
the  arid  climate  of  a  desert.  Here,  however, 
the  tropical  rainy  season  brings  relief  with  un- 
failing regularity,  lasting  from  November  till 
April;  while  in  the  south  the  rains,  though 
of  tropical  violence,  are  irregular,  occurring  at 


intervals  between  March  and  September,  and 
often  leaving    the  country   exposed    to  long 
droughts.     There  appears  to  be  almost  no  rain 
in  certain  portions  of  the  central  continent, 
and  these  have  become  deserts,  from  which 
bot  winds  blow  toward   the   coast,  carrying 
clouds  of  sand.     Extraordinary  variations  of 
temperature  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
phenomena  of  the  country.     Falls  in  the  mer- 
cury of  20°  to  30°  F.  in  half  an  hour  are  com- 
mon on  the  coast,  especially  in  the  summer; 
and  comparing  the  reading  of  the  thermometer 
in  the  sun  at  noon  with  the  same  at  midnight, 
a  variation  of  99°  in  the  12  hours  has  been 
observed.      The  average  height  of  the  ther- 
mometer for  the  year  on  the  N.  coast  is  about 
80° ;   at  Port  Macquarie  on  the  E.  coast,  68°  ; 
at  Port  Jackson  (Sydney),  66°  ;  at  Melbourne, 
on  the  S.  coast,  61° ;  at  Perth,  on  the  TV.  coast, 
64°.     In  summer,  however,  the  mercury  often 
rises  to  100°,  or  even   120°.      One  traveller 
(William  Howitt)  has  even  stated  his  experi- 
ence at  139°. — The  animals  of  Australia  are 
peculiar,  not  less  in  themselves  than  in  their 
distribution.     The  carnivora  are  few,  and  the 
only  really  destructive  beast  of  prey  is  the 
dingo,  an  animal  in  size  between  a  fox  and  a 
wolf,  and  resembling  a  dog.    The  dingoes  roam 
about  in  packs  and  attack  sheep,  killing  and 
wounding  many,  but  eating  few.     Ruminating 
animals  and  pachyderms  are  unknown.     But 
while  Australia  is  thus  deficient  in  the  classes 
of  animals  most  abundant  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  its  fauna  consists  very  largely  of  a  class 
elsewhere  but  sparingly  represented — the  mar- 
supialia  or  pouched  animals.     Of  these  the 
largest  and  perhaps  the  most  common  is  the 
kangaroo.     A  smaller  species  of  this  animal  is 
called  the  wallaby.    The  opossum,  the  petau- 
rus  or  flying  opossum,  and  the  dasyurus  (a  car- 
nivorous pouched  animal)  are  the  other  species 
most  frequently  met  with.     Another  peculiar 
family  inhabiting  Australia  are  the  monotre- 
mata,  including  the  two  curious  species  echid- 
na, or  porcupine  ant-eater,  and  ornithorhyn- 
ehiw.     The  latter  species  is  a  water  animal 
shaped  like  a  beaver,  but  has  web  feet,  a  bill 
like  that  of  a  duck,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
male  spurs  upon  the  hind  feet.     (See  MONO- 
TEEMATA.)     There  are»five  species  of  rodents, 
four  small  and  insignificant,  and  one  somewhat 
larger  and  resembling  the  beaver  in  its  habits. 
The  birds  include  several  of  the  largest  species 
of  eagles,  falcons,  and  owls.     Parrots  of  the 
most  brilliant  plumage,  birds  of  paradise,  and 
orioles  are  abundant ;  while  among  the  pecu- 
liar birds  are  the  emu,  the  black  swan,  the  ibis, 
and  the  "laughing  jackass"  or  "bushman's 
clock,"  a  large  kingfisher,  with  a  remarkable 
voice.    The  marine  animals  include  the  dngong, 
found  along  the  northern  shore  between  More- 
ton  bay  and  Cape  York.     Sharks  abound  on 
all  the  coasts.      The  amphibious  animals  are 
few  and  small.     Few  of  the  serpents  are  ven- 
omous, and  none  are  of  great  size.    The  in- 
sects, however,  include  several  species  whose 


AUSTRALIA 


131 


bite  is  poisonous — the  scorpion,  centipede,  and 
several  kinds  of  spiders.  Ants  of  all  sizes 
abound ;  some  are  found  an  inch  long,  living 
in  immense  hills,  and  really  formidable  from 
their  swarming  attack  and  painful  bite. — It  is 
said  that  nine  tenths  of  the  8,000  species  of 
plants  found  in  Australia  are  unknown  else- 
where, and  are  entirely  unconnected  vflih  the 
forms  of  vegetation  of  any  other  division  of  the 
world.  The  great  majority  of  these  belong  to 
two  genera,  the  eucalypti  (a  genus  of  the  myr- 
tle family)  and  the  acacias.  Of  the  former  more 
than  100  varieties  are  known,  spread  over  the 
whole  continent.  Many  of  the  trees  of  this  genus 
attain  the  height  of  200  ft.,  with  a  girth  at  the 
base  of  30  or  40  ft.  Of  the  acacias,  too,  more 
than  100  species  have  been  discovered.  Cedars 
and  casuarina  are  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  conifer®.  Xanthorrfaece  are  abundant, 
and  near  the  coast  grow  to  a  height  of  300  ft., 
the  principal  kind  being  called  by  the  colonists 
the  black  boy  or  grass  gum  tree.  Only  a  few 
palms  are  found.  The  principal  Australian 
trees,  the  eucalypti  and  many  of  the  acacias, 
have  some  remarkable  peculiarities.  Both 
have  their  leaves  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth — the  edges  of  the  leaves 
turned  toward  the  ground  instead  of  their  flat 
sides.  Many  of  the  eucalypti  shed  their  bark, 
but  their  leaves  do  not  change,  remaining 
green  and  on  the  tree  through  the  whole  year. 
Among  the  other  curiosities  of  the  Australian 
flora  are  the  arborescent  ferns,  which  attain 
the  perfection  of  trees,  putting  forth  branches 
eight  to  twelve  feet  long ;  the  giant  lily  (dory- 
anthemum),  an  object  of  great  beauty ;  the  tea 
tree  (leptospermum  grandiflorum) ;  and  the 
remarkable  stench  plant  (hydrocotyle  densi- 
flora).  In  the  interior  of  the  continent  the 
giant  kangaroo  grass,  so  high  as  to  conceal 
cattle,  or  even  a  horse  and  rider,  is  found  cov- 
ering great  plains;  while  the  more  sterile 
tracts  are  covered  with  the  hard,  sharp  spini- 
fex  {triodm  pungeni).  The  brilliant  flowers 
of  Australia  have  little  fragrance,  but  the 
leaves  of  several  kinds  of  trees  are  highly  aro- 
matic.— Though  the  continent  has  few  indige- 
nous fruits  or  useful  vegetable  products,  nearly 
all  those  of  other  countries  thrive  in  its  cli- 
mate. On  the  N.  E.  coast,  in  the  Moreton  Bay 
settlement,  the  Japanese  loquot,  the  date  palm, 
and  the  prickly  pear,  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  and 
tobacco  have  been  naturalized ;  while  bananas, 
oranges,  and  lemons  grow  here,  as  well  as  on 
the  W.  coast  In  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
and  South  Australia,  the  cereals  flourish  with 
unsurpassed  productiveness,  and  64  Ibs.  to  the 
bushel  has  been  produced  in  Australian  wheat. 
All  kinds  of  garden  produce  are  of  supe- 
rior character ;  almonds,  figs,  apricots,  melons, 
grapes,  quinces,  apples,  pears,  and  plums  are 
produced  in  great  quantities. — The  mineral 
wealth  of  Australia,  even  if  we  consider  only 
that  portion  already  developed,  is  remarkable. 
It  has  been  known  from  very  early  times  to 
possess  iron  and  other  minerals.  The  gold  ex- 


isting in  pure  masses  does  not  seem  to  depend 
on  stratification,  but  has  probably  been  up- 
heaved along  with  other  matter,  and  washed 
down  by  surface  or  subterranean  currents.  All 
that  can  be  safely  predicated  of  the  materials 
in  company  with  which  gold  is  found,  is  that 
quartz  and  pipe  clay  are  very  generally  asso- 
ciated with  it.  The  quartz  is  abundant,  and  is 
found  from  minute  pebbles  worn  smooth  by 
attrition  to  huge  blocks  of  many  tons'  weight 
which  crop  out  from  the  surface  in  irregular 
and  fantastic  forms.  It  is  usually  milk-white 
and  opaque,  but  occasionally  attains  a  semi- 
crystalline  transparency.  Besides  this,  how- 
ever, gold  is  found  intermixed  with  sandstone, 
ironstone,  and  white  and  blue  clay.  The  range 
over  which  gold  extends  is  altogether  undeter- 
mined. Recent  accounts  announce  its  discov- 
ery at  the  furthest  limits  of  exploration.  The 
profitable  diggings  have  until  recently  been 
confined  to  the  Bathurst  district,  in  the  north 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  to  the  hill  country 
in  the  north  and  northwest  of  Victoria;  but 
the  new  diggings  in  Queensland,  especially  at 
Gympie,  are  yielding  very  richly.  In  minute 
portions  gold  has  been  found  all  over  the  colo- 
nies. It  was  at  first  met  with  in  small  pieces 
on  the  actual  surface ;  as  the  surface  supply 
became  exhausted,  it  was  found  at  a  short  dis- 
tance down,  and  the  diggings  have  increased 
in  depth  as  they  have  decreased  in  general 
richness.  At  Ballarat,  near  Geelong,  where 
the  most  valuable  lumps  of  gold  have  been 
procured  (28,  60,  and  136  Ibs.  in  weight),  the 
shafts  are  sunk  to  a  depth  of  more  than  100 
feet.  The  gold  has  never  been  found  otherwise 
than  in  detached  pieces  or  particles,  varying  in 
size  from  minute  globules  to  weighty  masses ; 
and  where  its  close  contiguity  has  assumed  the 
character  of  a  vein,  it  is  only  that  the  deposit 
has  been  washed  together  into  a  subterranean 
channel  or  gutter.  The  copper  mines  of  Burra- 
Burra  and  other  localities,  and  the  coal  de- 
posits in  various  quarters,  have  already  been 
referred  to.  Tin,  lead,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  of  various  kinds  have  also  been  discov- 
ered in  the  search  for  gold,  and  passed  over 
for  the  present. — The  aborigines  of  Australia 
are  of  a  distinct  race  from  that  inhabiting  the 
Indian  archipelago.  They  are  found  only  in 
the  Australian  islands,  in  New  Guinea,  the 
New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and  the  Solo- 
mon islands.  The  New  Zealanders  are  akin  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Polynesia.  The  Australians 
are  black,  with  some  slight  variety  of  shade 
from  brown-black  to  jet.  They  have  curly 
hair,  but  not  the  crisp  wool  of  the  negro.  Their 
faces  are  well  developed,  broad  at  the  base, 
their  lips  less  protruding  than  those  of  the  ne- 
gro; their  bodies  are  deficient  in  muscularity 
and  strength,  but  capable  of  great  endurance. 
They  are  superior  in  native  intelligence  to  the 
Tierra  del  Fnegans,  and  they  readily  adopt 
European  habits.  They  seldom  build  huts  or 
other  fixed  dwellings,  but  content  themselves 
with  a  strip  of  bark  or  a  large  bough  as  a 


132 


AUSTRALIA 


shelter  from  the  wind.  Whether  they  knew 
the  use  of  fire  is  uncertain ;  they  now  kindle 
fires  by  rubbing  two  dry  sticks  together.  But 


Australian  Man  and  Woman.    (From  Photographs.) 

they  frequently  eat  their  food  raw,  and  their 
cooking  is  performed  by  making  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  lighting  a  fire  in  it,  putting  in  the  slain 
animal,  and  covering  it  with  earth  until  the 
fire  is  out,  when  it  is  considered  sufficiently 
cooked.  In  the  wild  districts  they  go  entirely 
naked ;  in  the  vicinity  of  settlements  they  wear 
sheepskins,  or  the  blankets  and  clothing  dis- 
tributed to  them  by  the  settlers.  They  have 
not  the  use  of  the  bow,  but  are  expert  with 
the  spear,  which  they  fling  TO  or  80  yards 
with  the  greatest  nicety.  They  use  the  club 
or  waddy ;  and  they  have  the  boomerang,  a 


Aboriginal  Shelters. 


peculiar  missile,  resembling  a  double-edged 
wooden  sword,  bent  to  an  ellipse ;  on  being 
thrown  into  the  air  it  strikes  the  ground  at  a 


distance  and  rebounds  toward  the  thrower. 
The  several  tribes  are  engaged  in  frequent 
feuds  with  each  other,  but  are  not  usually 
courageous  in  the  presence  of  the  whites.  In 
the  early  times  of  the  colony,  however,  they 
frequently  exhibited  great  pertinacity  in  their 
attacks  on  out-stations.  Their  temper  is  gener- 
ally pacific  and  friendly.  Their  numbers  are 
very  limited ;  the  highest  recent  estimate  is 
50,000,  and  even  this  is  probably  much  over 
the  mark.  The  use  of  ardent  spirits  has  made 
great  ravages  among  them.  They  are  subject 
to  cutaneous  diseases,  attributable  to  their  ex- 
tremely filthy  habits.  They  are  polygamists, 
and  their  marriages  are  entirely  without  cere- 
mony, the  bridegroom  merely  carrying  away 
the  bride,  with  or  without  her  consent.  Their 
burials,  on  the  contrary,  are  accompanied  by 
certain  superstitious  observances ;  the  dead 
are  buried  in  the  exact  places  in  which  they 
died,  and  these  spots  are  never  inhabited  again 
by  members  of  the  dead  men's  tribe.  The 
names  of  the  dead  are  never  pronounced,  and 
those  bearing  the  same  names  are  obliged  to 
change  them.  Their  religious  opinions  are 
simple ;  they  believe  in  a  good  and  a  bad 
spirit.  They  believe  that  white  men  are  the 
reanimated  souls  of  blacks.  Many  efforts  for 
their  conversion  to  Christianity  have  been 
made,  but  without  permanent  success.  All 
the  colonial  governments  keep  up  native 
schools.  In  New  South  Wales  a  black  police 
was  at  one  time  formed,  whose  services  were 
very  valuable  in  tracking  depredators,  from 
their  native  skill  in  following  a  trail.  Some 
few  of  the  blacks  are  occasionally  employed  as 
stockmen  or  shepherds ;  but  they  are,  like  all 
savages,  averse  to  regular  labor  of  any  kind. 
They  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  number,  and 
in  a  few  decades  will  probably  be  almost  ex- 
tinct.— The  political  divisions  of  Australia,  the 
dates  of  their  official  organization  as  colonies, 
their  areas  (chiefly  estimated),  and  their  pop- 
ulation in  1871,  are  as  follows: 


DIVISIONS. 

Date  of 
Organi- 
zation. 

Area  in 
square  miles. 

Population 
in  1871. 

1788 

823,487 

501,611 

Victoria                        

1851 

88,681 

729,868 

1S86 

383,828 

188,995 

1859 

678.000 

115.567 

1829 

978,000 

24,785 

Northern  Territory  (not  yet  or- 

523,681 

201 

Xotal                  

2,978,127 

1,561,027 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  colonies  may  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  New  South  Wales  in  1821 
only  numbered  29,783  inhabitants ;  Victoria  in 
1836,224;  South  Australia  in  1838,  6,000.  The 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  colony  are 
of  British  descent ;  the  number  of  natives  of 
Germany  is  9,000  in  New  South  Wales,  with  a 
smaller  number  in  the  other  colonies.  The 
number  of  Chinese  is  about  70,000  (17,000  in 
Victoria),  and  it  is  steadily  increasing.  The 


AUSTRALIA 


133 


largest  cities  and  towns  of  Australia  are  Mel- 
bourne (Victoria),  pop.  190,000 ;  Sydney  (Xew 
South  Wales),  135,000;  Ballarat  (Victoria), 
74,000;  Sandhurst  (Victoria),  34,000;  Ade- 
laide (South  Australia),  27,000;  and  Geelong 
(Victoria),  22,000.— In  the  early  days  of  the 
Australian  colonies  clergymen  were  «(nerely 
chaplains  to  the  convict  establishments.  Sub- 
sequently an  act  was  passed  for  the  support  of 
Episcopal  churches  and  schools,  to  which  one 
seventh  of  the  crown  lands  was  to  be  devoted. 
Sir  Richard  Bourke  prevailed  upon  the  English 
government  to  assist  all  denominations  of 
Christians  in  building  places  of  worship  and 
supporting  their  ministers.  In  Queensland  an 
act  was  passed  in  1860  abolishing  state  aid  to 
religion  altogether,  and  the  other  colonies  are 
likewise  more  or  less  approaching  the  volun- 
tary system.  Thus  the  most  populous  colony, 
Victoria,  has  reduced  the  state  aid  to  an  an- 
nual subsidy  of  £50,000. '  The  number  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  in  1871  was  estimated  at  250,- 
000;  of  Jews,  5,500;  of  Mohammedans  and 
pagans,  about  42,000.  A  few  thousand  belong 
to  no  religion ;  the  remainder  are  Protestants, 
more  than  one  half  being  connected  with  the 
church  of  England.  This  church  has  nine 
bishops,  namely,  of  Sydney,  Newcastle,  Bath- 
urst,  Adelaide,  Melbourne,  Perth,  Brisbane, 
Goulburn,  and  Grafton  and  Armidale.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  in  1871  had  one  arch- 
bishop (in  Sydney)  and  ten  bishops. — The 
cause  of  education  has  made  great  progress. 
Each  of  the  colonies  has  its  board  or  council 
of  education,  consisting  of  a  number  of  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  government.  The  system 
of  public  education  is  more  or  less  assimilated 
to  the  national  system  in  Ireland.  The  gov- 
ernment provides,  under  conditions  which  dif- 
fer in  the  several  colonies,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  common  schools,  and  also  grants  aid 
to  schools  not  established  by  the  government 
on  their  complying  with  certain  regulations. 
The  state  also  assists  the  formation  and  main- 
tenance of  educational  establishments  of  a 
more  advanced  character.  In  several  colonies 
education  lias  been  made  compulsory.  In  1871 
the  number  of  schools  under  the  control  of  the 
government  boards  amounted  to  about  3,640, 
with  255,000  pupils  under  6,600  teachers. 
Nearly  all  the  colleges,  of  which  there  are 
many,  bear  a  denominational  character.  Syd- 
ney and  Melbourne  have  universities. — The 
revenues  of  the  colonies  are  chiefly  derived 
from  duties,  public  lands,  the  post  office,  rail- 
roads and  telegraphs,  stamp  duties,  and  li- 
censes. The  public  debts  have  been  chiefly 
contracted  for  the  establishment  of  railroads, 


COLONIES. 

Importi. 

Exports. 

New  South  Wales     .  . 

£7  757  281 

£7  991  088 

Victoria  

12  468  757 

12  470  014 

2029798 

2  419  487 

Western  Australia  

232  590 

204447 

Queensland    ,      .  ...  .    , 

1  586,799 

2006685 

Total  

£24,010  220 

£25  091  621 

COLONIES. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Public  Debt. 

New  South  Wales... 
Victoria  

£2,442,640 
8  070  959 

£2,602,979 
261K018 

£9,6*1,180 

1  0  :'•*•')  900* 

South  Australia  
Western  Australia.. 
Queensland  

6(U,ft» 
08,181 

748063 

786,160 
112,905 
771  991 

1,9*4,700 
No  debt. 
8459  750* 

»  :-*a. 

ports,  and  other  public  works.  The  forego- 
ing table  exhibits  the  revenue,  expenditures, 
and  public  debt  of  each  of  the  colonies  in  1870. 
— Gold  still  constitutes  the  chief  article  of  ex- 
port. The  aggregate  value  of  precious  metals 
exported  from  Australia  amounted  in  1869  to 
£10,870,000.  Next  to  gold  the  most  impor- 
tant article  of  export  is  wool,  the  value  of  which 
in  1869  was  estimated  at  £8,161,000.  South 
Australia  exports  large  quantities  of  wheat 
(£866,870  in  1869)  and  copper  (£622,681). 
The  breeding  of  cattle  has  become  an  impor- 
tant occupation  of  the  colonists.  The  colonies 
had  in  1871  about  22,100,000  sheep,  2,600,000 
horned  cattle,  and  732,000  horses.  The  follow- 
ing table  exhibits  the  imports  and  exports  of 
the  colonies  in  1870 : 


The  merchant  navy  of  the  colonies  consisted 
on  Jan.  1,  1871,  of  1,192  vessels,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  169,000  tons.  The  entries  and 
clearances  in  the  Australian  ports  in  1869  rep- 
sented  an  aggregate  of  3,774,909  tons.  All 
the  colonies  had  railroads  at  the  close  of  1871, 
with  the  exception  of  "Western  Australia, 
where  their  introduction  was  expected  at  an 
early  date.  The  greatest  progress  in  this  re- 
spect has  been  made  in  New  South  Wales, 
which  in  1871  had  431  m.  of  railroads.  The 
aggregate  length  of  the  Australian  railroads 
at  the  close  of  1871  was  about  1,110  m.,  and  a 
very  considerable  extension  of  the  railroad  sys- 
tem was  about  taking  place  in  several  colonies. 
The  electric  telegraph  has  been  introduced  into 
each  of  the  colonies.  The  length  of  the  wires 
in  1871  was  5,053  m.  in  New  South  Wales, 
3,368  in  Victoria,  and  about  13,400  in  all  the 
colonies.  All  the  colonies  except  Western  Aus- 
tralia are  connected  with  each  other  by  tele- 
graph, and  since  1869  by  a  submarine  cable 
with  Tasmania.  Telegraphic  connection  be- 
tween Australia  and  England,  by  means  of  a 
submarine  cable  connecting  Java  and  Port  Dar- 
win, was  nearly  completed  at  the  beginning  of 
1872.  The  government  in  each  colony  con- 
sists of  a  governor  appointed  in  England,  a 
legislative  council,  and  a  legislative  assembly 
elected  by  universal  suffrage. — Australia  first 
became  known  to  Europeans  in  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century.  Though  a  vague  out- 
line of  land  in  this  portion  of  the  southern 
ocean  appears  upon  the  map  of  some  Por- 
tuguese navigators  dated  1542,  the  first  real 
discovery  was  probably  made  by  the  Dutch  in 
1606,  when  the  captain  of  the  yacht  Duyfken, 
sent  out  from  Bantam  to  explore  a  part  of  the 
coast  of  New  Guinea,  saw  the  northern  shore 
of  the  continent  at  a  distance.  In  the  same 


13-t 


AUSTRALIA 


year  Torres  strait  was  named  from  a  Portu- 
guese navigator  who  sailed  through  it.  In 
1616  Hartog,  a  Dutch  captain,  came  upon  the  W. 
coast  of  Australia  and  called  it  Endracht's  Land, 
from  the  name  of  his  ship.  From  this  time 
other  parts  of  the  W.  coast  were  discovered. 
In  1622  the  Leeuwin  discovered  the  S.  coast  at 
Cape  Leeuwin,  and  shortly  after  Van  Nuyts 
sailed  from  that  cape  on  the  8.  coast  to  Spen- 
cer's gulf.  De  Witt's  Land  and  Carpentaria,  in 
North  Australia,  were  also  discovered  by  Dutch 
traders.  Capt.  Cook  in  1770  discovered  New 
South  Wales  and  Botany  Bay,  which  was  so 
called  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the  botanist  of  the 
expedition,  from  the  wonderful  floral  display 
which  its  plains  afforded.  In  1788  the  first 
English  colony  was  established  in  New  South 
Wales,  at  first  as  a  penal  settlement.  The 
original  design  of  the  British  government  was 
to  make  this  penal  station  at  Botany  Bay  it- 
self; but  a  better  locality  was  found  at  Sydney, 
and  Capt.  Phillip  was  sent  out  with  a  squadron 
having  on  board  850  convicts  and  a  guard  of 
200  men  and  officers.  In  this  convict  colony, 
placed  as  it  was  under  the  absolute  control  of 
a  governor  with  almost  unlimited  power,  every 
kind  of  abuse  and  vice  grew  up  ;  and  of  these 
the  free  colonists  who  afterward  began  to 
settle  in  the  district  felt  the  effects  in  many 
ways.  A  conflict  grew  up  between  them  and 
the  government  on  the  question  of  abolishing 
the  transportation  system ;  and  after  endeavor- 
ing, under  a  long  succession  of  governors,  to 
devise  some  means  of  keeping  up  the  two 
plans  of  a  convict  colony  and  a  free  colony  to- 
gether, the  government  was  obliged  to  yield, 
principally  by  the  efforts  of  the  "  Anti-Trans- 
portation League  "  formed  against  its  measures, 
and  to  issue  an  order  in  council  in  1837  abol- 
ishing transportation  to  New  South  Wales, 
and  restricting  it  to  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  even 
here  it  was  abolished  in  1853.  From  this  time 
the  attention  of  the  English  was  more  and 
more  attracted  toward  Australia,  and  explora- 
tions of  the  other  coasts  and  even  of  the  in- 
terior followed  in  rapid  succession.  In  1798 
and  1799  Flinders  and  Bass,  two  Englishmen, 
carefully  surveyed  the  S.  and  E.  coasts.  In 
1800-'!  Grant  and  Murray  explored  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  S.  coast,  and  their  work  was 
continued  both  to  the  eastward  and  northward 
during  the  next  three  years  by  Baudin,  Frey- 
cinet,  and  Flinders.  During  the  period  from 
1788  to  1791,  explorations  in  the  interior  were 
also  undertaken  by  Phillip,  Tench,  and  Dawes. 
In  1796  Hunter  penetrated  to  the  mountains 
called  by  his  name.  In  1813  Wentworth, 
Blaxland,  and  Lawson  crossed  the  Blue  moun- 
tain and  discovered  the  Bathurst  plains,  which 
in  1815  became  the  seat  of  a  branch  colony. 
In  the  same- year  Evans  explored  the  valley  of 
the  Lachlan.  In  the  succeeding  five  years 
Jefferies,  Kelly,  and  King  completed  the  sur- 
vey of  the  coasts.  Oxley,  who  travelled 
through  the  eastern  mountain  system  in  1818, 
Hovell  and  Hume,  who  explored  the  region  of 


the  Australian  Alps  from  1818  to  1824,  and 
Cunningham,  who  spent  the  six  years  from 
1823  to  1829  in  the  northern  part  of  the  same 
district,  were  the  next  noteworthy  explorers. 
In  1828  and  the  years  following  Sturt  made 
several  expeditions  of  importance,  and  in  1829 
he  discovered  the  Darling  river.  In  1829  also 
was  founded  the  second  of  the  chief  colonies — 
that  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Western 
Australia.  The  first  settlement  was  at  Perth. 
In  1832  Bennett,  and  in  1835  and  the  suc- 
ceeding year  Major  Mitchel,  explored  southern 
Australia,  and  the  latter  followed  the  Darling 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Murray,  besides  dis- 
covering the  Grampian  hills,  and  making  other 
noteworthy  additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
interior.  In  1835  also  the  first  settlement  in 
the  future  colony  of  Victoria  was  made  at  Port 
Phillip.  In  the  mean  time  several  attempts 
to  colonize  other  parts  of  the  coast  had  failed  ; 
a  settlement  had  been  made  in  Arnhem's  Land 
in  1824,  and  several  others  in  subsequent  years 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  island,  but  none  of  these 
endured  more  than  a  few  years.  In  1836, 
however,  a  successful  colony  was  begun  in 
South  Australia,  at  Adelaide.  In  1839  and 
the  three  following  years  Stokes  made  a  series 
of  important  exploring  expeditions  along  the 
coast.  The  interior,  chiefly  between  the  Pa- 
cific and  the  gulfs  of  Carpentaria  and  Spen- 
cer, was  explored  in  the  following  three  dec- 
ades by  those  of  Eyre,  Leichhardt,  Sturt,  the 
brothers  Gregory  and  Helpman,  Kennedy, 
Austin,  Stuart,  Babbage,  the  brothers  Demp- 
ster, Burke  and  Wills,  Landsborough,  McKin- 
lay,  Lefroy,  Mclntyre,  Forrest,  Brown,  and 
others,  several  of  whom  became  the  victims 
of  their  zeal  and  boldness.  Emigration  to  the 
newly  founded  colonies  was  very  slow  ;  large 
numbers  of  discouraged  settlers  left  Australia 
for  the  South  American  coast  or  for  other 
countries;  and  in  1850,  after  all  the  attempts 
made  during  60  years  of  colonization,  the  Eu- 
ropean population  was  estimated  at  only  50,000. 
An  event  now  occurred  which  suddenly  changed 
the  whole  condition  and  prospects  of  the  con- 
tinent. This  was  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851, 
in  the  Bathurst  district  of  New  South  Wales, 
by  a  gentleman  returned  from  California,  Mr. 
Hargraves.  Count  Strzelecki  had  previously 
announced  the  existence  of  gold  in  Australia, 
and  Sir  Eoderick  Murchison,  examining  a  piece 
of  Australian  quartz,  had  inferred  it  from  his 
knowledge  of  the  gold  washings  in  the  Ural 
mountains.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  quantities 
on  the  Turon  river,  in  New  South  Wales,  early 
in  the  year,  first  drew  a  number  of  diggers  to 
that  district.  In  the  latter  end  of  1851,  how- 
ever, diggings  of  far  greater  value  were  dis- 
covered in  Victoria,  and  then  commenced  an 
influx  of  immigrants  which,  as  in  the  case  of 
California,  produced  results  that  set  all  fore- 
sight and  calculation  at  defiance.  In  a  year 
after  the  discovery  the  population  was  250,- 
000,  notwithstanding  the  distance  from  Europe 
and  the  expense  of  the  voyage.  Ordinary  busi- 


<H  Loutfi!u<i>-     Kasl       !t.Y      troin    Washintftou 


AUSTRASIA 


AUSTRIA 


135 


ness  of  all  kinds  was  momentarily  suspended. 
Agriculture  was  for  that  year  almost  aban- 
doned. Every  article  of  food  and  clothing  was 
imported  from  Europe,  labor  and  merchandise 
advanced  to  prices  to  which  there  seemed  to 
be  no  probability  of  a  limit,  and  much  time 
was  required  to  bring  Australian  affair^  into 
their  ordinary  channel.  Among  the  indus- 
tries which  have  grown  up,  the  raising  of 
sheep  has  the  most  prominent  place.  The 
great  sheep  runs,  occupying  immense  tracts  of 
land,  have  become  a  principal  feature  of  the 
country.  Merino  and  other  fine  breeds,  im- 
ported early  into  the  colonies,  have  increased 
with  great  rapidity — in  Queensland  alone  from 
three  to  nine  million  head  in  the  last  ten  years 
— and  the  statistics  show  the  extraordinary 
amount  of  wool  annually  yielded,  and  nearly 
all  exported. — The  recent  progress  of  the  coun- 
try has  been  uninterrupted  and  rapid.  The 
era  of  speculation  seems  to  have  nearly  passed 
away,  and  the  affairs  of  the  colonies  are  grad- 
ually assuming  the  settled  aspect  of  those  of 
older  states.  Explorations  are  constantly  made 
in  the  interior,  and  the  large  tracts  still  un- 
settled near  the  coast  are  attracting  a  consid- 
erable immigration,  which,  now  that  the  re- 
sources of  the  continent  are  properly  devel- 
oped, is  not  likely  to  be  discontinued. — For 
more  specific  information,  see  the  articles  on 
the  different  colonies. 

Al  STR  isi  I  (old  Ger.  Oesterrych,  i.  e.,  Oett- 
reich),  the  eastern  kingdom  of  the  Franks  of 
the  6th,  7th,  and  8th  centuries,  under  the  Me- 
rovingians, comprising  in  its  flourishing  period 
the  countries  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  from 
the  Marne  to  the  Saale  and  from  the  North  sea 
to  the  Danube  (the  ancient  kingdoms  or  duchies 
of  Metz,  Champagne,  Thuringia,  Alemannia, 
Frisia,  and  others).  The  first  king  was  Sieg- 
bert,  to  whom  this  territory  fell  in  561  on  the 
partition  of  the  dominions  of  his  father  Clo- 
taire  I.,  king  of  the  Franks.  Austrasia  was  in 
conflict  with  Neustria,  the  western  Frankish 
kingdom,  and  with  the  Burgundians.  Among 
celebrated  Austrasian  rulers  were  Queen  Brnne- 
haut  or  Brunehilde  (567-613),  King  Dagobert 
(628-'38),  whose  successors  are  called  lea  row 
faineants  (idle  kings),  and  the  mayor  of  the 
palace  Pepin  of  He'ristal,  who  was  succeeded  in 
714  by  his  natural  son  Charles  Martel.  In  752 
Charles's  son  Pepin  the  Short  became  sovereign 
of  both  the  eastern  and  western  Prankish  king- 
doms, and  Austrasia  ceased  to  play  a  distinct 
part  in  history.  Under  Charlemagne's  succes- 
sors most  of  the  former  Austrasian  countries 
were  merged  into  Germany,  and  those  of  Neus- 
tria into  France. — See  Hutoire  du  royaume 
merovingien  d'Austrasie,  by  Haguenin  (Paris, 
1863). 

\ I  STKI I  (Ger.  Oestreieh  or  Oesterreieh,  east- 
ern empire),  officially  designated  since  1868  as 
the  AusTBo-HuNOABiAN  MONABCHY,  an  empire 
of  southern  central  Europe,  bounded  N.  by  the 
German  empire  and  Russia,  E.  by  Russia  and 
European  Turkey,  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Turkey,  the 


Adriatic  sea,  and  Italy,  and  W.  by  Switzerland 
and  the  German  empire.  It  now  consists  of 
two  main  divisions,  Austria  proper  and  Hungary, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  special  legislation 
and  administration,  though  they  are  united 
under  one  monarch  and  have  a  single  ministry 
for  all  matters  of  common  interest.  As  the 
river  Leitha  constitutes  a  part  of  the  frontier, 
Austria  is  also  called  Cisleithania,  and  Hungary 
Transleithania.  But  while  in  the  higher  polit- 
ical sense  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  con- 
sists of  these  two  divisions,  the  term  is  in  fact 
the  collective  designation  of  several  states,  com- 
prising a  number  of  distinct  nationalities,  all 
under  the  rule  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  It  is 
only  since  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  the  em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  that  these  countries  have 
been  actually  consolidated.  The  centralizing 
policy  of  the  crown  was,  however,  partly  de- 
feated by  the  resistance  of  the  Hungarians, 
who  demanded  and  finally  obtained  the  recog- 
nition of  the  historical  rights  of  the  Hungarian 
monarchy.  In  this  article  we  shall  treat  only 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  as  a  whole, 
and  of  the  Cisleithan  half  of  the  empire.  For 
the  rest,  see  HUNGARY. — The  total  area  of  the 
empire  is  240,381  sq.  m.,  extending  from  lat. 
42°  10'  to  51°  4'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  9°  35'  to  26° 
35'  E.  Its  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  1869,  amounted  to  35,904,435.  The  empire 
is  a  continuous  territory,  only  two  districts 
(Cattaro  and  Ragusa)  being  separated  from  the 
main  body  by  small  strips  of  Turkish  territory. 
Of  the  21  states  or  provinces  (Kronla/nder  or 
crown  lands)  which,  according  to  the  reorgan- 
izing statutes  of  1849  and  1851,  were  to  con- 
stitute the  united  Austrian  monarchy  (Oestrei- 
chische  Gesammtmonarchie),  the  following  14, 
according  to  the  new  arrangement  made  in 
1867,  belong  to  the  "  countries  represented  in 
the.  Reichsrath,"  or  to  the  Cisleithan  provinces : 

1,  the  archduchy  of  Lower  Austria  (Oestreieh 
unter  der  Enng),  7,655  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,990,708; 

2,  the  archduchy  of  Upper  Austria  (Oestreich 
ob    der  Ennt),   4,633    sq.  m.,   pop.   736,557; 

3,  the  duchy  of  Salzburg,  2,767  sq.  m.,  pop. 
153,159;  4,  the  duchy  of  Styria  (Steiermark), 
8,671  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,137,990;  5,  the  duchy  of 
Carinthia  (Karnthen),  4,006  sq.  m.,  pop.  337,- 
694 ;  6,  the  duchy  of  Carniola  (£rain),  3,857 
sq.  m.,  pop.  466,334 ;  7,  the  Coastland  or  Lit- 
torale,  embracing  the  counties  of  Gorz   and 
Gradisca,  the  margraviate  of  Istria,  and  the 
district  of  Trieste,  8,085  sq.  m.,  pop.  600,525 
(the  three  last-named  provinces  form  the  king- 
dom of  Illyria) ;  8,  the  county  of  Tyrol  with 
Vorarlberg,  11,325  sq.m.,  pop.  885,789;  9,  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia  (Sohmen),  20,064  sq.  m., 
pop.  5,140,544;  10,  the  margraviate  of  Mora- 
via (ifahren),  8,585  sq.  m.,  pop.  2,017,274;  11, 
theduchy  of  Silesia  (Schlesien),  1,988  sq.  m.,  pop. 
513,352  (these  11  states  were  until  1866  mem- 
bers of  the  German  confederation) ;  12,  the  king- 
dom of  Galicia,  including  the  former  republic 
of  Cracow  (annexed  by  Austria  in  1846),  and 
the  duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zator,  both  of 


136 


AUSTRIA 


which  belonged  until  1866  to  the  German  con- 
federation, 30,313  sq.  m.,  pop.  5,444,689 ;  13, 
the  duchy  of  Bukowina,  4,036  sq.  m.,  pop. 
513,404;  14,  the  kingdom  of  Dalmatia,  4,940 
sq.  m.,  pop.  456,961.  Total  area  of  the  14 
provinces  represented  in  the  Reichsrath,  115,- 
925  sq.  m. ;  total  population,  20,394,980.  This 
includes  177,449  soldiers,  deducting  whom  the 
civil  population  amounts  to  20,217,531.  The 
aggregate  population  of  these  14  provinces  in 
1830  was  15,588,142;  in  1850,  17,534,950;  in 
1857,  18,224,500.  At  the  close  of  the  year 
1871  the  civil  population  was  officially  calcu- 
lated at  20,555,370.  Of  the  remaining  seven 
provinces,  Lombardy  and  Venetia  have  been 
ceded  to  Italy  in  consequence  of  the  wars  of 
1859  and  1866;  and  the  kingdom  of  Hungary, 
the  kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  the  way- 
wodeship  of  Servia,  the  grand  duchy  of  Tran- 
sylvania, and  the  Military  Frontier  now  belong 
to  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown  (the  way- 
wodeship  of  Servia  having  however  ceased  to 
be  a  separate  crown  land  and  been  incorporated 
with  Hungary  proper). — About  five  sevenths 
of  the  Austrian  territory  are  mountainous. 
There  are  three  principal  chains  of  mountains, 
each  of  them  sending  off  many  branches,  viz. : 
1.  The  Alps  (Rhffitian,  Noric,  Oarnic,  Julian, 
and  Dinaric),  covering  almost  the  entire  south- 
ern belt  of  the  German  provinces,  as  well  as 
Illyria  and  Dalmatia  (see  ALPS)  ;  their  highest 
peaks  are  the  Ortler  (12,852  ft.)  and  the  Gross- 
Glockner  (12,776  ft.).  2.  The  Carpathians, 
about  800  m.  long,  beginning  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Danube  and  the  March,  near  Presbnrg, 
sweeping  in  an  arc  to  the  confluence  of  the 
Danube  and  Cserna,  on  the  confines  of  Walla- 
chia  and  Servia.  (See  CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS, 
and  HUNGARY.)  The  bold  and  rugged  granite 
cliffs  of  the  Carpathians,  in  N.  Hungary  and  E. 
Transylvania,  rise  to  a  height  of  more  than 
8,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  3.  The 
Sudetic  mountains,  with  the  Bohemian  forest 
and  the  Ore  mountains  (Erzgebirge,  between 
Bohemia  and  Saxony),  forming  together  an 
almost  uninterrupted  chain  of  granite  and 
gneiss  formation.  The  highest  section  of  this 
chain,  the  Giant  mountains  or  Riesengebirge, 
between  Bohemia  and  Prussian  Silesia,  rises  in 
the  Schneekoppe,  or  Snow  peak,  to  an  elevation 
of  upward  of  5,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Besides  these  three  great  chains  there  are 
several  parallel  ranges  of  considerable  height. 
Thus  on  both  sides  of  the  Alps  there  extend 
limestone  ranges,  the  northern  ones  towering  up 
to  the  height  of  9,840  ft.  (the  Dachstein,  or 
Roof  peak,  on  the  boundary  line  of  Salzburg  and 
Styria),  while  the  southern  ones,  reaching  to 
the  height  of  10,903  ft.,  cover  nearly  the  whole 
territory  of  Illyria  and  Dalmatia.  Again,  the 
Carpathians  are  surrounded  by  sandstone  moun- 
tains, which  almost  fill  up  the  territory  of 
Transylvania.  Of  large  plains  there  are  only 
two :  the  great  Hungarian  basin,  covering  about 
40,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  Galician  basin,  which 
is  interrupted  by  several  ranges  of  hills  and 


covers  about  20,000  sq.  m. — The  seacoast  of 
Austria  extends  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  of 
Venice  to  the  S.  point  of  Dalmatia,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Adriatic,  1,036  m.  Austria  belongs 
to  four  of  the  great  river  systems  of  Europe, 
those  of  the  Black  sea,  the  Baltic,  the  German 
ocean,  and  the  Mediterranean.  Among  the 
numerous  streams  the  Danube  is  by  far  the 
most  important ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  main  artery 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  may  at  no  very  dis- 
tant period  become  for  a  large  portion  of  south- 
ern Europe  what  the  Mississippi  is  for  the  United 
States.  The  Danube,  being  the  largest  Euro- 
pean river  after  the  Volga,  enters  Austria  from 
Bavaria  as  a  stream  navigable  at  all  seasons, 
but  its  channel  formerly  offered  serious  im- 
pediments to  navigation,  all  of  which  have 
been  removed  or  are  in  process  of  removal. 
(See  DANITBE.)  Steamboats  were  first  intro- 
duced on  the  Danube  in  1830.  Since  1835  the 
Austrian  steam  navigation  company  has  in- 
creased their  number  from  year  to  year,  until 
in  1869  it  maintained  146  steamboats  and  pro- 
pellers, besides  550  barges,  scows,  &c.  The  en- 
tire length  of  the  Danube  in  Austria  is  nearly 
900  m.,  and  its  average  width  600  ft.  Most  of 
its  tributaries  are  navigable  for  small  craft, 
and  steam  has  been  introduced  on  several.  The 
river  Theiss,  in  Hungary,  the  most  consider- 
able of  them  all,  said  also  to  have  a  greater 
abundance  of  fish  than  any  other  European 
river,  is  navigated  by  steamboats  from  Tokay 
down  to  the  Danube ;  it  has  a  length  of  up- 
ward of  600  m.  The  Save,  which  enters 
the  Danube  near  Belgrade,  is  navigable  for  a 
large  part  of  its  course.  Steamboats  also  ply 
on  the  Inn,  on  the  Bavarian  frontier,  and  since 
1857  even  on  the  Salzach,  a  smaller  stream, 
emptying  into  the  Inn.  The  other  important 
tributaries  of  the  Danube,  in  their  geographi- 
cal order,  are  the  Traun,  the  Enns,  the  March 
or  Morava,  the  Raab,  the  Waag,  the  Neutra, 
the  Gran,  the  Eypel,  and  the  Drave  or  Drau, 
all  of  which  are  navigable.  The  Moldau,  trib- 
utary to  the  Elbe,  in  Bohemia,  is  also  navi- 
gated by  steamboats.  The  Vistula,  Dniester, 
and  Pruth  rise  within  the  Austrian  empire 
in  Galicia,  the  Elbe  in  Bohemia,  and  the 
Adige  in  Tyrol. — The  lakes  of  Austria  are  nu- 
merous, though  not  very  large.  The  Flatten 
or  Balaton  lake  in  S.  W.  Hungary  has  a  surface 
of  about  400  sq.  m.  The  only  salt  lake  in 
Austria  is  the  Neusiedler  lake  in  W.  Hungary, 
nearly  20  m.  long,  and  from  5  to  7  m.  wide. 
The  Czirknitzer  lake,  in  Carniola,  is  remarkable 
as  containing  a  number  of  subterranean  cavi- 
ties, through  which  its  waters  from  time  to 
time  disappear  and  again  flow  in. — The  climate 
of  Austria  is  temperate  and  very  wholesome. 
From  the  southern  boundary  tip  to  lat.  46°, 
the  average  temperature  is  54J°  F. ;  from  lat. 
46°  to  lat.  49",  it  is  50°  to  52° ;  beyond  lat.  49° 
it  is  48°.  The  winter  is  very  severe  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  but  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature are  not  frequent. — Nature  has  endowed 
Austria  with  a  greater  variety  of  p'roductions 


AUSTRIA 


137 


than  any  other  European  state.  Platina  ex- 
cepted,  all  metals  abound.  Gold  is  produced 
in  Hungary  and  Transylvania ;  silver  and  the 
best  quality  of  European  copper  in  Hungary ; 
quicksilver  in  Carniola  (the  mine  at  Idria  used 
to  yield  12,000  c'wt.  per  annum) ;  tin  in  Bohe- 
mia; lead  in  Carinthia;  iron  almost , every- 
where (a  single  mine  in  Styria  yields*  over 
15,000  tons  annually).  The  following  are  pro- 
duced in  smaller  quantities :  zinc  (about  44,000 
cwt.  in  1869),  arsenic  (1,376  cwt.),  antimony 
(11,786  cwt.),  chrome,  bismuth,  and  manganese. 
Black  tourmaline,  alabaster,  serpentine,  gyp- 
sum, black  lead,  slates,  flint,  and  marble  abound 
in  many  portions  of  the  empire.  The  precious 
stones  found  in  Austria  are :  the  Bohemian  car- 
buncle, the  Hungarian  opal,  chalcedony,  ruby, 
emerald,  jasper,  amethyst,  topaz,  carnelian, 
chrysolite,  beryl.  The  coal  beds  of  Austria  are 
considered  almost  inexhaustible.  Of  rock  salt 
there  is  a  bed  several  hundred  miles  in  length  in 
Galicia,  of  which  only  a  small  portion  is  worked 
at  the  gigantic  mine  of  Wieliczka,  near  Cra- 
cow, a  perfect  subterranean  city,  or  rather  four 
cities,  one  below  the  other,  extending  in  a 
labyrinth  of  galleries,  and  hewn  into  the  salt 
rock  9,000  ft.  from  N.  to  8.,  and  4,000  ft.  from 
E.  to  W.  Of  mineral  springs  Austria  contains 
upward  of  1,600,  of  which  the  most  celebra- 
ted are  at  Carlsbad,  Marienbad,  Teplitz,  and 
Franzensbad,  in  Bohemia;  Ischl,  in  Upper 
Austria ;  Baden,  in  Lower  Austria ;  Gastein, 
in  Salzburg;  Gleichenberg,  in  Styria;  Bartfeld, 
Trentschin,  and  Parad,  in  Hungary ;  Mehadia, 
in  the  Military  Frontier  district. — The  vegetable 
kingdom  of  Austria  shows  the  same  variety  as 
the  mineral.  Wheat  is  the  staple  produce  of 
the  German  provinces  and  of  Hungary ;  buck- 
wheat is  raised  in  the  sandy  regions ;  Indian 
corn,  rice,  and  kidney  beans  are  raised  in 
Hungary;  the  finest  varieties  of  apples  and 
pears  in  Bohemia,  Austria  proper,  and  Tyrol ; 
of  plums,  in  Hungary.  Hungary  produces  im- 
mense quantities  of  cucumbers,  melons,  water- 
melons, pepper,  anise,  licorice,  poppies,  chic- 
cory,  sweet-flag,  ginger,  flax,  hemp,  and  tobac- 


co. Cotton  is  raised  in  Dalmatia,  hops  in  Bo- 
hemia, saffron  and  woad  in  Lower  Austria. 
The  Hungarian  wine  (more  than  one  half  of 
the  entire  wine  product  of  Austria)  is  an  ex- 
cellent article,  some  brands  being  justly  count- 
ed among  the  very  best  wines  of  the  world 
(Tokay,  Menes,  &c.).  About  68,000  sq.  m. 
of  the  Austrian  territory  are  covered  with 
forests,  mostly  oak,  pine,  and  hemlock,  in 
the  northern,  and  maple,  stone  pine,  olive, 
laurel,  myrtle,  and  chestnut  trees,  in  the  south- 
ern provinces.  Horses  are  raised  everywhere, 
but  only  those  of  the  Bukovvina  are  of  a  supe- 
rior stock ;  sheep  and  horned  cattle  in  Hungary 
and  Galicia  (buffaloes  in  Croatia  and  Transylva- 
nia) ;  goats  and  hogs  in  Hungary.  The  silkworm 
has  been  introduced  in  Tyrol,  Croatia,  Slavo- 
nia,  Illyria,  and  Dalmatia.  Game  is  plentiful, 
deer,  wild  boars,  and  hares  being  found  almost 
everywhere ;  black  bears,  chamois,  lynxes, 
wolves,  and  beavers,  only  in  some  districts. 
Pearl  mussels  are  frequently  found  in  several 
rivers  and  creeks  of  Hungary. — The  increase 
of  the  population  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  from  1850  to  1869  has  been  on  an 
average  0'84  per  cent.  According  to  the  gen- 
eral census  of  1857,  the  monarchy  had  37,754,- 
856  inhabitants.  Since  then  it  has  lost  two 
provinces,  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  5,000,000;  but  the  natural 
increase  from  1857  to  1869  has  nearly  made 
up  this  loss.  The  inhabitants  of  the  empire 
live  in  927  cities,  2,039  boroughs,  and  73,252 
villages.  Of  the  cities,  one  (Vienna)  has  up- 
ward of  600,000  inhabitants;  two,  Pesth  and 
Prague,  have  more  than  150,000;  12  above 
40,000;  6  above  30,000;  35  above  20,000;  and 
97  above  10,000.  In  no  country  in  the  world 
has  the  nationality  question  at  present  so  great 
a  political  importance  as  in  Austria.  No  offi- 
cial census  of  the  nationalities  has  been  taken 
since  1850.  The  following  estimates  of  the 
strength  of  all  the  important  nationalities  of 
the  empire  in  1869  is  taken  from  Schmitt's 
Statistik  des  osterreichisch-unffarischen  Kai- 
serstaates  (4th  ed.,  1872) : 


NATIONALITIES. 

Totsl  number 
in 

Cisleithania. 

Per  cent. 
Cisleithania. 

Tot'l  nnmb'r  in 
Transleitha- 
nia. 

Per  cent,  in 
Tranilel- 
thania. 

Total  number 
In 
Monarchy. 

Per  cent, 
in 
Monarchy. 

7,108,900 

85-16 

1,894,800 

12-30 

9.003.7110 

25-27 

Czechs  and  Slovaks                   

4,118,800 

28-84 

1,841,100 

11-95 

6,659.900 

18-41 

Poles  

2.443,600 

12-09 

2,448,500 

6-86 

2,584,600 

12-80 

448,000 

2-91 

3,082.600 

8-51 

1,196,200 

6-92 

58,000 

0-87 

1,254,200 

8-52 

522.400 

2-58 

2,408,700 

15-60 

2,928,100 

8-22 

17,700 

0-09 

6,688,100 

86-89 

5,705,800 

16-01 

Italians  

B87.500 

2-91 

600 

588,100 

1-M 

207,900 

1-02 

2,477,700 

18-08 

2,685.600 

7-54 

820,200 

4-08 

652,100 

8-58 

1,872,300 

8-86 

Of  the  Cisleithan  provinces  only  Upper  Austria 
and  Salzburg  are  wholly  German ;  in  the  other 
provinces  the  numerical  relation  of  the  princi- 
pal nationalities,  according  to  the  same  author- 
ity, was  in  1869  as  follows:  Lower  Austria — 
Germans  90  per  cent.,  Czechs  6 ;  Styria — Ger- 
mans 63,  Slovens  36 ;  Carinthia — Germans  69, 


Slovens  31;  Carniola — Germans  6,  Slovens 
93;  Littorale— Germans  4,  Slovens  42,  Cro- 
ats 21,  Italians  31;  Tyrol — Germans  60,  Ital- 
ians 39;  Bohemia — Germans  38,  Czechs  60; 
Moravia — Germans  26,  Czechs  71 ;  Silesia — 
Germans  51,  Czechs  19,  Poles  29 ;  Galicia — 
Germans  3,  Poles  42,  Ruthenians  44,  Jews 


138 


AUSTRIA 


11;  Bukowina— Germans  Y,  Ruthenians  40, 
Roumans  39,  Jews  9;  Dalmatia — Croats  and 
Serbs  87,  Italians  13.  Thus  the  Germans 
may  always  be  expected  to  control,  when  the 
nationality  question  is  at  stake,  the  provincial 
diets  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Styria,  Salz- 
burg, Carinthia,  and  Silesia.  The  Czechs  pre- 
vail in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  Slovens  (or 
Winds)  in  Carniola,  the  Croats  and  Serbs  in 
Dalmatia.  In  Galicia,  according  to  the  above 
table,  the  Ruthenians  exceed  the  Poles  in  num- 
ber ;  but  the  Poles,  to  whom  the  higher  classes 
of  society  belong,  have  an  undisputed  control 
of  the  diet,  and  in  general  of  the  province  as  a 
whole.  The  Germans,  though  only  35  per  cent, 
of  the  population  of  the  Cisleithan  provinces, 
are  the  ruling  race  in  this  part  of  the  mon- 
archy, while  the  Magyars  dominate  in  the  lands 
of  the  Hungarian  crown,  although  they  like- 
wise embrace  no  more  than  about  37  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  population.  The  number  of  lan- 
guages or  dialects  spoken  in  Austria  exceeds 
20,  but  German  is  the  highest  official  language 
in  the  Cisleithan,  and  Magyar  in  the  Trans- 
leithan  provinces.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that 
at  a  Panslavic  congress  held  at  Prague  in  1848, 
the  delegates  of  the  different  Slavic  nationali- 
ties found  themselves  under  the  necessity  of 
using  the  German  language,  being  unable  to 
understand  the  different  dialects  of  their  own 
tongue.  The  density  of  population  is  very  un- 
equal, but  is  generally  greater  in  the  eastern 
than  in  the  western  portions  of  the  empire. 
The  extremes  are  Lower  Austria,  which  con- 
tains Vienna  (259  to  the  sq.  m.),  and  Salzburg 
(55  to  the  sq.  m.). — More  than  three  fourths 
of  the  entire  population  of  Austria  acknowl- 
edge the  religious  supremacy  of  Rome;  of 
these,  in  1869,  23,954,233  were  Roman  Catho- 
lics proper,  3,941,796  United  Greeks,  and  8,279 
Armeno-Catholics.  The  population  connected 
•with  the  Greek  Oriental  church  amounts  to 
3,050,830 ;  and  that  belonging  to  the  Armenian 
proper  (Gregorian)  to  1,854.  The  Reformed 
church  has 2,143,178  professors;  the  Lutheran, 
1,365,835 ;  the  Unitarians,  55,070.  The  Jews 
number  1,372,300.  The  remainder  belong  to 
minor  sects.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
Austria  has  11  archbishoprics  and  42  bishop- 
rics ;  2  archbishoprics  and  7  bishoprics  belong 
to  the  United  Greek,  and  1  archbishopric  to  the 
Anneno-Catholic.  The  Greek  Oriental  church 
has  3  archbishoprics  and  10  bishoprics.  In 
1869  the  number  of  Roman  Catholic  convents 
in  Austria  was  965,  containing  8,743  monks 
and  5,671  nuns.  By  the  concordat  with  the 
pope,  concluded  in  September,  1855,  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church  in  Austria  received  great 
prerogatives ;  but  these  were  rescinded  by  the 
reform  laws  of  1868,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
promulgation  of  papal  infallibility  as  a  doctrine 
of  the  church,  the  Austrian  government  in  1870 
declared  the  concordat  abrogated.  The  affairs 
of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  are 
administered  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces  by  the 
evangelical  supreme  church  council  at  Vienna 


and  two  general  synods,  one  Lutheran  and  one 
Reformed.  The  Lutheran  church  is  divided 
into  4  superintendencies  and  subdivided  into 
15  seniorates;  the  Reformed  church  consists 
of  4  superintendencies,  which  are  divided  into 
6  seniorates.  The  Jews  have  about  500  rabbis 
in  the  entire  monarchy. — Public  education  has 
been  in  the  course  of  thorough  reorganization 
since  1848.  In  the  Cisleithan  provinces,  it  is 
chiefly  regulated  on  the  basis  of  the  law  of 
May  14,  1869.  The  number  of  common  or 
primary  schools  has  been  steadily  increased, 
until  in  1869  it  was  31,218,  or  one  for  every 
1,159  inhabitants.  The  common  schools  are 
of  two  grades.  In  those  of  the  lower  grade 
reading,  writing,  ciphering,  religion,  the  ele- 
ments of  history  and  natural  history,  singing, 
and  gymnastic  exercises  are  taught;  in  those 
of  the  higher  grade  (Burgerscfiulen),  composi- 
tion, arithmetic,  geometry,  bookkeeping,  and 
drawing  are  added.  In  1869,  2,852,843  children 
out  of  3,624,295  went  to  the  common  schools. 
Education  is  compulsory,  and  in  the  Cisleithan 
provinces  children  are  bound  to  attend  school 
from  their  6th  to  their  14th  year.  Nearly  all 
the  children  of  this  age  attended  school  in  1869 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  in  Salzburg,  Sty- 
ria, Tyrol,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia;  but 
in  Galicia,  Bukowina,  and  Dalmatia,  only  one 
out  of  three  children  received  an  education.  The 
number  of  normal  schools  for  the  education  of 
teachers  was  for  the  whole  empire  about  100. 
The  middle  schools  (Mittelschulen)  are  divided 
into  Gymnasien  (colleges),  whioh  prepare  their 
pupils  for  the  universities ;  Realschulen,  which 
prepare  them  for  the  technical  high  schools; 
and  Healgymnasien,  recently  instituted,  which 
combine  both  courses.  The  monarchy  in  1870 
had  241  gymnasien,  20  realgymnasien,  and  74 
realschulen ;  the  Cisleithan  provinces  99  gym- 
nasien, 19  realgymnaisen,  and  49  realschulen. 
In  1871  Austria  had  7  universities  (Vienna, 
Prague,  Pesth,  Lemberg,  Innspruck,  Gratz,  and 
Cracow),  to  which  in  1872  a  new  one  was 
added  at  Klausenburg  in  Transylvania,  and 
8  technical  high  schools  (Technische  HocJi- 
schuleri),  most  of  which  have  been  recently 
reorganized  so  as  to  comprise  a  number  of 
special  schools.  The  universities  in  1870  had 
707  professors  and  10,877  students;  the  tech- 
nical high  schools,  265  professors  and  3,010 
students.  To  the  last-mentioned  class  of  in- 
stitutions may  be  added  2  mining  academies, 
1  agricultural  academy,  4  commercial  acad- 
emies, and  the  academy  for  commerce  and 
navigation  at  Trieste.  Not  included  in  the 
above  statement  are  a  number  of  special  schools 
for  theology,  for  law  and  political  economy, 
for  surgery,  midwifery,  and  veterinary  sur- 
gery, for  commerce,  trade,  and  navigation,  for 
agriculture,  for  mining,  the  art  schools,  the 
schools  for  the  education  of  military  officers, 
and  a  large  number  of  private  schools.  The 
largest  of  the  public  libraries  are  the  imperial 
library  at  Vienna,  numbering  410,000  volumes ; 
the  university  library  at  Vienna,  containing  up 


AUSTRIA 


139 


ward  of  200,000  vols. ;  the  university  libraries 
of  Pesth,  Cracow,  and  Prague ;  and  that  of  the 
national  museum  of  Pesth.  There  are  many 
museums,  cabinets  of  science  and  art,  galleries 
of  paintings,  &c.,  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
empire.  Several  splendid  collections  belong- 
ing to  private  individuals  are  always  ojien  to 
the  public. — Before  1848  the  most  rigorous 
censorship  rendered  a  well  regulated  public 
press  an  impossibility.  During  the  revolution 
in  1848  these  restraints  were  removed,  but  in 
1852  a  law  for  the  regulation  of  the  press 
gave  the  police  absolute  control  over  the 
political  press,  and  restored  the  censorship 
in  all  but  the  name.  In  1862  the  govern- 
ment again  found  it  necessary  to  grant  free- 
dom of  the  press;  arid  after  the  reorganization 
of  the  empire  in  1867,  it  was  again  confirmed 
by  a  law  of  Oct.  15,  1868.  In  1870  there 
were  published  in  Austria  185  political  news- 
papers and  578  non-political.  Of  the  former, 
100  are  in  German,  17  in  Bohemian,  11  in  Polish, 
5  in  other  Slavic  languages,  11  in  Italian,  32  in 
Hungarian,  4  in  Roumanian,  2  in  Greek,  2  in 
Hebrew,  and  1  in  French ;  of  the  latter,  836  in 
German,  121  in  the  Slavic  languages,  20  in  Ital- 
ian, 91  in  Hungarian,  5  in  Roumanian,  3  in 
Hebrew,  1  in  Latin,  and  1  in  French.  Some 
of  the  large  daily  papers  published  in  Vi- 
enna and  Trieste  are  among  the  best  and 
most  influential  of  the  continental  journals. — 
In  1869  the  number  of  public  hospitals  in  Cis- 
leithan  Austria  was  408;  of  lunatic  asylums 
there  were  15;  lying-in  establishments,  19; 
foundling  hospitals,  15;  institutions  for  the 
sustenance  of  old  and  indigent  persons,  979; 
poorhouses,  6,648.  The  number  of  foundlings 
provided  for  by  the  government  exceeds  65,000. 
The  immense  hospitals  of  Vienna,  established 
by  Joseph  II.,  are  perhaps  the  best  regulated  in 
the  world.  There  are  besides  a  number  of  hos- 
pitals connected  with  the  convents,  where  over 
20,000  persons  are  relieved  annually,  without 
distinction  of  creed  or  nationality.  In  the  mili- 
tary hospitals  181,976  persons  were  received  in 
1869.  Every  provincial  capital  has  an  imperial 
loan  office  for  the  poor,  the  profits  of  which 
are  made  over  to  the  treasury  of  the  almshonse 
department. — The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
produce  of  Austria  in  1869  was  set  down  at 
89,415,465  florins  (the  florin  is  equal  to  47 
cents).  Of  this  sum,  more  than  one  third 
(32,446,603)  was  the  value  of  the  salt  pro- 
duced. The  yield  of  the  gold  mines  in  1869 
was  56,752  oz.,  that  of  the  silver  mines  1,339,- 
712  oz.,  that  of  copper  53,957  cwt.,  of  lead 
102,000  cwt.  The  total  quantity  of  salt  pro- 
duced in  1869  was  as  follows:  rock  salt,  3,872,- 
424  cwt.;  spring  salt,  2,804,823;  sea  salt, 
77,571;  industrial  salt,  861,988.  The  most 
remarkable  increase  has  taken  place  in  the 
production  of  iron  and  coal.  The  latest  sta- 
tistics, published  in  1869,  showed  the  produc- 
tion of  raw  or  pig  iron  to  be  6,087,830  cwt., 
and  that  of  cast  iron  753,563.  The  coal  pro- 
duced in  Austria,  which  in  1838  netted  only 


some  4,000,000  cwt.,  and  in  1854  and  1855  full 
30,000,000,  in  1869  reached  146,000,000  cwt. 
— The  Austrian  empire  may,  as  regards  its 
agriculture,  be  divided  into  four  sections :  1,  the 
Alpine  countries — Austria  proper,  Salzburg, 
Tyrol,  Oarniola,  Oarinthia,  Styria,  and  the  Lit- 
torale ;  2,  the  eastern  provinces — Hungary,  Cro- 
atia, Slavonia,  the  Military  Frontier,  and  Tran- 
sylvania ;  3,  the  northern  provinces — Moravia, 
Bohemia,  Silesia,  Galicia,  and  Bukowina ;  4,  the 
southern  province  of  Dalmatia.  In  the  Alpine 
countries  the  density  of  the  population  compels 
the  farmer  to  till  even  the  steepest  hillsides.  The 
narrow  plains  yield  potatoes,  barley  for  brew- 
ing, and  fodder;  on  the  sunny  sides  of  the 
mountains  the  grape  is  cultivated  extensively. 
The  production  of  breadstuffs  in  these  coun- 
tries is  not  equal  to  the  consumption.  The  agri- 
cultural condition  of  those  portions  of  the  east- 
ern provinces  covered  by  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains is  similar  to  that  of  the  Alpine  countries ; 
but  the  scanty  products  of  these  territories  are 
largely  made  up  by  the  surplus  of  the  level 
country,  which,  with  very  few  exceptions,  is 
of  extraordinary  fertility,  especially  in  the 
river  bottoms.  A  large  portion  of  the  pasture 
land  is  entirely  capable  of  cultivation,  and 
would  be  put  under  plough  but  for  want  of 
labor.  The  most  fertile  regions,  although  thin- 
ly populated,  produce  a  large  surplus  for  ex- 
portation to  the  Alpine  countries.  The  ex- 
tensive pastures  are  used  for  cattle-raising. 
Draught  cattle  are  exported  to  nearly  all  ad- 
joining regions;  beef  cattle  mostly  to  the 
Alpine  provinces.  Hog  fattening  is  carried  on 
upon  a  very  large  scale.  The  Hungarian  wine 
and  tobacco  are  noted  for  their  excellent  qual- 
ity. In  the  northern  provinces  but  few  places 
are  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grape.  Mo- 
ravia, belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Danube, 
has  some  large  and  fertile  plains,  but  Bohemia 
is  hilly  to  a  great  extent,  Silesia  entirely  so, 
while  Galicia,  descending  as  it  does  from  the 
Carpathians  to  the  courses  of  the  large  streams, 
shows  every  variety  of  formation.  Grain  and 
potatoes  are  the  staple  produce  of  these  coun- 
tries, supplying  the  domestic  demand.  Brew- 
eries, distilleries,  and  beet  sugar  factories  are 
numerous  in  these  provinces.  The  following 
table  shows  the  area  in  square  miles  of  the 
productive  soil,  and  of  the  arable,  wine,  mea- 
dow, pasture,  and  wood  land,  both  of  the 
Cisleithan  provinces  and  of  the  entire  mon- 
archy, in  1869 : 


<•!.<!.  ithnni:!. 

Entire 
Monarchy. 

87,786 

75.798 

Wine  land                 

792 

2259 

15,020 

80,872 

1  ^  Oft! 

84436 

Woodland    

86262 

6S416 

Productive  soil  

106  862 

211  981 

Unproductive  soil  

9,062 

28,460 

Total    

116924 

240,881 

140 


AUSTRIA 


The  aggregate  value  of  the  agricultural  pro- 
duce of  Austria  was  estimated  in  1857  by  Herr 
von  Kleyle,  assistant  secretary  of  state,  at 
2,500,000,000  fl.,  and  in  1871  by  Prof.  Brachelli 
at  2,400,000,000  fl.  The  government  of  Fran- 
cis Joseph  has  endeavored  to  promote  agricul- 
ture and  cattle-breeding  by  agricultural  fairs, 
exhibitions  of  implements,  premiums  for  im- 
proved stock,  the  introduction  of  new  branches 
of  agriculture,  and  other  measures ;  and  partic- 
ular attention  has  been  paid  to  the  American 
improvements  of  agricultural  implements  and 
machinery.  The  culture  of  some  American 
plants  has  also  been  introduced,  broom  corn 
among  others.  The  number  of  horses  in  Aus- 
tria in  1869  was  3,578,513 ;  of  horned  cattle, 
12,515,212;  of  sheep,  19,905,398;  of  goats, 
1,569,104;  of  swine,  7,051,473. — Austrian  man- 
ufactures, whose  existence  may  be  said  to  date 
only  from  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.,  are  now 
striving  to  rival  those  of  every  other  European 
nation,  England  excepted.  The  number  of 
hands  employed  in  the  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  1869  was  2,273,316  ;  the  value 
of  their  annual  produce,  1,500,000,000  fl.  Of 
this  sum,  80,000,000  fl.  is  the  estimated  value 
of  the  iron  ware,  50,000,000  that  of  chemical 
preparations,  and  20,000,000  that  of  glassware 
and  looking  glasses  (equal  in  quality  to  the 
French).  Hemp  and  flax  are  manufactured 
into  goods  worth  150,000,000  fl.  The  value  of 
the  woollen  fabrics  is  upward  of  140,000,000  fl. 
The  number  of  cotton  spindles  in  Austria  in 
1870  was  1,581,000;  the  total  value  of  cotton 
goods  produced,  120,000,000  fl.  The  quantity 
of  cotton  manufactured  in  Austria  in  1850  was 
five  times  as  large  as  in  1831.  Since  then  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry  has  been 
comparatively  slow.  The  manufacture  of  to- 
bacco is  monopolized  by  the  government  (the 
monopoly  having  been  extended  over  Hungary, 
which  formerly  was  excepted  from  it,  in  1850). 
The  most  numerous  and  extensive  industrial 
establishments  are  in  Austria  proper  (chiefly  in 
Vienna)  and  Bohemia,  the  fewest  and  smallest 
in  Dalmatia  and  the  Military  Frontier.  There 
are  three  principal  centres  of  industry :  Vienna, 
for  the  manufacture  of  all  objects  of  luxury 
and  musical  instruments ;  Moravia,  Silesia,  and 
Bohemia,  for  linen  and  woollen  fabrics  and 
glassware ;  Styria  and  Carintkia,  for  iron  goods 
and  hardware.  The  government  endeavors  to 
promote  the  growth  of  Austrian  industry  by 
establishing  schools  of  mechanical  arts,  trade 
unions,  industrial  exhibitions,  &c.  In  order  to 
encourage  inventors,  the  patent  laws  were  en- 
tirely remodelled  in  1852. — The  commerce  of 
Austria  has  since  1816  gradually  grown  into 
importance,  although  crippled  until  1850  by  a 
prohibitory  tariff,  and  by  the  political  organi- 
zation of  the  empire,  being  at  that  time  merely 
a  dynastic  union  of  different  states,  rendering 
the  provincial  boundary  lines  so  many  bar- 
riers against  internal  intercourse.  At  an  early 
period  the  Austrian  government  took  care  to 
•pread  a  perfect  network  of  excellent  commer- 


cial roads  over  the  whole  empire.  The  roads 
over  the  Alps,  the  Stilfser  Joch,  the  Splugen, 
the  Semmering,  and  others,  are  justly  counted 
among  the  most  remarkable  works  of  modern 
times.  The  first  railway  in  Germany  was  built 
on  Austrian  territory,  connecting  Budweis  and 
Linz  (1832).  The  aggregate  length  of  railroads 
(inclusive  of  horse  railroads),  on  Jan.  1,  1871, 
was  6,324  m.  Telegraph  lines  have  been  con- 
structed in  all  directions.  In  1870  there  were 
in  Austria  16,504  m.  of  electro-magnetic  tele- 
graph, with  an  aggregate  length  of  wires  of 
50, 876  m.  The  number  of  post  offices  in  all  Aus- 
tria was  4,767.  The  most  important  canal  for 
commerce  is  the  emperor  Francis's  canal,  con- 
necting the  Danube  and  Theiss,  and  saving  a 
circuit  of  220  m.  On  July  1,  1851,  the  customs 
line  between  Austria  proper  and  Hungary  was 
abolished;  on  Feb.  1,  1852,  a  new  tariff  was 
published,  by  which  the  protective  system  was 
introduced  in  lieu  of  the  previous  prohibition, 
which  was  now  limited  to  three  articles  of  gov- 
ernment monopoly,  viz.,  salt,  gunpowder,  and 
tobacco.  In  1852  the  river  duties  on  the  Elbe, 
Po,  and  Danube  were  abolished.  A  postal 
union  was  concluded  with  most  of  the  German 
states  in  1850,  and  was  followed  in  1853  by  a 
commercial  treaty  between  Austria  and  the 
German  Zollverein.  On  April  11,  1865,  a  new 
customs  and  commercial  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  German  Zollverein,  which,  by  con- 
siderable reduction  of  duties  and  the  establish- 
ment of  uniformity  of  regulations,  greatly  in- 
creased the  commerce  of  Austria  with  the 
states  of  the  Zollverein.  Other  important 
commercial  treaties  were  concluded  with  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  Persia  (1857),  Turkey 
(1862),  Great  Britain  (1865  and  1869),  France 
(1866),  Belgium  (1867),  the  Netherlands  (1867), 
Italy  (1867),  the  states  represented  in  the  Ger- 
man Zoll  parliament  (1868),  and  Switzerland 
(1868).  Chambers  of  commerce  and  industry 
were  introduced  in  Austria  in  1850.  Their 
rights  and  functions  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces 
were  regulated  by  the  law  of  June  29,  1868. 
In  1871  there  were  in  Cisleithan  Austria  42 
chambers.  According  to  a  treaty  concluded 
in  1867  between  the  governments  of  Cislei- 
thania  and  Hungary,  both  these  divisions  of 
the  empire  constitute  with  regard  to  customs 
and  commercial  intercourse  one  territory,  en- 
circled by  one  customs  boundary  line,  from 
which  are  only  excluded  Dalmatia,  which  con- 
stitutes a  customs  territory  by  itself,  Istria  and 
the  Quarnero  islands,  the  free  ports  of  Trieste, 
Buccari,  Zengg,  Portore,  Carlopago,  the  town 
of  Brody  in  Galicia,  and  the  commune  of  Jung- 
holz  in  Tyrol.  The  commercial  intercourse 
between  the  two  divisions  according  to  this 
treaty  is  entirely  free,  and  the  goods  carried 
from  the  one  into  the  other  can  be  subjected  to 
only  those  burdens  which  may  be  imposed  up- 
on the  products  of  the  producing  division  itself. 
All  treaties  with  foreign  powers  regulating  com- 
mercial relations  are  concluded  by  the  imperial 
government  for  both  divisions  of  the  empire. 


AUSTRIA 


141 


Among  the  large  moneyed  institutions  the 
Austrian  national  bank  of  Vienna  (established 
in  1816)  maintains  the  highest  rank,  although 
its  importance  is  much  more  due  to  its  inti- 
mate connection  with  the  financial  adminis- 
tration of  the  empire  than  to  its  commercial 
transactions.  In  1869  it  had  23  branches,  nine 
of  which  were  in  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian 
crown.  A  most  powerful  institution  is  the 
Austrian  Lloyd,  at  Trieste,  a  joint-stock  com- 
pany established  by  Von  Bruck  in  1833,  and 
unrivalled  in  the  variety  of  its  enterprises.  It 
is  divided  into  three  sections :  one  devoted  to 
the  insurance  business  and  the  collection  of 
statistics  for  the  maritime  trade,  the  second 
(established  in  1857)  to  ocean-steamship  navi- 
gation, the  third  (established  in  1849)  to  the 
promotion  of  literature  and  art.  This  company 
has  gradually  been  developed  into  gigantic  pro- 
portions, almost  monopolizing  the  Levant  trade 
on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  has  established  regular  steamship  lines  be- 
tween Trieste  and  almost  every  port  on  the 
Adriatic,  ^Egean,  and  Black  seas.  The  number 
of  its  steamships  in  1853  was  56;  in  1870,  70. 
Another  great  institution  is  the  Danube  steam 
navigation  company.  The  first  river  steamboat 
in  Europe  built  on  the  American  pattern  was 
built  for  this  company  in  1854.  Early  in  1856 
the  Credit- Anatalt  at  Vienna,  an  imitation  of  the 
Paris  soeietede  credit  mob  ilier,  went  into  opera- 
tion, the  subscription  to  its  stock  having  reach- 
ed the  enormous  amount  of  640,000,000  flor- 
ins, or  upward  of  $300,000,000;  but  the  strong 
impulse  given  by  this  institution  to  speculation 
and  stock-jobbing  led  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1857  to  a  violent  financial  revulsion.  An 
extraordinary  impulse  was  given  to  the  devel- 
opment of  large  moneyed  institutions  in  1862 
and  the  following  years.  The  Statutischeg 
Jakrbwh  fur  das  Jahr  1870  (Vienna,  1872) 
enumerates  44  institutions  of  this  kind  in  the 
Cisleithan  provinces,  all  of  which,  with  the 
exception  of  five,  were  established  after  1862, 
and  no  fewer  than  21  in  1869.  The  aggregate 
paid-up  capital  of  these  institutions  amounted 
in  1870  to  231,800,000  florins.  The  following 
institutions  had  the  largest  capital:  Austrian 
National  bank,  90,000,000  fl. ;  Austrian  Credit 
Institution,  40,000,000;  Austrian  Land  Credit 
Institution  (established  in  1864),  9,000,000; 
Anglo-Austrian  bank  (1863),14,000,000;  Fran- 
co-Austrian bank  (1869),  8,000,000;  Austro- 
Egyptian  bank  (1869),  4,000,000 ;  Union  hank 
(1870),  12,000,000.  The  number  of  savings 
banks  in  the  Cisleithan  provinces  at  the  close 
of  1870  was  184,  with  deposits  amounting  to 
285,300,000  fl.  The  total  value  of  the  com- 
mercial movement  of  Austria  (exclusive  of 
precious  metals)  in  1870  is  shown  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Veueh. 

Toni. 

Men. 

1841 

5,574 

215,598 

27,886 

1S49  

6,088 

259,5s} 

1856 

10,006 

3SO  469 

86,802 

1S71  

7,348 

875,822 

28,244 

Imports. 

Export!. 

Anstro-Hungarian    Customs 
Territory  

Florin*.     . 
416,100,000 

Florins. 
880,200.000 

Customs  Territory  of  Dalmatia 

8,600,000 

6,700,000 

Total 

424,700  000 

895900000 

In  1869  the  imports  into  Austria  from  the  Ger- 
man states  represented  a  value  of  301,900,000 
fl. ;  the  exports  from  Austria  into  the  German 
states,  241,000,000  fl.— The  development  of  the 
shipping  of  Austria  since  1841  is  shown  by  the 
following  table : 


Of  these  5,767,  carrying  267,134  tons,  were 
ocean  vessels  ;  91,  carrying  49,977  tons,  and 
17,749  horse  power,  steamships.  The  appar- 
ent decrease  during  the  period  from  1856  to 
1871  is  due  to  the  loss  of  the  Italian  provinces. 
In  1870  the  maritime  commerce  of  Trieste 
amounted  to  226,290,000  fl.,  viz. :  imports, 
125,870,000;  exports,  100,420,000.  Trieste  is 
by  far  the  most  important  seaport  of  Austria, 
and,  besides  Marseilles,  perhaps  the  only  one 
on  the  European  continent  which  has  advanced 
at  a  very  remarkable  rate.  The  following  ta- 
ble shows  the  most  important  among  the  other 
ports  of  the  empire : 


PORTS. 

Entrlei  In  !86». 

Tom. 

Pols              

2,588 

260,489 

Zara  

828 

191,837 

640 

160,791 

2,646 

189  566 

1,250 

129.193 

2,720 

126,004 

Spalato  

1,984 

119,106 

688 

105,196 

— The  fundamental  law  which  divides  the  mon- 
archy into  two  states  or  divisions  bears  the 
date  of  Dec.  21,  1867.  According  to  this  law, 
each  of  the  two  divisions  (the  "  countries  repre- 
sented in  the  Reichsrath  "  and  the  "  countries 
of  the  Hungarian  crown  ")  has  its  own  consti- 
tution, but  they  are  united  under  the  same 
monarchy  and  have  in  common  an  imperial 
ministry  (Reichsministerium)  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  those  affairs  which  have  been  con- 
stitutionally defined  as  common  to  both  parts 
of  the  empire.  Such  are  the  foreign  affairs, 
nearly  the  whole  department  of  war,  inclu- 
sive of  the  navy,  and  the  finances  of  the  joint 
monarchy.  Several  other  subjects,  though  not 
defined  as  common  affairs,  are  to  be  equally 
treated  according  to  principles  from  time  to 
time  agreed  upon  by  the  two  legislatures.  In 
this  class  belongs  legislation  on  duties,  on  cer- 
tain indirect  taxes,  and  on  railways  in  which 
both  divisions  are  interested.  For  the  coun- 
tries represented  in  the  Reichsrath  the  fol- 
lowing fundamental  laws  are  specially  recog- 
nized as  valid  :  1,  the  "  Pragmatic  Sanction  " 
of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  of  Dec.  6,  1724, 
which  regulates  the  order  of  succession  and  de- 
clares the  indivisibility  of  the  empire ;  2,  the 
diploma  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  of  Oct.  20,  1860, 
which  introduces  the  constitutional  form  of 
government ;  3,  the  six  fundamental  laws  of 


112 


AUSTRIA 


Dec.  21,  1867,  regulating  the  representation  of 
the  people,  defining  the  general  rights  of  citi- 
zens, the  judicial,  administrative,  and  execu- 
tive power,  and  appointing  an  imperial  court 
(Rewhsgerieht).  The  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy is  an  empire  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg- 
Lorraine  dynasty.  After  the  entire  extinction 
of  the  male  line,  the  crown  may  be  inherited 
hy  female  descendants.  The  emperor  attains 
his  majority  when  18  years  old,  and  must  be- 
long to  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  On  en- 
tering upon  the  government,  he  must  take  an 
oath  to  support  the  constitution.  He  is  ad- 
dressed as  imperial  and  royal  apostolical  ma- 
jesty, and  has  three  different  titles,  the  short- 
est of  which  is  emperor  of  Austria,  king  of 
Bohemia,  &c.,  and  apostolical  king  of  Hun- 
gary. The  emperor  shares  the  legislative 
power  with  the  representative  assemblies  of 
Cisleithania  and  of  Hungary,  and  with  the 
provincial  diets.  Without  the  consent  of  these 
bodies  no  law  can  be  made,  altered,  or  abol- 
ished. With  regard  to  the  affairs  common  to 
the  whole  empire,  the  Austrian  Reichsrath 
and  the  Hungarian  diet  exercise  their  legisla- 
tive rights  through  two  delegations,  consisting 
each  of  60  members,  one  third  chosen  from  the 
upper  and  two  thirds  from  the  lower  house. 
The  delegations  serve  only  one  year,  and  meet 
alternately  at  Vienna  and  at  Pesth.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  imperial  ministry  for  the  common 
affairs  of  the  empire,  namely,  the  ministers 
of  foreign  affairs,  of  war,  and  of  the  imperial 
finances,  are  responsible  to  the  delegations. 
The  Reichsrath  of  the  Cisleithan  provinces 
consists  of  a  house  of  lords  (fferrenhaus)  and  a 
house  of  deputies  (Abgeordneten-Haus).  The 
upper  house  embraces  all  imperial  princes  who 
are  of  age,  the  chiefs  of  a  number  of  noble 
families  who  have  been  declared  hereditary 
members  of  the  house,  all  the  archbishops  and 
prince-bishops,  and  an  unlimited  number  of 
distinguished  men  whom  the  emperor  may  ap- 
point as  life  members.  The  house  of  deputies 
in  1872  consisted  of  203  members,  chosen  by 
the  provincial  diets  from  their  own  members 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  Their  term  ceases 
sooner,  however,  if  they  cease  to  be  members 
of  the  provincial  diet.  If  a  provincial  diet 
does  not  send  delegates  to  the  Reichsrath, 
the  emperor  has  the  right  to  order  direct  elec- 
tions. The  provincial  diets  exercise  a  legisla- 
tive right  with  regard  to  subjects  which  have 
not  expressly  been  reserved  for  the  Reichsrath. 
These  diets  consist  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  the  province,  of  the  rector  of  the 
university,  and  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  hold- 
ers of  large  estates,  by  towns  and  other  places, 
by  the  chambers  of  commerce  and  industry, 
and  by  the  rural  communities.  Both  the 
Reichsrath  and  the  provincial  diets  are  con- 
voked annually.  The  ministers  of  Cisleithania 
are  responsible  to  the  Reichsrath,  which  may 
impeach  them.  The  decision  in  such  a  case  is 
given  by  a  special  state  court  organized  by  the 
Reichsrath.  Every  citizen  30  years  of  age  is 


eligible  to  the  provincial  diet,  but  the  right  of 
voting  is  made  contingent  on  the  payment  of 
a  tax,  the  amount  of  which  is  fixed  by  law. 
The  particular  ministry  of  Cisleithania  con- 
sists of  seven  sections,  namely:  interior,  wor- 
ship and  education,  commerce,  agriculture,  the 
defence  of  the  country,  justice,  and  finances. 
The  provinces  or  crown  lands  are  governed  by 
governors  (Statthalter),  or  provincial  presidents 
(Landetpr&iidenten).  Municipal  officers  are 
elected  in  accordance  with  the  imperial  law  of 
March  5,  1862,  by  citizens  possessing  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  property  and  paying  a  certain 
amount  of  taxes.  The  administration  of  jus- 
tice was  reorganized  in  1851,  and  again  by  the 
fundamental  laws  of  1867.  All  privileged  ju- 
risdiction has  been  entirely  abolished.  There 
are  three  degrees  of  jurisdiction.  The  district 
courts  and  district  collegiate  courts  (894  in 
1869)  have  original  jurisdiction  in  civil  suits 
up  to  a  certain  value,  and  in  petty  criminal 
cases,  and  the  county  courts  (Landesgerichte), 
of  which  there  were  62  in  1869,  have  original 
jurisdiction  in  all  other  civil  cases  and  in  all 
criminal  cases ;  they  have  also  appellate  juris- 
diction in  cases  tried  by  the  district  courts. 
Offences  of  the  press  are,  according  to  the  law 
of  March  9,  1869,  tried  by  juries.  The  provin- 
cial courts  (Oberlandesfferichte),  of  which  there 
are  9  in  Cisleithania,  are  the  courts  of  last  re- 
sort for  cases  tried  by  the  district  courts,  and  of 
second  resort  for  civil  cases  tried  by  the  county 
courts.  The  highest  tribunal  of  the  monarchy 
is  the  court  of  appeals  (Olerster  GerichU-  vnd 
Caasationshof),  at  Vienna.  The  civil  law  is  ad- 
ministered according  to  the  code  of  1811.  The 
criminal  code  of  1804  was  amended  in  1852. 
The  number  of  persons  sentenced  for  crime 
in  Cisleithan  Austria  in  1869  was  25,665,  or  1 
for  every  787  of  the  population. — The  finances 
have  at  all  times  been  the  sore  point  of  the 
Austrian  administration.  Having  been  utterly 
prostrated  by  the  Napoleonic  wars,  their  con- 
dition was  slowly  improving  when  the  revolu- 
tions of  1848,  and  the  consequent  wars  in  Italy 
and  Hungary,  again  brought  Austria  near  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy.  The  government  paper 
currency  fell  some  20  per  cent,  below  par.  The 
prospect  had  begun  to  brighten  when  the  east- 
ern war  and  the  position  of  armed  neutrality 
maintained  by  Austria  once  more  destroyed 
every  hope  of  bringing  the  income  and  the  ex- 
penditure to  balance  each  other.  The  income 
has  been  steadily  increasing,  but  so  has  the 
expenditure.  By  keeping  a  separate  account 


YEARS. 

Income. 

Expenditure. 

Deficiency. 

Florini. 

Florins. 

Fiorina. 

1848. 

121,819,815 

186,679,486 

64,857.871 

1849. 

144,018,753 

289,468,0*3 

145,454,290 

1860. 

191,296,467 

268,458,060 

77.161,608 

1861. 

228,252,038 

278,420,470 

55.168,482 

1858. 

287,186,998 

298,960,628 

56,828.685 

1854. 

245,888,724 

294529,681 

49.195,957 

1856. 

268.508,796 

821.877.664 

52.868.868 

1882. 

898,657.965 

610,859,852 

111,701,887 

1S6«. 

495,004,288 

535,148,884 

40,139,146 

AUSTRIA 


143 


of  the  "  extraordinary  expenditure,"  the  Aus- 
trian government  organs  showed  an  apparent 
improvement  of  the  financial  condition,  but 
this  was  an  illusion.  The  foregoing  table 
shows  the  excess  of  expenditures  over  re- 
ceipts in  some  of  the  years  following  the 
revolutionary  movements  of  1848.  Since  the 
reorganization  of  the  empire  in  1867,  «there 
are  separate  budgets  for  the  common  atfairs 
of  the  whole  empire  and  for  each  of  the 
two  large  divisions.  In  the  budget  for  1872 
the  amount  needed  for  the  common  affairs  of 
the  empire  is  estimated  at  110,647,498  florins, 
of  which  95,165,007  were  to  be  devoted  to 
the  army  and  11,254,690  to  the  navy.  From 
the  receipts  of  the  ministry  of  war,  the  excess 
of  duties,  and  the  incomes  of  the  consulates, 
17,208,883  were  to  be  obtained;  of  the  balance, 
93,438,615,  the  Cisleithan  provinces  were  to 
furnish  65,145,402,  and  the  Transleithan  prov- 
inces 28,293,213.  The  budget  of  the  countries 
represented  in  the  Reichsrath  for  1871  fixes 
the  revenue  at  338,084,609,  the  largest  items 
being  80,200,000  from  direct  taxes,  187,073,546 
from  indirect  taxes,  33,461,058  from  the  state 
domain  and  from  state  institutions.  The  ex- 
penses were  to  amount  to  349,811,642  fl. 
(99,984,711  fl.  interest  on  the  public  debt). 
Thus  there  would  again  be  a  deficit  of  11,727,- 
033.  The  consolidated  debt  of  Austria  on 
Dec.  31,  1870,  amounted  to  2,572,733,402  fl. ; 
the  entire  debt  to  2,593,269,591,  being  an  in- 
crease over  1869  of  3,000,000  fl.  The  aggre- 
gate debt  of  the  provinces  amounted  in  June, 
1870,  to  243,979,690  fl.— The  army  of  the  en- 
tire' monarchy  was  reorganized  in  1868.  Ac- 
cording to  the  new  regulations  the  liability  to 
military  service  is  universal,  begins  with  the 
completion  of  the  20th  year,  and  must  be  ren- 
dered personally.  The  army  is  divided  into 
the  standing  army,  the  navy,  the  landwehr, 
the  reserve,  and  the  landsturm.  In  the  Cislei- 
than provinces  military  duty  lasts  10  years  (3 
years  in  the  line,  7  in  the  reserve).  In  the 
landwehr  those  who  have  been  in  the  line  and 
in  the  reserve  have  to  remain  2,  all  others  12 
years.  The  standing  army  and  the  navy  are 
placed  under  the  imperial  minister  of  war  for 
the  common  affairs  of  the  empire ;  the  land- 
wehr and  the  landsturm  (which  is  to  com- 
prise all  men  capable  of  doing  military  duty 
until  the  50th  year  of  age,  but  was  not  yet 
generally  organized  in  1871)  are  in  each  divi- 
sion of  the  empire  placed  under  the  minister 
for  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  standing 
army  numbered  in  August,  1871,  254,041  men 
on  the  peace  footing ;  in  time  of  war  the  army, 
including  the  reserve,  would  number  820,811 
men ;  while  the  landwehr  numbered  in  addi- 
tion 219,471  men.  The  subdivisions  are:  1. 
Infantry :  80  regiments  of  the  line,  14  regiments 
of  frontier  men,  1  regiment  of  Tyrol  riflemen, 
33  battalions  of  riflemen.  2.  Cavalry:  14  regi- 
ments of  dragoons,  13  regiments  of  uhlans,  14 
regiments  of  hussars.  3.  Artillery:  12  regi- 
ments of  field  artillery,  12  battalions  of  for- 
62  vol.  H. — 10 


tress  artillery.  4.  Two  regiments  of  engineers 
and  one  regiment  of  pioneers.  5.  Five  corps 
for  military  transportation.  Among  the  for- 
tresses of  Austria,  Comorn,  Olmutz,  Peterwar- 
dein,  and  Temesvar  are  the  strongest.  The 
best  naval  ports  are  Pola,  Trieste,  and  Cattaro. 
The  Austrian  navy  in  1871  consisted  of  47 
steamers,  among  which  were  11  ironclads,  20 
sailing  vessels,  and  6  tenders;  in  all  72  vessels, 
carrying  522  guns.  The  corps  of  naval  officers 
embraces  2  vice  admirals,  5  rear  admirals,  16 
captains  of  ships  of  the  line,  17  captains  of  frig- 
ates, and  18  captains  of  corvettes. — The  present 
archduchy  of  Austria,  anciently  inhabited  by 
the  Celtic  tribe  of  the  Taurisci,  afterward  called 
Norici,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  in  14 
B.  0.  During  the  first  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  that  portion  of  Austria  north  of  the 
Danube  belonged  to  the  possessions  of  the 
Marcomanni  and  Quadi ;  part  of  Lower  Austria 
and  Styria,  including  the  municipium  of  Vin- 
dobona  (Vienna),  to  Pannonia;  the  rest  of 
Lower  Austria  and  Styria,  with  Carinthia  and 
part  of  Carniola,  to  Noricum;  Tyrol  to  Rhsetia. 
After  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  the  river 
Enns  constituted  the  boundary  between  the 
Teutonic  nation  of  the  Boioarii  (Bavarians)  and 
the  Turanian  Avars.  Charlemagne  annexed 
the  country  of  the  Avars  to  the  German  em- 
pire in  791.  It  was  then  called  Avaria  or  Mar- 
chia  Orientalis  (eastern  territory),  and  subse- 
quently Austria,  constituting  since  843  the 
easternmost  district  of  Germany.  Having  been 
conquered  by  the  Magyars  in  900,  it  was  ulti- 
mately reannexed  to  Germany  by  Otho  I.  in 
955.  In  983  Leopold  of  Babenberg  was  ap- 
pointed margrave  of  Austria.  His  dynasty  re- 
mained in  possession  for  263  years,  adding 
largely  to  its  territory  by  the  annexation  of 
Styria  and  Carniola,  by  conquests  from  the 
Slavic  tribes,  and  by  inheritance.  Under  the 
reign  of  Henry  Jasomirgott  Austria  was  erected 
into  a  hereditary  duchy  in  1156.  On  the  death 
of  Frederick  II.,  the  last  of  the  Babenberg  dy- 
nasty (1246),  the  German  emperor  Frederick  II. 
claimed  Austria  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  imperial 
crown.  But  neither  he  nor  his  son  Conrad  IV. 
succeeded  in  establishing  his  authority,  and  in 
1251  the  Austrian  states  elected  Ottocar,  sec- 
ond sou  of  the  Bohemian  king  Wenceslas,  duke 
of  Austria  and  Styria.  Having  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  as  German 
emperor,  Ottocar  was  defeated  by  him  in  1276, 
and  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  victor  all  his 
possessions  except  those  belonging  to  the  Bohe- 
mian crown.  From  that  time  up  to  the  present 
day  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  whose  original  pos- 
sessions were  in  Switzerland,  has  ruled  in  Aus- 
tria. Rudolph's  son  and  successor  Albert  ob- 
tained in  1301  the  Swabian  margraviate.  At 
his  death  in  1308  Austria  had  already  an  area 
of  26,000  sq.  m.  Of  his  five  sons,  Leopold  was 
defeated  at  Morgarten  in  1315,  while  attempt- 
ing to  resubdue  the  revolted  Swiss  cantons, 
and  Frederick  III.,  surnamed  the  Handsome, 
was  vanquished  by  Louis  the  Bavarian  in  his 


AUSTRIA 


fight  for  the  imperial  crown  in  1322.  The  pos- 
sessions of  their  house,  which  were  divided  by 
them,  were  finally  united  in  the  hands  of  the 
fourth  brother,  Albert  II.  But  another  divi- 
sion took  place  among  the  heirs  of  the  latter, 
when  Albert  III.  got  Austria  proper,  and  Leo- 
pold all  the  rest.  Leopold  was  slain  in  battle 
against  the  Swiss  at  Sempach  in  1386,  but  his 
descendants  remained  in  possession  of  Styria, 
and  inherited  the  duchy  of  Austria  in  1457, 
when  Albert's  line  became  extinct.  Frederick 
IV.  of  Austria,  having  been  elected  German 
emperor,  elevated  Austria  to  the  rank  of  an 
archduchy.  His  son  Maximilian  I.,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1493,  obtained  the  Netherlands 
by  marrying  Mary,  the  heiress  of  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  and  Tyrol  by  inheritance  ; 
and  by  marrying  his  son  Philip  to  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  brought  the 
Hapsburg  family  upon  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Philip's  son,  Charles  I.  of  Spain,  became,  under 
the  name  of  Charles  V.,  German  emperor  in 
1519.  In  1520  and  1521  the  latter  ceded  the 
Austrian  possessions  to  his  brother  Ferdinand 
I.,  who  subsequently  also  succeeded  him  in  the 
empire.  Ferdinand  obtained  the  kingdoms  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia  as  successor,  by  family 
treaties  as  well  as  elections,  to  his  brother-in- 
law,  King  Louis  II.,  who  fell  in  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Mohacs  against  the  Turks  (1526). 
Thus  elevated  to  the  rank  of  one  of  the  great 
European  powers,  the  house  of  Austria  pos- 
sessed an  area  of  114,000  sq.  m.  But  the  pos- 
session of  Hungary  was  not  undisputed.  John 
Zapolya,  waywode  of  Transylvania,  aided  by  the 
Turks,  tried  to  wrest  the  crown  of  St.  Stephen 
from  Ferdinand ;  and  in  1529  Sultan  Solyman 
had  already  invested  Vienna,  when  the  prudent 
generalship  of  Count  Salm  compelled  him  to 
retire.  By  a  treaty  concluded  in  1538,  Zapolya 
got  eastern  Hungary  and  the  title  of  king, 
while  the  possession  of  Transylvania  was  guar- 
anteed to  his  descendants.  Even  after  Zapol- 
ya's  death  (1540)  Ferdinand  could  reenter  into 
possession  of  lower  Hungary  only  by  paying  an 
annual  tribute  of  30,000  ducats  to  the  Turks. 
The  war  with  the  latter  had  soon  to  be  re- 
newed, however,  and  Hungary  remained  a  bat- 
tlefield for  more  than  a  century.  (See  HUN- 
GARY.) In  1564  Austria  was  once  more  divid- 
ed among  Ferdinand's  sons,  Maximilian  II. 
(German  emperor  1564-'76)  obtaining  Lower 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia;  Ferdinand, 
Tyrol  and  Upper  Austria ;  Charles,  Styria,  Ca- 
rinthia,  Carniola,  and  Gorz.  The  final  reunion 
took  place  about  100  years  later.  Rudolph  II., 
successor  to  his  father  Maximilian  (1576-1612), 
one  of  the  feeblest  and  worst  emperors  Ger- 
many ever  had,  was  compelled  to  cede  Bo- 
hemia, Hungary,  and  Austria  to  his  brother 
Matthias,  under  whose  reign  (1612-'19)  the  30 
years'  war  originated,  by  the  revolt  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Protestants  against  the  Hapsburg  dy- 
nasty. Ferdinand  II.  of  Styria,  cousin  of  Mat- 
thias (emperor  1619-'37),  having  defeated  the 
rival  king  elected  by  the  Bohemians,  Frederick 


of  the  Palatinate  (1620),  led  a  war  of  exter- 
mination against  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia 
and  Moravia,  expelled  them  by  thousands  from 
his  dominions,  and  annulled  all  ancient  privi- 
leges of  the  states.  In  the  course  of  the  war, 
Ferdinand,  shortly  after  the  assassination  of 
Wallenstein,  was  compelled  to  cede  Lusatia 
to  Saxony  (1635).  Ferdinand  III.  (1637-'57) 
brought  the  war  to  an  end  by  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648).  His  son,  Leopold  I.  (1657 
-1705),  by  his  misrule  drove  the  Hungarians 
into  alliance  with  the  Turks.  In  1683  Kara 
Mustapha  besieged  Vienna,  which  was  saved 
only  by  the  timely  arrival  of  a  Polish  army, 
led  by  John  Sobieski.  Leopold's  armies  hav- 
ing reconquered  Hungary,  it  was  converted 
from  an  elective  kingdom  into  an  hereditary 
one  (1687).  Transylvania,  too,  was  occupied. 
In  1699  Turkey,  defeated  in  many  sanguinary 
battles  by  Prince  Eugene,  ceded,  by  the  peace 
of  Carlovitz,  the  country  between  the  Danube 
and  Theiss  rivers  to  Austria.  Leopold's  design 
to  obtain  the  succession  in  Spain  for  his  second 
son,  Charles,  was  frustrated  by  the  diplomacy 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  This  occasioned,  on 
the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  (1700),  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  hi  which  Eng- 
land, the  Netherlands,  Portugal,  and  Savoy 
took  sides  with  the  emperor  against  France, 
while  Louis  XIV.. was  aided  by  a  powerful  in- 
surrection in  Hungary,  under  Rak6czy.  The 
victories  of  Eugene  and  Marlborough  rendered 
success  certain  when,  by  the  death  of  Leopold 
and  of  his  eldest  son  Joseph  I.  (1711),  his 
brother  Charles  became  monarch  of  Austria. 
The  allies,  fearing  the  preponderance  of  Aus- 
tria if  the  crowns  of  Spain,  Naples,  and  Ger- 
many should  be  united  again,  desisted  from 
their  efforts  against  France,  and  a  peace  was 
concluded  at  Utrecht  in  1713,  by  which  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sar- 
dinia (exchanged  for  Sicily  in  1720)  fell  to  Aus- 
tria, while  Philip  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.,  was  acknowledged  as  king  of  Spain. 
By  this  treaty  the  area  of  Austria  was  increased 
to  191,000  sq.  m.  The  treaty  of  Passarowitz 
(1718)  secured  new  advantages  on  the  Turkish 
border.  Having  once  more  waged  war  with 
France  and  Spain,  Charles  VI.  lost  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  a  portion  of  Milan  (1735);  while 
the  peace  of  Belgrade  (1739)  deprived  him  of 
nearly  all  the  fruits  of  Prince  Eugene's  vic- 
tories over  the  Turks.  All  these  sacrifices 
Charles  consented  to,  principally  from  a  desire 
to  obtain  the  general  recognition  of  the  so- 
called  "pragmatic  sanction,"  by  which  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  was  declared  the 
heiress  of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  Yet,  im- 
mediately after  his  death  (1740),  her  right 
of  succession  was  contested  by  the  leading 
powers,  England  excepted.  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  seized  Silesia,  which  formed  a  part  of 
the  Bohemian  dominions  of  Austria,  and  the 
elector  of  Bavaria  assumed  the  title  of  archduke 
of  Austria,  and  was  elected  German  emperor, 
j  under  the  name  of  Charles  VII.  (1742).  Noth- 


AUSTRIA 


145 


ing  but  the  fidelity  of  the  Hungarians  saved 
Maria  Theresa.  By  the  treaties  of  Breslau 
and  Dresden  (1742  and  1745),  she  resigned  her 
claims  to  Silesia;  by  that  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748),  to  Parma,  Piacenza,  Guastalla,  and  part 
of  Milan.  In  the  mean  -time  the  emperor 
Charles  VII.  had  died  (1745),  and  Maria^he- 
resa's  husband,  Francis  Stephen,  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany,  belonging  to  the  ducal  family  of 
Lorraine,  had  been  elected  German  emperor, 
as  Francis  I.  In  order  to  get  Silesia  back  from 
Prussia,  Maria  Theresa  conspired  with  France, 
Russia,  Saxony,  and  Sweden  against  Frede- 
rick ;  but  the  seven  years'  war,  in  which  Fred- 
erick covered  himself  with  glory,  resulted  only 
in  the  reaffirmation  of  the  status  quo.  Francis, 
who  died  in  1765,  was  succeeded  as  emperor  by 
his  son  Joseph  II.,  who  in  Austria  acted  only  as 
assistant  regent  until  the  death  of  his  mother 
(1780).  During  this  period  eastern  Galicia  and 
Lodomeria  were  taken  forcibly  from  Poland 
(1772),  the  Bukowina  was  obtained  from  Tur- 
key (1777),  and  some  smaller  possessions  were 
acquired  in  Germany  by  the  peace  of  Teschen 
(1779),  increasing  the  Austrian  dominions 
altogether  to  an  area  of  233,741  sq.  m.  Joseph 
II.,  reversing  the  traditional  policy  of  his  pre- 
decessors, granted  religious  liberty  to  Protes- 
tants, discontinued  the  censorship  of  the  press, 
reorganized  public  education,  abolished  900 
convents,  and  developed  industry  by  a  protec- 
tive tariff;  but  his  arbitrary  measures  exas- 
perated the  Hungarians,  and  drove  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  into  rebellion.  The  latter  he  tried 
to  exchange  for  Bavaria,  a  project  which  was 
frustrated  by  the  efforts  of  Frederick  of  Prus- 
sia. No  less  unfortunate  in  his  war  against 
Turkey,  Joseph  died  from  grief  (or,  as  some 
believed,  from  poison)  in  1790.  His  brother, 
Leopold  II.  (1790-'92),  reconciled  Hungary  and 
the  Netherlands,  made  peace  with  Turkey,  and 
entered  into  the  coalition  against  revolutionary 
France,  but  was  unable  to  rescue  his  sister, 
Marie  Antoinette.  Thus  his  son  Francis  (1792 
-1835)  was,  immediately  on  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  drawn  into  the  whirlpool  of  the 
revolutionary  wars.  By  the  peace  of  Campo 
Formio  (1797)  he  lost  Lombardy  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, but  obtained  in  exchange  a  large  por- 
tion of  Venetia.  Two  years  before  he  had  ob- 
tained western  Galicia  by  the  third  partition 
of  Poland.  In  1799  Austria,  allied  with  Rus- 
sia, declared  war  against  the  French  republic 
for  the  second  time,  but  was  compelled  by  Bo- 
naparte to  accept  the  peace  of  Lun6ville  (1801), 
by  which  his  brother,  the  archduke  Ferdinand, 
was  deprived  of  Tuscany,  being  compensated 
by  Salzburg,  Passau,  Eichstadt,  and  the  title 
of  prince-elector.  The  public  debt  of  Austria 
had  now  increased  to  1,200,000,000  florins. 
On  Aug.  11,  1804,  Francis  proclaimed  himself 
hereditary  emperor  of  Austria  (as  such  Francis 
I.),  uniting  all  his  dominions  under  the  name  of 
the  Austrian  empire.  In  the  next  year,  having 
again  gone  to  war  with  France,  he  was  forced 
by  the  defeat  at  Austerlitz  to  sign  a  most  igno- 


minious peace  at  Presburg  (Dec.  26,  1805). 
When,  by  the  organization  of  the  Rhenish  con- 
federation (Rhinebund),  under  the  auspices  of 
Napoleon  (1806),  the  integrity  of  the  German 
empire  had  been  destroyed,  Francis  laid  down 
the  imperial  crown  of  Germany  (Aug.  G,  1806). 
A  fourth  time  he  determined  upon  a  war 
against  Napoleon,  aided  only  by  England 
(1809),  but  the  result  was  most  disastrous. 
The  peace  of  Vienna  (Oct.  14, 1809)  took  away 
from  Austria  about  42,000  sq.  m.  of  territory, 
with  3,500,000  inhabitants.  Utterly  prostrated 
and  driven  into  bankruptcy,  Francis  did  not 
dare  to  withhold  his  consent  when  Napoleon 
proposed  to  marry  his  daughter  Maria  Louisa 
(1810),  and  in  1812  he  even  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  Napoleon  against  Russia.  But  when 
the  Russian  campaign  had  broken  Napoleon's 
power,  and  Prussia  had  risen  against  him, 
Austria  joined  in  the  alliance  of  England,  Rus- 
sia, Prussia,  and  Sweden  (1813),  and  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  French 
empire.  By  the  peace  of  Paris  (1814)  the  Lom- 
bard and  Venetian  territories,  now  united  into 
a  kingdom,  and  all  former  possessions  returned 
to  Austria.  In  1815  Francis,  with  Alexander 
of  Russia  and  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prus- 
sia, formed  the  "  holy  alliance,"  for  the  resto- 
ration of  the  old  monarchical  system,  Vienna 
having  in  the  preceding  year  become  the  seat 
of  the  congress  convoked  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
constructing Europe.  The  suppression  of  lib- 
eral ideas  and  movements  throughout  Europe 
appeared  to  be  thenceforth  the  principal  object 
of  the  Austrian  government,  of  which  Prince 
Metternich  was  the  soul.  Austria  quelled  the 
popular  insurrections  in  Naples  and  Piedmont 
(1820  and  1821),  aided  by  its  diplomacy  in  the 
suppression  of  the  popular  movement  in  Spain 
(1823),  favored  Turkey  in  its  struggle  with 
the  Greeks,  and  crushed  the  insurrections 
which  in  Italy  followed  close  upon  the  French 
revolution  of  1830.  In  the  interior  new  at- 
tempts were  made,  though  without  success,  to 
subvert  the  constitution  of  Hungary.  The 
death  of  Francis,  who  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ferdinand  (1835),  made  no  change  in  the 
Austrian  administration.  At  an  interview  of 
Ferdinand  with  the  monarchs  of  Russia  and 
Prussia  the  holy  alliance  was  reaffirmed.  In 
the  oriental  imbroglio  of  1840,  Austria  sided 
with  England  and  Russia.  Unrelenting  rigor 
was  exercised  in  Italy.  The  Polish  insurrec- 
tion in  Cracow  (which  in  consequence  was  an- 
nexed to  Austria)  was  accompanied  by  an  at- 
tempt at  rising  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Galicia 
(February,  1846) ;  but  the  government  suc- 
ceeded in  quelling  the  movement  by  instigating 
the  wrath  of  the  peasants  against  the  noble- 
men, many  of  whom  were  massacred.  In  the 
Italian  provinces  the  opposition  was  fostered 
by  the  political  reforms  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and 
the  concessions  to  popular  opinion  wrung  from 
the  other  Italian  governments.  In  Hungary 
the  former  parliamentary  opposition  of  the  diet 
had  gradually  grown  into  national  enmity,  es- 


146 


AUSTRIA 


pecially  so  since  the  death  of  the  palatine, 
Archduke  Joseph  (1847);  similar  movements 
appeared  in  Bohemia,  while  even  in  Austria 
proper  the  states  insisted  upon  some  participa- 
tion at  least  in  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment. From  all  these  elements  a  storm 
arose  in  1848  which  brought  the  entire  Aus- 
trian monarchy  very  near  its  ruin.  On  March 
13,  shortly  after  the  revolution  in  Paris  which 
drove  Louis  Philippe  from  his  throne,  the 
people  of  Vienna  rose  against  the  ministry, 
which  made  but  a  feeble  show  of  resistance; 
Metternich  was  compelled  to  resign,  and  the 
emperor  pledged  himself  to  convoke  an  assem- 
bly of  representatives  of  the  people,  to  form 
a  constitution  for  the  empire.  But  at  the 
same  time  the  Hungarian  diet,  led  by  Kossuth, 
demanded  and  obtained  an  independent  con- 
stitutional government,  leaving  merely  a  dy- 
nastic union  with  Austria.  Outbreaks  in  Italy 
followed  closely;  Radetzky  was  driven  from 
Milan,  and  Palfly  surrendered  Venice  to  the 
people.  While  thus  momentarily  successful  in 
the  provinces,  the  revolution  created  the  direst 
confusion  in  the  centre  of  the  empire.  Of  the 
revolutionists,  some  were  in  favor  of  uniting 
those  provinces  in  which  the  German  national- 
ity predominates  to  Germany,  leaving  Hungary 
to  herself,  and  favoring  the  union  of  the  Ital- 
ian states  under  a  national  government ;  while 
others  were  unwilling  to  hazard  the  position 
of  Austria  as  one  of  the  great  powers,  against 
the  vague  hope  of  a  reconstruction  of  Germany. 
In  Vienna  the  ministry  of  Count  Ficquelmont, 
which  had  succeeded  Metternich,  proved  its 
incapacity  to  grapple  with  the  pending  difficul- 
ties, and  the  political  power  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  central  committee  of  the  national  guard 
and  the  students'  legion.  The  emperor,  un- 
willing to  resort  to  extreme  measures,  fled  to 
Innspruck  (May  17).  Another  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt of  the  ministry  to  break  the  power  of  the 
students  led  to  the  organization  of  a  committee 
of  public  welfare  (May  25),  which,  until  the 
meeting  of  an  Austrian  parliament  (July  22), 
exercised  an  almost  unlimited  control,  compel- 
ling the  ministry  to  make  room  for  successors 
more  subservient  to  the  masses  (July  8).  When 
utterly  prostrated  in  the  capital,  the  imperial 
power  began  to  gather  strength  in  the  prov- 
inces. A  popular  outbreak  at  Prague  was 
suppressed,  after  a  bombardment  of  the  city 
(June  15-16),  by  Prince  Windischgratz.  In 
Lombardy,  Radetzky,  who  had  retired  to  Ve- 
rona, opened  an  aggressive  campaign  in  June, 
captured  Vicenza,  Padua,  and  other  important 
places,  and  routed  the  Sardinian  army  (the 
king  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert,  having  taken 
sides  with  the  revolted  provinces)  near  Custoz- 
za,  July  25.  The  national  Hungarian  ministry 
of  Batthyanyi  and  Kossuth.  preparing  the  way 
for  an  independent  Magyar  kingdom,  awakened 
the  fears  and  national  antipathies  of  the  Slavic 
races  which  would  necessarily  have  formed 
part  of  this  kingdom.  Jellachich,  the  governor 
(ban)  of  Croatia,  strengthened  by  the  conni- 


vance of  the  imperial  court,  pronounced  against 
the  Hungarian  government.  Count  Lamberg, 
the  imperial  commissioner  despatched  to  Pesth, 
was  there  killed  by  the  people  (Sept.  28).  Im- 
mediately the  emperor  ordered  the  dissolution 
of  the  Hungarian  diet,  and  appointed  Jellachich 
supreme  military  commander  of  Hungary.  The 
diet,  denying  the  authority  of  the  emperor, 
organized  a  committee  of  safety,  with  Kossuth 
at  its  head.  When  the  garrison  of  Vienna 
(Oct.  6)  was  departing  for  Hungary,  the  people 
of  the  capital,  sympathizing  with  the  Hun- 
garians, rose  once  more.  They  took  the  ar- 
senal, and  hung  the  secretary  of  war,  Count 
Latour,  at  the  window  of  his  office.  The  par- 
liament declared  itself  permanent,  and  sent  an 
address  to  the  emperor  asking  for  a  new  min- 
istry and  the  removal  of  Jellachich.  The  em- 
peror, who  in  June  had  returned  from  Inns- 
pruck to  Vienna,  again  fled  to  Olmutz.  The 
masses  of  the  capital  armed  themselves  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Polish  general  Bern,  pre- 
paring to  resist  the  impending  attack  of  the 
army.  The  garrison,  joined  outside  the  city  by 
the  remnants  of  the  army  of  Jellachich,  which 
had  been  beaten  near  Bnda,  and  by  the  army 
corps  of  Prince  Windischgratz,  assaulted  Vien- 
na, Oct.  23 ;  but  the  people  made  a  desperate 
resistance  until  the  31st,  when,  the  Hungarians 
having  the  day  before  been  defeated  almost 
before  its  gates,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm 
with  immense  slaughter.  Many  of  the  popular 
leaders  were  shot,  among  others  Robert  Blum, 
member  of  the  parliament  of.  Frankfort,  Mes- 
senhauser,  commander  of  the  national  guard, 
and  Jellinek,  editor  of  the  "Radical."  On 
Nov.  22  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which 
Prince  Felix  Schwarzenberg  was  president. 
The  emperor  Ferdinand  was  induced  to  resign, 
Dec.  2,  1848,  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis 
Joseph,  a  youth  of  18  years,  whose  mother, 
the  archduchess  Sophia,  had  been  the  leading 
spirit  of  the  counter-revolutionary  movement. 
The  campaign  against  Hungary  was  com- 
menced at  once,  but  carried  to  a  successful 
termination  only  by  the  powerful  intervention 
of  Czar  Nicholas,  the  Hungarian  main  army, 
under  Gorgey,  surrendering  (Aug.  13,  1849) 
to  the  Russians  at  Vilagos.  (See  HUNGARY.) 
Hungary,  which  had  declared  its  indepen- 
dence, was  treated  as  a  conquered  country. 
Many  military  and  parliamentary  leaders 
were  shot  or  hung,  and  the  prisons  crammed 
with  the  unhappy  victims  of  imperial  re- 
venge. Simultaneously  with  these  occurren- 
ces the  war  in  Italy  had  been  terminated. 
Within  a  few  days  Gen.  Radetzky  routed  the 
Sardinian  army  twice,  at  Mortara  (March  21, 
1849)  and  Novara  (March  23),  and  obtained  a 
peace  by  which  Sardinia  was  obliged  to  reim- 
burse Austria  for  the  expenses  of  the  war 
(15,000,000  livres).  Venice,  where  an  inde- 
pendent republican  government  had  been  or- 
ganized under  the  lead  of  Manin,  was  invested 
by  Radetzky,  and  forced  to  surrender,  Aug. 
23,  1849. — The  revolution  having  been  con- 


AUSTKIA 


147 


quered,  the  Austrian  government  commenced 
the  arduous  task  of  reorganizing  the  monarchy 
upon  a  firmer  basis  than  before.  The  parlia- 
ment, which  after  the  bloody  struggle  at  Vienna 
had  been  adjourned  to  Kremsir  in  Moravia, 
was  dissolved  March  4,  1849,  and  a  constitu- 
tion promulgated  by  the  free  will  of  thg  em- 
peror, of  which  only  the  reactionary  parts 
went  into  operation.  The  efforts  of  the  nation- 
al parliament  at  Frankfort  to  reconstruct  the 
German  empire,  excluding  Austria  from  it, 
were  violently  opposed  by  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment, and  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia 
durst  not  defy  this  opposition,  backed  as  it  was 
by  that  of  Russia  and  France,  by  accepting 
the  imperial  crown  offered  by  the  Frankfort 
assembly.  Still,  by  assuming  the  leadership  of 
the  counter-revolutionary  movements  in  Ger- 
many, and  aiding  the  petty  princes  to  put 
down  the  people,  Prussia  obtained  a  prepon- 
derating influence  in  northern  Germany,  and 
made  some  efforts  to  centralize  the  confedera- 
cy, all  of  which  were  prostrated  by  the  ener- 
getic policy  of  Prince  Schwarzenberg.  In 
1850  the  diplomatic  conflict  between  Austria 
and  Prussia  seemed  to  point  to  a  crisis ;  armies 
were  put  in  motion,  and  a  fight  among  some 
outposts  had  already  taken  place  near  Bronzell 
in  Hesse-Oassel  (Nov.  8, 1850),  when  at  the  last 
moment  Prussia,  in  a  ministerial  meeting  at  01- 
mutz  (Nov.  29),  submitted  to  the  demands  of 
Austria,  and  the  German  diet  at  Frankfort  was 
reestablished  the  same  as  it  was  before  1848; 
Austria,  on  her  part,  renouncing  for  the  time 
being  the  idea  of  entering  into  the  Germanic 
confederation  with  all  her  possessions.  The 
energy  displayed  in  the  management  of  for- 
eign relations  was  manifested  by  the  Austrian 
minister  of  the  interior,  Bach,  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire. 
All  remnants  of  the  revolutionary  period 
were  annihilated,  with  one  exception  only,  the 
abolition  of  socage.  The  constitution  of  1849 
was  annulled  Jan.  1,  1852 ;  trial  by  jury  was 
abolished;  the  public  press  crushed  down  with 
the  utmost  severity;  and  the  influence  of  the 
clergy  reestablished.  Extraordinary  efforts 
were  made  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
monarchy  by  encouraging  agriculture,  industry, 
and  commerce.  A  new  tariff  was  adopted,  and 
negotiations  were  commenced  with  other  Ger- 
man states  for  the  establishment  of  a  complete 
customs  union  with  the  Zollverein.  Prussia, 
fearing  lest  her  influence  might  be  outweighed 
by  that  of  Austria,  opposed  this  movement; 
but  several  of  the  Zollverein  states  took  sides 
against  her,  and  the  moment  seemed  to  be 
near  at  hand  when  her  objections  would  have 
been  overborne,  when  Schwarzenberg's  sudden 
death  (April  5,  1852)  brought  on  a  change  in 
the  policy  of  Austria.  His  successor,  Count 
Buol-Schauenstein,  declined  to  press  the  prop- 
ositions made  by  Schwarzenberg,  and  con- 
tented himself  with  the  conclusion  of  a  com- 
mercial treaty  between  Austria  and  the  Zoll- 
verein (1853).  The  reconciliation  with  Prussia 


was  completed  at  a  personal  interview  of  the 
emperor  and  Frederick  William  IV.  On  Feb. 
6,  1853,  another  popular  outbreak  occurred  at 
Milan,  but  was  suppressed  without  difficulty. 
A  diplomatic  rupture  with  Switzerland,  where 
the  Italian  revolutionists  had  taken  refuge,  was 
the  consequence.  On  Feb.  18  an  attempt  was 
made  against  the  emperor's  life  by  a  young 
Hungarian,  Lib6nyi.  These  events  were  im- 
portant only  so  far  as  they  tended  to  perpet- 
uate the  severe  military  rule.  When,  toward 
the  end  of  1852,  the  Montenegrins  rose  against 
the  Turks,  Austria  sided  with  them,  and  Count 
Leiningen,  who  was  sent  to  Constantinople 
(February,  1853),  obtained  full  redress  of  their 
grievances. — At  the  time  of  the  complications 
which  led  to  the  Crimean  war,  Austria  pro- 
claimed her  neutrality,  and  on  April  20,  1854, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  by  Austria  and  Prussia, 
both  pledging  themselves  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  war  only  whenever  the  interests  of 
Germany  should  appear  to  be  endangered. 
The  czar,  indignant  at  what  seemed  to  him 
base  ingratitude  on  the  part  of  Austria,  en- 
deavored by  flattery  to  incite  the  smaller  Ger- 
man states  against  her,  and  went  even  so  far 
as  to  threaten  an  appeal  to  the  Slavic  races. 
Thus  Austria  was  forced  to  change  her  neutral- 
ity pure  and  simple  into  an  armed  one.  She 
agreed  with  Turkey  to  occupy  the  Danubian 
principalities,  advanced  an  army  of  300,000  men 
toward  the  Polish  frontier,  and  proposed  to 
Russia  the  four  points  which  afterward  became 
the  basis  of  peace.  This  proposition  having 
been  rejected,  Austria  assumed  an  attitude  so 
threatening  that  the  Russians  were  obliged  to 
retire  from  Turkish  territory.  An  Austrian 
army  under  Gen.  Coronini  entered  Wallachia, 
and  the  war  on  the  Danube  was  virtually  at  an 
end.  By  promising  to  the  western  powers  an 
active  support  whenever  they  would  pledge 
themselves  to  carry  on  the  war  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  effectually  to  cripple  the  Russian  power, 
Austria  induced  them  to  determine  upon  the 
Crimean  expedition.  Now,  at  last,  the  active 
cooperation  of  Austria  seemed  to  be  certain ; 
indeed,  a  treaty  to  that  effect  was  agreed  to  by 
her  Dec.  2,  1854;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
tardy  success  of  the  allied  armies  before  Se- 
bastopol  and  the  unwillingness  of  the  other 
German  powers  to  accede  to  the  treaty,  she 
again  fell  back  upon  her  former  vague  promises, 
merely  offering  her  good  offices  to  the  contend- 
ing parties.  Not  even  when  the  Russians  once 
more  invaded  Turkish  territory  did  she  move 
against  them.  Plenipotentiaries  of  the  belli- 
gerent powers  met  at  Vienna  in  March,  1855, 
but  were  unable  to  agree  upon  a  basis  of 
peace,  and  finally  adjourned.  During  the  prog- 
ress of  the  negotiations  Austria  had  distinctly 
pledged  herself  to  go  to  war  if  Russia  should 
remain  obstinate,  when  all  at  once  she  began 
to  reduce  her  army  on  the  frontier.  Financial 
embarrassments  and  the  cholera,  which  within 
a  few  months  destroyed  25,000  soldiers,  were 
the  ostensible  cause  for  this  unexpected  move- 


148 


AUSTRIA 


ment,  the  real  cause  being  probably  the  assur- 
ance given  by  Russia  that  in  any  case  she  would 
adhere  to  those  of  the  four  points  which  involved 
the  special  interests  of  Austria.  The  emperor  of 
the  French,  who  formerly  had  been  anxious  to 
secure  the  friendship  of  Austria  on  any  terms, 
began  to  look  toward  Russia,  and  eagerly 
seized  the  first  opportunity  of  concluding  peace 
(1856).  During  the  war  the  work  of  central- 
ization had  been  carried  on  by  the  Austrian 
government  with  apparent  success.  By  the  con- 
cordat with  the  holy  see  (1855)  Austria  gave 
back  to  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  all  the  priv- 
ileges and  influence  which  had  been  wrested 
from  them  since  the  time  of  Joseph  II.  By 
stimulating  public  enterprise  and  promoting 
the  material  interests  of  all  classes  of  the  popu- 
lation, the  government  was  earnestly  endeavor- 
ing to  make  the  people  forget  the  events  of  1848 
and  1849.  The  military  rule  was  somewhat  re- 
laxed, and  a  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed 
for  political  offences. — The  progress  of  internal 
reforms  was  soon  again  interrupted  by  foreign 
complications.  At  the  beginning  of  1859  the 
Austrian  statesmen  learned  from  some  omi- 
nous words  addressed  on  new  year's  day  by  the 
French  emperor  to  Baron  Hubner  that  Oavour 
had  succeeded  in  gaining  over  Louis  Napoleon 
to  the  designs  of  Victor  Emanuel,  and  that  they 
must  be  prepared  for  a  war  not  only  against  Sar- 
dinia but  against  France.  In  this  new  complica- 
tion the  sympathies  of  Prussia  and  the  other 
German  states  were  strongly  enlisted  in  favor  of 
Austria,  and  even  England  and  Russia  showed 
a  readiness  to  shield  her  from  the  impend- 
ing danger.  The  diplomatic  efforts  of  the  neu- 
tral powers  were,  however,  thwarted  by  an 
ultimatum  which  Austria  hastened  to  address 
to  Sardinia.  This  ultimatum  not  being  ac- 
cepted, Austria  declared  war,  and  appointed 
one  of  her  most  incompetent  generals,  Count 
Gyulay,  commander-in-chief.  The  hope  of  the 
Austrians  that  they  could  overpower  the  Sar- 
dinian army  before  the  French  could  come  to 
its  aid  was  not  fulfilled.  The  Sardinian  terri- 
ritory,  which  Count  Gyulay  had  invaded  on 
April  29,  had  soon  to  be  evacuated.  The  vic- 
tory of  the  united  French  and  Sardinian  ar- 
mies at  Magenta,  June  4,  compelled  the  Aus- 
trians to  abandon  also  Lombardy  and  to  retire 
upon  their  famous  quadrilateral,  Mantua,  Ve- 
rona, Peschiera,  and  Legnago.  After  a  second 
defeat  at  Solferino,  June  24,  the  Austrians 
deemed  it  best  to  make  peace  with  Louis  Na- 
poleon. An  offer  of  Prussia  to  take  up  arms 
as  an  ally  of  Austria,  in  defence  of  the  treaties 
of  1815,  was  regarded  as  unacceptable  because 
Prussia  insisted  on  having  in  this  case  the  chief 
command  of  all  the  non- Austrian  German  con- 
tingents. Austria  consented  in  the  preliminary 
peace  of  Villafranca  (July  11),  and  in  the  de- 
finitive peace  of  Zurich  (Nov.  10),  to  the  cession 
of  Lombardy.  Napoleon,  to  whom  the  cession 
was  made,  transferred  it  in  the  peace  of  Zurich 
to  Sardinia.  The  promises  made  by  Sardinia 
that  the  dethroned  dynasties  of  Tuscany,  Mo- 


dena,  and  Parma  should  be  restored,  and  that 
the  Italian  states  should  form  a  confederation 
into  which  Austria  should  be  admitted  on  ac- 
count of  Venetia,  were  never  fulfilled. — The 
disastrous  issue  of  the  war  was  followed  by 
new  convulsions  in  the  interior.  Public  opin- 
ion seemed  generally  to  be  agreed  that  the 
empire  was  in  an  untenable  condition,  and 
that  sweeping  reforms  were  needed.  The  min- 
isters of  foreign  affairs  and  of  the  interior, 
Count  Buol-Schauenstein  and  Bach,  who  were 
regarded  as  the  chief  representatives  of  the 
ruling  policy,  had  to  resign,  but  no  other 
changes  of  importance  were  made.  The  finan- 
cial troubles  again  made  themselves  felt,  and  a 
new  loan  of  200,000,000  fl.,  which  was  to  be 
raised  by  a  national  subscription,  proved  a  com- 
plete failure.  A  first  attempt  to  reorganize 
the  administration  of  the  empire  was  made 
by  the  imperial  patent  of  March  5, 1860,  which 
gave  to  the  Reichsrath  a  limited  right  of  coop- 
eration in  the  legislation  and  in  the  control  of 
the  finances.  When  the  Reichsrath,  the  number 
of  whose  members  had  been  increased,  met  in 
June,  its  majority  agreed  with  the  new  minister 
of  the  interior,  Count  Goluchowski,  in  advising 
the  abandonment  of  the  centralizing  and  the 
adoption  of  a  federalistic  policy.  The  emperor 
fulfilled  this  wish  by  the  publication  of  the  im- 
perial diploma  of  Oct.  20,  1860  (the  October- 
Hiplom),  which  conferred  upon  the  diets  of  the 
several  crown  lands  the  right  of  legislation  on 
all  affairs  save  those  expressly  reserved  for  the 
Reichsrath.  The  latter  class  embraced  only  the 
finances  of  the  empire,  and  the  foreign,  war, 
and  commercial  affairs.  The  Reichsrath  was 
in  future  to  consist  of  100  members  elected 
by  the  provincial  diets,  and  of  the  members 
appointed  by  the  emperor.  The  novel  consti- 
tution which  Austria  was  to  receive  by  this 
diploma  failed  to  be  acceptable  to  any  party. 
To  the  Poles  of  Galicia  and  the  Czechs  of  Bo- 
hemia, who  demanded  complete  autonomy,  it 
did  not  go  far  enough  in  the  direction  of  fed- 
eralism. Hungary  insisted  on  the  unconditional 
restoration  of  its  constitution.  The  German 
liberals  demanded,  on  the  one  hand,  a  more 
popular  composition  of  the  Reichsrath,  and  on 
the  other,  a  greater  centralization,  as  the  ex- 
cessive rights  conferred  upon  the  crown  lands 
must  in  the  natural  course  of  development  lead 
to  a  dissolution  of  the  empire.  Their  argu- 
ments made  an  impression  upon  the  court ; 
Count  Goluchowski  was  dismissed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1860,  and  succeeded  by  Schmerling,  who 
in  1848,  as  minister  of  the  German  empire 
during  the  regency  of  the  archduke  John,  had 
acquired  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  liberal 
statesman.  The  imperial  patent  of  Feb.  26, 
1861  (the  Februar-Fatent),  which  soon  follow- 
ed the  appointment  of  Schmerling,  resumed  the 
work  of  welding  all  the  discordant  provinces  of 
the  polyglot  empire  into  a  strongly  consolidated, 
truly  constitutional  monarchy.  The  Reichsrath, 
which  received  all  the  usual  rights  of  parlia- 
ments, was  to  consist  of  a  Herrenhaus  or  house 


AUSTRIA 


149 


of  lords,  and  a  house  of  deputies  numbering 
343  members.  Affairs  common  to  the  non- 
Hungarian  provinces  were  to  be  acted  upon 
by  the  non-Hungarian  members  as  "limited 
Reichsrath  "  (Engerer  Reich»raiK).  The  first 
session  of  the  new  Reichsrath  (May,  1861) 
was  attended  by  deputies  from  all  the  Qerman 
and  most  of  the  Slavic  provinces ;  but  Hungary, 
Croatia,  Transylvania,  and  Venetia  were  not 
represented.  All  the  efforts  of  the  government 
to  induce  these  crown  lands  to  send  deputies 
proved  fruitless.  In  Hungary,  in  particular, 
all  parties  united  for  a  "passive  resistance." 
The  Saxons  and  Roumans  of  Transylvania 
were  prevailed  upon  in  1863  to  take  part  in 
the  Reichsrath ;  but  soon  the  Czechs  of  Bohe- 
mia and  Moravia  refused  a  further  attendance. 
The  proceedings  of  the  Reichsrath  did  not 
make  a  favorable  impression  upon  the  public 
mind,  and  the  annual  deficits  continued  to  swell 
the  public  debt  to  a  fearful  amount.  Schmer- 
ling  finally  saw  the  impossibility  of  carrying 
through  his  plans,  and  resigned  in  June,  1865. 
The  prominent  feature  of  the  foreign  pol- 
icy of  Austria  during  the  administration  of 
Scbmerling  was  the  struggle  for  her  contin- 
ued ascendancy  in  the  German  confederation, 
which  appeared  to  be  threatened  by  the 
growing  power  of  Prussia.  Schmerling  en- 
deavored to  secure  the  admission  of  all  the 
dominions  of  Austria  into  the  German  confed- 
eration and  the  German  Zollverein,  but  in  vain. 
In  order  to  gain  the  sympathy  of  the  liberals 
throughout  Germany,  who  it  was  thought  had 
been  alienated  from  Prussia  by  the  policy  of 
Bismarck,  the  Austrian  government  proposed 
a  liberal  reformation  of  the  federal  diet.  An 
invitation  from  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  to 
the  German  princes  and  the  burgomasters  of 
the  free  cities  to  assemble  in  Frankfort  on  Aug. 
17,  1863,  for  the  discussion  of  this  question, 
was  accepted  by  all  those  invited  except  the 
king  of  Prussia,  whose  opposition  proved  suffi- 
cient to  foil  the  plan.  Notwithstanding  these 
repeated  humiliations  by  Prussian  diplomacy, 
the  Austrian  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Count 
Rechberg,  soon  after  accepted  a  proposition 
from  Prussia  that  the  Schleswig-Holstein  diffi- 
culty be  regulated  by  the  two  great  German 
powers,  and  not,  as  the  national  party  in  Ger- 
many desired,  by  the  federal  diet.  Austria  ac- 
cordingly took  part  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
war,  finally  terminated  on  Oct.  30,  1864,  by 
the  peace  of  Vienna,  in  which  Christian  IX.  of 
Denmark  ceded  the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Hoi- 
stein,  and  Lauenburg  to  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria and  the  king  of  Prussia.  Soon,  however, 
the  Austrian  court  became  suspicious  of  the 
Prussian  alliance,  which  not  only  alienated  the 
middle  states  from  Austria,  but  threatened  her 
with  new  diplomatic  humiliations.  A  falling 
out  of  the  two  powers,  and  even  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  was  seriously  feared ;  but  it  was 
for  a  time  averted  by  the  Gastein  convention  of 
Aug.  14,  1865,  according  to  which  Lauenburg 
was  incorporated  with  Prussia,  Holstein  occu- 


pied by  Austrian  and  Schleswig  by  Prussian 
troops.  Meanwhile  the  liberal  Schmerling 
cabinet  had  been  succeeded  by  one  consist- 
ing of  a  combination  of  feudal  federalists 
and  old  conservative  Hungarians,  with  Count 
Belcredi,  a  Czech,  as  president.  One  of  the 
first  acts  of  the  new  ministry  was  the  sus- 
pension of  the  constitution  of  February,  1861, 
under  the  pretext  that  a  new  attempt  was  to 
be  made  to  come  to  a  full  understanding  with 
Hungary.  When  the  diets  of  the  German  and 
Slavic  provinces  were  convoked  in  November, 
those  of  Galicia  and  Bukowina,  as  well  as  the 
Czech  majority  of  the  Bohemian  diet,  voted 
addresses  of  thanks  to  the  emperor ;  while  all 
the  German  diets,  with  the  single  exception  of 
that  of  Tyrol,  which  was  under  the  control  of 
the  "Catholic"  party,  demanded  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  continued  legal  existence  of  the 
constitution  of  February.  The  Slavs  gener- 
ally rallied  for  the  support  of  the  new  ministry, 
and  the  conflict  between  the  Slavic  and  Ger- 
man nationalities  assumed  dimensions  previous- 
ly unknown.  The  negotiations  with  Hungary 
did  not  have  the  desired  effect.  Although  the 
emperor  on  Dec.  14,  1865,  opened  himself  the 
Hungarian  diet,  and  although  the  Hungarians 
received  him  and  the  empress,  who  soon  came 
likewise  to  Pesth,  with  unbounded  enthusiasm, 
the  majority  of  the  diet  insisted  on  greater  de- 
mands than  the  emperor  thought  it  compatible 
with  the  interests  of  the  dynasty  to  concede. 
Before  an  understanding  had  been  arrived  at, 
the  complications  with  Prussia  reached  a  crisis. 
The  governments  of  both  Austria  and  Prussia 
were  fully  aware  of  the  grave  dangers  connect- 
ed with  the  solution  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
question.  Prussia  meant  to  take  the  duchies 
herself;  Austria  supported  the  duke  of  Au- 
gustenburg.  Early  in  1866  both  began  to  arm 
and  to  prepare  for  war.  Austria  endeavored 
to  recover  the  sympathy  of  the  middle  states 
of  Germany ;  Prussia,  on  April  8,  concluded  a 
defensive  and  offensive  alliance  with  Italy. 
A  motion  of  Austria  in  the  federal  diet  of  Ger- 
many (June  1,  1866)  to  have  the  claim  of  the 
prince  of  Augustenburg  to  Schleswig-Holstein 
decided  by  the  federal  diet,  was  declared  by 
Prussia  to  be  a  violation  of  the  Gastein  con- 
vention. Prussian  troops  were  immediately 
marched  into  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  which  the 
Austrian  commander,  Gen.  von  Gablenz,  yield- 
ing to  superior  numbers,  hastened  to  evacuate. 
The  majority  of  the  federal  diet,  regarding 
these  steps  as  disloyal  demonstrations  against 
the  authority  of  the  confederation,  ordered 
(June  14),  on  motion  of  Austria,  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  entire  army  of  the  confederation 
with  the  exception  of  the  Prussian  corps. 
Prussia  declared  that  this  decree  was  a  radical 
subversion  of  the  fundamental  principle  of  the 
confederation,  and  that  she  now  considered  the 
original  pact  as  broken.  Regarding  the  resolu- 
tion as  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  all 
the  states  which  had  voted  for  it,  Prussia  at  once 
began  its  military  operations.  Feldzeugmeister 


150 


AUSTRIA 


Benedok  was  appointed  commander-in-cMef  of 
the  northern  and  Archduke  Albrecht  of  the 
southern  armies  of  Austria.  The  Prussians  ad- 
vanced with  a  rapidity  for  which  Austria  and 
her  allies  were  not  prepared,  and  the  troops 
of  the  smaller  states  proved  as  of  old  entirely 
inefficient.  The  Prussian  progress  through  Sax- 
ony was  undisputed,  and  the  first  serious  en- 
counter took  place  on  Austrian  soil.  The  mil- 
itary superiority  of  the  Prussians  soon  became 
apparent ;  one  Austrian  corps  after  another  was 
beaten,  until  on  July  3  the  bulk  of  their  army 
suffered  a  crushing  defeat  at  Sadowa  near  Ko- 
niggratz  in  Bohemia.  This  victory  of  Prussia 
filled  the  army  of  Austria,  as  well  as  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  population,  with  consterna- 
tion. No  halt  was  made  in  the  retreat,  and 
all  the  provinces  north  of  Vienna  were  aban- 
doned to  the  enemy.  The  government  re- 
lieved Benedek  of  the  chief  command,  which 
was  transferred  to  the  archduke  Albrecht, 
who  in  the  meanwhile  had  been  entirely  suc- 
cessful in  the  campaign  in  Venetia,  having  de- 
feated the  Italian  army  at  Custozza  (June  24) 
and  driven  it  back  across  the  Mincio.  With 
him  a  part  of  his  army  was  called  to  the  north- 
ern seat  of  war.  Hoping  to  detach  Italy  from 
the  alliance  with  Prussia,  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment had,  moreover,  on  the  day  after  the  battle 
of  Sadowa,  ceded  Venetia  to  Louis  Napoleon, 
and  requested  his  friendly  mediation  for  bring- 
ing about  peace.  Italy  declined  to  follow  the 
advice  of  Napoleon,  and,  while  the  Prussians 
marched  upon  Vienna,  again  invaded  Venetia 
and  some  districts  of  Tyrol.  A  naval  victory 
of  the  Austrian  admiral  Tegetthoff  at  the  island 
of  Lissa  (July  20)  did  not  change  the  general 
prospects  of  the  war,  and  had  no  influence 
upon  the  progress  of  the  peace  negotiations, 
which  through  the  mediation  of  France  had 
began  at  Nikolsburg.  A  preliminary  peace 
was  concluded  on  July  26,  which  on  Aug.  23 
was  followed  by  the  definitive  peace  of  Prague. 
Austria  consented  to  the  establishment  of  the 
North  German  confederation  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Prussia,  and  to  the  incorporation  of 
Hanover,  Hesse-Oassel,  Nassau,  Frankfort,  and 
Schleswig-Holstein  with  the  Prussian  domin- 
ions. Between  Austria  and  Italy  a  truce  was 
concluded  on  Aug.  12,  and  a  definitive  peace  on 
Oct.  3  at  Vienna.  Austria  recognized  the  union 
of  Venetia,  which  Napoleon  had  ceded  to  Vic- 
tor Emanuel,  as  well  as  of  Lombardy  with  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  while  the  Italian  govern- 
ment agreed  to  assume  the  debt  of  Lombardy 
and  Venetia,  and  35,000,000  florins  of  the  gen- 
eral Austrian  debt,  and  also  promised  to  re- 
store to  the  dethroned  princes  of  Tuscany  and 
Modena,  who  were  relatives  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph, their  private  movable  and  immovable 
property. — Count  Mensdorflf,  the  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  and  Count  Maurice  Esterhazy, 
who  was  believed  to  be  the  chief  adviser  of  the 
emperor,  resigned  their  places  in  the  ministry 
on  Oct.  30.  Mensdorff  was  succeeded  by  Baron 
Beust,  who,  as  the  representative  of  Saxony 


in  the  federal  diet,  had  gained  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  ablest  opponent  of  the  Prus- 
sian policy  among  the  statesmen  of  the  middle 
states.  Beust  soon  submitted  a  novel  plan  for 
the  reconstruction  of  Austria.  He  was  as  much 
opposed  to  the  centralism  of  Schmerling  as  to 
the  feudal  federalism  of  Belcredi,  and  in  the 
place  of  both  recommended  a  strictly  dualistic 
basis  as  the  best  remedy  for  the  evils  which 
had  brought  Austria  to  the  Lrink  of  an  un- 
fathomable abyss.  As  the  hope  of  Belcredi 
and  his  old  conservative  Hungarian  friends  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  with  Hungary  was  dis- 
appointed, Beust  found  a  favorable  hearing  for 
his  ideas.  The  main  point  of  his  programme 
was  a  lasting  reconciliation  with  Hungary, 
and  to  that  end  the  adoption  of  the  proposi- 
tions which  Deak,  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  majority  of  the  Hungarian  diet,  had 
made  to  Belcredi.  Beust  advised  the  em- 
peror to  appoint  at  once  a  Hungarian  minis- 
try, and  to  obtain  through  it  the  consent  of 
the  Hungarian  diet  to  the  draft  of  the  agree- 
ment between  Cisleithan  and  Transleithan 
Austria,  as  proposed  by  Deak ;  to  call  then,  in 
accordance  with  the  constitution  of  February, 
1861,  a  meeting  of  the  "limited  Keichsrath" 
of  Cisleithania,  lay  before  it  the  agreement 
with  Hungary  as  an  accomplished  fact,  and  to 
propose  to  it  such  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  February  as  the  concession  made  to  Hungary 
would  require.  The  advice  was  accepted; 
Belcredi  resigned,  and  on  Feb.  7,  1867,  Beust 
was  appointed  prime  minister.  Within  one 
month  the  most  important  points  had  been 
settled.  Hungary  abandoned  the  idea  of  a 
purely  "personal  union,"  and  agreed  to  have 
the  army  and  the  foreign  affairs  in  common 
with  Cisleithania;  it  also  promised  a  revision 
of  the  laws  of  1848.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
subordination  of  Croatia  to  the  Hungarian 
ministry  and  the  reincorporation  of  Transylva- 
nia with  Hungary  were  readily  conceded.  The 
Hungarians  were  notified  of  the  accomplished 
agreement  and  of  the  appointment  of  a  respon- 
sible Hungarian  ministry,  of  which  Count  Ju- 
lius Andrassy  was  the  president,  by  rescripts 
dated  Feb.  17,  1867,  and  signed  by  Francis 
Joseph  as  "king  of  Hungary."  On  the  next 
day,  Feb.  18,  the  provincial  diets  of  all  the 
German  and  Slavic  crown  lands  were  opened. 
The  German  diets  generally  declared  them- 
selves satisfied  with  the  settlement  of  the  Hun- 
garian question ;  most  of  the  Slavic  diets  showed 
themselves  at  least  not  irreconcilable ;  but  the 
Czechs  of  Bohemia  so  violently  opposed  the 
projects  of  the  government  that  the  Bohemian 
diet  had  to  be  dissolved.  The  Czech  leaders 
were  so  incensed  at  the  new  turn  of  Austrian 
politics  that  they  used  the  so-called  ethnograph- 
ical exhibition  at  Moscow  (May,  1867)  as  a  wel- 
come occasion  for  an  ostentatious  display  of 
Panslavistic  tendencies.  The  Reichsrath  of  the 
German  and  Slavic  provinces,  which  was  opened 
on  May  22,  1867,  formally  approved  the  agree- 
ment concluded  with  Hungary,  but  at  the 


AUSTRIA 


151 


same  time  declared  that  the  Cisleithan  prov- 
inces would  not  be  fully  satisfied  until  they 
should  receive  the  same  guarantee  of  their 
constitutional  rights  which  had  been  given  to 
the  Hungarians.  The  majority  of  the  Reichs- 
rath  demanded,  in  particular,  a  revision  of  the 
concordat,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  fcberal 
party  gave  to  the  pope  and  the  bishops  privi- 
leges not  compatible  with  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  numerous  manifestations  for  and 
against  a  revision  of  the  concordat  produced 
a  profound  agitation ;  but,  though  Beust  un- 
mistakably leaned  toward  the  side  of  the  lib- 
erals, he  prevented  definite  action  on  the  sub- 
ject. On  June  8  Francis  Joseph  was  solemnly 
crowned  as  constitutional  king  of  Hungary  in 
the  ancient  capital,  Buda.  The  relations  with 
foreign  powers  remained  peaceful ;  neither  the 
publication  of  the  secret  treaties  which  Prussia 
after  the  peace  of  Prague  had  concluded  with 
the  south  German  states,  nor  the  visit  of  the 
French  emperor  (August,  1867)  at  Salzburg, 
who  desired  to  bring  about  an  anti-Prussian 
alliance,  could  shake  Beust's  conviction  that 
the  preservation  of  peace  was  indispensably 
necessary  for  completing  the  work  of  reorgan- 
ization at  home.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  the 
negotiations  between  the  two  delegations  which 
had  been  appointed  by  the  Keichsrath  and  by 
the  Hungarian  diet  for  regulating  the  relations 
between  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  empire, 
was  the  proportionate  distribution  among  them 
of  the  expenditures  for  the  common  affairs  of 
the  empire  and  of  the  public  debt.  The  agree- 
ment finally  arrived  at,  according  to  which  70 
per  cent,  of  the  expenditures  anil  debt  was  to 
be  borne  by  the  Cisleithan  provinces,  and  30 
per  cent,  by  Hungary,  met  with  a  strong  op- 
position in  the  Reichsrath,  as  it  was  regarded 
to  be  too  partial  to  Hungary ;  hut  the  convic- 
tion that  a  full  understanding  with  Hungary 
was  necessary  for  the  definite  reconstruction 
of  Cisleithan  Austria  upon  a  constitutional 
basis  outweighed  all  other  considerations,  and 
in  December,  1867,  all  the  propositions  of  the 
two  delegations  were  agreed  to.  Both  houses 
of  the  Reichsrath  in  the  meanwhile  (the  lower 
house  on  Oct.  17,  the  upper  on  Dec.  2)  had 
adopted  four  fundamental  laws  of  the  state 
(Staatsgrundgesetze),  which  in  many  points 
modified  the  constitution  of  February,  1861, 
and  secured  to  the  Cisleithan  provinces  a  truly 
constitutional  form  of  government.  The  laws 
were  sanctioned  by  the  emperor  on  Dec.  21 ; 
and  then  the  reconstitution  of  the  empire  on 
the  dualistic  basis  of  a  division  into  Cisleithan 
and  Transleithan  provinces  was  completed. 
On  Dec.  24  the  emperor  appointed  an  impe- 
rial ministry  (ReichsrninMerium)  for  the  com- 
mon affairs  of  the  empire,  consisting  of  Count 
Beust  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Herr  von 
Becke  as  minister  of  finance,  and  Gen.  von 
John  as  minister  of  war.  The  first  ministry 
of  Cisleithania  was  announced  in  the  official 
gazette  of  Vienna  on  Jan.  1,  1868.  Prince 
Carlos  Auersperg  was  its  president,  and  among 


its  members  it  counted  some  of  the  prominent 
leaders  of  the  liberal  party  in  the  Reichsrath, 
such  as  Dr.  Giskra,  minister  of  the  interior, 
Dr.  Herbst,  minister  of  justice,  and  Dr.  Bres- 
tel,  minister  of  finance.  Beust,  upon  whom 
the  emperor  in  recognition  of  his  services  had 
conferred  the  titles  of  count  and  chancellor 
of  the  empire,  remained  for  nearly  four  years 
(December,  1867,  to  November,  1871)  at  the 
helm  of  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  empire. 
During  all  this  time  the  peaceable  relations 
with  other  powers  were  not  disturbed,  and 
Beust  gained  at  home  and  abroad  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  one  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of 
Europe.  In  July,  1870,  the  peaceable  policy 
of  Austria  was  put  to  a  severe  test  by  the  out- 
break of  the  war  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. The  ministry  of  the  empire,  whose 
meetings  at  this  time  were  also  attended  by 
the  prime  ministers  of  Cisleithania  and  Hun- 
gary, and  presided  over  by  the  emperor,  de- 
clared on  July  18  in  favor  of  an  attentive  neu- 
trality, which,  as  Beust  explained,  did  not  ex- 
clude the  duty  of  watching  for  the  safety  of 
the  monarchy,  and  of  providing  against  all 
possible  dangers.  The  continuance  of  peace 
enabled  the  ministers  of  Cisleithania  and  of 
Hungary  to  devote  their  whole  attention  to 
internal  reforms.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
Cisleithan  ministers  was  to  demand  from  all 
public  officers  an  oath  to  support  the  constitu- 
tion. The  gaps  which  still  existed  in  the  con- 
stitution were  gradually  filled  up.  A  law  on 
the  responsibility  of  the  ministry  was  adopted 
by  a  large  majority  of  both  houses.  The  mili- 
tary offices  which  had  been  directly  dependent 
upon  the  emperor  were  abolished.  Thus  the 
archduke  Albrecht  was  relieved  from  the  chief 
command  of  the  army,  and  as  inspector  of  the 
standing  army  placed  under  the  minister  of 
war.  The  command  of  the  navy  was  taken 
from  Archduke  Rainer  and  conferred  upon 
Admiral  Tegetthoff.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant reforms  was  the  reorganization  of  the  army 
on  a  basis  substantially  identical  with  that  of 
the  military  organization  of  Prussia.  The  law, 
which  passed  the  house  of  deputies  by  the  large 
majority  of  118  votes  against  29  (Nov.  18, 1868), 
provided  in  particular  for  a  general  liability  of 
all  classes  of  the  people  to  military  service, 
and  regulated  the  appointment  to  military 
offices.  The  financial  condition  of  the  empire 
steadily  improved,  and  although  the  annual 
budgets  were  not  yet  free  from  deficits,  the 
productivity  and  taxability  of  the  country  so 
rapidly  advanced  as  to  diffuse  everywhere 
new  confidence  in  the  financial  future  of  the 
empire. — But  in  spite  of  so  much  that  looked 
encouraging,  two  great  conflicts  never  ceased 
to  darken  the  horizon  of  Cisleithan  Austria. 
One  of  these  concerned  the  regulation  of  the 
religious  and  school  affairs.  On  May  25,  1868, 
the  government  sanctioned  three  laws  adopted 
by  both  houses  of  the  Reichsrath,  which,  in 
accordance  with  the  views  of  the  liberal  party, 
abolished  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical 


152 


AUSTRIA 


courts  over  the  marriage  relations  of  Catholics, 
transferred  the  supreme  direction  and  superin- 
tendence of  the  entire  department  of  instruction 
and  education  to  the  state,  and  regulated  the 
relations  of  the  churches  recognized  hy  the  state 
on  the  basis  of  equal  rights.  The  papal  nuncio 
in  Vienna  protested  against  these  laws  as  a  vio- 
lation of  the  concordat,  and  the  pope  declared 
them  to  be  null  and  void ;  but  the  government, 
while  endeavoring  to  conciliate  the  bishops  as 
much  as  possible,  carried  them  through.  An- 
other important  victory  was  gained  by  the  lib- 
eral party  in  1870,  when  the  government  declar- 
ed the  concordat  of  1855  to  be  no  longer  valid. 
Still  more  important  than  this  religious  conflict 
was  that  between  the  different  nationalities 
represented  in  the  Eeichsrath.  The  Czechs  of 
Bohemia  and  Moravia  demanded  for  the  lands 
of  "the  crown  of  St.  Wenceslas,"  by  which 
they  understood  the  provinces  of  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Silesia,  an  autonomy  equal  or  at 
least  similar  to  that  of  Hungary,  and  including 
in  particular  a  Czech  parliament  in  the  place 
of  Czech  deputies  to  the  Vienna  Reichsrath. 
The  Silesian  diet  almost  unanimously  protested 
against  these  schemes;  but  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  the  Czech  population  gave  them  an 
enthusiastic  support.  As  the  Germans  in 
1868  controlled  the  diets  of  both  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  the  Czech  members  in  August  re- 
signed their  seats,  and  presented  to  the  presi- 
dents of  the  diets  a  declaration  fully  setting 
forth  their  views  and  plans.  At  the  new 
election  for  the  Bohemian  diet  all  the  81 
signers  of  the  declaration,  with  but  one  ex- 
ception, were  reflected.  They  again  refused 
to  attend  the  diet  convoked  in  September, 
1869,  as  the  German  members  were  again  in 
.  the  majority.  The  Vienna  government  was 
willing  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the 
Czechs;  but  the  leaders  of  the  latter,  Rieger 
and  Sladkowsky,  declined  to  attend  the  con- 
ference which  had  been  proposed  by  Giskra, 
and  the  representatives  of  the  Czech  nation- 
ality whom  Count  Potocki  in  April,  1870, 
called  to  Vienna,  were  equally  unwilling  to 
make  any  concessions.  The  success  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  Czech  agitation  strengthened  the 
hope  of  the  Poles  of  Galicia  that  they  also 
might  be  able  to  obtain  for  the  Polish  parts  of 
the  empire  an  autonomy  like  that  of  Hungary, 
and  that  thus  Galicia  might  become  the  nucleus 
of  a  restored  Polish  realm.  Accordingly  the 
diet,  on  Sept.  16,  1868,  resolved  to  petition  the 
emperor  to  give  to  the  former  kingdoms  of  Ga- 
licia and  Lodomeria  and  to  the  grand  duchy 
of  Cracow  a  separate  government,  under  the 
direction  of  a  chancellor  or  special  minister, 
who  should  be  responsible  to  the  diet.  When 
the  committee  of  the  Vienna  Reichstag  de- 
clared the  Polish  demands  to  be  inadmissible, 
the  Polish  members  of  the  Reichsrath  resigned, 
and  their  example  was  soon  followed  by  the 
majority  of  all  the  Slavic  deputies.  An  insurrec- 
tion which  in  October,  1869,  broke  out  in  the 
Slavic  province  of  Dalmatia,  in  the  district  of 


Cattaro,  had  no  connection  with  the  nation- 
ality movements.  The  people  of  this  district, 
which  is  separated  from  the  remainder  of  Dal- 
matia by  a  high  mountain  ridge,  and  who  num- 
ber only  30,000  souls,  had  formerly  been  ex- 
empt from  military  service,  and  therefore  made 
a  forcible  resistance  to  an  attempt  to  enroll 
them,  in  accordance  with  the  new  military  law, 
in  the  landwehr.  After  several  bloody  encoun- 
ters, in  which  the  imperial  troops  suffered  se- 
vere losses,  the  insurgents  submitted  in  Jan- 
uary, 1870,  when  several  concessions  were 
made  to  them.  In  view  of  the  alarming  dimen- 
sions which  the  nationality  conflicts  assumed, 
the  members  of  the  Cisleithan  ministry  were 
themselves  divided  in  their  opinion  as  to  the 
best  policy  to  be  pursued.  The  majority,  to 
which  the  ministers  Plener,  Giskra,  Herbst, 
Hasner,  and  Brestel  belonged,  were  unwilling  to 
make  further  concessions  to  the  Czechs,  Poles, 
and  other  non-German  nationalities,  and  de- 
sired to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  central 
Reichsrath  by  a  reform  of  the  electoral  law. 
The  three  other  ministers,  Taafe,  Berger,  and 
Potocki,  favored  concessions  to  the  nationali- 
ties and  to  federalism.  As  the  majority  of 
both  houses  of  the  Reichsrath,  which  was 
opened  on  Dec.  13,  1869,  sympathized  with  the 
majority  of  the  ministry,  the  emperor  in  Jan- 
uary, 1870,  accepted  the  resignation  of  the 
minority.  Soon,  however,  when  the  emperor 
refused  to  sanction  several  measures  pro- 
posed by  the  new  ministry  which  had  been 
formed  by  Plener,  a  new  ministerial  crisis  oc- 
curred, and  Count  Potocki  was  on  April  4 
commissioned  to  form  another  ministry.  The 
overtures  made  by  Count  Potocki  to  the  leaders 
of  the  Czechs  and  Poles,  and  the  dissolution  of 
the  Reichsrath  (May  23)  and  all  the  diets,  pro- 
duced an  immense  agitation,  but  the  further 
development  of  the  conflict  was  adjourned  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war.  The 
German  centralists  were  not  only  dissatisfied 
with  the  cabinet  of  Potocki,  but  also  with  the 
chancellor,  Count  Beust,  whom  they  likewise 
charged  with  making  undue  concessions  to  the 
nationalities.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  Fran- 
co-German war,  the  Austrian  government  gave 
new  offence  to  the  German  Austrians  hy  check- 
ing their  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of  sympa- 
thy with  the  cause  of  Germany.  The  Czechs 
and  the  Poles,  on  the  other  hand,  made  dem- 
onstrations in  favor  of  France ;  and  the  leader 
of  the  Czechs,  Dr.  Rieger,  even  went  so  far  as 
to  make  Napoleon  a  direct  offer  of  an  alliance 
between  France  and  the  Czechs,  on  condition 
that  Napoleon  should  aid  the  Czechs  in  restor- 
ing the  independent  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 
The  new  kingdom  was  at  once  to  embrace  the 
Austrian  provinces  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Austrian  Silesia,  to  which  subsequently  Prus- 
sian Silesia,  Lusatia,  and  the  Slovak  districts 
of  northern  Hungary  were  to  be  added.  In 
the  new  Reichsrath,  which  was  opened  on 
Sept.  5,  the  German  liberals  again  controlled 
a  majority  of  both  houses.  The  provincial 


AUSTRIA 


153 


diet  of  Bohemia,  however,  in  which  the  united 
Czechs  and  federalists  had  a  majority,  declined 
to  elect  delegates  to  the  Reichsrath.  Although 
an  imperial  rescript  of  Sept.  29  made,  in  reply 
to  an  address  from  a  Czech  deputation  of  the 
Bohemian  diet,  promises  of  large  concessions, 
such  as  the  coronation  of  the  Austrian  emeerors 
with  the  Bohemian  crown  and  the  indivisibility 
of  the  country,  the  Czechs  persisted  in  their 
refusal.  The  government  then  ordered  direct 
elections,  hy  which  24  Germans  and  liberals 
and  36  adherents  of  the  "  declaration  "  were 
deputed  to  Vienna.  The  latter  at  once  resigned 
their  seats ;  but  as  both  houses  of  the  Reichs- 
rath had  a  quorum,  they  soon  passed  a  resolu- 
tion declaring  want  of  confidence  in  the  minis- 
try, which  consequently  tendered  its  resigna- 
tion on  Nov.  23.  The  emperor  accepted  the 
resignation,  but  the  formation  of  a  new  cabinet 
was  not  accomplished  until  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1871.  The  Czech  leaders  on  Dec.  8 
addressed,  in  the  name  of  the  "  political  na- 
tion of  the  Bohemians,"  a  memoir  to  the  Aus- 
trian chancellor,  in  which  they  explained  their 
views  on  the  foreign  policy  of  Austria,  and  in 
particular  declared  their  sympathy  with  Rus- 
sia in  the  eastern  question.  On  Dec.  14  the 
chancellor  returned  the  memoir,  informing  the 
Czechs  that  the  expression  of  such  views  ex- 
ceeded their  rights.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
diplomatic  correspondence  of  the  most  friendly 
character  was  begun  in  December  with  the 
government  of  Prussia,  Austria  waiving  all  op- 
position to  the  reconstruction  of  the  German 
empire  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  The 
expected  reorganization  of  the'  ministry  took 
place  on  Feb.  7,  1871,  under  the  presidency  of 
Count  Hohenwart.  The  new  ministry  leaned 
on  the  support  of  the  Slavs  and  the  feudal  and 
Catholic  parties.  The  Reichsrath  declared  it- 
self dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  making  con- 
cessions to  the  nationalities,  but  the  emperor 
in  stern  words  declared  his  approval.  The 
majority  of  the  Reichsrath,  being  divided  in 
their  opinions  as  to  the  best  policy  now  to  be 
pursued,  granted  the  appropriations  demanded 
by  the  ministry,  and  found  some  consolation 
in  the  fact  that  Chancellor  Beust  in  the  Ger- 
man as  well  as  the  Roman  questions  appeared 
to  sympathize  with  the  liberals.  On  the  ad- 
journment of  the  Reichsrath,  on  July  11,  Count 
Hohenwart  made  some  important  concessions 
to  the  Czechs  and  the  Poles.  The  latter  ap- 
peared to  be  contented ;  but  the  Czechs  insist- 
ed on  the  adoption  of  the  whole  of  their  de- 
mands. In  August  the  ministry  dissolved  all 
the  provincial  diets  in  which  the  German  cen- 
tralists had  a  majority,  and  ordered  new  elec- 
tions for  the  Reichsrath.  The  result  gave  to 
Count  Hohenwart  the  assurance  that  now  all 
the  demands  of  the  Czechs  would  be  substan- 
tially granted,  and  the  constitution  as  far  as 
necessary  be  altered  by  the  new  Reichsrath. 
An  imperial  rescript  to  the  Bohemian  diet, 
which  acknowledged  "  the  rights  of  the  Bohe- 
mian kingdom,"  caused  unbounded  enthusiasm 


among  the  Czechs.  A  deputation  from  the 
Bohemian  diet  officially  presented  in  Vienna 
the  fundamental  laws  on  which  they  desired 
the  Ausgleich  (agreement)  to  be  based.  This 
presentation  brought  on  a  new  crisis.  A  crown 
council,  composed  of  the  Cisleithan  ministers, 
the  ministers  common  to  the  whole  empire,  and 
Count  Andrassy,  was  called  to  advise  the  em- 
peror. Both  Count  Beust  and  Count  Andrassy 
so  energetically  opposed  the  policy  of  Hohen- 
wart that  the  emperor  took  sides  with  them. 
As  the  Czech  leaders  refused  to  consent  to  any 
modification  of  their  programme,  Hohenwart 
resigned  on  Oct.  25.  A  month  later  a  new 
Cisleithan  cabinet  favorable  to  the  German  cen- 
tralists was  appointed,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prince  Adolph  Auersperg.  Again  the  diets 
opposed  to  the  new  ministry  were  dissolved  and 
new  elections  for  the  Reichsrath  ordered ;  and 
again  the  ministry  succeeded  in  securing  a  min- 
isterial majority  in  the  new  Reichsrath.  The 
speech  with  which  the  emperor  on  Dec.  27 
opened  the  Reichsrath  announced  that  the 
government  would  accede  to  the  wishes  of  Ga- 
licia  in  so  far  as  they  were  compatible  with  the 
interests  of  the  empire,  and  that  measures 
would  be  taken  to  make  the  Reichsrath  a  com- 
pletely representative  body.  On  Feb.  20, 1872, 
the  ministry  and  constitutional  party  ( Verfas- 
sungspartei)  gained  a  great  triumph,  as  the 
Reichsrath  by  104  against  49  votes  adopted  an 
additional  clause  to  the  electoral  law  which 
authorized  the  government  to  order  direct  elec- 
tions if  delegates  elected  by  provincial  diets 
should  resign  their  seats  or  be  prevented  from 
entering  the  Reichsrath.  Another  great  tri- 
umph was  obtained  by  the  ministry  in  Bohemia, 
where  it  controlled  a  considerable  majority  in 
the  new  provincial  diet.  Of  the  54  delegates 
whom  the  new  diet  sent  to  the  Reichsrath,  40 
were  supporters  of  the  ministry,  which  could 
now  rely  on  a  two-thirds  majority  in  the  Reichs- 
rath even  if  the  Poles  should  not  vote  for  it. 
The  session  of  the  diet  was  closed  on  June 
23.  The  two  great  reforms,  the  introduction 
of  which  had  been  regarded  as  the  chief  task 
of  the  ministry,  the  substitution  of  direct  elec- 
tion to  the  Reichsrath  for  the  indirect  election 
of  the  delegates  by  the  provincial  diets,  and  the 
Ausyleich  (agreement)  with  the  Poles,  were 
not  yet  carried  through.  The  ministry  offered 
to  the  Poles  far-reaching  concessions,  but  at 
the  same  time  declared  that  nothing  would  be 
conceded  incompatible  with  the  dualistic  basis 
of  the  entire  empire.  The  Poles  in  turn  prom- 
ised that  in  their  struggle  for  an  autonomy  like 
that  of  Hungary  they  would  keep  within  the 
hounds  of  the  present  constitution  of  the  em- 
pire. (See  GALIOIA,  and  HUNGARY.) — Among 
the  best  historical  works  on  Austria  are  Mai- 
lath,  ffeschichte  des  osterreichiseJien  Kaiser- 
stoats  (5  vols.,  Hamburg,  1834-'50) ;  Lichnow 
sky,  Geschiehte  des  JTauses  Habsburg  (8  vols., 
Vienna,  1836-'44) ;  Springer,  Geschichte  Oes- 
terreichs  seit  dem  Wiener  Frieden  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1864-'5);  Bidermann,  Geschichte  der 


154 


AUSTRIA 


ditreichUcJien  GesammUtaatsidee  (vol.  i.,  Inn- 
spruck,  1867);  Rogge,  Von  Vilagos  lis  zur 
Gegenwart  (vol.  i.,  Leipsic,  1872);  Archm  fur 
Kunde  der  osterreichischen  Gesehichtsguellen 
(published  by  the  Vienna  academy  of  science, 
vols.  i.  to  xliv.,  Vienna,  1848-71). 

AUSTRIA,  an  archduchy  in  the  western  half 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  bounded 
N.  by  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  E.  by  Hungary, 
'  8.  by  Styria  and  Salzburg,  and  W.  by  Salzburg 
and  Bavaria;  area,  12,288  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
2,736,224.  It  is  divided  into  two  provinces  or 
crown  lands — Upper  Austria  (Oestreicli  oft  der 
Enni)  in  the  west,  and  Lower  Austria  (Oest- 
reich  unter  der  Enni)  in  the  east,  the  river  Enns 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  them. — 
UPPEE  AUSTHIA  has  an  area  of  4,633  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  735,622.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Danube,  which  divides  the  province 
into  two  portions,  the  Enns,  the  Traun,  and  the 
Inn,  tributaries  of  the  Danube,  and  the  Salz- 
ach,  which  flows  into  the  Inn.  In  the  S.  W. 
are  numerous  Alpine  lakes,  some  of  them  of 
considerable  size.  Mineral  springs  are  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  province,  but  few  of 
them  are  of  great  value.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous. S.  of  the  Danube  the  Noric  Alps 
overspread  the  country,  rising,  in  the  group 
near  Hallstadt,  to  the  height  of  more  than 
9,500  ft.  N.  of  the  Danube  the  mountain  sys- 
tem of  Bohemia  extends  into  the  province,  but 
attains  no  considerable  altitude.  The  soil  is 
exceedingly  fertile  in  the  valleys  of  the  Danube 
and  its  tributaries,  but  elsewhere  stony  and 
dry.  Even  on  the  mountain  slopes,  however, 
the  inhabitants  have  made  it  productive.  The 
climate  is  bracing  and  cool,  from  the  moun- 
tainous nature  of  the  country.  Agriculture 
and  cattle-breeding  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions of  the  people.  The  salt  works  at  Ischl 
and  Hallstadt  furnish  an  important  industry, 
but  the  manufactures  are  not  extensive,  and 
consist  chiefly  of  iron  articles  and  cotton  goods. 
Capital,  Linz.— LOWEE  AUSTRIA  has  an  area 
of  7,655  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,000,602.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Danube,  Enns,  Leitha, 
Krems,  March,  and  Thaya.  The  S.  portion  is 
occupied  by  a  part  of  the  Koric  Alps,  with 
their  branches;  the  chief  of  these  are  the 
groups  of  the  Wienerwald  or  Kahlengeberg,  a 
spur  of  which,  the  Schneeberg,  is  6,760  ft.  above 
the  sea.  N.  of  the  Danube  chains  of  hills  ex- 
tend into  the  country  from  Bohemia,  but  there 
are  no  considerable  peaks.  The  valley  of  the 
Danube  is  here  broad  and  fertile,  and  the 
smaller  valleys  of  its  tributaries,  especially  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  province,  also  furnish 
large  tracts  of  arable  land.  The  climate  is 
somewhat  warmer  than  that  of  Upper  Austria. 
Agriculture  is  not  carried  to  the  perfection 
attained  in  that  province ;  but  the  manufac- 
tures are  much  more  numerous  and  flourishing. 
They  include  machines  of  many  kinds,  car- 
riages, wagons,  optical,  musical,  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  metal  wares,  articles  of 
leather  work,  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods. 


AUTOLYCUS 

Most  of  these  are  carried  on  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Vienna.  The  province  is  intersected  by 
several  lines  of  railway,  and  there  is  a  brisk  trade 
with  the  neighboring  states.  Capital,  Vienna. 
— The  archduchy  of  Austria  was  the  nucleus 
around  which  the  empire  of  Austria  (now  the 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy)  grew  up.  Lower 
Austria  was  founded  as  a  margraviate  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne;  in  1156,  joined  with 
Upper  Austria,  it  became  a  duchy,  and  in  1453 
an  archduchy.  From  this  time  the  Hapsburgs 
steadily  added  to  its  territory,  and  it  was  soon 
merged  in  their  increasing  possessions. 

U  s  I  Ito-lll  M. AIUA>  MONARCHY.     See  Aus- 

TEIA. 

Al'TAI'CA,  a  central  county  of  Alabama, 
bounded  S.  by  the  Alabama  river ;  area,  about 
650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,623,  of  whom 
7,292  were  colored.  The  Selma,  Rome,  and 
Dalton,  and  South  and  North  Alabama  rail- 
roads pass  through  the  county.  The  surface 
is  uneven  and  the  soil  fertile.  In  1870  the 
county  produced  191,158  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  36,660  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  7,965  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  two  cotton  factories  and 
a  cotton  gin  factory,  producing  articles  to  the 
value  of  $681,733.  Capital,  Kingston. 

AITIIK.YI'K'S,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  No- 
vella of  Justinian,  so  called  by  early  writers 
from  its  being  a  literal  translation  of  the  origi- 
nal. The  term  was  afterward  applied  to  ex- 
tracts of  decisions  from  the  Novella  by  which 
previous  decisions  or  definitions  contained  in 
the  Pandects  or  the  Codex  were  modified  or 
set  aside.  These  extracts  were  made  by  doc- 
tors of  the  law  and  inserted  in  the  Corpus 
Juris,  but  had  no  authority.  The  German 
emperors  Frederick  II.  and  III.  issued  in  their 
names  authentics,  and  ordered  the  civilians  of 
Bologna  to  intercalate  them  in  the  code  of  Jus- 
tinian. These  last  had  a  practical  authority. 

AUTO  DA  Fl§  (Port.,  act  of  faith;  Span.,  auto 
de  fe),  a  public,  day  held  by  the  inquisition  for 
the  punishment  of  heretics  and  the  absolution  of 
the  innocent  accused.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  sentence  of  the  inquisition  read  to  the  con- 
demned just  before  execution,  and  to  the  session 
of  the  court  of  inquisition.  (See  INQUISITION.) 

AtTOLYCCS.  I.  In  Greek  legend,  a  son  of 
Mercury  and  Chione,  father  of  Anticlea,  and 
thus  maternal  grandfather  of  Ulysses,  who 
spent  part  of  his  youth  at  his  residence  on  Mt. 
Parnassus.  He  was  renowned  for  his  cunning 
as  a  robber  and  a  liar,  and  possessed  the  pow- 
er of  metamorphosing  both  himself  and  the 
things  stolen.  But  Sisyphus  overmatched  him 
in  cunning ;  for  Autolycus  having  stolen  his 
sheep  and  transformed  them,  he  identified 
them  by  marks  which  he  had  made  under  their 
feet  and  compelled  him  to  restore  them.  II. 
A  mathematician  of  Pitane  in  .lEolis,  lived 
about  350  B.  C.  His  treatises  on  the  "  Motion 
of  the  Sphere  "  and  on  the  "  Risings  and  Set- 
tings of  the  Fixed  Stars  "  are  the  oldest  extant 
Greek  works  on  mathematics.  Three  MSS.  of 
each  exist  at  Oxford,  but  no  complete  edition 


AUTOMATON 


155 


has  been  published.  A  Latin  translation  ap- 
peared at  Rome  in  1587-'8 ;  and  a  full  account 
of  them  is  given  by  Delambre  in  his  HMoire 
de  Pastronomie  ancienne. 

AUTOMATON  (Gr.  airrff,  self,  and  fideiv,  to 
move),  a  self-moving  machine,  or  one  which 
contains  within  itself  the  moving  power.  This 
description  would  make  the  term  applicable 
to  watches,  musical  boxes,  &c.,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally used  to  designate  only  those  machines 
which  are  made  to  imitate  the  motions  of  men 
and  animals.  Those  constructed  to  imitate  men 
are  sometimes  called  androides.  Probably  the 
earliest  allusion  to  self-moving  machines  in  his- 
tory is  to  the  tripods  moved  on  living  wheels, 
and  instinct  with  life,  which  Homer  describes 
Vulcan  as  having  contrived.  Then  come  the 
walking  statues,  female  dancers,  and  wooden 
cow  of  Dredalus,  whose  invention  appears  to 
have  been  wonderfully  prolific  in  automatons. 
Archytas  constructed  his  wonderful  dove  400 
years  before  Christ.  In  later  times  we  have 
Friar  Bacon's  brazen  head  which  spoke,  and 
the  eagle  and  iron  fly  of  Regiomontanus,  the 
former  of  which  is  said  to  have  flown  from  the 
city,  saluted  the  emperor,  and  returned;  and 
the  latter  after  flying  round  the  room  returned 
to  its  master.  But  the  love  of  the  marvellous 
has  no  doubt  greatly  improved  upon  the  feats 
of  the  earlier  inventors.  The  first  androides 
which  acquired  any  celebrity  was  made  by  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  in  the  13th  century;  it  moved 
like  a  man  and  even  spoke.  Thomas  Aquinas 
is  said  to  have  been  so  alarmed  by  it,  that  he 
broke  it  in  pieces  with  his  staff,  to  the  great 
grief  of  the  unfortunate  inventor,  who  exclaim- 
ed that  he  had  destroyed  the  work  of  30  years. 
Another  similar  invention  of  Descartes,  which 
he  named  his  daughter  Francina,  shared  a  sim- 
ilar fate ;  the  captain  of  a  vessel  on  board  of 
which  it  was  placed,  thinking  the  devil  must 
be  in  a  machine  that  moved  so  like  a  human 
being,  had  it  thrown  overboard.  Charlemagne 
received  from  Haroun  al-Rashid  a  present  of  a 
water  clock,  in  the  dial  of  which  a  door  opened 
at  each  hour,  and  when  at  noon  the  12  doors 
were  all  thrown  open,  as  many  knights  on 
horseback  issued  out,  paraded  round  the  dial, 
and  then  returning  shut  themselves  in  again. 
Similar  contrivances  are  still  extant  in  some 
ancient  European  cities,  as  Nuremberg  in  Ger- 
many and  Heusden  in  Holland.  A  very  amus- 
ing automaton  group  was  constructed  by  M. 
Comus  for  Louis  XIV.,  consisting  of  a  coach 
and  horses,  a  coachman,  a  page,  and  a  lady  in- 
side. The  figures  all  performed  their  appro- 
priate parts ;  the  coach  was  driven  up  to  the 
king  and  stopped,  and  the  lady,  let  out  by  the 
page,  presented  a  petition,  and  re§ntering  the 
carriage  was  driven  off.  Next  to  Daedalus, 
Vaucanson,  who  lived  in  Paris  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century,  appears  to  have  been 
possessed  of  the  greatest  skill  in  this  depart- 
ment. He  exhibited  in  1738  a  flageolet  and 
tambourine  player,  which  is  probably  the  most 
perfect  androides  ever  constructed,  as  his  duck 


is  no  doubt  the  most  perfect  automaton.  It 
played  the  flageolet  with  the  left  hand  and 
beat  the  tambourine  with  the  right,  executing 
many  pieces  of  music  with  wonderful  accuracy. 
He  also  exhibited  a  duck  in  1741,  which  moved, 
ate,  drank,  and  even  apparently  digested  and 
evacuated  its  food  like  a  live  duck.  The  figure 
would  stretch  out  its  neck  to  take  food  from 
the  hand,  and  then  would  swallow  it  with  the 
natural  avidity  of  a  duck,  even  the  motion  of 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  being  perceptible.  It 
would  rise  up  on  its  feet,  walk,  swim,  dabble 
in  the  water,  and  quack,  wonderfully  imitating 
the  natural  actions  of  the  duck.  In  its  mecha- 
nism it  was  constructed  in  many  parts — as  in 
the  wings — as  nearly  like  those  parts  of  the 
bird  as  possible.  Vaucanson  undertook,  near 
the  close  of  his  life,  to  construct  an  automaton 
which  would  display  all  the  mechanism  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  the  veins  and  arteries 
in  which  were  to  be  of  gum  elastic ;  but  the 
art  of  working  this  material  was  not  then  well 
understood,  and  there  being  long  delay  in  the 
arrival  of  an  anatomist  sent  by  the  king  to 
attend  to  the  work,  Vaucanson  became  dis- 
couraged and  gave  it  up.  A  father  and  son 
named  Droz  had  the  same  remarkable  talent. 
The  former  made  a  figure  of  a  child,  which  sat 
at  a  desk,  dipped  its  pen  in  the  ink,  and  wrote 
in  French.  The  latter,  born  in  1752,  went  to 
Paris  at  the  age  of  22  with  a  female  figure 
which  played  different  tunes  on  the  harpsichord, 
following  with  its  eyes  and  head  the  notes  in 
the  music  book,  and  rising  at  the  close  and 
saluting  the  company.  About  the  same  time 
the  abb6  Mical  made  several  automaton  fig- 
ures, some  in  a  group,  which  played  different 
instruments  of  music.  He  also  exhibited  at  the 
academy  of  sciences  two  heads,  which  articu- 
lated syllables.  Malzel  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  exhibited  a  famous  automaton 
trumpeter  at  Vienna,  which  played  many  of  the 
French  and  Austrian  marches,  and  for  many 
years  afterward  was  exhibited  by  a  travelling 
troupe  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Europe.  Still 
later  is  the  automaton  of  the  ingenious  Swiss 
mechanic  Maillardet,  a  female  figure  that  per- 
forms 18  tunes  on  the  piano,  with  the  natural 
movements  of  the  fingers  and  eyes  and  heaving 
of  the  bosom.  It  continues  in  action  for  an  hour. 
With  it  are  an  automaton  magician ;  a  boy  that 
writes  and  draws ;  a  little  dancing  figure  that 
moves  to  music  from  the  glass  case  it  is  in ;  a 
humming  bird  that  comes  out  of  a  box,  sings, 
and  returns ;  a  steel  spider ;  and  a  hissing  ser- 
pent. Kempelen's  automaton  chess-player  was 
no  true  automaton,  but  constructed  to  contain 
a  person,  by  whose  intelligence  the  movements 
were  controlled  and  the  game  played.  The 
doors  of  the  machine  were  opened  apparently 
to  expose  the  whole  interior ;  but  they  were 
never  all  opened  at  the  same  time.  A  person 
could  thus  move  from  one  part  of  the  interior 
to  another,  keeping  himself  concealed.  Such 
a  one,  known  to  be  a  skilful  chess-player,  trav- 
elled with  the  exhibition,  and  was  never  seen 


156 


AUTOPLASTY 


AUTUN 


during  the  continuance  of  the  game.  A  very 
ingenious  automaton  clarinet  player  was  made 
by  Van  Oeckelen  in  Holland,  and  exhibited  in 
New  York  about  1860.  It  performed  operatic 
and  classical  selections,  with  accompaniment 
of  other  instruments  played  by  living  perform- 
ers; it  took  the  instrument  from  its  mouth, 
moved  its  head  and  eyes,  and  bowed  before  the 
audience.  It  was  wound  up  like  a  clock,  and  a 
drum,  like  that  of  a  hand  organ,  was  placed  in 
its  chest,  a  different  one  for  every  piece  of 
music.  The  most  perfect  and  latest  is  perhaps 
the  speaking  automaton  of  Faberman  of  Vien- 
na, exhibited  in  New  York  in  1872.  It  is  the 
result  of  a  thorough  physiological  study  of  the 
human  organs  of  speech,  and  their  close  imita- 
tion by  the  materials  and  mechanical  arts  of 
the  present  day.  As  these  contrivances  have 
no  practical  utility,  serving  only  to  display  the 
ingenuity  of  the  maker,  their  construction  in 
the  United  States  is  confined  to  children's  toys. 
AUTOPLASTY  (Gr.  avrtf,  self,  and  vMaaeiv,  to 
shape  or  form),  a  surgical  operation  by  which 
the  nose  or  other  superficial  portion  of  the 
body,  being  destroyed  by  accident  or  by  dis- 
ease, may  be  renewed  or  replaced  by  a  portion 
of  skin  taken  from  another  part  of  the  same 
body.  This  art  is  said  to  have  been  practised 
in  India  from  time  immemorial.  It  was  a  cus- 
tom to  punish  crime  by  cutting  off  the  nose,  or 
the  lips,  or  the  ears  of  the  criminal ;  and  for  a 
time  the  parts  were  immediately  replaced  and 
found  to  grow  again.  To  prevent  this  the  ex- 
cised parts  were  destroyed  by  fire ;  but  the  fact 
of  the  natural  part  adhering  after  it  had  been 
excised,  and  healing  as  a  common  wound,  sug- 
gested the  idea  that  a  portion  of  skin  removed 
from  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  applied 
immediately  to  the  mutilated  part,  might  heal 
and  become  a  natural  substitute  for  the  part  re- 
moved. When  the  nose  was  cut  off  by  the  ex- 
ecutioner, the  surgeon  cut  a  triangular  portion 
of  skin  from  the  forehead,  leaving  it  still  attach- 
ed by  a  small  pedicle  over  the  root  of  the  nose, 
and,  twisting  it  round,  reversed  it  over  the  na- 
sal region  to  supply  the  place  of  the  nose  which 
had  been  cut  off.  The  skin  adhered  and  the 
deformity  was  lessened,  but  a  scar  remained 
upon  the  forehead  where  the  skin  had  been 
removed.  This  method  was  adopted  in  other 
countries,  where  the  nose,  the  eyelids,  or  any 
portion  of  the  face  had  been  injured  by  accident 
or  by  disease.  Celsus  speaks  of  nasal  and  labial 
autoplasty.  In  the  15th  century  this  art  was 
practised  in  Calabria  by  the  Branca  family  of 
surgeons,  who  introduced  the  practice  of  taking 
a  portion  of  skin  from  the  arm  to  replace  a  de- 
formity in  the  face,  instead  of  turning  over  a 
piece  of  skin  from  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  part  repaired,  leaving  a  scar  close  by  al- 
most as  bad  as  the  original  deformity.  In  the 
following  century  Lanfranc,  an  Italian  surgeon, 
practised  the  art  of  nasal  autoplasty  with  suc- 
cess in  Paris ;  and  the  celebrated  Gasparo  Ta- 
gliacozzi  (Taliacotius)  practised  the  same  art  in 
Italy,  and  wrote  his  work  on  the  art  of  autoplas- 


tic  surgery,  which  is  still  in  good  repute.  The 
last-named  surgeon  improved  the  operation  to 
such  an  extent,  and  did  so  much  to  bring  it 
permanently  into  recognition,  that  the  restora- 
tion of  the  nose  or  other  lost  parts,  when  per- 
formed according  to  his  method,  received  his 
name,  and  became  known  as  the  "  Taliacotian 
operation."  In  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  this  art  was  revived  by  the  celebrated 
English  surgeon  Carpue,  and  has  been  much 
improved  by  Grafe,  Dzondi,  Delpech,  Cooper, 
Dupuytren,  Roux,  Lisfranc,  Blandin,  Velpeau, 
Lallemand,  Dieffenbach,  and  other  celebrated 
surgeons  of  the  present  time.  New  methods 
have  been  introduced,  and  almost  any  superfi- 
cial portion  of  the  body  may  be  now  repaired 
by  autoplastio  surgery.  Three  methods  are 
adopted,  the  Indian,  the  Italian,  and  the 
French,  and  one  or  the  other  is  preferred  ac- 
cording to  the  parts  involved.  The  Indian 
method,  already  described,  consists  in  turning 
over  a  contiguous  portion  of  skin  to  repair  the 
deformity ;  the  Italian  method  consists  in  tak- 
ing a  portion  of  skin  from  the  arm,  or  from  a 
distant  portion  of  the  body ;  the  French  meth- 
od consists  in  loosening  the  skin  on  either  side 
of  the  injury,  so  as  to  detach  it  from  the  parts 
beneath,  drawing  it  together  until  it  covers 
the  lost  part,  and  then  uniting  the  borders,  by 
suture  pins  and  ligatures,  until  the  parts  ad- 
here and  grow  together.  This  is  far  the  best 
wherever  it  is  practicable.  The  resources  of 
this  art  are  now  very  considerable,  but  skill  is 
required  to  operate  well,  and  judgment  to  de- 
cide whether  it  will  be  practically  useful ;  for, 
where  the  general  health  of  the  patient  is  unfa- 
vorable, the  operation  may  be  unadvisable. — 
Different  names  are  given  to  the  operation,  ac- 
cording to  the  parts  repaired  by  this  method : 
it  is  termed  "  blepharoplasty  "  when  applied  to 
the  eyelids ;  "  otoplasty  "  when  applied  to  the 
ears ;  "  rhinoplasty  "  when  applied  to  the  nose ; 
"  cheiloplasty  "  in  reference  to  the  lips ;  "  pal- 
atoplasty "  for  the  roof  of  the  mouth ;  and 
"  bronchoplasty  "  for  the  trachea. 

AUTUMN  (Lat.  autummts),  the  third  season 
of  the  year.  In  the  northern  temperate  zone 
it  begins  when  the  sun  in  its  apparent  de- 
scent to  the  southern  hemisphere  crosses  the 
equatorial  line,  and  ends  at  the  period  of  the 
sun's  greatest  southern  declination,  or  when 
he  enters  Capricorn.  This  astronomical  au- 
tumn begins  about  Sept.  23,  and  lasts  till  about 
Dec.  21.  But  in  popular  language  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  autumn  comprises  the  months  of 
September,  October,  and  November;  in  Eng- 
land, August,  September,  and  October.  In  the 
southern  hemisphere,  the  autumn  takes  place 
at  the  time  of  our  spring. 

AUTUN  (anc.  Hibracte,  afterward  Avgmtodu- 
num),  a  town  of  France,  in  Burgundy,  depart- 
ment of  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  on  the  Arroux,  50  m.  N. 
N.  W.  of  Macon;  pop.  in  I860,  12,389.  It  lies 
at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  well  wooded  hills ;  the 
surrounding  country  is  rich  in  vineyards  and 
corn  fields.  The  town  contains  many  antiqui- 


AUVERGNE 


AUZOUX 


157 


ties.  Massive  and  curious  fragments  of  the 
ancient  Roman  walls  still  stand ;  also  tlie  so- 
called  temple  of  Janus,  of  imposing  proportions 
and  solidity.  Besides  these  there  are  two  cu- 
rious Roman  gates,  the  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, and  just  without  the  gate  a  pyramidal 
mass  of  architecture,  built  probably  for,sepul- 
chral  purposes,  but  in  whose  honor  antiquaries 
are  in  doubt.  The  town  contains  several  fine 
specimens  of  church  architecture,  among  them 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Lazare,  Romanesque  in 
style,  and  the  chapelle  St.  Nazarre,  interesting 
for  its  richly  painted  glass.  Near  Autun  are 
the  valuable  coal  basins  of  Epinac  and  Creuzot. 
The  episcopal  see  of  this  city  was  once  held 
by  Talleyrand.  The  town  figures  in  the  his- 
tory of  Gaul  as  the  capital  of  the  ^Edui.  Un- 
der the  Romans  and  the  Franks  it  was  often 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  war.  Its  vicinity 
witnessed  considerable  fighting  in  the  war  of 
1870-'71,  chiefly  between  the  troops  of  Gari- 
baldi and  tbose  of  Gen.  Werder.  An  attack 
on  the  town  by  the  latter  was  gallantly  re- 
pulsed Nov.  30,  1870. 

AUVERGJfE,  an  old  province  of  France,  now 
forming  the  departments  of  Cantal,  Puy-de- 
Dome,  and  part  of  Haute-Loire.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  very  different  in  their  climate 
and  productions.  Upper  Auvergne,  which  in- 
cludes chiefly  the  departments  of  Cantal  and 
Puy-de-D6me,  is  a  mountainous,  wild,  and  pic- 
turesque cattle-raising  district.  The  mountains 
which  intersect  it  are  a  branch  of  the  C6 ven- 
nes,  and  lie  in  confused  groups,  sending  up 
several  summits  to  the  height  of  6,000  feet, 
some  of  which  are  extinct  volcanoes.  Mont 
Dore,  the  highest  of  them,  is  an  almost  isolated 
cone,  and  has  its  sides  covered  with  scorise. 
Lower  Auvergne  extends  along  both  banks  of 
the  Allier,  and  presents  a  continual  succession 
of  towns  and  villages,  and  of  the  most  fertile 
hills  and  valleys  of  France,  which  produce 
abundantly  the  vine,  grains,  and  fruits.  The 
province  takes  its  name  from  the  ancient  Ar- 
verni,  one  of  the  most  powerful  tribes  of  Gaul 
in  Cesar's  time,  of  whom  the  present  Auver- 
gnats  are  supposed  to  be  the  almost  unmixed 
descendants.  Though  their  province  has  con- 
tributed a  number  of  distinguished  names  to 
the  history  of  their  country,  the  Auvergnats  are 
often  spoken  of  as  the  Boaotians  of  France. 

\\\  CAYKS,  or  Leg  Caves,  a  seaport  town  on 
the  S.  W.  coast  of  Hayti,  capital  of  a  depart- 
ment, situated  on  the  bay  of  Cayes,  in  lat. 
18"  11'  N.,  Ion.  73°  50'  W.,  92  m.  W.  8.  W.  of 
Port-au-Prince ;  pop.  about  8,000,  chiefly  ne- 
groes and  mulattoes.  The  exports  embrace 
sugar,  cotton,  and  coffee,  and  the  trade  is  prin- 
cipally in  the  hands  of  British  merchants.  In 
the  vicinity  are  many  rum  distilleries.  A  con- 
siderable smuggling  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Jamaica.  The  hurricane  of  Aug.  12,  1831,  de- 
stroyed part  of  the  town,  killing  several  thou- 
sand persons.  The  civil  wars  since  1868  have 
also  proved  injurious  to  Aux  Oayes.  The  cli- 
mate is  unwholesome. 


ArXERRE,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Yonne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Yonne,  90  m.  S.  E.  of  Paris;  pop.  in 
1866,  15,497.  Its  wines  are  much  esteemed. 
Its  manufactures  are  calicoes,  cloths,  serges, 
druggets,  earthenware,  violin  strings,  &c.  It 
has  a  college,  a  secondary  ecclesiastical  school, 
a  museum  of  antiquities,  a  public  library  of 
about  25,000  volumes,  a  cathedral  with  a  fine 
flamboyant  Gothic  facade,  and  the  quaint 
church  of  St.  Germain,  with  curious  crypts,  in 
which  lie  buried  the  mediaeval  counts  of  Aux- 
erre  and  its  vicinity  (Auxerrois). 

AUXONNE,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  C6te  d'Or,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  SaOne,  17  m.  S.  E.  of  Dijon ;  pop.  in  1866, 
5,911.  It  has  an  arsenal  and  barracks,  with 
manufactures  of  woollen  cloth  and  nails. 

AUZOUT,  Adrien,  a  French  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  in  Rouen,  died  in  Rome 
about  1693.  In  conjunction  with  Picard,  he 
applied  the  telescope  to  the  mural  quadrant. 
He  invented  and  applied  to  the  telescope  a 
movable  wire  micrometer,  on  which  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  in  1667.  By  the  aid  of  this 
instrument  he  observed  and  measured  the  di- 
urnal variation  of  the  moon's  diameter,  first 
explained  by  Kepler.  Auzout  was  an  efficient 
optician  and  maker  of  telescopes.  His  obser- 
vation and  calculations  of  the  comet  of  1664 
suggested  to  Louis  XIV.  the  first  idea  of  found- 
ing an  observatory  at  Paris,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences, founded  hi  1666. 

AlIZODX,  Theodore  Louis,  a  French  physician 
and  anatomist,  bora  at  St.  Aubin  d'Ecroville, 
department  of  the  Eure,  about  1797.  He  is 
celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  method  of 
making  permanent  models  of  anatomical  prep- 
arations in  papier  mach6,  an  art  known  under 
the  French  name  of  anatomie  clastique.  The 
advantages  of  this  method  are :  1st,  that  the 
material  used  is  light,  not  easily  broken,  and 
unaffected  by  the  atmosphere  at  all  ordinary 
temperatures ;  2d,  that  minute  parts  can  be 
represented  in  enlarged  dimensions,  and  colored 
to  imitate  nature;  and  3d,  that  the  pieces 
representing  the  different  parts  of  an  organ 
and  the  different  organs  of  the  body  can  be 
separated  from  each  other  and  put  together  at 
will.  Dr.  Auzoux  completed  his  invention  by 
1825,  and  established  a  manufactory  at  St. 
Aubin  for  the  production  of  anatomical  mod- 
els. He  obtained  a  gold  medal  for  his  ana- 
tomical preparations  at  the  French  exposition 
of  1834,  honorable  mention  in  1839  and  1844, 
and  a  second  gold  medal  in  1849.  He  received 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1834.  At 
one  time  he  gave  annual  courses  of  lectures 
upon  anatomy  and  physiology,  illustrated  by 
the  aid  of  his  own  preparations.  His  published 
works  are  :  Considerations  generates  sur  Vana- 
tomie ;  Memoire  sur  le  cholera-morbus,  &c. 
(Paris,  1832) ;  Lefons  elementaires  d'anatomie 
et  de  phyriologie  (1839;  3d  ed.,  1858);  Dee 
tares  molles  et  osseutes  dans  le  cheval  (1853); 


158 


AVA 


AVARS 


Insuffisance  des  chevaux  forts  et  leger»}  du  che- 
tal  de  guerre  et  de  luxe,  &c.  (1860). 

AVA  (Burmese,  Ang-wa,  a  fish  pond,  so  called 
because  the  original  town  was  built  around 
one),  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Burman  em- 
pire, styled  in  the  official  documents  of  the 
country  Ratanapura,  the  city  of  gems,  situa- 
ted on  an  island  formed  by  the  Irrawaddy  riv- 
er on  the  N.,  the  Myit-nge  on  the  E.,  and  the 
Myit-tha,  an  offset  of  the  Myit-nge,  on  the  S., 
and  on  the  S.  E.  angle  by  a  canal,  through 
which  the  waters  of  the  Myit-nge  flow,  dug  to 
defend  that  face  of  the  city ;  lat.  21°  58'  N.,  Ion. 
95°  58'  E.  The  population  was  formerly  from 
30,000  to  50,000,  but  is  now  much  less.  Ava 
is  divided  into  upper  and  lower,  or  inner  and 
outer  towns.  Exclusive  of  suburbs,  the  whole 
place  is  about  5£  m.  in  circumference,  and  is 
enclosed  with  a  brick  wall  15^  ft.  high  and  10 
ft.  thick ;  an  embankment  of  earth  supports 
this  wall  on  the  inner  side,  and  there  is  a  small 
ditch  on  the  outside.  The  inner  town  includes 
the  palaces,  royal  pagodas,  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  houses  of  the  outer  town  are  for 
the  most  part  wretched  huts  of  bamboos  and 
mats  thatched  with  grass.  The  residences  of 
the  chiefs  and  wealthy  men  are  generally  con- 
structed of  planks,  and  tiled ;  but  the  town  is 
now  decayed  and  desolate. — Ava  was  first  made 
the  capital  about  1364 ;  and  since  then  the 
Burman  kings  have  shifted  the  capital  eight  or 
nine  times.  In  1839  every  substantial  edifice 
in  Ava  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake;  in 
consequence  of  which  Monchobo,  the  birth- 
place of  Alompra,  and  once  the  seat  of  the 
court,  again  became  temporarily  the  capital  of 
the  Burman  empire.  Afterward  both  Amara- 
pura  and  Ava  were  honored  by  the  preference 
of  the  kings,  until  within  a  few  years,  when 
the  capital  was  fixed  at  Mandelay. 

AVA,  Kingdom  of.     See  BURMAH. 

AVALANCHE  (Fr.  avalanche  or  avalange),  a 
mass  of  snow  precipitated  from  mountain  sides 
to  the  lower  levels.  Avalanches  are  common 
in  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  and  several  differ- 
ent forms  of  them  are  described.  The  drift 
avalanche  is  the  light,  dry  snow  swept  from 
the  mountains  by  strong  winds,  and  accumu- 
lated in  the  valleys,  sometimes  to  such  depths 
as  to  bury  the  villages  it  falls  upon.  More  de- 
structive is  that  formed  by  the  damp,  cohering 
snow,  which,  beginning  in  a  small  rolling  body, 
gathers  with  every  turn  increased  proportions 
and  velocity,  and  taking  up  in  its  progress 
loose  rocks  and  earth,  or  the  shattered  limbs 
of  trees,  sweeps  off  not  only  houses  and  villages, 
but  the  very  lands  on  which  they  stand.  It 
is  said  that  in  the  year  1500  100  men  were 
buried  by  such  an  avalanche  in  the  Great  St. 
Bernard ;  and  in  1624,  in  Italian  Switzerland, 
300  soldiers  were  thus  engulfed,  many  of 
whom,  however,  were  afterward  dug  out  alive. 
The  villages  in  the  high  valleys  of  the  Rh6ne 
have  been  particularly  exposed  to  these  dis- 
asters. In  1827  the  village  of  Briel  in  Valais 
was  almost  entirely  covered  with  an  avalanche. 


The  rolling  avalanches  sometimes  change  in 
their  descent  to  sliding  masses,  and  these  take 
in  their  progress  every  movable  body,  down  to 
the  solid  rock  of  the  mountains.  Hills  of  grav- 
el and  loose  rocks,  covered  with  forests  and 
dwellings,  are  thus  carried  down  to  lower  lev- 
els, and  in  cases  of  vineyards  thus  removed, 
intricate  questions  of  proprietorship  have  aris- 
en. Ice  avalanches  are  produced  by  the  break- 
ing of  masses  of  ice  from  moving  glaciers. 
(See  GLACIEB.) 

AVALLON,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Yonne,  on  the  Cousin,  26  m.  S.  E.  of 
Auxerre;  pop.  in  1866,  6,070.  It  is  surround- 
ed by  a  country  renowned  for  fertility  and 
beauty.  It  has  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
leather,  and  horns,  and  manufactures  of  wool. 

AVALOS,  Ferdlnando  Francesco  d',  marquis  of 
Pescara,  an  Italian  general  of  Charles  V.,  born 
in  Naples  in  1490,  died  in  Milan,  Nov.  4,  1525. 
His  ancestors  came  from  Spain  to  Naples  in 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  In  early  child- 
hood he  was  affianced  to  Vittoria  Colonna, 
who  was  then  only  four  years  old,  and  he  mar- 
ried her  while  he  was  still  a  mere  lad.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ra- 
venna, where  he  was  wounded  and  captured. 
While  in  prison  he  dedicated  to  his  wife  a 
poem  entitled  "  Dialogue  of  Love."  Ransomed 
through  the  influence  of  a  favorite  of  Louis 
XII.,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Vicenza  in  1513 ;  at  Milan,  which  city 
he  took  from  the  French  in  1521 ;  and  at 
Como,  which  he  sacked  contrary  to  his  prom- 
ise. In  1522  he  took  an  active  part  against 
the  French  at  Pavia,  La  Bicocca,  and  Lodi, 
and  brought  about  the  capitulation  of  Piz- 
zighettone  and  Cremona,  and  the  capture  and 
sacking  of  Genoa.  The  decisive  victory  over 
Francis  I.  at  Pavia  (Feb.  24,  1525)  was  chiefly 
ascribed  to  the  valor  of  Avalos,  who  was 
wounded,  and  received  the  congratulations  of 
friends  and  foes.  He  was  made  generalissimo, 
but  became  unpopular  because,  after  having 
joined  the  league  of  the  duke  of  Milan  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  and  G  ermans  from 
Italy,  he  subsequently  betrayed  the  scheme  to 
Charles  V.  The  crown  of  Naples,  however, 
which  was  offered  to  him  by  the  Italian  princes 
in  reward  of  his  treachery,  he  refused  by  the 
advice  of  his  wife. 

A\  ARIS,  a  stronghold  of  the  Hyksos  in  Lower 
Egypt.  See  EGYPT,  vol.  vi.,  p.  460. 

AVARS,  a  tribe  of  Turanian  origin,  who  first 
appear  in  European  history  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  6th  century,  when  the  bulk  of  them 
left  their  abodes  between  the  Caspian  and  the 
Don,  penetrated  to  the  Danube,  and  settled  in 
Dacia.  They  served  in  the  army  of  Justinian, 
allied  themselves  with  the  Longobards  against 
the  Gepidas,  and  finally  occupied  Pannonia  and 
other  parts  of  modern  Hungary,  and  established 
their  dominion  over  the  Slavs  north  and  south 
of  the  Danube.  Their  sovereigns  were  called 
khans.  The  mightiest  among  them  was  Baian 
(570-630),  whose  dominions  extended  from  the 


AVATAR 


AVELLANEDA 


159 


Elbe  to  the  Black  sea,  and  to  whom  the  By- 
zantine emperors  paid  tribute.  The  Avars 
seized  Dalmatia,  and  made  inroads  into  Italy 
and  into  the  heart  of  Germany.  In  640  the 
Slavs  revolted,  and  the  dominion  of  the  Avars 
over  them  came  to  an  end ;  but  they  still  main- 
tained themselves  in  Pannonia.  They%allied 
themselves  with  Thassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
against  Charlemagne ;  but  that  monarch  finally 
broke  their  power  (791  and  796).  One  of  the 
Avar  khans,  Tudun,  joined  Charlemagne,  and 
was  baptized  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  but  subse- 
quently abandoned  the  emperor  and  fought 
against  him  until  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  be- 
headed. About  827  the  Avars  disappear  wholly 
from  history.  They  have  been  confounded  with 
their  forerunners  the  Huns,  and  with  their  suc- 
cessors the  Magyars.  The  modern  Avars  of 
Lesghistan  in  the  Caucasus  have  also  been 
erroneously  considered  their  kindred.  Re- 
mains of  the  long-walled  camps  of  the  medise- 
val  Avars  are  still  to  be  seen  near  the  Danube 
in  Hungary. 

AVATAR,  a  Sanskrit  word,  signifying  "  a  de- 
scending," usually  applied  in  a  religious  sense, 
and  in  reference  to  the  incarnation  of  the  Hin- 
doo deities.  Whence  the  doctrine  of  the  ava- 
tar is  derived  is  a  point  that  has  received  no 
satisfactory  solution.  The  most  important  ava- 
tars of  Vishnu,  one  of  the  persons  of  the  Hin- 
doo trinity,  are:  1,  that  of  the  fish,  in  which 
he  preserved  Manu,  the  first  man,  during  a 
deluge ;  2,  the  tortoise,  when  Vishnu  supported 
the  earth  while  the  gods  and  the  Asuras  ex- 
tracted the  immortal  drink  (amrita)  from  the 
sea;  3,  the  boar,  in  which  he  slew  the  chief  of 
the  Asuras,  the  opponents  of  the  gods ;  4,  the 
lion-man,  in  which  he  killed  the  deceased 
Asura  chief's  brother;  5,  the  dwarf,  in  which 
form  he  played  a  trick  on  King  Bali,  of  whom 
he  asked  as  much  ground  as  he  could  measure 
in  three  strides,  and  the  king  having  granted 
the  request,  the  god,  at  once  manifesting  him- 
self, strode  over  earth,  air,  and  heaven ;  6,  the 
man  Parasurama,  the  son  of  Jamadagni  and 
Renuka,  when  he  rescued  the  Brahmans  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  Kshatriyas;  7,  Rama,  the 
son  of  King  Dasaratha,  when  he  destroyed  va- 
rious demons  by  exploits  described  in  the  San- 
skrit epic  of  Ramayana  ;  8,  Krishna,  the  great- 
est of  the  avatars,  when  he  assisted  the  family 
of  the  Pandavas  against  the  Kooroos,  and  con- 
quered the  wicked  of  the  earth — the  subject 
of  the  Mahabharata  ;  9,  Buddha,- in  which  he 
persuaded  the  Asuras,  the  ancient  enemies  of 
the  gods,  to  abandon  their  faith  in  the  Vedas ; 
10,  Kalki,  the  name  of  the  avatar  of  Vishnu 
when  he  shall  come  again  to  restore  peace  and 
purity  on  earth. 

AVATCHA,  Mount  (Russ.  AvatcUnskaya  Sop- 
lea),  a  volcano  in  Kamtchatka,  near  the  S.  E. 
coast,  in  lat.  53°  15'  N.  and  Ion.  158°  50'  E., 
rising  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  9,000  ft.  It 
has  a  crater  at  its  summit  several  hundred 
yards  in  circumference,  and  another  on  its  side 
at  an  elevation  of  5,000  ft.  Among  the  last 
63  VOL.  n. — 11 


recorded  eruptions  are  those  of  1837  and  1855, 
when  it  discharged  with  great  violence  vast 
quantities  of  lava,  stones,  and  water.  S.  of 
the  mountain  is  the  bay  of  Avatcha,  on  which 
lies  the  town  of  Petropavlovsk. 

AVEBtJRY,  a  village  in  .Wiltshire,  England,  5 
m.  W.  of  Marlborough,  notable  as  the  site  of 
the  remains  of  the  largest  Druidical  temple  in 
Europe.  In  an  open  plain,  free  from  trees, 
650  blocks  of  stone,  varying  from  5  to  20  ft. 
above  the  ground,  and  3  to  12  in  breadth  and 
thickness,  were  brought  together.  One  hun- 
dred of  these  were  set  on  end  around  an  area 
1,400  ft.  in  diameter ;  and  these  were  enclosed 
by  a  ditch  and  mound  with  two  breaks  for 
openings.  The  area  within  the  bank  is  over 
28  acres.  From  the  arrangements  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  there  were  within  this  great 
circle  two  smaller  circular  temples,  besides  two 
avenues  of  great  stones  leading  to  the  entrances 
from  a  distance  of  more  than  a  mile.  The  re- 
mains have  been  almost  entirely  destroyed  of 
late  years,  all  that  was  capable  of  removal 
having  been  gradually  carried  away. 

AVEIRO,  a  seaport  town  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Beira,  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Vouga,  on  a  bay  called  the  Barra  de  Aveiro, 
37  m.  S.  of  Oporto ;  pop.  in  1863,  6,557.  It  is 
an  episcopal  see,  and  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  sea  salt.  In  the  16th  century  it  was  a  com- 
mercial place  of  great  importance. 

AVELLANEDA,  Alonso  Fernando  de,  the  real  or 
assumed  name  of  the  author  of  the  spurious 
Segunda  parte  del  ingenioso  Hidalgo  D.  Qui- 
xote (Tarragona,  1614;  French  translation  by 
Le  Sage,  Paris,  l704-'6).  Though  Avellaneda 
seems  to  have  been  known  in  an  obscure  man- 
ner to  his  contemporaries  and  to  Cervantes 
himself,  the  authorship  of  the  book,  which 
appeared  under  his  name  many  years  in  ad- 
vance of  the  real  second  part  of  "  Don  Quix- 
ote," has  been  assigned,  but  without  conclusive 
authority,  to  Luis  de  Aliaga,  the  king's  con- 
fessor, and  also  to  Juan  Blanco  de  Paz,  a 
Dominican  friar.  Cervantes  refrained  from 
noticing  the  publication  until  the  59th  chapter 
of  his  own  second  part.  Mr.  Ticknor,  in  his 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature,"  says  of  Ave- 
llaneda's  book  that,  "  if  not  without  merit  in 
some  respects,  it  is  generally  low  and  dull,  and 
would  now  be  forgotten  if  it  were  not  con- 
nected with  the  fame  of  Don  Quixote." 

AVELLANEDA,  Gertrndis  Gomes  de,  a  Spanish 
poetess  and  novelist,  born  at  Puerto  Principe, 
Cuba,  in  1816,  died  in  Seville  in  June,  1864. 
Her  father  was  a  Spanish  naval  officer,  after 
whose  death  she  went  to  Spain,  where  her  first 
drama,  Leoncia,  was  favorably  received  at  Ma- 
drid in  1840.  In  1845  she  was  crowned  with 
laurel  in  the  presence  of  the  court  and  received 
a  prize  for  a  poem  exalting  the  clemency  of 
the  queen.  In  1846  she  married  Pedro  Saba- 
dor,  a  young  Spanish  politician,  who  died  in 
the  same  year.  She  afterward  led  a  secluded 
life  at  Madrid  and  Seville.  Her  2  vols.  of  lyrical 
poetry  (2d  ed.,  Mexico,  1852),  her  16  dramas, 


160 


AVELLINO 


AVERAGE 


and  her  8  vols.  of  prose  writings  secured  for 
her  a  high  reputation. 

AVELLINO,  a.  fortified  town  of  S.  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Principato  Ulteriore,  28 
m.  E.  of  Naples;  pop.  about  15,000.  It  has 
a  cathedral,  several  fine  public  buildings,  and  a 
public  granary.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  filberts, 
which  are  largely  produced  in  the  vicinity,  and 
are  hence  called  in  Latin  nuees  Avellcmce,  and 
in  French  cmelinet.  There  is  also  a  large  trade 
in  chestnuts  and  grain,  and  manufactures  of 
hats  and  cloth.  At  the  village  of  Atripalda,  2 
m.  distant,  are  the  remains  of  the  ancient  town 
of  Abellinum,  which  being  destroyed  in  the 
wars  between  the  Greeks  and  Lombards,  the 
inhabitants  settled  on  the  present  site.  The 
town  has  suffered  much  from  earthquakes. 

AVE  MARIA,  a  short  prayer  much  used  in  the 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholic  churches.  The 
first  clause  is  the  salutation  of  St.  Elizabeth  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  with  the  names  "Maria" 
and  "Jesus"  added.  The  second  clause  is  an 
acclamation  employed  by  the  fathers  of  the 
council  of  Ephesus  and  the  people  generally, 
to  express  their  joy  at  the  decision  of  the 
question  raised  by  Nestorius  whether  Mary  is 
truly  the  mother  of  God.  It  is  usually  joined 
with  the  Pater  Noster. 

AVESBRliGGER,  Leopold.     See  AUENBEUGGEE. 

AVENTINUS,  fflons.     See  ROME. 

AVENTURBfE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  and  also 
one  of  feldspar.  The  peculiarity  in  each,  for 
which  the  name  is  given,  is  the  play  of  reflect- 
ed or  refracted  light  from  numerous  points  in 
the  mass  of  the  stone — the  reflections  being 
bright  and  sparkling,  and  of  different  colors, 
while  the  ground  may  be  translucent  with  little 
brilliancy,  and  of  a  dull  color.  The  effect  is 
probably  produced  by  the  crystalline  faces  hi 
the  structure  of  the  stone  refracting  the  light 
differently.  There  are,  however,  some  varie- 
ties, called  also  aventurine,  in  which  the  play 
of  colors  results  from  the  presence  of  numerous 
little  scales  of  mica,  or  other  foreign  ingre- 
dients, each  of  which  reflects  the  light,  and  all 
together  produce  a  similar  effect  to  that  of  the 
true  varieties  of  aventurine.  An  artificial  glass 
of  this  name  is  manufactured  at  Venice,  which 
is  well  adapted  to  ornamental  purposes,  being 
even  more  beautiful  than  the  natural  minerals. 
Within  the  glass  are  substances  apparently 
vitreous,  of  great  brilliancy,  of  the  color  of 
copper,  and  in  very  small  crystals  of  the  form 
of  tetrahedrons.  It  is  said  to  h'ave  been  dis- 
covered by  a  workman  in  Murano  through 
accident  (aventuro)  letting  fall  brass  filings 
into  molten  glass. 

AYENZOAR  (properly  IBN  ZOHK),  Abu  M«r- 
wan,  an  Arabian  physician,  born  at  Pefiaflor  in 
Spain  about  1072,  died  in  1162.  He  began 
the  study  of  medicine  at  the  age  of  10  under 
the  direction  of  his  father,  who  imposed  upon 
him  an  oath  never  to  make  use  of  poisons.  He 
was  the  preceptor  of  Averroes.  Avenzoar  tried 
to  bring  medicine  within  the  range  of  experi- 
mental science.  Several  of  his  works,  translated 


into  Latin,  have  been  published.  His  Rectifi- 
catio  Medicationis  et  Regiminis  was  published 
at  Venice  in  1490  and  1496,  with  the  remarks 
of  Averroes  in  1514,  and  at  Lyons  in  1851. 

AVERAGE.  I.  General  (sometimes  called  gross 
or  extraordinary),  in  mercantile  law,  the  con- 
tribution made  by  all  the  parties  concerned  in 
a  sea  adventure  to  make  good  an  expense  or 
loss  sustained  by  one  or  more  of  them  for  the 
benefit  of  all.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
the  law  of  general  average,  as  expressed  in 
Justinian's  Pandects,  and  adopted  by  all  com- 
mercial nations,  though  with  considerable  di- 
versity of  practice,  comes  from  the  Rhodian 
law,  the  first  known  system  of  marine  law, 
which  thus  stated  the  rule:  "If  goods  are 
thrown  overboard  in  order  to  lighten  a  ship, 
the  loss  incurred  for  the  sake  of  all  shall  be 
made  good  by  the  contribution  of  all."  It 
would  be  difficult  to  set  forth  the  essentials  of 
a  case  for  general  average  more  clearly  than 
they  have  been  stated  in  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States  (Barnard  v.  Adams,  10  How. 
270),  Mr.  Justice  Grier  delivering  the  opin- 
ion :  "  In  -order  to  constitute  a  case  for  gen- 
eral average,  three  things  must  concur:  1.  A 
common  danger,  or  a  danger  in  which  ship, 
cargo,  and  crew  all  participate — a  danger  im- 
minent and  apparently  inevitable,  except  by 
voluntarily  incurring  the  loss  of  a  portion  of 
the  whole  to  save  the  remainder.  2.  There 
must  be  a  voluntary  jettison,  jaetus,  or  casting 
away  of  some  portion  of  the  joint  concern  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  this  imminent  peril; 
or,  in  other  words,  a  transfer  of  the  peril  from 
the  whole  to  a  particular  portion  of  the  whole. 
3.  This  attempt  to  avoid  a  common  peril  must 
be  successful.  The  right  to  contribution  is  not 
made  to  depend  on  any  real  or  presumed  inten- 
tion to  destroy  the  thing  cast  away,  but  on  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  selected  to  suffer  the  peril 
in  place  of  the  whole  that  the  remainder  may 
be  saved."  Not  only  the  value  of  the  property 
destroyed,  but  what  follows  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  its  destruction,  as  injuries  to  other 
goods,  expenses  of  refitting,  and  the  wages  and 
provisions  of  the  crew  in  the  port  of  relief,  are 
subjects  of  contribution.  So  is  also  ransom 
paid  to  a  pirate,  by  both  the  common  and 
civil  law  (the  rule  of  which  on  this  point 
has  been  repealed  in  England),  and  in  gene- 
ral whatever  necessary  and  voluntary  loss  or 
expense  is  incurred  by  a  part  for  the  good  of 
all.  Goods -finally  saved  must  contribute  for 
loss  sustained  in  procuring  temporary  safety. 
By  the  French  ordinance,  goods  stowed  upon 
deck  are  expressly  excluded  from  the  benefit 
but  not  from  the  burden  of  general  average,- 
since  they  are  supposed  to  hamper  the  vessel 
and  increase  the  danger ;  and  such  is  the  general 
tenor  of  both  the  English  and  American  law. 
In  the  courts  of  all  three  countries,  however, 
an  established  usage  to  carry  upon  deck,  as 
with  small  coasting  vessels,  is  allowed  to  take  a 
case  out  of  the  operation  of  the  rule.  Both  the 
continental  and  the  American  law  is  somewhat 


AVERNO 


AVESNES 


161 


more  liberal  than  the  English  as  regards  the  sub- 
jects  of  general  average,  but  the  difference  con- 
sists not  in  the  nature  but  in  the  application  of 
principles.  The  victuals  and  ammunition  of  a 
ship  do  not  contribute  in  a  case  of  general  aver- 
age, nor  whatever  is  necessary  to  the  persons  of 
those  on  board,  as  wearing  apparel,  &c.,  no,r  the 
passengers  for  their  own  safety,  nor  the  crew  for 
their  wages,  lest  apprehension  of  personal  loss 
should  deter  them  from  personal  sacrifice.  The 
rule  of  the  civil  law  that  "those  things  alone 
which  pay  freight  contribute"  is,  with  slight 
limitations,  the  general  law  on  this  point.  The 
rate  of  contribution  is  in  proportion  to  the 
safety  obtained,  according  to  value,  not  weight. 
The  rules  upon  which  this  adjustment  is  made 
differ  in  different  countries,  and  are  not  well 
settled  anywhere.  It  is  a  matter  of  such  nice 
calculation,  that  in  most  commercial  ports  the 
computation  and  adjustment  of  general  average 
constitute  a  special  branch  of  business,  attended 
to  by  a  special  class  of  men.  By  the  civil  law, 
the  master  of  the  vessel  was  required  to  see  to 
this ;  and  the  provisions  of  the  French  ordinance 
are  somewhat  similar,  but  are  practically  dis- 
used, the  work  being  performed  by  depecheurs, 
as  they  are  called.  II.  Particular,  an  almost 
obsolete  barbarous  expression,  used  to  signify  a 
partial  loss,  which  must  be  borne  by  the  imme- 
diate loser  alone.  III.  Petty  Averages  are  sun- 
dry small  charges  borne  in  common  by  the  own- 
ers of  a  ship  and  cargo,  like  pilotage,  towage, 
anchorage,  light  money,  quarantine,  &c. 

AVERNO  (anc.  Avernus),  a  lake  in  Italy, 
about  8  m.  W.  of  Naples,  and  near  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Cumaa.  It  lies  in  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  and,  though  less  than  2  m.  in 
circumference,  is  of  great  depth.  It  has  no 
natural  outlet,  but  an  artificial  passage  for  its 
waters  into  the  gulf  of  Baiee  was  made  by 
Agrippa,  who  also  connected  it  with  the  Lu- 
crine  lake.  This  latter  passage  was  closed  by 
a  volcanic  convulsion  which  in  1538  cast  up 
a  hill  of  considerable  height  in  the  place  of 
the  latter  lake.  No  attempt  has  been  made 
to  reopen  the  communication  thus  obstructed ; 
and  as  the  subterranean  tunnel  which  con- 
nected Averno  directly  with  the  sea  has  also 
been  blocked  up,  the  lake  is  again  without 
an  outlet.  In  ancient  times,  Avernus,  with 
the  wild  and  gloomy  scenery  about  it,  the 
pestilent  vapors  rising  from  its  volcanic  shores, 
and  the  prevailing  belief  in  its  unfathomable 
depth,  was  reputed  the  entrance  to  Hades,  and 
was  made  sacred  to  Proserpine.  By  this  path 
Ulysses,  according  to  the  legend,  visited  the 
ghosts  of  the  dead,  and  here  was  also  a  famous 
oracle.  The  lake  retains  few  of  its  ancient 
characteristics;  the  dense  woods  which  an- 
ciently covered  its  banks  were  cut  down  before 
the  time  of  Strabo,  and  the  volcanic  phenome- 
na appear  to  have  entirely  ceased.  The  ruins 
of  a  Roman  edifice,  probably  a  bath,  are  on 
the  S.  E.  border  of  the  lake. 

AVERROES,  or  Averrhoes  (a  corruption  of  IBN 
ROSHD),  an  Arabian  philosopher,  born  in  Cor- 


dova about  1120,  died  in  Morocco,  Dec.  12, 1198. 
Educated  by  eminent  masters,  he  became,  like 
his  father,  distinguished  for  his  varied  knowl- 
edge, and  succeeded  him  in  the  office  of  mufti 
or  chief  judge  in  Andalusia,  and  subsequently 
held  the  same  position  in  Morocco.  He  stood 
high  in  the  esteem  of  successive  rulers,  espe- 
cially of  Al-Mansour ;  but  the  latter,  yielding  to 
those  who  could  not  reconcile  the  philosophy 
of  Averroes  with  his  professed  devotion  to  the 
Koran,  and  perhaps  also  impelled  by  personal 
animosity,  banished  him  for  several  years,  hut 
finally  restored  him  to  his  office.  He  wrote 
on  astronomy,  particularly  on  the  spots  of  the 
sun,  and  on  many  other  scientific  subjects ;  but 
he  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  a  commentator  upon 
Aristotle  and  Plato.  He  grasped  the  ideas  of 
the  Greek  philosophers,  though  he  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
Latin  at  Venice  in  11  vols.  (1552-'60),  the 
commentaries  filling  8  volumes,  and  3  volumes 
containing  his  refutation  of  Algazzali's  work 
against  Greek  philosophy,  his  great  medical 
work,  Kulliyat  or  improperly  Colliget  (of 
which  several  editions  have  been  published), 
and  miscellaneous  treatises.  As  a  philosopher 
he  tended  toward  pantheism  and  materialism. 
His  professed  disciples  were  called  Averroists. 
Leo  X.  issued  a  bull  against  his  doctrines  after 
they  had  been  denounced  by  the  university  of 
Paris.  Renan,  in  his  Averrhote  et  VAverrho- 
isme  (Paris,  1 852),  gives  a  full  notice  of  his  life 
and  works,  and  characterizes  him  as'  the  chief 
representative  in  the  middle  ages  of  the  Peri- 
patetic philosophy  and  of  freedom  of  thought, 
and  as  exempt  from  all  purely  dogmatic  and 
religious  bias.  Among  other  recent  works 
relating  to  his  doctrines  is  Muller's  Philosophie 
und  Theologie  t>on  Averrhoes  (Munich,  1859). 

AVERSA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  situated  in  a  remarkably 
fertile  region,  8  m.  N.  of  Naples ;  pop.  in  1872, 
21,176.  It  contains  a  cathedral  and  many 
churches  and  convents,  a  foundling  hospital, 
and  a  lunatic  asylum  founded  by  Murat,  which 
was  among  the  first  to  attempt  curing  the 
insane  by  occupation  and  recreation.  The 
sparkling  white  Asprino  wine  of  Aversa  is 
often  sold  as  champagne,  and  its  sweetmeats, 
especially  almond  cakes,  are  great  delicacies. 
Aversa  was  settled  by  the  Normans,  and  grant- 
ed in  1029  to  Rainulf,  one  of  their  leaders,  who 
received  from  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  the  title 
of  count  of  Aversa.  In  1030  the  inhabitants 
of  the  ancient  city  of  Atella,  the  site  of  which 
is  still  visible  in  the  vicinity,  were  removed 
hither.  In  1061  the-  county  was  annexed  to 
the  principality  of  Capua,  then  a  papal  fief. 

AVESNES,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Le  Nord, 
on  the  Helpe,  50  m.  S.  E.  of  Lille;  pop. 
in  1866,  3,787.  It  is  one  of  the  fortresses 
which  protect  France  on  the  east,  built  under 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  according  to  the  sys- 
tem of  Vauban.  It  was  bombarded  immedi- 


162 


AVEYRON 


ately  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  almost  de- 
stroyed by  the  explosion  of  a  magazine,  and 
for  some  time  occupied  by  the  allies. 

AVEYRON,  a  S.  department  of  France,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Guienne, 
bounded  by  Oantal,  Lozere,  Gard,  Herault, 
Tarn,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  Lot;  area,  3,375 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  402,474.  It  is  named 
from  an  affluent  of  the  Tarn,  which  rises  in  the 
department  near  its  E.  border,  flows  W.  as  far 
as  Villefranche,  and  then  S.  to  the  confines  of 
the  department  of  Tarn.  The  Lot  flows  on 
the  N.  W.  border.  Aveyron  is  one  of  the 
most  mountainous  districts  of  France.  It  has 
mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  zinc,  iron,  and 
coal ;  those  of  coal  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able in  the  country.  Cattle  are  raised  in  great 
numbers.  The  famous  Roquefort  cheese  is 
largely  exported.  The  department  is  divided 
into  the  arrondissements  of  Kodez,  Villefranche, 
Espalion,  Millaud,  and  Saint-Affrique.  Capi- 
tal, Eodez. 

AVEZAC.    See  D'AVEZAO. 

AVICEBRON,  or  ATeneebrol.  See  SOLOMON 
BEN  GABIROL. 

AVICENNA  (a  corruption  of  IBN  SINA),  an 
Arabian  physician  and  philosopher,  born  in  a 
village  of  Bokhara  in 
980,  died  in  1036  or 
1037.  He  was  educa- 
ted at  Bokhara,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to 
study  with  such  extra- 
ordinary zeal  that  be- 
fore he  reached  man- 
hood he  was  already 
famous  as  a  physician, 
and  at  21  he  had  writ- 
ten an  encyclopaedia 
of  science  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of 
"Book  of  the  Sum  To- 
tal." He  afterward 
wrote  a  series  of  com- 
mentaries on  this  work. 
He  delivered  public  lec- 
tures on  logic  and  as- 
tronomy in  the  house 
of  a  rich  patron  of 
learning  at  Jorjan  in 

Khorasan,  and  afterward  became  vizier  to  the 
emir  of  Hamadan,  at  whose  court  he  taught 
philosophy  and  medicine,  closing  his  lectures 
every  evening  with  feasting  and  dancing.  In- 
volved after  the  death  of  this  prince  in  a  secret 
correspondence  with  the  ruler  of  Ispahan,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  but  made  his  escape 
to  that  city,  and  there  spent  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  prosperity.  Before  his  death  he 
reformed  the  excesses  of  his  conduct,  freed  his 
slaves,  and  gave  his  fortune  to  the  poor.  .  His 
medical  writings,  which  number  over  60  dis- 
tinct works,  were  long  held  in  the  highest  es- 
teem, and  the  most  important  of  them,  the 
Kanun  ("  Canon  "),  was  for  many  centuries  the 
standard  authority  even  in  Europe.  It  gave 


AVIGNON 

an  excellent  synopsis  of  the  views  of  the 
ancient  Greek  physicians.  It  was  published 
in  Latin  as  early  as  1473  (Padua),  in  Hebrew 
in  1492  (fol.,  Naples),  and  in  the  original  Ara- 
bic in  1593  (fol.,  Rome).  There  were  about 
30  Latin  editions  of  the  "Canon"  during  the 
loth  and  16th  centuries.  Avicenna's  principal 
philosophical  work,  the  Ash-Shefa,  or  "  Rem- 
edy," has  never  been  printed. 

AVIGLIANO,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Basilicata,  11  m.  N.  W.  of  Potenza; 
pop.  about  10,000.  It  has  a  handsome  colle- 
giate church,  a  royal  college,  and  several  con- 
vents. A  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed 
by  a  land  slide  in  1824. 

AVIGNON  (anc.  Avenio),  a  town  of  S.  E. 
France,  in  Provence,  department  of  Vaucluse, 
365  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Paris,  situated  on  the  Rh6ne, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  an  elegant  suspension 
bridge  built  in  1844;  pop.  in  1866,  36,407.  It 
is  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  has  a  lyceum,  a 
seminary,  a  public  library,  museums  of  anti- 
quities, paintings,  and  natural  history,  a  bo- 
tanical garden,  an  agricultural  society,  and  an 
association  called  the  academy  of  Vaucluse. 
Its  industry  is  active,  especially  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  madder,  in  the  manufacture  of  silks, 


AvigDon,  France. 

colored  cloths,  and  taffetas,  and  in  copper,  lead, 
and  iron  works.  It  carries  on  an  extensive 
trade  in  the  various  productions  of  Provence, 
particularly  in  grains  and  highly  esteemed  red 
wines.  The  town  is  generally  well  built,  in 
the  form  of  an  almost  regular  oval,  and  its 
walls,  rather  beautiful  than  strong,  are  flanked 
with  towers,  adorned  with  battlements,  and 
surrounded  by  handsome  boulevards.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  but  there  are  magnificent 
wharfs  along  the  Rhone  and  numerous  ancient 
and  remarkable  edifices.  Among  the  latter  is 
the  palace  of  the  popes,  a  sombre  Gothic  struc- 
ture of  the  12th  century,  now  transformed  into 
a  prison  and  barracks.  This  city  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Gallic  tribe  of  the  Cavares  prior  to 


IVILA 


AVOIRDUPOIS 


163 


the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Julius  Caesar.  It  re- 
mained under  Roman  domination  till  the  5th 
century,  when  the  Burgundians  took  possession 
of  it.  From  the  Burgundians  it  was  taken  by 
the  Goths,  who  in  turn  yielded  it  to  the  Franks. 
The  Saracens  captured  it  twice,  shortly  before 
and  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (732),  and^oth 
times  were  forced  to  abandon  it  by  Charles 
Martel.  It  was  a  Carlovingian  city  for  about 
a  century  and  a  half;  then  several  times  ex- 
changed its  masters,  became  a  republic  under 
the  protection  of  the  German  empire,  adhered 
to  the  Albigensian  heresy,  and  was  captured 
by  Louis  VIII.  in  1226,  who  made  it  the  com- 
mon inheritance  of  two  sons,  through  one  of 
whom,  Charles  of  Anjou,  it  became  attached 
to  the  crown  of  Naples.  In  1309  Pope  Clement 
V.,  at  the  request  of  Philip  the  Fair,  established 
himself  at  Avignon.  The  city  and  its  depen- 
dencies were  purchased  by  the  supreme  pontiff 
from  Joanna  of  Naples,  and  all  the  popes  from 
Clement  V.  to  Gregory  XL  (1309-'77)  made 
their  residence  here.  The  last-named  pope  re- 
stored the  papal  see  to  Rome,  but  during  the 
great  schism,  from  1378  to  1418,  several  of  the 
rival  popes  resided  in  Avignon.  The  14th  cen- 
tury was  thus  the  period  of  the  town's  great- 
est splendor.  It  then  numbered  about  100,000 
inhabitants.  Petrarch  was  among  its  many 
distinguished  residents.  After  the  close  of  the 
schism  Avignon  with  its  environs,  which  then 
formed  the  comtat  de  Venaissin,  was  governed 
by  the  legates  of  the  pope,  till  in  1791  France 
succeeded,  after  various  attempts,  in  reclaiming 
it.  Twenty-one  councils  of  the  church  were 
held  in  Avignon,  from  1050  to  1725. 

AVILi.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  forming 
the  S.  W.  part  of  Old  Castile,  and  bordering 
on  New  Castile  and  Estremadura;  area,  2,981 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  176,769.  The  northern 
portion  of  the  province  is  generally  level,  of 
moderate  fertility,  and  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  The  southern  part  is  in- 
tersected by  numerous  rocky  mountain  ranges, 
with  verdant  valleys  between.  Here  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  is  the  most  important  branch  of 
industry.  The  Alberche  and  the  Adaja,  re- 
spectively affluents  of  the  Tagus  and  the 
Douro,  are  the  principal  rivers.  Two  centuries 
ago  the  province  was  wealthy  and  populous, 
but  it  has  gradually  decayed,  in  consequence 
of  the  burdensome  manorial  and  feudal  privi- 
leges, and  the  laws  of  entail  and  mortmain. 
Merino  wool  is  the  chief  article  of  production. 
Besides  the  capital,  it  contains  no  town  of 
importance.  II.  The  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing province,  an  episcopal  city,  situated  on 
the  Adaja,  53  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Madrid ;  pop. 
about  7,000.  It  had  formerly  a  flourishing 
university  and  extensive  woollen  manufactures, 
but  its  ancient  prosperity  has  departed.  The 
city  is  encompassed  by  a  wall,  still  in  good  re- 
pair, with  towers  of  great  strength.  It  has  a 
fine  old  cathedral  and  a  Dominican  convent, 
both  of  which  contain  some  beautiful  monu- 
ments. The  church  of  San  Vicente,  without 


the  walls,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  313,  is 
an  interesting  object. 

AVLONA  (anc.  Avion),  a  fortified  town  of 
Turkey,  the  best  seaport  of  Albania,  in  the  pa- 
shalic  of  Janina,  on  the  gulf  of  Avlona ;  pop. 
about  8,000.  The  Christian  part  of  its  inhab- 
itants are  chiefly  employed  in  commerce.  The 
Turks  manufacture  woollen  fabrics  and  arms. 

AVOCET,  or  Unset  (recurmrostra),  a  bird  of 
the  order  of  the  grallatores.  There  is  but  one 
European  and  one  American  species,  which  are 
very  closely  connected,  and  would  at  first  sight, 
by  an  unpractised  eye,  be  pronounced  identical. 
The  bill  is  long,  slender,  and  reflected  upward 
at  the  extremity.  The  bird  is  webfooted,  but 
does  not  swim  easily  or  willingly,  though  it 
wades  quite  up  to  the  breast,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  qualified  by  its  long  legs,  which  are 
naked  up  to  the  head  of  the  thigh.  The  pal- 
mated  webs  of  its  feet  enable  it  to  stand  and 
run,  without  sinking,  over  the  soft  mud  of  the 
seashore.  It  feeds  on  aquatic  animals,  such  as 
the  smaller  conchifers  and  mollusks,  and  on 
the  spawn  of  fishes.  The  American  avocet, 
recurmrostra  Americana,  is  thus  described  by 
Giraud  in  his  "  Birds  of  Long  Island  " :  Loral 


Avocet. 

space  white ;  neck  and  fore  part  of  the  breast 
reddish  buff;  lower  parts,  back  and  tail  white; 
wings  black,  with  a  broad  band  of  white 
formed  by  the  tips  of  the  secondary  coverts. 
Lower  portion  of  the  tibia  naked.  Legs  blue. 
Length  18  inches;  wing,  9.  A  few  breed  at 
Egg  Harbor,  where  they  are  known  as  the 
"blue-stocking."  It  builds  its  nest  of  sea- 
wrack  and  dried  sedge  among  tufts  of  long 
grass  by  the  edge  of  some  salt  pool.  It  is  com- 
mon in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  especially 
in  the  fur  countries. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  (Fr.  avoir  du  poids,  to  have 
weight ;  or,  possibly,  as  it  was  formerly  spelled 
averdupois,  from  the  old  Fr.  verb  cmerer,  to 
verify),  a  standard  of  weight,  to  which  articles 
of  merchandise  sold  by  weight  are  referred, 
except  the  precious  metals,  gems,  and  medi- 
cines. The  pound  avoirdupois  contains  7,000 
grains;  the  pound  troy  contains  5,760.  The 
ounces  do  not  retain  the  same  proportions, 
there  being  16  to  the  pound  avoirdupois,  and 
12  to  the  pound  troy.  The  ounce  avoirdupois 
is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Roman  uncia, 
which,  according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  contained 
the  same  number  of  grains,  viz.,  437i ;  but  it  • 


164 


AVOLA 


is  very  unlikely  that  these  small  weights  have 
been  preserved  uniformly  the  same  for  so  long  a 
period.  The  old  term  avoirdupois  is  first  met  : 
with  in  1532,  in  some  orders  of  Henry  VIII. ; 
and  in  1588  a  pound  of  this  weight  was  depos- 
ited, by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  the  ex- 
chequer, as  a  standard.  This,  when  examined 
in  1758  by  the  committee  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, was  found  to  be  li  grain  deficient  in 
weight;  and  the  troy  weight  was  thereafter 
made  the  standard.  The  standard  grain,  pre- 
scribed by  act  of  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
George  IV.,  is  such  that  "  a  cubic  inch  of  dis- 
tilled water  weighed  in  air  by  brass  weights, 
at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer, the  barometer  being  at  30  inches,  is 
equal  to  252-458  grains." 

AVOLA  (anc.  Abolla),  a  town  of  Sicily,  on 
the  E.  coast,  13  m.  S.  W.  of  Syracuse;  pop. 
about  8,000.  It  was  rebuilt  after  its  destruc- 
tion by  the  earthquake  of  1693.  The  exquisite 
honey,  so  renowned  in  antiquity  as  honey  of 
Hybla,  is  still  produced  in  its  vicinity.  Avola 
has  a  tunny  fishery  and  a  refinery  for  home- 
grown sugar. 

AVON,  the  name  of  several  English  rivers, 
the  most  important  of  which,  the  Upper  Avon, 
rises  near  Naseby,  in  Northamptonshire,  flows 
through  the  counties  of  Leicester,  Warwick, 
and  Worcester,  and  entering  Gloucestershire, 
empties  into  the  Severn  near  Tewkesbury,  after 
a  course  of  about  100  m.  Stratford,  the  birth- 
place of  Shakespeare,  is  situated  on  the  bank 
of  this  stream. 

AVON  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  Avon  township, 
Livingston  co.,  N.  Y.,  19  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Roches- 
ter ;  pop.  about  900.  It  is  situated  on  a  terrace 
100  feet  above  the  Genesee  river,  commanding 
beautiful  views  in  all  directions,  and  is  reached 
by  the  Erie  and  New  York  Central  railroads. 
The  place  is  visited  by  large  numbers  in  sum- 
mer for  its  mineral  waters,  which  are  deemed 
beneficial  in  rheumatism,  dyspepsia,  and  cuta- 
neous diseases. 

AVOYELLES,  a  parish  of  Louisiana,  intersected 
by  Bed  river,  which  joins  the  Mississippi  near 
its  S.  E.  angle ;  area,  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,926,  of  whom  6,175  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  nearly  level  and  is  subject  to  inundation. 
The  western  portion  is  fertile.  In  1870  the 
parish  produced  175,330  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
24,985  of  sweet  potatoes,  78,385  Ibs.  of  rice, 
10,139  bales  of  cotton,  325  hhds.  of  sugar,  and 
25,600  gallons  of  molasses.  Capital,  Marksville. 

AVRANCHES,  a  town  of  France,  in  Normandy, 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department 
of  La  Manche,  situated  on  the  S(5e,  within  3  m. 
of  the  sea  and  66  m.  S.  of  Cherbourg ;  pop.  in 
1866,  8,642.  It  stands  upon  a  hill  looking 
toward  the  Channel  islands,  and  contains  the 
remains  of  a  fine  cathedral,  consecrated  in 
1121,  and  possessing  the  stone  on  which  Hen- 
ry II.  of  England  knelt  to  do  penance  for  the 
murder  of  Becket.  The  cheapness  of  living 
and  attractive  scenery  of  the  town  have  made 
it  a  resort  for  English  families.  In  the  14th 


AXAYACATL 

century  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
English,  who  retained  it  till  1450.  Avranches 
has  several  public  institutions,  including  a  libra- 
ry, and  some  manufactures  of  lace  and  blonde. 
AWE,  Loeh,  a  lake  in  Argyleshire,  Scotland, 
8  m.  N.  W.  of  Inverary.  It  is  24  m.  long,  and 
in  few  places  more  than  1  m.  wide,  encircled 
by  rugged  and  precipitous  mountains,  the  lof- 
tiest, Ben  Cruachan,  3,670  feet  in  height.  Its 
surface  is  dotted  with  small  islands.  On  In- 
nishail  are  the  remains  of  a  small  Cistercian 
nunnery,  and  a  churchyard  containing  many 
curious  old  tombstones.  On  Innis  Fraoch  are 
some  traces  of  an  ancient  castle,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  chief  of  the  M'Naughtons. 
Innish  Chounel  was  for  several  centuries  the 
residence  of  the  Argyll  family.  The  castle  of 
Kilchurn,  whose  square  tower  was  built  in 
1440  by  one  of  the  Campbells,  the  founder 
of  the  Breadalbane  family,  stands  on  a  rocky 
point  of  land,  near  the  head  of  the  lake.  It 
was  garrisoned  as  late  as  1745  by  the  king's 
troops,  but  is  now  deserted.  Several  small 
streams  flow  into  Loch  Awe,  one  of  which 
connects  it  with  Loch  Avich,  and  another 
with  Loch  Etive,  an  arm  of  the  sea.  The  lake 
is  celebrated  for  its  trout  and  salmon. 

AX,  a  town  of  S.  France,  in  the  department 
of  Ariege,  21  m.  S.  E.  of  Foix ;  pop.  1,679. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  over 
2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the 
midst  of  granitic  mountains  and  at  the  junction 
of  three  valleys  out  of  which  flow  the  sources 
of  the  Ari6ge.  It  is  celebrated  for  picturesque 
scenery,  and  especially  for  containing  the 
greatest  number  and  the  hottest  sulphurous 
springs  in  the  Pyrenees.  Near  the  hospital  is 
a  bath  established  in  1200  for  the  cure  of  lep- 
rosy, and  still  called  leper's  basin.  Ax  has  been 
widely  known  as  a  watering  place  nearly  100 
years,  and  contains  now  a  number  of.  bathing 
establishments,  the  so-called  gun  spring  being 
the  hottest.  Over  50  springs  issue  from  the  junc- 
tion of  the  slate  and  limestone  with  the  gran- 
ite, varying  in  temperature  from  a  little  over 
100°  to  nearly  200°  F. ;  and  they  burst  forth  so 
abundantly  on  all  sides  that  the  place  has  been 
figuratively  described  as  being  built  over  a  sub- 
terranean reservoir  of  boiling  water. 

AXAYACATL,  a  Mexican  emperor,  died  about 
1477.  He  was  the  father  of  Montezuma  II.,  and 
reigned  14  years.  He  was  already  famous  as  a 
warrior  when  he  became  emperor  of  the  Az- 
tecs, and  inaugurated  his  reign  by  a  successful 
expedition  against  Tehuantepec,  and  in  1467 
conquered  anew  the  cities  of  Cotasta  and 
j  Tochtepec.  A  little  later  he  repelled  the  tribes 
i  who  strove  to  get  possession  of  the  Mexican 
capital,  and  maintained  a  vigorous  warfare 
against  his  neighbors.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
natives  of  Michoacan,  whom  he  attacked  with 
inferior  forces,  and  on  his  return  to  Mexico 
celebrated  funeral  solemnities.  He  was  pre- 
paring another  expedition  when  he  died  sud- 
denly and  prematurely.  The  palace  of  Axaya- 
catl,  a  gigantic  pile  of  stone  buildings,  became 


AXE 


AXLE 


165 


50  years  later  the  barracks  of  the  Spaniards. 
His  treasures  were  discovered  by  Cortes  within 
a  concealed  door,  and  the  chronicler  of  the 
conquest  exclaims  that  "  it  seemed  as  if  all  the 
riches  in  the  world  were  in  that  room."  They 
consisted  of  gold  and  silver  in  bars  and  in  the 
ore,  many  jewels  of  value,  and  numerous  rich 
and  beautiful  articles  of  curious  workmanship, 
as  imitations  of  birds,  insects,  or  .flowers. 

AXE,  an  instrument  for  cutting  down  trees 
and  chopping  wood,  usually  formed  of  iron  and 
steel,  with  a  handle  or  helve,  of  suitable  size 
and  length  for  wielding  with  both  hands,  in- 
serted in  an  eye  running  horizontally  through 
the  head.  Smaller  instruments  of  similar  form, 
for  use  with  one  hand,  are  called  hatchets  (Fr. 
hachette,  diminutive  of  hache,  axe).  The  axe 
is  one  of  the  earliest  tools  suggested  by  the 
needs  of  man,  and  among  all  antique  relics  we 
find  almost  invariably  some  species  of  axe.  The 
bone  and  flint  tool  of  different  Indian  races; 
the  metallic  axe,  mixed  copper  and  tin,  of 
South  America  and  Mexico,  sufficiently  hard 
to  cut  porphyry  and  granite ;  the  similar  tool 
of  the  Romans ;  the  Druidical  copper  axe,  and 
the  rough  iron  instrument  of  northern  nations, 
all  witness  the  primitive  use  of  this  implement. 
The  increased  science  of  more  recent  times  con- 
structs the  axe  of  iron  edged  with  steel;  but 
anciently  the  use  and  combination  of  these 
metals  were  comparatively  unknown.  With  the 
•progress  of  civilization,  the  increasing  wants 
of  the  race,  and  the  colonization  of  new  and 
fertile  countries,  the  use  of  axes  has  propor- 
tionately increased  with  that  of  various  other 
edge  tools.  In  the  most  recent  American  pro- 
cesses, the  iron  used  in  making  axes  is  ham- 
mered bar  iron,  the  bars  of  different  lengths, 
but  definite  sizes,  differing  for  different  tools ; 
it  is  heated  to  a  red  heat,  cut  of  the  requisite 
length,  and  the  eye  which  is  to  receive  the 
handle  punched  through  it ;  it  is  then  reheated, 
and  pressed  between  concave  dies  till  it  assumes 
the  proper  shape.  The  Spanish  axe  is  made  by 
the  old  process  of  hammering  out  the  bar  and 
turning  it  in  a  loop  to  make  the  eye,  as  this 
kind  of  axe  has  no  head.  The  axe  is  now 
heated  and  grooved  upon  the  edge,  receiving 
in  that  groove  the  piece  of  steel  which  forms 
the  sharp  edge ;  borax  is  used  as  a  flux,  and  at 
a  white  heat  the  axe  is  welded  and  drawn  out 
to  a  proper  edge  by  trip-hammers.  The  next 
process  is  hammering  off  the  tool  by  hand 
or  machinery,  restoring  the  shape  lost  in  draw- 
ing out ;  it  is  then  ground  to  form  a  finer  edge. 
The  axe  is  now  hung  upon  a  revolving  wheel 
in  a  furnace,  over  a  small  coal  fire,  at  a  pecu- 
liar red  heat,  judged  by  the  eye,  afterward 
cooled  in  salt  and  water,  then  in  fresh  water, 
and  removed  to  another  furnace,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  last  temper  at  the  hands  of  skilled 
workmen.  Then  it  is  ground  upon  stones  of  a 
finer  grain  than  before,  and  is  ready  for  the 
polishing  wheel.  Next  it  is  polished  to  a  finish 
that  shows  every  flaw,  and  enables  it  to  resist 
rust  and  enter  wood  easily ;  next  it  is  stamped, 


the  head  blacked  with  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  asphaltum  to  prevent  rust,  and  finally 
weighed,  labelled,  and  packed  for  sale. — For- 
merly the  consumer  depended  upon  the  rude 
forges  and  limited  skill  of  blacksmiths  to  supply 
axes,  but  since  the  increased  demand  there  are 
many  small  manufactories  in  different  parts  of 
Europe  and  America.  The  largest  establish- 
ment in  the  world  for  manufacturing  axes  and 
edge  tools  is  that  of  the  Collins  company, 
situated  on  the  Farmington  river,  at  Collins- 
ville,  Connecticut.  Here,  by  means  of  machi- 
nery invented  for  the  company  by  Mr.  E.  K. 
Root,  the  processes  of  axe-making  are  brought 
to  extreme  perfection.  The  establishment  was 
begun  in  1826,  on  a  small  scale,  by  Messrs.  S. 
W.  and  D.  0.  Collins.  After  some  years  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  a  company,  known 
now  as  the  Collins  company.  The  amount  of 
capital  invested  here  is  $1,000,000.  Eighteen 
hundred  tons  of  iron,  350  tons  of  cast  steel,  and 
7,000  tons  of  coal  are  consumed  annually ;  from 
450  to  500  men  are  employed;  13  large  water 
wheels  and  two  engines  supply  the  motive 
power  of  the  machinery;  and  from  1,500  to 
2,000  edge  tools  and  other  implements  are  made 
daily.  The  largest  American  manufacturers 
after  the  Collins  company  are  the  Douglas  axe 
company  of  East  Douglas,  Mass.,  and  those  of 
Cohoes,  N.  Y. 

AXEL.     See  ABSALON. 

A\ni.  a  town  of  Africa,  coast  of  Guinea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ancober,  73  m.  W.  of  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  Until  the  year  1642  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Portuguese,  when  it  was  taken 
from  them  by  the  Dutch,  who  were  confirmed 
in  their  possession  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
and  in  1872  ceded  it  with  the  remainder  of 
their  possessions  in  Guinea  to  Great  Britain. 

AXINITE,  a  mineral  occurring  in  flat,  prismatic 
crystals,  with  sharp  edges,  like  an  axe.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  silica,  alumina,  lime,  and 
oxide  of  iron. 

AXLE,  a  piece  of  timber  or  a  bar  of  iron 
which  supports  the  body  of  a  car,  carriage,  or 
wagon,  and  is  itself  supported  on  two  wheels, 
in  the  hubs  or  naves  of  which  its  ends  are  in- 
serted. A  great  change  was  introduced  about 
45  years  ago  in  the  shape  of  axles  for  carriages, 
by  the  English  invention  of  air-tight  closed 
boxes,  which  with  slight  modifications  has  been 
adopted  all  over  the  world.  The  wheels  of 
carriage  axles  are  prevented  from  falling  out 
.by  means  of  a  collar  on  the  axle,  which  enters 
*the  hub  on  the  inside,  and  not  by  a  nut  and 
pin  on  the  outside,  as  usual  in  common  vehicles. 
The  introduction  of  railroads  has  made  another 
change  necessary.  Axles  for  railroads,  instead 
of  revolving  in  the  hubs  of  the  wheels,  are 
strongly  keyed  in  them,  and  journals  are  turn- 
ed on  the  portions  outside  the  wheels.  These 
journals  pass  through  and  revolve  in  boxes 
attached  to  the  frame  of  the  cars.  This  arrange- 
ment has  been  found  to  resist  vibrations  and 
jerks  resulting  from  high  velocity  much  better 
than  the  old  plan.  It  was,  moreover,  necessary 


166 


AXMINSTER 


AXOLOTL 


to  insure  a  distance  between  the  rims  of  the 
wheels  invariably  equal  to  that  of  the  rails.  It 
has  been  attempted  to  divide  axles  in  the  centre, 
the  inner  ends  of  the  two  half  axles  being  main- 
tained in  boxes  fixed  in  slides  on  a  frame,  and 
the  body  of  the  carriage  acting  as  a  lever  on  a 
small  mechanism,  and  bringing  each  axle  per- 
pendicular to  the  curve  of  the  road.  One  wheel 
has  also  been  made  to  revolve  around  the  axle, 
which  was  fixed  to  the  other  wheel,  and  turned 
with  it ;  in  this  way  railroad  cars  would  turn 
a  short  curve  without  straining  the  axle.  Such 
arrangements,  however,  have  never  been  ex- 
tensively introduced,  as  the  disadvantages  from 
complexity  and  loss  of  strength  outweigh  the 
advantages  gained  in  turning  curves.  In  horse 
cars  running  on  city  railroads,  the  difficulty 
of  turning  street  corners,  through  curves  of 
very  short  radius,  is  simply  met  by  causing 
the  outer  wheel  to  run  on  its  flange  on  a  flat 
rail ;  it  thus  acts  as  a  larger  wheel  and  passes 
through  a  greater  distance  with  the  same  num- 
ber of  revolutions  as  the  inner  wheel,  and  thus 
describes  a  curve,  notwithstanding  the  wheels 
are  all  immovably  connected  with  the  axles. 
The  difficulty  of  turning  curves  is  not  only  in 
the  straining  of  the  axles  immovably  fixed  to 
the  wheels,  but  also  in  the  rigid  parallellism 
of  the  forward  and  rear  axles,  which  opposes 
the  turning  of  a  curve  the  more  in  proportion 
as  the  car  is  longer ;  and  as  American  passenger 
cars  are  very  long  and  curves  very  common, 
the  so-called  truck  system  was  adopted,  con- 
sisting in  a  frame  turning  on  a  vertical  axle  or 
pivot,  and  supported  by  four  or  six  wheels,  of 
which  the  axles  are  parallel.  Such  a  four  or 
six-wheeled  frame  or  truck  is  placed  at  each 
end  of  the  car ;  and  in  going  around  curves  the 
trucks  adapt  themselves  by  turning  on  the  cen- 
tral vertical  pivot.  In  Europe,  where  curves 
are  more  avoided  regardless  of  expense,  and 
cars  are  shorter,  this  system  has  not  been 
adopted,  except  in  a  few  exceptional  localities, 
where  curves  of  short  radius  could  not  be 
avoided  in  the  construction  of  the  road.  The 
only  kind  of  locomotive  where  the  wheels  are 
not  immovably  connected  with  the  axle  are 
those  lately  built  for  common  roads,  in  some 
of  which  the  connection  is  ingeniously  made 
with  a  gearing,  so  that  notwithstanding  both 
wheels  act  as  driving  wheels,  they  are  not 
compelled  to  make  the  same  number  of  revo- 
lutions, and  thus  are  able  to  turn  any  short 
curve  in  a  common  road. 

A \  M I NSTKK,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Devon, 
England,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Axe,  24  m.  E. 
by  N.  of  Exeter ;  pop.  2,900.  It  is  well  known 
on  account  of  its  rich  and  beautiful  carpets, 
woven  in  one  piece,  which  rivalled  those  of 
Turkey  and  Persia ;  but  the  manufacture  has 
now  ceased.  The  town  is  mentioned  in  Domes- 
day Book,  and  is  believed  to  have  existed  from 
very  early  times.  An  action  was  fought  near 
Axminster  in  the  civil  wars  in  1644. 

\\OI.OTI,,  the  Mexican  name  of  an  amphibi- 
ous reptile,  described  by  naturalists  as  siredon. 


This  tadpole-formed  reptile  has  the  vertebrae 
biconcave,  and  the  body  elongated  and  formed 
for  swimming.  The  feet  are  four,  the  anterior 
being  four-toed,  the  posterior  five-toed;  the 
sides  of  the  body  are  marked  by  several  small 
furrows,  and  an  imperfect  lateral  line  is  con- 
tinued from  the  gills  to  the  tail.  The  head  is 
flattened,  with  a  rounded  or  truncated  snout, 
near  the  end. of  which  are  the  nostrils;  the 
eyes  are  small,  and  about  midway  between  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  and  the  nose ;  the  tail 
is  elongated  and  compressed,  and  tapers  to  a 
point.  A  thin  membrane  commences  near  the 
back  of  the  head,  rising  gradually  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  tail,  and  diminishing  again  toward 
the  tip ;  underneath,  it  extends  from  behind 
the  vent  to  the  tip,  reaching  its  greatest  height 
at  its  anterior  third.  The  axolotl  belongs  to 
the  perennibranchiate  order,  or  those  whose 
gills  remain  through,  life,  coexisting  with  rudi- 
mentary lungs;  hence  its  respiration  is  always 
aquatic.  The  gill  openings  are  large,  and  the 
gill  covers  are  continuous  beneath  the  throat, 
so  as  completely  to  separate  the  head  from  tile 
breast.  The  gills  consist  of  four  semicircular 
cartilaginous  arches,  serrated  internally  like 
those  of  fishes,  and  externally  provided  with 


Axoloti. 

fine  branchial  fringes,  occupying  thickly  the 
lower  edge  of  the  flaps,  and  a  few  on  the  tip 
of  the  upper  edge.  The  fringes  are  flattened, 
tapering,  and  disposed  in  a  double  row.  A 
generic  character  is  the  presence  of  four  ex- 
ternal flaps,  provided  with  respiratory  fringes. 
There  are  two  rows  of  teeth  in  the  upper  and 
lower  jaw.  There  are  three  species  described : 
siredon  Mexicanw,  Shaw ;  S.  maculatw,  Ow- 
en; and  S.  lichenoides,  Baird.  It  is  probable 
that  other  species  exist,  as  there  are  many  local- 
ities in  Mexico,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas  where 
"  fish  with  legs  "  are  common.  The  axolotl  is 
about  10  inches  long,  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
with  blackish  spots.  Great  numbers  are  taken 
in  the  month  of  June  from  a  lake  about  3  m. 
from  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  from  water  whose  temperature  is  never 
below  60°  F.  At  this  time  they  form  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  peasantry. — From  the  experi- 
ments of  Prof.  O.  0.  Marsh,  it  appears  that  the 
axolotl  is  the  larval  condition  of  the  salaman- 
droid  batrachian  amblystoma,  usually  regarded 


AXUM 


AYACUCHO 


167 


as  belonging  to  a  distinct  family.  During  an 
excursion  in  August,  1868,  Prof.  Marsh  obtain- 
ed from  Lake  Como,  a  small  brackish  sheet  of 
water  in  Wyoming  territory,  several  specimens 
of  siredon  lichenoides  (Baird).  On  bringing 
them  to  New  Haven,  they  went  through  a 
metamorphosis  similar  to  that  previously  no- 
ticed by  Dumeril  in  the  Mexican  axolotl.  The 
first  indication  of  the  change  was  the  appear- 
ance of  dark  spots  on  the  sides  of  the  tail,  fol- 
lowed soon  by  the  disappearance  by  absorp- 
tion of  the  membrane  along  the  back  and 
below  the  tail.  Then  the  external  branchiaa 
began  to  be  absorbed,  and  the  animal  came 
more  frequently  to  the  surface  of  the  water  for 
air.  The  spots  gradually  extended  over  the 
body,  the  external  branchias  and  branchial  arch- 
es disappeared,  and  the  openings  on  the  neck 
were  closed  by  the  adhesion  of  the  opercular 
flap.  The  body  diminished  in  size;  the  head 
became  more  rounded  above  and  more  oval  in 
outline ;  the  eyes  became  more  convex  and 
prominent;  the  opening  of  the  mouth  grew 
larger,  and  the  tongue  considerably  increased 
in  size;  changes  took  place  in  the  teeth  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  structure,  and  finally  the 
animal  escaped  from  the  water  a  true  anibly- 
stoma,  not  to  be  distinguished  from  A.  mavor- 
tium  (Baird).  The  rapidity  of  these  changes 
was  greatly  affected  by  light  and  temperature ; 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the 
entire  series  of  transformations  took  place  in 
about  three  weeks.  It  is  not  known  that 
these  changes  occur  in  Lake  Como,  which  is 
about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea ;  and  the  crea- 
ture no  doubt  breeds  in  its  siredon  or  larval 
state.  This  leads  to  the  belief  that  all  siredons 
are  merely  larval  salamanders,  and  to  the  sus- 
picion that  many  other  so-called  perennibran- 
chiate  batrachians,  as  menobranchus,  siren,  and 
proteus,  may  be  the  undeveloped  young  of  other 
well  known  species. 

\\lll.  or  U  no  in  (anc.  Auxume),  a  city  of 
Abyssinia,  in  the  province  of  Tigr6,  formerly 
capital  of  a  kingdom,  in  lat.  14°  5'  N.,  Ion.  38° 
27'  E.,  12m.  W.  of  Adowa;  pop.  about  4,000. 
It  is  7,200  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Par- 
kyn  visited  this  city  in  1843.  There  stands  in 
it  a  church  considered  the  most  sacred  build- 
ing in  all  Abyssinia,  "  around  which  lie  scat- 
tered unfinished  and  broken  columns,  pedes- 
tals, and  other  remnants  of  the  civilization  of 
former  ages."  This  church  is  about  200  years 
old.  Near  it  is  a  square  enclosure,  with  a  pil- 
lar at  each  angle,  and  a  seat  and  footstool  in 
the  centre,  all  of  granite.  Another  footstool, 
standing  apart,  about  30  yards  distant,  has  be- 
come celebrated  for  its  Greek  and  Ethiopic 
inscriptions,  the  latter  in  such  minute  charac- 
ters and  so  indistinct  that  the  traveller  Salt 
could  transcribe  but  little  of  it.  They  give  a 
list  of  tribes  under  the  dominion  of  the  king  of 
Axum,  and  indicate  the  existence  of  an  exten- 
sive and  powerful  kingdom  in  Abyssinia,  where 
arts  and  arms  were  well  known  and  cultivated. 
There  were  originally  55  obelisks  at  Axum. 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these,  a  single 
shaft  of  granite,  60  ft.  high,  is  still  standing 
in  good  preservation.  It  is  destitute  of  hiero- 
glyphics, and,  instead  of  ending  in  a  pyramid 
like  the  Egyptian  obelisks,  terminates  in  a  kind 
of  patera,  indicating  that  it  is  of  Greek  rather 


Eoyal  Seat,  Axum. 

than  of  Egyptian  origin.  Tradition  says  it  was 
erected  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Aizanas  (the 
middle  of  the  4th  century).  In  ecclesiastical 
history  there  is  preserved  a  letter  of  Constan- 
tius,  addressed  to  Aizanas  and  Sazanas  joint- 
ly, calling  them  the  "  Axumite  princes."  The 
stone  also  gives  the  name  of  the  Abyssinian 


Obelisk  of  Axum. 

monarch  as  Aizanas,  and  mentions  Sazanas. 
Axum  was  probably  the  first  place  in  Abyssinia 
into  which  Christianity  was  introduced.  It 
was  formerly  the  centre  of  the  ivory  trade. 

ATACIICHO.  I.  An  interior  central  depart- 
ment of  Peru,  lying  mainly  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Andes,  watered  by  the  rivers  Mantaro 


168 


AYALA 


AYESHA 


(which  partly  bounds  it  N.),  Pampas,  and  Apu- 
ri'mac;  area,  about  35,000  sq.  m. ;'  pop.  about 
150,000.  Consisting  partly  of  elevated  plains 
and  partly  of  deep  valleys,  it  has  a  varied  cli- 
mate, cold  in  the  one  and  excessively  hot  in 
the  other.  It  is  only  partly  included  in  the 
great  metalliferous  region ;  yet  gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  parts.  Agriculture  and  bee-keep- 
ing are  the  principal  industries ;  and  there  are 
many  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  llamas,  and  vicunas. 
The  department  derives  its  name  from  a  battle 
fought  Dec.  9,  1824,  near  the  hamlet  of  Ayacn- 
cho,  between  the  Spaniards  and  South  Ameri- 
cans, in  which  the  former,  though  9,310  strong, 
while  their  enemies  numbered  only  5,780,  were 
totally  routed,  with  a  loss  of  2, 600  killed,  wound- 
ed, and  prisoners,  the  South  Americans  losing 
less  than  a  thousand.  The  Spanish  viceroy 
and  commander,  Laserna,  was  captured,  and 
on  the  following  day  Gen.  Canterac,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  command,  surrendered  the  rest  of 
the  army  in  the  field,  Laserna  signing  a  capit- 
ulation, which  delivered  up  all  the  Spanish 
troops,  posts,  and  munitions  of  war  in  Peru. 
The  South  Americans  were  commanded  by 
Gen.  Sucre.  This  battle,  which  lasted  only  a 
few  hours,  virtually  secured  the  independence 
of  all  the  Spanish  possessions  in  South  Amer- 
ica. IL  A  town,  the  capital  of  the  preced- 
ing department,  formerly  called  Huamanga  or 
Guamanga,  220  m.  S.  E.  of  Lima,  in  a  valley 
about  9,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  pop. 
with  suburbs,  about  25,000.  It  was  founded 
by  Pizarro  in  1539.  The  houses  are  general- 
ly of  massive  construction  surrounded  by  gar- 
dens. The  cathedral  is  a  fine  structure,  and 
there  are  23  other  churches  and  chapels.  It 
is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most  thriving 
cities  in  South  America. 

ATiLA,  Pedro  Lopez  de,  a  Spanish  poet,  chron- 
icler, and  soldier,  born  at  Murcia  in  1332,  died 
at  Oalahorra  in  1407.  He  held  high  offices 
under  successive  kings  of  Castile,  was  one  of 
the  supporters  of  Henry  of  Trastamare,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Najera,  in  1367,  where  he  bore 
the  banner  of  that  leader,  was  made  prisoner 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  carried  to 
England.  He  there  wrote  in  prison  his  Ri- 
mada  de  Palacio,  or  "  Rhyme  of  the  Court." 
Having  obtained  his  liberty,  he  returned  to 
Spain,  and  was  first  minister  of  state,  until  in 
1385  he  was  again  taken  captive  in  the  battle 
of  Aljubarota  and  carried  prisoner  to  Portugal. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  which  begins  at  1350, 
where  that  of  Alfonso  XI.  ends,  and  embraces 
46  years. 

AYAMONTE,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
and  24  m.  "W.  of  the  city  of  Huelva,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Guadiana;  pop.  about  6,000. 
The  town  is  strongly  fortified,  but  difficult  of 
access,  owing  to  the  bar  at  the  month  of  the 
river.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  sardine,  tunny,  and  cod  fisheries. 

AYE-AYE,  a  curious  animal  discovered  by 
Sonnerat  in  Madagascar,  constituting  the  ge- 
nus cheiromys  of  Sonnini.  The  common  name 


seems  to  have  been  derived  either  from  an  ex- 
clamation of  the  natives  or  the  cry  of  the  ani- 
mal ;  the  generic  name,  meaning  "  handed 
mouse,"  implies  its  resemblance  to  a  large  rat, 
with  feet  like  hands.  Cuvier  placed  it  among 
the  rodents,  near  the  flying  squirrels,  but  he  rec- 
ognized the  mouse-like  structure  of  the  head  ; 
Shaw,  Schreber,  and  later  Owen,  ranked  it 
among  the  lower  quadrumana,  the  lemurida  ; 
while  Van  der  Hoeven  regarded  it  as  a  link  be- 
tween the  monkeys  and  the  rodents.  Its  prob- 
able place  is  among  the  quadrumana,  near  the 
lemurs,  though  it  has  interesting  affinities  to 
the  rodents  and  bats.  The  incisor  teeth  are 
like  those  of  rodents  in  number,  position,  and 
length  of  root,  though  more  compressed  later- 
ally and  sharp-pointed ;  the  canines  are  absent ; 
the  molars  are  4  above  and  3  below  on  each 
side.  In  its  head  and  general  shape  it  resem- 
bles the  galagos  of  the  lemur  family ;  the  large, 
flat,  erect,  and  naked  ears  are  like  those  of  the 
bats ;  the  last  two  joints  of  the  middle  finger 
of  the  fore  feet  are  very  long,  slender,  and  bare, 
useful  in  picking  larva?  out  of  holes  in  trees, 
and  perhaps  in  climbing ;  all  the  feet  have  5 
fingers,  the  thumbs  of  the  hind  feet  being  op- 


Aye-Aye  (Cheiromys  Madagascaricus). 

posable  to  the  others,  as  in  the  monkeys ;  the 
head  is  rounded,  and  the  muzzle  short  and 
pointed;  the  tail  is  long,  heavily  furred,  and 
trails  upon  the  ground.  The  color  is  rusty 
brown  above,  the  cheeks,  throat,  and  under 
parts  light  gray ;  paws  nearly  black ;  the  hair 
is  thick  and  downy,  of  a  golden  tint  at  the 
roots.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  hare,  the  tail 
being  as  long  as  the  body.  The  movements 
are  slow,  but  more  active  than  those  of  the 
loris.  The  eyes  are  large,  yellow,  and  sensitive 
to  light,  as  in  all  nocturnal  creatures.  It  is 
believed  to  be  a  burrower,  though  it  is  also 
found  on  trees.  The  food  is  probably  both 
fruits  and  insects,  as  in  the  lemur  family;  it 
thrives  in  captivity  on  boiled  rice.  It  sleeps  by 
day,  curled  up  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree  or  other 
dark  place.  Unlike  the  quadrumana,  this  ani- 
mal has  the  mammse  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen,  instead  of  upon  the  breast. 

AYASALOOK,  or  Aiasalnk.     See  EPHESOT. 

AYESHA,  or  Aisha,  the  favorite  wife  of  Moham- 
med, born  at  Medina  in  611,  died  there  about 
678.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Abubekr,  and 
was  but  nine  years  old  when  she  was  betrothed 


AYLESBUKY 


AYMAR-VERNAY 


169 


to  the  prophet,  who  cherished  an  especial  re- 
gard for  her,  though  she  hore  him  no  children. 
The  24th  chapter  of  the  Koran  was  written  by 
the  prophet  expressly  to  silence  those  cynics 
who  doubted  Ayesha's  purity.  She  survived 
Mohammed  about  46  years,  and  had  an  active 
part  in  the  contest  against  Ali,  who  toolfcher 
prisoner  with  arms  in  her  hands,  but  pardoned 
her.  Her  opinion  was  sought  sometimes  on 
difficult  points  in  the  Koran,  and  had  the  force 
of  law  with  good  Sunnis. 

AYLESBURY,  a  market  town,  parish,  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  England,  county  seat 
of  Buckinghamshire,  37  m.  N.  W.  of  London ; 
pop.  of  the  borough  in  1871,  28,760.  The  town 
is  very  old  and  irregularly  built,  but  well 
paved,  and  lighted  with  gas.  Straw  plaiting  is 
extensively  carried  on,  and  ducks  are  raised  in 
great  numbers  for  the  London  market.  The 
manufacture  of  lace,  formerly  an  important  in- 
dustry, has  diminished  greatly  of  late  years. 
There  is  one  silk  factory. 

AYLMKR,  John,  bishop  of  London,  born  at 
Tilney  in  Norfolk  in  1521,  died  June  3,  1594. 
He  was  sent  to  Cambridge  by  the  marquis  of 
Dorset,  afterward  duke  of  Suffolk,  but  gradu- 
ated in  divinity  at  Oxford,  after  which  he  be- 
came the  duke's  chaplain  and  tutor  to  his 
daughter,  Lady  Jane  Grey.  On  the  accession 
of  Queen  Mary,  in  1553,  Aylmer  was  compelled 
to  give  up  the  archdeaconry  of  Stow  in  Lin- 
colnshire, to  which  he  had  just  been  appointed, . 
and  fled  to  Switzerland.  In  his  exile  he  pub- 
lished a  reply  to  John  Knox's  "First  Blast," 
against  the  propriety  of'  women  holding  the 
sovereign  sway,  and  complimented  Elizabeth. 
Returning  to  England  after  the  accession  of 
the  latter,  he  manifested  much  zeal  in  favor 
of  the  reformed  faith,  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Lincoln  in  1562,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
synod  which  reformed  and  settled  the  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  the  Anglican  church.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  London  in  1576,  and  in  this  ca- 
pacity became  so  unpopular,  on  account  of  his 
intolerance  toward  the  Catholics  and  the  Puri- 
tans, that  the  privy  council  rebuked  his  se- 
verity. He  was  a  ripe  scholar  and  a  popular 
preacher,  but  published  nothing  except  his 
courtly  answer  to  John  Knox. 

AYMARAS,  the  name  of  the  earliest  known 
inhabitants  of  the  Alpine  valleys  of  S.  E.  Peru 
and  N.  W.  Bolivia,  whose  descendants,  save  a 
few  in  the  Peruvian  province  of  Puno,  are 
now  to  be  found  only  in  the  Bolivian  provinces 
of  La  Paz  and  Oruro.  They  claim  descent 
from  the  Collaguas,  who  at  a  very  remote 
period  migrated  from  the  north,  and  consti- 
tuted the  sacred  isle  in  Lake  Titicaca  the  cen- 
tre of  their  government  and  religion.  Though 
distinct  in  language,  they  physically  resemble 
the  Indians  of  the  great  Quichuan  or  Inca  fam- 
ily, who  were  indebted  to  them  for  a  part  of 
their  religious  rites  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
arts.  They  worked  skilfully  in  gold  and  silver, 
tilled  the  ground,  built  splendid  edifices  orna- 
mented with  sculpture  and  painting,  and  were 


somewhat  versed  in  astronomy.  Their  poetry 
and  religion  were  spiritualistic ;  their  priests 
were  bound  to  celibacy,  and  the  dead  were 
held  in  religious  veneration.  Their  skin  is  of 
an  olive-brown  color ;  their  features,  though 
regular,  are  strongly  marked,  the  cranium  ca- 
pacious, and  the  general  cast  of  the  counte- 
nance thoughtful  and  melancholy.  The  wo- 
men are  rarely  handsome.  The  Aymaras  have 
embraced  Christianity,  and  are  zealous  obser- 
vers of  all  the  rites  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  in  the  performance  of  which,  however, 
they  introduce  some  relics  of  paganism.  Their 
chief  occupation  is  husbandry.  As  the  Incas 
grew  in  power  they  gradually  subdued  the  Ay- 
maras, and  ultimately  overran  their  whole  ter- 
ritory. The  Aymaras  probably  number  200,- 
000  at  the  present  day.  In  early  times  they 
were  accustomed  to  mould  the  craniums  of 
infants  to  a  conical  shape.  They  worshipped 


Aymaras,  and  an  Aymara  Tomb. 

the  sun,  and  believed  the  present  luminary  to 
be  the  fifth,  and  that,  after  a  long  period  of 
darkness,  it  emerged  from  the  sacred  island  in 
the  lake.  The  monuments  of  Tiaguanaco,  re- 
mains of  many  of  which  are  still  standing,  in- 
dicate a  much  higher  civilization  than  do  those 
of  Palenque.  (See  TITICACA.)  Their  tombs, 
sometimes  large  square  buildings  with  a  single 
opening  through  which  the  body  was  intro- 
duced, contained  12  bodies  placed  feet  to  feet 
around  a  confined  cavity,  sitting  in  their 
clothes.  Some  of  these  tombs  are  small  houses 
of  sunburnt  bricks;  some  are  square  towers 
of  several  stories,  containing  each  a  body ;  but 
whatever  be  the  size,  they  are  always  joined 
in  groups,  with  the  opening  facing  the  east. 

AYMAR-VERNAY,  Jatqnes,  a  French  peasant 
of  Dauphiny,  a  pretended  diviner,  born  at  St. 
Veran,  Sept.  8, 1662;  time  of  death  unknown. 
He  was  originally  a  mason,  but  early  abandoned 
that  occupation,  and  began  using  the  divining 


170 


AYR 


AYRSHIRE 


rod,  employing  it  at  first  in  discovering  springs, 
mines,  and  hidden  treasures,  and  finally  in  re- 
claiming stolen  property  and  in  detecting  the 
thief.  He  acquired  a  great  reputation  in  this 
way,  and  at  length  in  1692,  a  vintner  and  his 
wife  having  been  murdered  at  Lyons,  he  was 
employed  to  follow  up  the  murderer,  and  finally 
charged  the  crime  upon  a  hunchback  in  the 
jail  at  Beaucaire,  who  confessed  his  complicity 
and  was  broken  on  the  wheel.  The  country 
rang  with  these  events,  and  innumerable  pam- 
phlets were  written  on  the  subject  in  1692  and 


1693.  Aymar  was  invited  to  Paris  by  the- 
!  prince  de  Cond6  to  display  his  skill,  but  failed 
completely  in  everything  he  attempted,  and  at 
length  admitted  that  he  was  an  impostor.  The 
mystery  of  the  hunchback  was  never  entirely 
cleared  up. 

AYR,  the  county  town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
1  on  the  frith  of  Clyde,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Ayr,  30  m.  S.W.  of  Glasgow ;  pop.  in  1871. 
I  17,851.     The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  com- 
modious public  buildings,  a  large  fish  market, 
and  several  pleasant  squares.    The  Ayr  is  here 


The  Brigs  of  Ayr. 


crossed  by  two  bridges,  celebrated  by  Burns  in 
one  of  his  best  known  poems.  A  good  har- 
bor is  formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  river,  but 
the  town  has  little  commerce,  though  it  was 


Robert  Bnrns'B  Cottage,  near  Ayr. 


formerly  largely  engaged  in  the  importation  of 
wine  from  France.  The  principal  industries 
are  fishing,  rope  and  sail  making,  and  iron 
founding.  Ship  building  is  also  carried  on  to  a 
small  extent. — About  two  miles  from  Ayr,  in 
what  was  formerly  the  parish  of  Alloway,  is 
the  small  cottage  in  which  Burns  was  born  in 
1759.  A  monument  has  been  erected  to  the 
poet  on  a  hill  not  far  off. 

AYRER,  Jakob,  a  German  poet  who  flourished 
at  Nuremberg,  died  in  1605.  He  is  the  author 
of  up  ward  of  60  comedies,  tragedies,  burlesques, 
and  carnival  plays,  which  were  published  at 
Nuremberg  in  1618,  under  the  title  of  Opus  The- 
atrieum.  Tieck  inserted  five  of  these  plays  in 
the  first  volume  of  his  Deutsches  Theater. 

AYRSHIRE,  a  county  in  the  S.  W.  of  Scot- 
land, bounded  W.  by  the  frith  of  Clyde,  and 
landward  by  the  counties  of  Renfrew,  Lanark, 
Dumfries,  Kirkcudbright,  and  Wigtown;  area, 
1,149  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  200,745.  It  is 
hilly  on  the  southern  and  eastern  sides,  the 
principal  hills  rising  to  nearly  2,000  feet.  It 
is  intersected  by  several  small  rivers.  About 
10  m.  off  the  coast  lies  the  craig  of  Ailsa,  the  top 
of  a  submarine  mountain  with  basaltic  column? 


AYSODE 


AYUNTAMIENTO 


171 


similar  to  those  of  Staffa.  The  county  abounds 
in  coal,  particularly  that  known  as  blende  coal, 
which  is  found  in  a  state  of  coke ;  iron,  lead, 
antimony,  and  various  kinds  of  building  stone 
are  also  found ;  and  there  is  a  granite  valued  for 
mill  stones,  and  a  black  stone  used  in  build- 
ing ovens.  The  county  is  remarkable  fdk  its 
fine  crops  and  for  the  general  prosperity  of  its 
farmers.  The  manufactures  are  considerable 
in  linens,  woollens,  cottons,  leather,  and  other 
articles.  The  relics  of  antiquity,  Druidical  and 
Roman,  are  numerous,  while  there  are  also 
many  ruins  of  buildings  of  the  middle  ages. 
One  of  the  most  notable  of  these  in  point  of 
interest  is  Turnberry  castle,  the  ancestral  resi- 
dence of  the  Bruce.  Capital,  Ayr. 

AYSCUE,  Sir  George,  an  English  admiral,  born 
about  1616,  died  about  1676.  He  entered  the 
navy  early,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I. 
In  the  civil  war,  siding  with  the  parliament, 
he  had  command  as  admiral  in  the  Irish  seas. 
In  1651  he  reduced  Barbadoes  and  Virginia, 
which  had  held  out  for  the  king.  In  1652  he 
seconded  Blake  in  his  contest  with  Van  Tromp 
and  De  Kuyter.  In  June,  1666,  in  the  mem- 
orable naval  battle  of  the  four  days,  he  com- 
manded a  squadron,  but  his  ship  (the  Royal 
Prince,  the  largest  ship  then  afloat)  running  on 
the  Galoper  sands,  his  men  forced  him  to  sur- 
render, and  the  Dutch  captured  his  vessel.  He 
was  held  a  prisoner  for  several  years. 

AYTOJf,  or  Aytoun,  Sir  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet, 
private  secretary  to  the  queens  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  born  at  Kinaldie,  Fifeshire,  in  1570, 
died  in  the  palace  of  Whitehall  in  March, 
1638.  When  James  VI.  of  Scotland'  became 
king  of  England,  Ayton  was  rewarded  for  a 
very  eulogistic  Latin  poem  by  knighthood,  and 
several  lucrative  offices.  His  Latin  poems, 
chiefly  panegyrical,  were  published  in  his  life- 
time, and  much  esteemed.  His  English  poems, 
principally  preserved  by  tradition,  were  scarcely 
known  until  the  Ballantyne  club  at  Edinburgh 
printed  a  collection  of  them  in  their  "  Miscel- 
lany." Some  years  later  a  manuscript  contain- 
ing Ayton's  poems  was  picked  up  at  a  sale, 
and  the  whole,  edited  by  C.  A.  Pryor,  were 
published  in  1844.  Burns  greatly  admired 
such  of  Ayton's  poems  as  he  had  seen — among 
them  the  original  of  "Auld  Lang  Syne." 
Ayton  was  intimate  with  Ben  Jonson  and  the 
leading  literary  men  of  his  time. 

AYTOPf,  William  Edmondstonne,  a  Scottish  poet, 
born  in  Fifeshire  in  1813,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
Aug.  4,  1865.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools 
of  Edinburgh,  where  he  gained  distinction  in 
English  and  Latin  composition.  A  prize  poem, 
"Judith"  (1831),  received  the  applause  of 
Prof.  Wilson,  whose  daughter  he  afterward 
married ;  and  encouraged  by  him  he  published 
his  first  volume,  entitled  "Poland  and  other 
Poems,"  which  attracted  but  little  attention. 
Mr.  Aytoun  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1840, 
and  became  well  known  as  a  wit  and  as 
an  advocate  in  criminal  cases.  In  1845  he 
succeeded  Mr.  Moir  as  professor  of  rhetoric 


!  and  belles-letters  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
there  were  celebrated  for  their  pithy  treatment 
of  topics  and  their  brilliant  style.  He  aban- 
doned the  liberal  political  views  toward  which 
he  tended  in  his  youth,  and  after  the  death  of 
Prof.  Wilson  was  the  most  prominent  among 
the  contributors  to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine." 
In  this  periodical  first  appeared  his  celebrated 
national  ballads,  "  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cava- 
liers and  other  Poems  "  (London  and  Edinburgh, 
1849 ;  10th  ed.,  1857).  Prof.  Aytoun  lectured 
with  great  success  in  London  in  1853  upon 
poetry  and  dramatic  literature,  and  in  1854 
published  "  Firmilian,  a  Spasmodic  Tragedy, 
by  T.  Percy  Jones,"  designed  to  ridicule  the 
raptures  of  some  of  the  young  poets  of  the  day. 
He  also  took  part  in  the  "  Book  of  Ballads," 
edited  under  the  pseudonyme  of  "  Bon  Gaul- 
tier."  His  last  poem  was  "Bothwell"  (2d 
ed.,  1856).  He  was  one  of  the  most  effective 
of  British  political  writers,  and  in  reward  for 
his  services  to  the  conservative  party  he  was 
in  1852  appointed  by  Lord  Derby  sheriff  and 
vice  admiral  of  Orkney.  Theodore  Martin, 
one  of  his  colaborers,  has  published  a  memoir 
of  his  life  (1868). 

AYIINTAMIEIVTO,  the  name  of  village  and 
town  councils  in  Spain.  During  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Moors  and  Christian  Spaniards  it 
was  the  policy  of  the  sovereigns  to  induce  inhab- 
itants and  cultivators  to  settle  in  the  depopu- 
lated country  as  fast  as  it  was  recovered.  As 
an  incentive  they  granted  to  the  villages  and 
towns  municipal  privileges  of  a  character  de- 
rived from  Roman  antiquity,  and  totally  an- 
tagonistic to  the  spirit  of  the  feudal  law.  The 
town  councils  were  to  be  composed  of  the 
judge,  the  mayor,  the  regidores  or  clerks,  the 
jurados,  and  the  personeros  or  deputies;  all 
these  were  elective  officers,  except  the  judge 
or  corregidor,  who  was  appointed  by  the  king. 
The  only  qualification  for  a  citizen  was  Span- 
ish birth,  residence,  and  to  be  the  head  of  a 
family.  These  privileges  were  consonant  with 
the  most  ancient  rights  of  the  Spaniards  and 
their  Gothic  conquerors,  but  now  they  were  con- 
firmed by  fueros  or  charters.  The  only  liabil- 
ity under  which  the  districts  thus  organized 
were  placed  was  that  of  paying  a  tax  to  the 
king,  and  of  serving  in  arms  in  defence  of  the 
country,  under  their  own  alcalde.  Their  elec- 
tions were  by  ballot ;  persons  soliciting  a  vote 
or  using  undue  influence  were  disfranchised. 
The  king  himself  might  not  interfere  with  the 
proceedings  of  the  ayuntamiento,  which  had 
supreme  control  of  all  local  expenditure  and 
taxation.  All  the  citizens  in  these  districts 
had  equal  rights.  Noblemen  had  to  lay  aside 
their  rank  and  exclusive  privileges  if  they  de- 
sired to  reside  in  the  district.  There  were  no 
special  privileges;  all  men  and  all  religions 
were  equal  before  the  law.  These  regulations 
continued  in  force  for  centuries ;  but  under 
the  house  of  Austria  and  the  early  Bourbons 
they  were  frequently  encroached  upon,  until  at 


172 


AZAlS 


AZALEA 


the  period  of  the  French  invasion,  while  the 
municipal  organizations  of  the  villages  and  un- 
important towns  had  preserved  their  integrity, 
the  charters  of  most  of  the  great  towns  and 
cities  of  the  kingdom  had  been  violated,  and 
the  rights  of  the  people  abridged.  During 
that  invasion  the  constitution  of  1812,  recog- 
nizing and  restoring  all  the  ancient  fueros,  was 
adopted  by  the  people.  This  constitution  was 
abrogated  by  Ferdinand  VII.  on  his  restora- 
tion, revived  by  the  revolution  of  1820,  and 
again  suppressed  in  1823.  The  constitution  of 
1837,  however,  restored  the  ayuntamientos. 
In  1840,  in  consequence  of  the  check  which 
this  system  of  local  government  gave  to  the 
policy  of  the  court,  Queen  Christina,  by  the 
advice  of  the  French  government,  introduced 
a  measure  intended  to  restrain  the  political 
action  of  the  ayuntamientos.  This,  although 
it  at  the  time  led  to  disturbances,  was  sub- 
stantially carried  out  in  1844. 

AZAIS,  Pierre  Hyadnthe,  a  French  philosopher, 
born  in  Sorreze,  Languedoc,  March  1, 1766,  died 
in  Paris,  Jan.  22,  1845.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Benedictine  college  of  Sorreze,  where  his  father 
was  teacher  of  music,  and  at  the  college  of  the 
Oratorians  at  Toulouse,  and  afterward  became 
secretary  to  the  bishop  of  Oleron,  but  lost  this 
position  on  refusing  to  take  orders.  He  was 
at  first  a  partisan  of  the  revolution,  but  having 
published  a  pamphlet  against  its  excesses,  he 
was  condemned  to  transportation.  He  found 
a  refuge,  however,  in  the  hospital  of  the  sisters 
of  charity  at  Tarbes,  where  he  served  as  sec- 
retary and  bookkeeper.  There  he  wrote  his 
"Discourses  of  the  Soul  with  the  Creator," 
and  his  "  Religious  Inspirations,  or  the  Eleva- 
tion of  the  Soul  to  the  Spirit  of  God."  In 
these  works  he  first  put  forth  his  ideas  of 
eternal  justice,  and  the  natural  and  necessary 
balance  of  good  and  evil  in  the  universe  and 
in  the  destinies  of  men.  After  remaining  18 
months  concealed  in  this  hospital,  he  retired 
to  Saint-Sauveur,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  there  wrote  his  book  on  the  "  Misfortunes 
and  the  Happiness  of  Life."  Here  he  remained 
six  years,  engaged  in  writing  his  philosophical 
"  System  of  Compensations,"  the  best  known 
of  his  works.  He  then  went  to  Paris,  married 
the  widow  of  an  officer,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  geography  in  the  military  school 
of  Saint-Cyr.  This  office  he  resigned  when 
the  school  was  removed  to  La  Fleche,  and 
was  afterward  appointed  inspector  of  booksell- 
ing at  Avignon,  where  he  published  his  great 
work,  Le  gysteme  universel(2  vols.  8vo,  1812). 
The  following  year  he  went  to  Nancy  in  the 
same  capacity,  and  commenced  a  work  on  the 
destiny  of  man.  At  the  downfall  of  Napoleon 
he  lost  his  place,  and  retired  again  to  Paris, 
where  he  lived  some  time  in  poverty  ;  but  his 
friends  at  length  obtained  for  him  a  pension. 
He  lectured  publicly  at  the  Athenee  Royal  in 
Paris,  and  attracted  large  audiences;  and  in 
1827-'8  he  held  conferences  in  his  garden  in 
the  suburbs  of  Paris,  which  were  attended  by 


the  elite  of  both  sexes.  In  1826  he  published 
his  Explication  universelle  ;  in  1829,  Principes 
de  morale  et  de  politique ;  in  1833,  Cours 
d' 'explication  universelle  ;  in  1834,  Idee  precise 
de  la,  verite  premiere;  in  1835,  De  la  vraie 
medecine,  and  De  la  vraie  morale;  in  1836, 
Physiologic  du  Men  et  du  mal,  for  which  the 
French  academy  awarded  a  prize  of  5,000 
francs ;  in  1839,  De  la  phrenologie,  du  ma- 
gnetisme  et  de  la  folie  ;  in  1840,  La  constitu- 
tion de  Vunivers  et  Vexplication  generale  des 
moutements  politiques,  for  which  the  academy 
awarded  another  prize  of  2,000  francs. 

AZALEA  (Gr.  dfaAfof,  arid),  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  ericacece,  and  to 
the  sub-order  rhodorete,  named  in  allusion  to 
the  dry  places  in  which  many  of  the  species 
grow,  and  consisting  of  upright  shrubs  with 
large,  handsome,  and  fragrant  flowers,  often 
cultivated  in  gardens.  The  genus  comprises 
more  than  100  species,  most  of  them  natives  of 
China  or  North  America,  having  profuse  nm- 


Azalea  viscosa 

belled  clusters  of  white,  orange,  purple,  or 
variegated  flowers,  some  of  which  have  long 
been  the  pride  of  the  gardens  of  Europe.  The 
general  characteristics  of  the  genus  are  a 
5-parted  calyx,  a  5-lobed,  funnel  form,  slightly 
irregular  corolla,  5  stamens,  a  5-celled  pod,  and 
alternate,  oblong,  entire,  and  ciliated  leaves, 
furnished  with  a  glandular  point.  The  species 
may  be  classified  into  those  which  have  gluti- 
nous flowers,  and  those  whose  flowers  are  but 
slightly  or  not  at  all  glutinous;  each  of  which 
classes  may  be  subdivided  into  those  which 
have  short  stamens,  and  those  which  have 
stamens  much  longer  than  the  corolla.  Of 
those  which  have  a  glutinous  corolla  and  short 
stamens  are  the  vixcosa  and  the  glauca,  very 
nearly  resembling  each  other,  found  native  in 
North  America  from  Maine  to  Georgia,  grow- 
ing from  4  to  10  feet  high,  and  having  many 
varieties  of  flowers,  either  white  or  tinged  with 


AZARA 


AZEGLIO 


173 


rose  color.  Of  those  which  have  a  glutinous 
corolla,  with  long  stamens,  are  the  nitida,  his- 
pida,  and  pontica,  the  first  two  being  Ameri- 
can species  and  found  in  mountainous  regions 
in  the  middle  states,  the  last  a  native  of 
Turkey  and  the  northern  borders  of  the  Black 
sea,  and  distinguished  by  its  brilliant  yellow 
corolla.  Of  those  whose  flowers  are  smooth 
or  but  slightly  glutinous,  and  have  long  sta- 
mens, are  the  periclymena,  or  upright  honey- 
suckle, found  on  hillsides  in  all  the  woods  of 
North  America;  the  canescens,  with  a  white 
flower  which  has  a  red  tube,  an  early  and 
tender  American  species ;  and  the  arborescens, 
a  rare  and  beautiful  shrub,  with  elegant  foli- 
age and  very  fragrant  rose-colored  blossoms, 
found  about  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains  of 
Pennsylvania.  Of  those  whose  flowers  are  not 
glutinous,  and  which  have  short  stamens,  are 
the  sinengis,  nearly  resembling  the  pontica ; 
the  indiea,  a  Chinese  species,  with  brilliant 
variegated  flowers,  cultivated  in  Europe  and 
America  as  a  greenhouse  plant ;  and  the  ledi- 
folia,  also  a  native  of  China,  with  evergreen 
leaves,  and  larger  flowers  than  those  of  the 
preceding.  All  the  American  species  are  de- 
ciduous. In  cultivation  the  azaleas  love  the 
shade  and  a  soil  of  sandy  peat  or  loam. 

AZARA,  Felix  de,  a  Spanish  naturalist,  born  in 
Aragon,  May  18, 1746,  died  there  in  1811.  He 
became  a  brigadier  general  in  the  Spanish 
army,  and  was  wounded  in  the  warfare  against 
the  Algerine  pirates  (1775).  In  1781  he  went 
to  South  America  as  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  the  settlement  of  the  boundary  between 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions,  and 
the  researches  which  he  prosecuted  till  1801, 
despite  the  vexatious  proceedings  of  the  local 
Spanish  officials,  gave  him  distinction  as  an 
authority  on  the  natural  and  political  history 
of  Paraguay  and  the  Plata  region.  His  JSmai 
gur  VhMoire  naturelle  des  qnadrupedes  de  la 
province  du  Paraguay  was  first  published  in 
French  (Paris,  1801),  and  afterward  in  Span- 
ish (Madrid,  1802)  under  the  auspices  of  his 
brother,  the  chevalier  Josii  NICOLAS  DE  AZAEA 
(born  in  1731,  died  in  Paris  in  1804),  Spanish 
ambassador  to  France,  favorably  known  by  a 
Spanish  translation  of  Middleton's  Cicero  and 
by  other  literary  achievements.  Felix  de  Aza- 
ra's  masterpiece,  Voyage  daw  VAmerique  me- 
ridionale  depuis  1781  jusqu'en  1801  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1809),  containing  a  narrative  of  the  dis- 
covery and  conquest  of  Paraguay  and  the  Pla- 
ta river,  and  in  the  last  two  volumes  ornitho- 
logical descriptions  translated  by  Sonnini,  was 
edited  by  the  French  naturalist  Walckenaer, 
whose  commentaries  as  well  as  those  of  Son- 
nini and  Cuvier  impart  additional  value  to  the 
work.  A  Spanish  translation  by  Varela  has 
been  published  at  Montevideo. 

AZARIAH  (Heb.  'Azaryah,  orAzaryahu,  helped 
of  Jehovah),  a  very  common  name  among  the 
Hebrews.  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  is  also  called 
Azariah.  It  was  the  Hebrew  name  of  the 
friend  of  Daniel  whose  Chaldee  name  was 


Abednego.  Apart  from  these,  the  most  prom- 
inent persons  bearing  the  name  are  a  prophet 
who  met  Asa  after  his  victory  over  Zerah,  king 
of  Ethiopia,  and  exhorted  him  to  put  away 
idolatrous  worship ;  and  a  high  priest  who 
aided  Hezekiah  in  reforming  the  temple  wor- 
ship.— In  its  Greek  form,  Azarias,  several  per- 
sons of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  the  apocry- 
phal books,  one  of  them  being  one  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Judas  Maccabfflus,  who  suffered  defeat 
by  Gorgias. 

AZEGLIO,  Massimo  Taparelli,  marquis  <!',  an 
Italian  statesman,  artist,  and  author,  born  in 
Turin,  Oct.  2,  1798,  died  there,  Jan.  15,  1866. 
In  his  youth,  as  he  says  himself  in  his  memoirs, 
he  was  a  swaggering  soldier  and  a  companion 
of  scamps.  His  father  being  appointed  in  1814 
Sardinian  ambassador  in  Rome,  he  accompanied 
him  and  remained  there  almost  uninterruptedly 
for  eight  years,  acquiring  distinction  as  a  pain- 
ter, and  for  a  time  living  the  life  of  an  artistic 
hermit  in  the  outskirts  of  the  Roman  Apen- 
nines. After  his  father's  death  in  1830  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Manzoni,  and  after  her 
death  he  married  Louisa  Blondel  of  Geneva. 
He  was  now  a  man  of  serious  thought  and 
strict  virtue,  and  a  decided  liberal.  His  cele- 
brated romances,  Ettore  Fieramosca  (Milan, 
1833)  and  Nieold  de'  Lapi  (1841),  contributed 
to  rouse  the  national  spirit  of  independence 
and  to  establish  his  literary  fame.  In  his  Degli 
ultimi  cast  di  Jtomagna  (Florence,  1846),  as 
well  as  by  his  personal  influence  with  Pius  IX., 
he  advocated  a  liberal  policy,  while  his  politi- 
cal writings  (collected  in  1  vol.,  Turin,  1851) 
fostered  a  reformatory  spirit  in  Sardinia  and 
paved  the  way  for  coming  changes.  In  1848 
he  was  aide-de-camp  of  Durando,  who  com- 
manded the  papal  troops  against  Austria ;  but 
when  the  latter  were  recalled  he  joined  the 
patriot  volunteers  in  fighting  the  battle  of 
Vicenza  against  Radetzky,  and  was  severely 
wounded.  After  the  restoration  of  peace  he 
was  chosen  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  Vic- 
tor Emanuel  on  ascending  the  throne  appointed 
him  (May  11,  1849)  premier  and  minister  of 
foreign  aifairs,  and  it  was  mainly  his  influence 
which  saved  constitutional  institutions  and 
paved  the  way  for  the  work  of  Cavour.  He 
dissolved  the  chambers  twice  on  account  of 
their  opposition  to  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
Austria,  which  he  caused  to  be  ratified  Jan.  9, 
1850.  Despite  Azeglio's  sympathies  with  pro- 
gressive measures,  he  was  considered  as  over- 
conservative  for  the  new  order  of  things ;  and 
he  finally  succumbed  to  the  combined  influ- 
ence of  Count  Cavour  and  Ratazzi  and  the 
opposition  in  the  chambers,  retiring  Oct.  80, 
1852.  He  had  already  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion five  months  before,  and  continued  in 
office  only  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  king. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1859,  he 
contributed,  as  the  king's  commissioner  in 
Bologna,  to  the  preservation  of  order  in  the 
Romagna,  and  subsequently  was  for  a  short 
time  prefect  of  Milan,  his  impaired  health  re- 


174: 


AZEBBIJAN 


quiring  his  retirement  and  obliging  him  to 
have  his  speeches  in  the  senate  read  by  others. 
A  man  of  independent  character  and  political 
opinions,  he  severely  criticised  Oavour,  Maz- 
zini,  and  other  liberal  leaders,  and  among  other 
popular  measures  opposed  the  intended  trans- 
fer of  the  capital  to  Eome.  His  daughter,  the 
marchioness  Eicci,  has  published  his  autobi- 
ography, or,  as  he  designates  it,  his  "moral 
autopsy,"  entitled  /  miei  ricordi  (2  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  Florence,  1867 ;  German  translation,  1869). 
A  supplementary  volume  of  correspondence 
between  Azeglio  and  Torelli  has  been  edited 
by  Paoli  (Milan,  1870).  In  1867  appeared  in 
Paris  his  Italic  de  1847-1865,  and  his  Cor- 
respondance  politique,  edited  by  E.  Eendu. 
Oarcano  published  at  Milan  in  1870  Azeglio's 
Lettere  a  SIM  moglie  Luisa  Blondel ;  and  Bar- 
bera  of  Florence  has  lately  published  his  Scritti 
inediti. — His  brother  Ltnoi,  who  died  in  Eome 
Sept.  24,  1862,  was  an  eminent  member  of 
the  order  of  Jesuits,  editor  of  the  ultra-clerical 
Oimlta  cattolica,  and  the  author  of  a  work  on 
natural  and  one  on  international  law.  His 
eldest  brother,  EOBBETO,  who  died  in  Turin, 
Dec.  24,  1862,  published  some  excellent  works 
on  art,  and  was  a  promoter  of  political  re- 
forms toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
Albert,  a  senator,  and  director  of  the  royal 
gallery  of  paintings.  The  son  of  the  latter, 
the  marquis  VITTOBIO  EMMANUELS  TAPARBLLI 
D' AZEGLIO,  an  accomplished  artist,  especially  in 
statuary,  was  ambassador  of  Sardinia  and  after- 
ward of  Italy  in  London  from  1850  to  1868. 

AZERBIJAN,  or  Azerbaijan,  a  N.  W.  province 
of  Persia,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by  the  Eus- 
sian  dominions,  E.  by  the  Persian  province  of 
Ghilan,  S.  by  Irak-Ajemi  and  Persian  Kurdis- 
tan, and  W.  by  Turkish  Kurdistan  and  Arme- 
nia ;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated 
at  2,000,000.  It  nearly  corresponds  to  the 
ancient  Median  province  of  Atropatene,  from 
which  its  modern  name  is  derived.  The  country 
is  mountainous,  with  fertile  valleys  and  small 
plains.  Mt.  Savalan,  apparently  once  a  volca- 
no, is  upward  of  12,000  feet  high.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Aras  (the  ancient  Araxes),  which 
flows  along  the  N.  border,  and  its  affluent,  the 
Karasu.  The  salt  lake  of  Urumiah  is  in  this 
province.  The  climate  is  generally  healthy; 
the  summers  are  very  hot  and  the  winters 
very  cold.  In  the  plains  the  pomegranate  and 
olive  thrive  in  the  open  air.  The  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  province  are  not  developed; 
but  there  are  mines  of  iron,  lead,  and  copper. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mohammedans,  but 
there  are  some  settlements  of  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians. Capital,  Tabriz. 

AZEVEDO  «H  I IMIO,  .low  Juaquim  da  Cnnha 
a  Portuguese  bishop,  and  the  last  inquisitor 
general  of  Portugal  and  Brazil,  born  at  Cam- 
pos dos  Goitacazes,  in  Brazil,  Sept.  8,  1742, 
died  Sept.  12,  1821.  He  studied  at  Coimbra 
in  Portugal,  received  orders,  and  soon  became 
prominent  both  in  the  church  and  in  Brazilian 
politics.  He  published  in  1792  a  work  entitled 


AZOEES 

Ensaio  economico  sobre  o  commercio  de  Portu- 
gal e  suas  colonias.  In  1794  he  was  made 
aishop  of  Pernambuco.  He  published  in  Lon- 
don, in  1798,  a  pamphlet  against  the  proposi- 
;ion  to  abolish  the  slave  trade.  Shortly  before 
iis  death  he  was  elected  to  the  cortes  as  a  rep- 
presentative  of  the  province  of  Eio  de  Janeiro. 
He  was  named  bishop  of  Elvas,  but  declined, 
and  in  1818  was  appointed  inquisitor  general. 
He  wrote  a  memoir  on  the  conquest  of  Eio 
de  Janeiro  by  Duguay-Trouin  in  1711. 

AZEVEDO  Y  ZINIGA,  Gaspard  de,  count  of 
Monterey,  and  viceroy  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  died 
March  16,  1606.  He  succeeded  Luis  de  Velas- 
co  in  the  viceroyalty  in  1603.  He  equipped  a 
fleet  to  search  for  the  great  southern  continent, 
which,  under  the  command  of  Pedro  Fernan- 
dez de  Quiro,  discovered  several  islands. 

AZINCOCRT.     See  AGINOOURT. 

AZKAR   I  lAKIk.     See  TTJAEIKS. 

AZOF.     See  Azov. 

AZOIC  AGE,  the  period  in  the  earth's  history 
preceding  the  appearance  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  A  few  years  ago  life  was  not 
known  to  have  existed  below  the  lower  Silu- 
rian rocks,  in  the  Cambrian  of  England,  or  in 
the  Taconic  (Laurentian  and  Huronian)  of  this 
country.  If,  however,  eozoon  be  admitted  as 
an  animal  form,  the  first  appearance  of  life  is 
carried  back  in  time  very  much ;  and  now 
American  geologists  are  disposed  to  admit  an 
eozoic  age  between  the  Silurian  and  azoic. 

AZORES,  or  Western  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Portugal  in  the  N.  Atlantic,  be- 
tween lat.  36°  55'  and  39°  44'  N.,  and  Ion.  25° 
10'  and  31°  16'  W.,  about  800  m.  from  the  coast 
of  Portugal;  area,  over  1,100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
250,000.  They  comprise  three  minor  groups, 
the  N.  W.  consisting  of  Flores  and  Corvo,  the 
central  of  Terceira,  San  Jorge,  Pico,  Fayal,  and 
Graciosa,  and  the  S.  E.  of  San  Miguel  and  Santa 
Maria ;  and  they  extend  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W. 
about  400  m.  The  largest,  San  Miguel,  is  50  m. 
long,  and  from  5  to  12  m.  broad.  They  are  all 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  have  suifered  severely 
from  eruptions  and  earthquakes.  A  volcano 
rose  suddenly  to  the  height  of  3,500  ft.  in  San 
Jorge  in  1808,  and  burned  for  six  days,  deso- 
lating the  entire  island.  In  1811  a  volcano  rose 
from  the  sea  near  San  Miguel,  and  after  vomit- 
ing ashes  and  stones  disappeared.  The  peak 
of  Pico,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is 
7,613  ft.  high.  All  the  islands  are  rugged  and 
picturesque,  with  steep  shores.  The  climate  is 
moist  but  agreeable,  and  vegetation  is  luxuri- 
ant, fruits  abounding,  as  well  as  the  sugar  cane, 
coffee,  and  tobacco.  The  principal  exports  are 
wine,  brandy,  oranges,  lemons,  beef,  pork,  and 
coarse  linens,  and  their  value  is  about  $1,200,- 
000  annually.  The  imports,  valued  at  $1,700- 
000,  comprise  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  iron, 
glass,  pitch,  timber,  rum,  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  fish, 
&c.  The  tonnage  entered  in  1867  was  119,271 ; 
cleared,  117,690.  There  are  no  good  harbors, 
the  least  exposed  being  Angra,  on  the  island  of 
Terceira. — The  Azores  were  laid  down  on  the 


AZOTE 


AZTECS 


175 


maps  of  the  14th  century,  but  little  was  known 
of  them  till  1432,  when  they  were  occupied  hy 
the  Portuguese,  being  then  uninhabited,  and 
were  named  Afores  from  the  great  number  of 
hawks  (Port,  afor,  hawk)  observed  on  them. 

AZOTE.     See  NITROGEN. 

AZOV,  or  Azof,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Rij^sia, 
in  the  government  of  Yekaterinoslav,  on  the 
river  Don,  about  7  m.  from  its  entrance  into 
the  sea  of  Azov,  24  m.  S.  E.  of  Taganrog ;  pop. 
about  6,000.  Built  in  a  remote  time  near  the 
ancient  Greek  colony  named  Tanais,  it  carried 
on  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  northern 
peoples ;  but  the  silt  deposited  by  the  river  has 
blocked  up  the  port,  and  its  commerce  has 
been  transferred  to  Taganrog.  In  the  13th 
century  Azov  was  taken  by  the  Genoese,  who 
called  it  Tana;  they  were  driven  out  in  1392 
by  Tamerlane.  In  1471  it  was  taken  by  the 
Turks,  who  gave  it  its  present  name.  In  1696 
it  was  captured  by  Peter  the  Great.  During 
the  next  century  it  changed  hands  several  times 
between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks;  but  in 
1774  it  finally  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Rus- 
sians. It  was  bombarded  and  almost  destroyed 
by  the  allies  in  1855. 

AZOV,  or  Azof,  Sea  of  (anc.  Pains  Mceotis),  an 
inland  sea  of  southern  Russia,  lying  between 
lat.  45°  20'  and  47°  20'  N.,  and  Ion.  35°  and  39° 
E.  The  Turks  call  it  Balik-Denghis,  or  Fish 
sea,  from  the  abundance  of  fish  in  its  waters. 
Its  extreme  length  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  is  about 
235m.;  breadth  about  110  m. ;  area,  14,000  sq. 
m.  The  waters  are  nearly  fresh,  very  shallow, 
encumbered  with  sand  banks,  and  navigable 
only  by  vessels  of  small  draught.  The  sea  is 
properly  a  gulf  of  the  Black  sea,  with  which  it 
is  connected  on  the  south  by  the  strait  of  Yeni- 
kale  or  of  Kertch  (anc.  Bosporus  Cimmeriiui), 
about  30  m.  long.  For  four  months  it  is  fro- 
zen over,  the  navigation  opening  early  in  April 
and  closing  late  in  November.  The  Siwash, 
or  Putrid  sea,  a  western  continuation  of  the 
sea  of  Azov,  is  cut  off  by  a  long  narrow  slip  of 
land  called  the  tongue  of  Arabat,  and  entered 
by  the  strait  of  Genitchi,  at  the  north  of  the 
tongue.  It  is  separated  from  the  Black  sea  by 
the  isthmus  of  Perekop.  The  Putrid  sea  is 
little  more  than  a  long  reach  of  swamps.  The 
Don  is  the  largest  river  emptying  into  the  sea 
of  Azov. 

AZTECS,  properly  the  name  of  one  only  of 
the  various  tribes  or  nations  who  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  in  the  16th  century  occupied 
the  plateau  of  Anahuac  or  Mexico,  though 
generally  used  as  synonymous  with  Mexicans. 
These  tribes  were  the  Xochimilcos,  Ohalcos, 
Tepanecas,  Acolhuas,  Tezcucans,  Tlascaltecas, 
and  Aztecas,  which  collectively  bore  the  name 
of  Nahuatlecas,  and  their  language  was  called 
Nahuatl.  Tradition  variously  represents  these 
families  as  emerging  from  seven  caverns  in  a 
region  called  Aztlan  (from  the  Nahuatl  words 
Aztatl,  heron,  and  tlan  or  titlan,  place  or  place 
of),  or  as  wandering  away  from  their  fellows 
subsequently  to  a  grand  cataclysm,  and  after  a 
64  VOL.  n.— 12 


distribution  of  tongues.  These  traditions,  how- 
ever, do  not  fall  within  the  domain  of  history, 
and  critical  writers  have  generally  preferred  to 
confine  their  researches  within  the  period  fixed 
by  the  Mexican  paintings  or  records.  Several 
of  these  are  in  existence,  and  although  differing 
considerably  in  their  chronology,  they  do  not 
carry  back  the  history  of  the  Aztecs  and  their 
affiliated  tribes  beyond  the  llth  and  12th  cen- 
turies of  our  era.  There  is  abundant  evidence, 
nevertheless,  that  the  plateau  of  Mexico  was 
occupied  for  many  ages  anterior  to  the  arrival 
of  the  Nahuatlecas  by  a  people  of  much  higher 
culture,  of  whose  civilization  that  of  the  Az- 
tecs was  but  a  rude  reflection.  (See  TOLTECS.) 
The  locality  of  the  traditional  Aztlan  has  been  a 
subject  of  much  speculation.  By  some  writers 
it  has  been  supposed  that  this  primitive  seat 
of  the  Nahuatlecas  was  in  Asia,  and  that  the 
paintings,  all  of  which  depict  the  passage  over 
a  body  of  water  in  canoes  or  on  rafts,  represent 


Aztec  Warriors.    (From  a  Mexican  Sculpture.) 

a  migration  to  America  from  that  continent. 
Most,  however,  imagine  Aztlan  to  have  been 
somewhere  to  the  north  of  Mexico,  beyond  the 
river  Gila,  the  so-called  casas  grandee  found 
there  having  been  erroneously  thought  to  be 
the  work  of  the  Aztecs.  (See  CASAS  GEANDES.) 
But  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  no  native  his- 
tory, chronicle,  or  known  hieroglyphic  of  the 
Mexicans  assigns  a  northern  origin  to  the  Aztec 
tribes,  except  the  relation  of  Ixtlilxuchitl,  who 
wrote  a  considerable  time  after  the  conquest, 
and  who  in  this  matter  only  followed  the 
Spanish  authors  who  had  preceded  him.  In 
the  painting  representing  the  migration  of  the 
Aztecs,  originally  published  by  Gemelli  Oar- 
rera  in  his  Giro  del  Mondo,  the  sign  or  hiero- 
glyphic of  Aztlan  is  accompanied  by  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  teocalli  or  temple,  by  the  side 
of  which  stands  a  palm  tree — a  circumstance 
which  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  cautious 
Huinboldt,  as  opposed  to  the  opinion  that  Azt- 


176 


AZTECS 


Ian  was  to  be  looked  for  in  a  northern  latitude. 
The  palm  certainly  points  southward  as  the 
direction  whence  the  traditional  migration  took 
place ;  and  this  indication  is  supported  by  the 
fact  that  a  people  speaking  the  same  language 
with  the  Aztecs  (the  Nahuatl),  and  having 
identical  habits,  laws,  and  religious  observances, 
existed  as  far  south  as  Nicaragua,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  occupied  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  present  state  of  San  Salvador  in  Central 
America. — The  next  question  concerns  the  date 
of  the  departure  of  the  seven  tribes  from  Azt- 
lan.  According  to  Gemelli's  painting,  this  event 
happened  in  the  year  1038  of  our  era ;  accord- 
ing to  the  astronomer  Gama,  in  1064.  Veytia 
follows  Gama;  but  Clavigero  fixes  the  period 
nearly  a  century  later,  in  1160.  But  great  un- 
certainty is  attached  to  all  dates  previous  to 
the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Tenochtitlan  or 
Mexico,  which  all  accounts  concur  in  fixing 
in  the  year  1324  or  1325.  Tradition  and  the 
paintings  represent  that  various  halts  and  stop- 
pages took  place  after  leaving  Aztlan,  before 
the  seven  tribes  reached  the  valley  of  Mexico ; 
and  the  time  occupied  is  variously  estimated 
from  56  to  163  years.  According  to  the  paint- 
ing obtained  by  Boturni  representing  this  mi- 
gration, they  made  not  less  than  22  stoppages, 
varying  from  4  to  28  years  in  length — alto- 
gether occupying  162  years,  before  reaching 
Chapultepec.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  va- 
rious tribes  all  arrived  at  the  same  time  in  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  but  came  in  and  took  up  their 
positions  successively.  They  found  the  coun- 
try rich  and  attractive,  and  occupied  by  only  a 
remnant  of  an  anterior  and  powerful  people, 
who  had  left  numerous  monuments  of  their 
greatness.  From  these  they  learned  many  of 
the  arts  of  life,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
the  working  of  metals.  At  first  they  seem'  to 
have  lived  in  harmony  with  each  other ;  but 
gradually  the  stronger  tribes  began  to  encroach 
upon  the  weaker,  which  led  to  combinations 
for  defence  among  the  latter,  and  to  a  long  se- 
ries of  bloody  forays  and  wars.  The  Mexicans 
(subsequently  so  called  from  Mexi,  one  of  their 
war  chiefs)  ranked  as  the  seventh  tribe,  and 
seem  to  have  assumed  the  name  of  Aztecas 
par  excellence.  They  were  established  first  at 
Chapultepec,  but  gradually  encroached  upon 
the  Ohalcos,  and  finally,  under  the  lead  of  a 
succession  of  military  chiefs,  became  the  most 
powerful  tribe  in  Anahuac,  and  established  their 
imperial  city  in  the  lake  of  Chalco.  This  event 
took  place  in  1324  or  1325,  under  the  reign  of 
Tenuch,  and  the  city  was  called  Tenochtitlan, 
the  place  or  seat  of  Tenoch  or  Tenuch.  The 
site,  like  that  of  Venice — a  few  low  islands  in 
a  great  lake — was  admirably  chosen  for  de- 
fence, and  the  Mexicans  exhausted  their  art  in 
strengthening  the  position.  It  could  only  be 
approached  over  long  and  narrow  causeways, 
easily  defended,  and  which  even  the  Spaniards 
were  not  successful  in  forcing.  Commanding 
the  lake  with  numerous  fleets  of  boats,  they 
were  unassailable  from  the  water.  From  this 


stronghold  they  gradually  reduced  their  neigh- 
bors, their  companions  from  Aztlan,  or  forced 
them  into  a  kind  of  dependent  alliance,  which 
served  still  further  to  build  up  their  power  and 
influence ;  so  that,  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of 
Cortes,  the  Mexican  emperor  exercised  a  qual- 
ified dominion  over  nearly  all  the  aboriginal 
nations  embraced  within  the  present  bounda- 
ries of  the  republic  of  Mexico.  This  power 
was  often  exercised  without  mercy,  and  many 
thousands  of  their  captured  enemies  were 
sacrificed  on  the  altars  of  their  sanguinary 
divinities.  How  severely  their  yoke  was  felt, 
and  how  eagerly  it  was  thrown  off,  is  shown 
by  the  readiness  with  which  the  Tlascalans, 
their  own  kindred,  joined  the  Spaniards  in 
their  attack  on  the  Mexican  capital. — The 
form  of  government  among  the  Mexicans  was 
an  elective  monarchy  ;  and  the  legislative 
power  resided  wholly  with  the  king.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  laws  belonged  to  certain 
judicial  tribunals,  and  was  conducted  with 
great  regularity  and  with  Draconic  sternness. 
Their  religion  was  sanguinary  in  most  of  its 
practices ;  yet  it  combined  the  elements  of  a 
milder  system,  probably,  than  that  of  their 
Tulhuatecan  predecessors,  whose  religion  was 
closely  allied  to  the  Buddhist  system  of  India. 
As  essentially  a  warlike  nation,  they  made  the 
highest  beatitudes  of  their  faith  the  rewards 
of  the  bravest  soldiers ;  and  while  the  soul  of 
the  common  citizen  after  death  was  believed 
to  be  subject  to  a  purgatorial  existence,  that 
of  the  warrior  who  fell  in  battle  was  caught 
up  at  once  to  the  abode  of  the  gods,  to  the 
bosom  of  the  sun,  the  heaven  of  eternal  de- 
lights. In  the  arts,  and  especially  in  their 
architecture,  the  Mexicans  achieved  an  advance 
corresponding  with  their  numerical  and  politi- 
cal growth ;  and  the  islands,  which  at  the  out- 
set supported  only  rude  huts  of  cane  and  thatch, 
came  finally  to  be  covered  with  imposing  edi- 
fices of  stone  and  lime.  Metallurgy  was  ex- 
tensively practised,  and  gold  and  silver,  cop- 
per, and  a  species  of  brass  were  well  known 
and  elaborately  worked ;  but  iron,  except  in  its 
meteoric  form,  was  unknown.  For  accounts 
of  the  political,  social,  and  religious  practices, 
customs,  and  organization  of  this  interesting 
people,  whose  subversion  forms  the  most  dra- 
matic incident  in  the  history  of  this  continent, 
see  the  works  of  Sahagun,  Solis,  Clavigero, 
Prescott,  and  Baldwin.  The  following  chro- 
nological table  is  from  an  unpublished  Mexican 
painting  or  MS.,  hi  the  possession  of  Mr.  E.  G. 
Squier : 

Aztecs  leave  Aztlan A.  D.  1164 

Arrive  in  Valley  of  Mexico 1216 

Tenotzinlatoani.  founder  of  Mexico,  commences  to  reign  13 

Acamapichtle,  second  king 1373 

Huitzilihuitzin 1394 

Chimalpopoca 1415 

Itzcohuatzin 1423 

Hue  Monctecumatzin  (Montezuma  I.) 1438 

Axayacatzin,  king 1471 

Ticocicatzin  (•'  Tizoc  ") 1480 

Ahuitzotzin 1484 

Monctecumatzin  (Montezuma  II.) 1502 

Entry  of  the  Spaniards 1519 


AZURAKA 


BAAL 


177 


A/I  K  IK  A.  Gomez  Eanncs  de,  a  Portuguese  his- 
torian, born  at  Azurara,  died  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  15th  century.  Although  he  was  early 
made  a  monk  and  admitted  into  the  order  of 
Christ,  he  passed  his  youth  as  a  soldier,  and  in 
1459  was  appointed  to  reform  the  archives  of 
the  state.  His  principal  work  was  a  chrcjnicle 
of  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  Guinea.  This 
was  discovered  in  .the  bibliothdque  royale  of 
Paris  in  1837,  and  published  (8vo,  Paris,  1841) 
by  the  Portuguese  ambassador  at  the  French 
court,  the  visconde  de  Carreira,  who  transcribed 
the  MS.  with  his  own  hand. 

AZTMITES  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  &/ai,  leaven),  a  po- 
lemical term,  applied  to  the  western  church  by 
the  eastern  or  Greek  branch.  About  1025  a  con- 
troversy sprung  up  as  to  the  kind  of  bread  that 


ought  to  be  used  in  the  eucharist.  The  Latin 
church  maintained  that  unleavened  bread  only 
was  allowable,  since,  as  they  affirmed,  the 
Lord's  last  supper  having  been  held  on  the  day 
before  the  Hebrew  passover,  unleavened  bread 
was  the  only  kind  procurable.  The  Greek 
church  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  last  sup- 
per did  not  take  place  on  the  day  before  the  pass- 
over,  and  consequently  that  unleavened  bread 
could  not  be  had ;  moreover,  they  charged  that 
the  use  of  unleavened  bread  was  a  relic  of 
Judaism.  The  term  azymites  was  at  first  used 
as  one  of  reproach,  but  was  adopted  as  honor- 
able by  those  to  whom  it  was  applied.  The 
controversy  raged  long  and  high,  the  parties 
calling  themselves  azymites  and  prozymites, 
anti-leaveners  and  pro-leaveners. 


B 


BTHE  second  letter  in  all  languages  whose 
,  alphabets  have  a  Phoenician  origin,  as  He- 
brew, Greek,  Latin,  English,  French,  German, 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Russian.  In  English, 
French,  and  German  it  is  strictly  a  palato- 
labial,  the  sound  being  produced  by  compress- 
ing the  air  within  the  mouth,  vocalizing  it  by 
the  vibrations  of  the  membranes  forming  the 
palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth,  the  uvula  at  the 
game  time  closing  the  nasal  orifices.  The 
sound  can  be  imperfectly  formed  and  prolonged 
while  the  lips  are  tightly  closed.  The  perfect 
sound  is  produced  at  the  commencement  of  a 
syllable  by  a  sudden  opening  of  the  lips  for 
the  passage  of  the  vocalized  breath;  at  the 
close  of  a  syllable  by  suddenly  closing  the  lips 
upon  the  vocalized  current.  It  differs  from  P 
in  that  in  sounding  the  latter  the  breath  passes 
out  without  compression  and  vocalization.  In 
Spanish,  in  later  Latin  and  modern  Greek,  the 
prevalent  sound  of  B  is  nearly  identical  with 
that  of  V,  produced  by  pressing  the  upper 
teeth  upon  the  lower  lip,  causing  only  a  par- 
tial closure  of  the  mouth,  so  that  the  sound 
can  be  indefinitely  prolonged.  Thus  in  modern 
Greek  (as  perhaps  in  the  ancient),  /JooUedf  is 
pronounced  vasilefs,  the  v  having  its  conso- 
nantal sound.  The  Greek  B  sometimes,  though 
not  always,  represented  the  Latin  V;  thus 
Virgilius  was  written  Rip-yihiof  or  Ovip-yifaof. 
The  Hebrew  beth  has  the  sound  of  V  except 
when  a  diacritical  point  indicates  that  it  is 
softened  to  B.  In  the  passage  of  a  word  from 
one  language  to  another  an  interchange  not  un- 
frequently  takes  place  between  B  and  P,  F  (ph), 
V,  and  less  frequently  M.  For  example :  Lat. 
«J,  Gr.  cnr6,  Eng.  off ;  Gr.  /}por6f,  Lat.  mor[t]s. 
In  German,  B,  chiefly  at  the  end  of  words,  is 
often  pronounced  like  P;  thus,  ab  like  op. 
The  sound  of  B,  being  formed  with  the  mouth 
closed,  is  wanting  in  many  of  the  dialects  of 
the  American  Indians,  who  enuaciate  almost 


wholly  with  the  lips  open. — In  the  calendar  B 
is  the  second  dominical  letter.  In  music  it  is 
the  seventh  degree  of  the  diatonic  scale  of  0, 
and  the  12th  of  the  diatonic-chromatic  scale. 
According  to  the  tempered  system  of  tuning, 
the  ratio  of  B  to  the  fundamental  note  0  is  -fa. 
In  the  ancient  diatonic  scale  B  was  not  used 
as  a  key-note,  its  fifth,  F,  being  imperfect.  In 
the  German  notation  our  B  is  called  H,  B  flat, 
half  a  tone  lower  than  B,  being  called  B.  As 
a  numeral,  /3  among  the  Greeks  represented  2, 
and  with  a  stroke  beneath  2,000;  among  the 
Romans  B  was  occasionally  used  to  denote  300, 
and  with  a  line  above  it  3,000. 

BAADER,  Franz  \a\cr  Ton,  a  German  mystic, 
born  in  Munich,  March  27,  1765,  died  there, 
May  23,  1841.  After  extensive  studies  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Bavarian  government  inspec- 
tor general  of  mines,  and  in  1826  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  speculative  theol- 
ogy at  the  newly  established  university  of  Mu- 
nich. He  was  a  devoted  follower  of  Bohme, 
whose  mysticism  predominated  in  his  philo- 
sophical theories  and  in  his  devout  interpreta- 
tion of  Roman  Catholic  theology.  He  wrote  on 
the  natural  sciences  and  technology,  but  his 
principal  writings  are  metaphysical.  In  his 
Fermenta  Cognitionii  he  extols  Bohme  as  the 
greatest  of  thinkers.  His  chief  disciple,  Franz 
Hoflmann  of  Wurzburg,  has  endeavored  to  re- 
duce Baader's  mystic  aphorisms  to  a  system, 
and  has  edited  his  complete  philosophical  works 
(16  vols.,  Leipsic,  1850-'60). 

BAAL,  a  Semitic  word  signifying  owner,  lord, 
or  master,  and  in  the  highest  sense  denoting 
the  deity.  The  Hebrews  never  used  it  as  a 
designation  of  their  deity,  but  always  to  dis- 
tinguish some  god  of  the  surrounding  nations. 
In  this  sense,  with  some  adjunct  appended,  it 
indicated  several  local  deities :  Baal-zebub  was 
the  fly  god  of  the  Ekronites,  corresponding  to 
the  Zet)f  and/ivioc  of  the  Greeks ;  Baal-peor  an- 


178 


BAALBEK 


Bwered  to  the  Roman  Priapus;  Baal-benth,  1 
Covenant  Baal,  to  ZCT?  SPMOC  and  deus  Mi- 
us  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  With  the 
article  prefixed, 
it  designated  the 
Baal  or  chief  de- 
ity of  the  Phce- 
nicians.  Strictly 
Baal  meant  the 
highest  male  god 
(the  sun  or  the 
planet  Jupiter),  as 
Ashtoreth  or  As- 
tarte  did  the  high- 
est goddess  (the 
moon  or  Venus), 
divinities  from 
whom  all  things 
visible  and  invis- 
ible had  their  ori- 
gin. The  Greeks 
and  Romans,  however,  sought  and  found  anal- 
ogies between  the  several  Baals  and  some  of 
their  subordinate  deities,  as  Mars  and  Her- 
cules. The  Bel  or  Bil  of  the  Babylonians 
is  closely  related  to  the  Baal  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the  former  name  being  a  contraction  of 


Baal. 


the  latter,  or  this  a  guttural  extension  of  the 
former.  Baal,  Bal,  and  Bel,  as  prefixes  or 
suffixes,  enter  largely  into  many  proper  names 
of  places  and  persons.  Such  are  Baal-ze- 
phon,  Baal-gad,  Baal-hamon,  Jerub-baal,  Esh- 
baal,  Bal-adan,  and  Bel-shazzar.  The  Phoeni- 
cians carried  the  word  through  all  their  wan- 
derings, giving  us  the  Carthaginian  Asdru-bal, 
Adher-bal,  and  Hanni-bal.  They  carried  the 
name  to  Ireland,  where  we  read  of  Seal  or  Bal, 
the  ancient  deity  worshipped  by  Bal  fires  on 
the  summits  of  the  hills,  and  of  Bel's  cairns, 
where  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Baal.  The 
Greek  B^Aof  and  the  Latin  Belus  are  merely 
the  Babylonian  Bel  with  a  terminal  syllable, 
though  the  Greeks  invented  for  him  a  descent 
of  their  own.  Whenever  the  Israelites  fell  into 
idolatry,  their  natural  tendency  was  to  worship 
Baal,  the  god  of  the  nations  with  whom  they 
came  into  most  immediate  contact. 

BAALBEK  (in  Phoenician,  Baal  of  the  valley, 
but  rendered  by  the  Greeks  Heliopolis,  city^  of 
the  sun),  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  in  lat.  34°  1' 
N.,  Ion.  36°  11'  E.,  36  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Damas- 
cus, the  ruins  of  which  are  the  most  imposing 
in  the  country,  excepting  those  of  Palmyra. 
The  city  lay  in  a  plain  of  Ccele-Syria,  fertil- 


ILuins  of  Baalbek. 


ized  by  streams  rising  in  the  range  of  Anti- 
Libanus.  The  date  of  its  foundation  is  uncer- 
tain, the  tradition  which  ascribes  its  erection 
to  Solomon  being  wholly  unsupported.  It  is 
mentioned  under  the  name  of  Heliopolis  by 
Josephus  and  Pliny.  Lying  in  the  direct  route 
of  trade  between  Tyre  and  the  East,  it  rose  to 
considerable  importance,  and  was  embellished 
with  magnificent  temples,  the  finest  of  which 
appear  to  date  from  the  time  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  A.  D.  160,  who  built  or  enlarged  the 
great  temple,  which  was  then  considered  one  of 


the  wonders  of  the  world.  When  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
heathen  temples,  except  the  great  one,  which 
was  made  a  Christian  church,  were  suffered  to 
decay ;  but  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Moslem  in- 
vasion (635)  Baalbek  was  the  most  splendid  city 
of  Syria,  adorned  with  monuments  of  ancient 
times  and  abounding  in  luxury.  It  made  a 
stout  defence  against  tbe  Moslem  invaders,  who 
imposed  upon  it  a  heavy  ransom.  For  more 
than  a  century  it  continued  an  opulent  mart, 
but  was  finally  sacked  in  748  by  the  caliph  of 


BAALBEK 


BABADAGH 


179 


Damascus,  the  principal  inhabitants  being  put 
to  the  sword.  During  the  crusades  it  changed 
hands  repeatedly.  It  was  sacked  by  Tamerlane 
in  1400,  and  subsequently  taken  by  the  Metaweli, 
a  barbarous  nomad  tribe,  who  were  nearly  ex- 
terminated by  the  Turks.  In  1759  an  earthquake 
completed  its  devastation. — The  most  pfemi- 


Temple  of  Jupiter,  Baalbek. 

nent  objects  visible  from  the  plain  are  a  lofty 
portico  of  six  columns  and  part  of  the  walls  of 
the  great  temple,  and  the  walls  and  columns  of 
a  smaller  temple  a  little  below.  The  greater 
temple  stood  upon  an  artificial  platform,  be- 
tween 20  and  30  ft.  in  height,  and  extended 


Piece  of  Ceiling  (fallen)  in  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Baalbek. 

1,000  ft.  from  east  to  west.  It  is  probable  that 
it  was  never  completed.  Approaching  from 
the  east,  one  entered  a  magnificent  portico,  180 
ft.  in  length  and  37  in  depth.  Only  the  pedes- 
tals of  the  columns  now  remain ;  the  vast  flight 


of  steps  which  led  up  to  it  have  also  disappear- 
ed. The  great  portal,  17  ft.  in  width,  leads  into 
a  hexagonal  court  about  200  ft.  in  diameter,  in 
a  ruinous  condition;  on  its  western  side  an- 
other portal,  50  ft.  wide,  brings  one  to  a  quad- 
rangular court,  440  ft.  in  length  by  370  in 
breadth.  Around  the  sides  of  this  court  are 
numerous  exedra,  with  columns  in  front,  30  ft. 
deep,  and  elaborately  ornamented  with  carv- 
ings. The  peristyle,  290  ft.  in  length  by  160  in 
breadth,  fronts  upon  the  quadrangle;  its  col- 
umns, originally  54  in  number,  are  about  76 
ft.  in  height  and  over  7  in  diameter,  usually 
consisting  of  three  blocks  only.  This  magnifi- 
cent edifice,  of  which  only  six  columns  now  re- 
main standing,  was  elevated  some  50  ft.  above 
the  surrounding  country,  upon  a  platform,  the 
western  side  of  which  contains  three  immense 
stones,  whose  united  length  is  190  ft.,  the  largest 
being  64  ft.  long,  their  average  height  13  ft., 
their  thickness  still  greater.  The  lesser  temple, 
which  like  the  other  is  of  Corinthian  architec- 
ture, stands  upon  a  lower  platform,  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  peristyle  of  its  greater  neigh- 
bor ;  its  length,  including  the  colonnades,  was 
225  ft.,  and  its  breadth  120.  Its  peristyle  con- 
sisted of  44  columns,  45  ft.  in  height,  of  which 
only  19  remain  standing.  Some  30  rods  dis- 
tant stands  a  small  circular  temple,  elaborately 
ornamented.  The  material  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  temples  is  a  compact  limestone, 
quarried  in  the  hills  south  of  the  town.  The 
ruins  of  Baalbek  are  apparently  of  two  or 
three  distinct  eras.  The  huge  stones  which 
form  the  platform  are  of  Cyclopean  architec- 
ture. The  Roman  temples,  which  appear  to 
occupy  the  site  of  an  older  structure,  present 
some  of  the  finest  models  of  the  Corinthian  ar- 
chitecture. The  modern  village  of  Baalbek  is 
little  more  than  a  heap  of  rubbish,  the  houses 
being  built  of  mud  and  sun-dried  brick.  The 
population  is  about  2,000. 

BAIN,  Jan  van,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  Haar- 
lem, Feb.  20,  1633,  died  at  the  Hague  in  1702. 
He  confined  himself  almost  exclusively  to  por- 
traiture, and  was  an  imitator  of  Vandyke,  to 
whom  he  was  little  inferior  in  color  and  ex- 
pression. He  painted  portraits  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  his  own  country,  and  of  Charles 
II.  of  England  and  many  of  his  court.  He  de- 
clined an  invitation  of  Louis  XIV.  to  visit  Paris, 
on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  unbecoming  in 
him  to  trace  the  features  of  the  despoiler  and 
conqueror  of  his  country. 

BABADAGH,  a  fortified  town  of  European 
Turkey,  capital  of  the  Dobrudja,  or  N.  E.  Bul- 
garia, in  the  eyalet  and  96  in.  N.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Silistria,  near  Lake  Rassein,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the 
Black  sea;  pop.  about  10,000.  Near  the  en- 
trance of  the  lake  is  the  seaport  of  Kara  Ir- 
man,  through  which  Babadagh  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade.  The  town  lies  in  an  unhealthy 
situation  between  mountains  and  swamps.  It 
is  called  after  Baba  the  saint,  whose  adjoining 
tomb  attracts  Moslem  pilgrims. .  It  contains 


180 


BABBAGE 


BABEL 


five  mosques,  a  college,  and  an  aqueduct,  and 
was  'of  great  strategical  importance  in  the 
Turko-Russian  conflicts  of  the  18th  century 
and  in  the  Crimean  war,  when  the  forts  were 
ineffectually  bombarded  by  the  Russians  (March 
27,  1854). 

BABBAGE,  Charles,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Teignmouth,  Deo.  26,  1792,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  20,  1871.  He  was  a  fellow  student 
of  Sir  John  Herschel  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  Lucasian  professor  there  from 
1828  to  1839.  He  became  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  the  calculating  machine.  (See 
CALCULATING  MACHINES.)  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  royal  astronomical  society  and 
of  the  British  association,  and  the  originator  of 
the  statistical  society,  and  wrote  extensively  for 
scientific  and  philosophical  periodicals  on  math- 
ematics, magnetic  and  electric  phenomena, 
mechanical  science,  geology,  and  statistics. 
Among  his  works  are :  "  Letter  to  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  on  the  Application  of  Machinery 
to  Mathematical  Tables"  (1822);  translations, 
with  Herschel  and  Peacock,  of  Lacroix's  works 
on  the  differential  and  integral  calculus ;  "  Com- 
parative View  of  the  different  Institutions  for 
the  Assurance  of  Life"  (1826);  "A  Table  of 
the  Logarithms  of  the  Natural  Numbers  from 
1  to  108,000"  (1826) ;  "  Reflections  on  the  De- 
cline of  Science  in  England  "  (1830);  "Econ- 
omy of  Manufactures  and  Machinery  "  (1832), 
which  passed  through  many  English  editions 
and  foreign  translations,  and  has  been  called  by 
Blanqni  a  hymn  in  honor  of  machinery ;  "  A 
Ninth  Bridgewater  Treatise"  (1837),  defending 
mathematical  studies  from  the  charge  of  a  ten- 
dency to  infidelity ;  "  The  Great  Exposition  " 
(1851) ;  and  "Passages  from  the  Life  of  a  Phi- 
losopher" (1864).  His  house  in  London  was 
for  many  years  a  centre  of  intellectual  society. 

BABCOCK,  Rnfns,  D.  D.,  an  American,  clergy- 
man, born  at  North  Colebrook,  Conn.,  Sept.  18, 
1798.  Pie  graduated  at  Brown  university  in 
1821,  and  was  for  two  years  tutor  in  Columbian 
college,  D.  C.  In  1823  he  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. ; 
in  1826  he  became  pastor  in  Salem,  Mass. ;  and 
in  1833  he  was  elected  president  of  Waterville 
college,  Maine;  but  his  health  failing,  he  re- 
signed in  1836,  and  accepted  the  pastorate  of 
the  Spruce  street  Baptist  church  in  Philadel- 
phia, whence  he  returned  after  three  years  to 
his  first  charge  at  Poughkeepsie.  He  was  sub- 
sequently pastor  of  a  church  in  Paterson,  N.  J., 
and  has  held  successively  the  offices  of  secretary 
of  the  American  and  foreign  Bible  society,  of 
the  American  Sunday  school  union,  and  of 
the  Pennsylvania  colonization  society.  He 
edited  for  five  years  the  "Baptist  Memorial," 
and  has  published  a  "Memoir  of  Andrew  Ful- 
ler" (1830),  "History  of  Waterville  College" 
(1836),  "  Tales  of  Truth  for  the  Young  "  (1837), 
"The  Emigrant's  Mother"  (1859),  "Memoirs 
of  John  M.  Peck"  (1862),  &c. 

BABEL,  the  Hebrew  name  for  Babylon  and 
the  Babjlonian  empire.  In  the  language  of 


the  Chaldeans  it  was  probably  Bab-  II,  the 
"  gate  of  (the  highest)  God ;  "  but  the  Hebrew 
form  is  explained  by  balal  (or  bilbel),  to  con- 
found, in  allusion  to  the  confounding  of 
tongues  consequent  on  the  building  of  the 
tower  of  Babel.  This  tower  was  probably 
never  carried  to  any  great  elevation,  but  a 
sacredness  may  have  been  attached  to  the  spot 
on  which  it  was  to  be  built ;  and  there,  long 
after,  was  erected  the  pyramidal  temple  of 
Bel-Merodach,  finally  repaired  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the  ruins  of  which,  at  Borsippa,  are 
now  known  as  Birs  Nimrud  (citadel  of  Nim- 
rod).  •  Except  in  one  passage  (Gen.  xi.  9),  there 
is  no  reference  in  Scripture  to  the  tower  of  Ba- 
bel ;  but  we  are  told  of  a  temple  of  Bel  in  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  placed  the  spoils  of  Jerusalem, 
and  probably  those  of  his  other  conquests. 
Herodotus  describes  a  temple  of  Belus,  which 
according  to  him  consisted  of  a  "solid  tower 
of  a  stadium  in  depth  and  width;  upon  this 
tower  another  is'raised,  and  another  upon  that, 
to  the  number  of  eight  towers."  This  gen- 
eral description  tallies  so  closely  with  the 
mound  of  Birs  Nimrud  as  to  render  it  probable 
that  this  is  the  remains  of  the  temple  of 
Belus.  The  ruin  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
huge  irregular  mound,  rising  abruptly  from  a 
wide  desert  plain,  with  masses  of  vitrified  mat- 
ter lying  around  its  base.  Its  interior  is  found 
upon  excavation  to  be  composed  of  a  mass  of 
brick  partially  vitrified  by  fire,  showing  that  it 
is  the  ruin  of  a  structure  into  which  combus- 
tible material  largely  entered.  The  bricks  dis- 
interred from  the  mound  bear  inscriptions  in 
the  cuneiform  character,  in  most  of  which  the 
name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  appears.  One  of  the 
inscriptions  of  this  monarch  reads :  "A  former 
king  had  built  it  (they  reckon  42  ages) ;  but  he 
did  not  complete  its  head.  Since  a  remote 
time  the  people  had  abandoned  it,  without  or- 
der expressing  their  words.  Since  that  time 
the  earthquake  and  the  thunder  had  dispersed 
its  sun-dried  clay.  The  bricks  of  the  casing 
had  been  split,  and  the  earth  of  the  interior 
had  been  scattered  in  heaps."  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  represent  this  temple  of  Belus, 
as  restored  and  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
That  which  appears  most  probable  is  by  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson.  He  says :  "  Upon  a  platform 
of  crude  brick,  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  allu- 
vial plain,  was  built  of  burnt  brick  the  first  or 
basement  stage,  an  exact  square,  272  ft.  each 
way,  and  26  ft.  in  perpendicular  height.  Upon 
this  stage  was  erected  a  second,  230  ft.  each 
way,  and  likewise  26  ft.  in  perpendicular 
height,  which,  however,  was  not  placed  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  of  the  first,  but  considera- 
bly nearer  to  the  southwestern  end,  which  con- 
stituted the  back  of  the  building.  The  other 
stages  were  arranged  similarly,  the  third  being 
188  ft.  square  and  26  ft.  high ;  the  fourth,  146 
ft.  square  and  15  ft.  high;  the  fifth,  104  ft. 
square,  of  the  same  height  as  the  fourth  ;  the 
sixth,  62  ft.  square,  and  again  the  same  height; 
the  seventh,  20  ft.  square,  and  once  more  the 


BABEL 


BABER 


181 


same  height.  On  the  seventh  stage  was  prob- 
ably placed  the  ark  or  tabernacle,  which  seems 
to  have  been  again  15  ft.  high,  and  must  have 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  covered  the  top  of  the 
seventh  story.  The  entire  original  height, 
allowing  three  feet  for  the  platform,  would 
thus  have  been  156  ft.,  or  without  the  pjat- 
fprm  153  ft.  The  whole  formed  a  sort  of  6b- 
lique  pyramid,  the  gentler  slope  facing  the  N. 
E.,  and  the  steeper  inclining  to  the  S.  W.  On 
the  N.  E.  side  was  the  grand  entrance,  and  here 
stood  the  vestibule,  a  separate  building,  the 
debris  from  which,  having  joined  those  from 
the  temple  itself,  fill  up  the  intermediate  space, 
and  remarkably  prolong  the  mound  in  this  di- 
rection." The  several  stories  of  this  temple 
appear  to  have  been  painted  in  several  colors : 
the  lowest  black,  representing  Saturn;  then, 
in  order,  Jupiter,  orange ;  Mars,  red ;  the  Sun, 
golden ;  Venus,  yellow ;  Mercury,  blue ;  the 
moon,  silver.  Above  these  was  the  shrine,  in 
which,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  a  golden 
table,  and  a  bed  well  furnished,  but  no  image. 
Within  the  shrine,  he  adds,  "  no  one  remains 
over  night,  except  a  native  female,  one  whom 
the  god  has  chosen  in  preference  to  all  others, 
as  say  the  Chaldeans,  who  are  priests  of  that 
god.  These  persons  also  say,  asserting  what  I 
do  not  believe,  that  the  god  himself  frequents 
the  temple,  and  reposes  on  the  couch."  The 
purposes  to  which  this  temple  became  devoted 
from  age  to  age  may  be  gathered  from  the 
foregoing.  Consecrated,  perhaps,  at  first  to 
the  ambition  of  a  monotheistic  faith,  it  passed 
through  several  stages  of  Sabianism  or  wor- 
ship of  the  host  of  heaven,  until  the  rites  per- 
formed in  it  sank  into  the  gross  idolatry  of  later 
times,  and  it  was  polluted  by  the  vices  which 
grow  out  of  heathen  superstition,  as  intimated 
by  Herodotus.  In  one  respect  this  temple,  or 
rather  series  of  temples  built  on  the  same  spot, 
subserved  a  valuable  purpose.  The  Babyloni- 
ans were  given  to  the  study  of  astronomy ;  the 
temple  served  also  as  an  observatory,  from 
which  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
could  be  watched.  -  Assuming,  which  is  proba- 
ble, that  the  mound  of  Birs  Nimrud  represent? 
the  most  important  structure  in  ancient  Baby- 
lon, it  enables  us  to  correct,  at  least  approxi- 
mately, the  statements  of  the  later  historians  as 
to  the  height  of  the  walls  which  surrounded 
the  city.  This  temple  was  at  most  only  156  ft. 
high,  while  we  are  told  that  the  city  walls  were 
300  or  350  ft.,  with  towers  haying  a  height  of 
420  ft.  These  walls  would  therefore  be  nearly 
as  high  as  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  London  (365 
ft.),  and  the  towers  almost  as  high  as  the  cross 
which  surmounts  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome  (430  ft.).  Of  all  human  structures  the 
apex  of  the  greatest  Egyptian  pyramid  (480  ft.) 
is  the  only  one  which  greatly  exceeds  that  as- 
cribed to  the  brick  towers  of  Babylon.  The 
only  other  ruins  which  have  in  any  way  been 
proposed  to  be  identified  with  the  ancient  Babel, 
are  those  now  denominated  El-Kasr  and  Babil, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Euphrates,  at  a  dis- 


tance of  about  12  m.  from  Birs  Nimrud.  (See 
BABYLON.) 

BAB-EL-MANDEB  (Arabic,  "the  gate'  of 
mourning,"  referring  to  the  dangerous  naviga- 
tion), a  strait  uniting  the  Indian  ocean  (gulf  of 
Aden)  with  the  Red  sea,  separating  Asia  from 
Africa,  and  situated  between  the  shores  of 
Samhara  and  Arabia.  The  distance  across, 
from  the  projecting  cape  Bab-el-Mandeb  (anc. 
Palindrormis)  on  the  Arabian  shore  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  Africa,  is  about  18  m.,  the 
island  of  Perim  and  other  smaller  islands  ly- 
ing in  the  intermediate  space,  and  dividing  the 
strait  into  a  western  channel  with  a  depth  of 
180  fathoms  and  an  eastern  one  from  7  to  14 
fathoms  deep.  The  latter  is  most  practica- 
ble for  navigation.  Perim,  commanding  the 
straits,  has  been  in  British  possession  since 
1857;  a  fort  has  been  built  at  Straits  point, 
and  a  revolving  light  was  erected  in  1861. 

BABER,  Zablr  cd-Diii  Mohammed,  Mogul  empe- 
ror, born  in  1482  or  1483,  died  in  December, 
1530.  He  was  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane,  his 
father  being  sultan  of  Khokan,  a  Tartar  king- 
dom on  the  Jaxartes.  On  his  father's  death, 
which  happened  when  he  was  11  or  12  years 
old,  the  kingdom  was  seized  by  his  uncle,  the 
sultan  of  Samarcand,  but  Baber  succeeded  in 
maintaining  his  rights.  Baber's  early  life  was  a 
succession  of  wars  with  his  neighbors.  He  was 
obliged  to  fly,  and  went  to  Khorasan  with  300 
followers,  where  he  sought  assistance  from  the 
sultan,  which  was  refused.  A  number  of  Mon- 
gols joined  his  standard,  and  Baber  marched 
on  Cabool  in  Afghanistan,  which  he  captured 
in  1504.  The  following  year  he  made  an  ir- 
ruption into  the  Punjaub,  but  did  not  cross  the 
Indus,  and  returned  to  Cabool.  He  became 
involved  in  dissensions  in  Khorasan  in  1506, 
and  for  many  years  was  occupied  with  attempts 
to  recover  his  paternal  possessions.  In  1519 
he  again  descended  into  Hindostan,  crossed  the 
Indus,  and  conquered  some  towns  in  the  Pun- 
jaub. In  1524  he  advanced  to  Lahore,  which 
he  captured  and  burned.  The  next  year  he  ad- 
vanced to  Paniput,  about  50  miles  from  Delhi. 
Here  he  encountered  the  troops  of  Sultan  Ibra- 
him Lodi,  the  Afghan  sovereign  of  Delhi,  and 
completely  vanquished  him,  April  27,  1526. 
Baber's  lieutenants  occupied  Delhi  and  Agra, 
while  his  son  Humayun  routed  another  Afghan 
army,  and  Baber  himself  marched  south  against 
the  Hindoos,  and  gained  a  victory  over  Rana 
Sanka,  the  most  powerful  of  their  princes. 
From  this  time  Baber  occupied  himself  in  con- 
solidating his  extensive  dominions.  He  made 
roads  with  stations  for  travellers ;  directed  the 
land  to  be  measured  with  a  view  to  equable 
taxation ;  planted  gardens  and  introduced  fruit 
trees ;  and  established  a  line  of  post  houses 
from  Agra  to  Cabool.  To  great  political  and 
military  talents  Baber  joined  literary  tastes 
and  accomplishments.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
his  own  life  in  the  Mongol  language,  which  has 
been  translated.  He  founded  a  dynasty  in  In- 
dia which  lasted  almost  three  centuries,  and 


182 


BABEUF 


BABISM 


embraced  among  its  members  Akbar  and  Au- 
rungzebe.  He  was  succeeded  by  Humayun, 
the  oldest  of  his  three  sons. 

BABECF,  or  Babcenf,  Francois  Noel,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  in  St.  Quentin  in  1764,  ex- 
ecuted at  Vend6me,  May  27,  1797.  He  began 
life  as  a  surveyor's  assistant.  In  his  youth  he 
was  arrested  on  account  of  his  subversive 
theories,  and  was  also  imprisoned  on  a  charge 
of  forgery,  of  which  he  was  acquitted.  He 
professed  the  fullest  sympathy  with  the  revo- 
lution in  1792,  obtained  several  public  offices, 
and  in  1794  established,  under  the  name  of 
Cains  Gracchus  Babeuf,  a  journal  called  Le 
tribun  du  peuple,  urging  the  most  extreme 
socialistic  action.  His  followers  were  called 
Babouvistes.  In  March,  1796,  he  organized  a 
conspiracy  for  the  overthrow  of  the  authori- 
ties and  the  constitution,  and  for  carrying  his 
theories  into  practice  by  an  equal  distribution 
of  property.  Being  betrayed  in  May,  Babeuf 
and  his  principal  adherents  were  arrested, 
and  were  tried  at  Vend6me  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Babeuf  and  Darth6  were  sentenced 
to  death,  and  attempted  to  commit  suicide, 
but  were  still  alive  when  carried  to  the  scaf- 
fold. Of  their  accomplices  56  were  acquit- 
ted, and  7  transported,  including  Buonarotti, 
who  afterward  published  Conspiration  pour 
Vegalite  dite  de  Babeuf,  with  an  account  of 
the  trial  (2  vols.,  Brussels,  1828).  Among  Ba- 
beuf s  works  are:  Cadastre  perpetuel  (Paris, 
1789),  and  Du  systeme  de  depopulation,  ou  la 
vie  et  let  crimes  de  Carrier  (1794).  Ed.  Fleury 
refuted  his  theories  in  Babeuf  et  le  socialisme 
en  1796  (Paris,  1851). 

BABINET,  Jacques,  a  French  physicist,  born  at 
Lusignan,  March  5, 1794,  died  in  October,  1872. 
He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school, 
taught  mathematics,  physics,  and  meteorology, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  academy  and  an 
astronomer  in  the  bureau  of  longitudes  at  the 
Paris  observatory.  His  scientific  lectures,  cele- 
brated for  their  attractive  style,  were  familiarly 
known  in  Paris  as  the  causeries  du  pere  Babi- 
net.  He  wrote  in  the  annals  of  the  academy 
and  other  periodicals  on  meteorological  and 
mineralogical  optics,  terrestrial  magnetism,  the 
theory  of  heat,  and  the  measure  of  chemical 
forces,  and  made  important  improvements  in 
pneumatic  machines,  in  hygrometers,  atmome- 
ters,  goniometers,  afld  in  geographical  maps 
(cartes  homalograpkiques) ;  but  his  unfortunate 
predictions  in  regard  to  the  failure  of  the  At- 
lantic cable  and  to  various  meteorological  phe- 
nomena have  been  much  ridiculed.  Among 
his  works  is  Etudes  et  lectures  sur  les  sciences 
d 'observation  et  sur  leurs  applications  pra- 
tiques (6  vols.,  Paris,  1855-'67). 

BABISGTON,  Anthony,  an  English  conspirator, 
born  at  Dethick  house,  Derbyshire,  about  1566, 
executed  in  London,  Sept.  30,  1586.  He  be- 
longed to  the  Roman  Catholic  branch  of  an 
ancient  and  opulent  family,  and  when  hardly 
20  years  of  age  became  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  young  Catholics  who  were  fired  with  enthu- 


siasm for  their  faith  and  for  the  rescue  of  Mary 
Stuart,  then  a  prisoner  near  the  Babington 
estates.  Betrayed  by  one  of  their  companions, 
Babington  and  his  13  accomplices  were  arrest- 
ed and  executed.  On  the  day  before  his  exe- 
cution he  wrote  to  Elizabeth,  whose  murder 
was  a  part  of  the  plot,  confessing  his  guilt  and 
imploring  pardon.  The  execution  of  Mary 
was  hastened  by  her  correspondence  with 
Babington. 

BABIJVGTON,  William,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Portglenone,  in  the  N.  of  Ireland,  in 
June,  1756,  died  in  Lo'ndon,  May  29,  1833. 
He  was  early  connected  with  Guy's  hospital  as 
an  apothecary  and  lecturer  on  chemistry,  and 
after  1797  became  physician  in  that  institution, 
and  had  an  extensive  medical  practice  in  Lon- 
don. He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  geological 
society,  and  became  its  vice  president  and 
afterward  president,  making  liberal  donations 
to  the  museum  and  library.  Having  purchased 
the  earl  of  Bute's  fine  mineralogical  collec- 
tion, he  published  "  A  Systematic  Arrange- 
ment of  Minerals"  (London,  1795),  and  "A 
New  System  of  Mineralogy"  (1799).  Among 
his  other  works  was  a  "  Syllabus  of  the  Course 
of  Chemical  Lectures"  (1802).  His  son-in- 
law,  Richard  Bright,  M.  D.,  published  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  William 
Babington,  M.  D." 

BABISM,  the  doctrines  of  a  Mohammedan 
sect  which  originated  in  Persia  about  1843. 
Its  founder  appears  to  have  been  Mirza  Ali 
Mohammed,  a  native  of  Shiraz,  who,  after  mak- 
ing a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  undertook  to  form 
a  new  religion  from  a  mixture  of  Mohamme- 
dan, Christian,  Jewish,  and  Parsee  elements. 
He  took  the  name  of  Bab-ed-Din,  "  the  gate 
of  the  faith,"  which  he  afterward  abandoned, 
calling  himself  the  "Point,"  or  creator  of  the 
truth,  claiming  to  be  not  merely  a  prophet,  but 
a  personal  manifestation  of  the  Divinity,  while 
the  title  of  Bab  was  conferred  upon  one  of  his 
followers.  He  sent  out  missionaries  in  various 
directions,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  was  a 
young  woman,  known  in  the  sect  as  Gurret-ul- 
Ayn,  or  "Consolation  of  the  Eyes."  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Hadji  Mullah,  a  distinguished 
jurist,  and  is  said  to  have  been  remarkable  for 
her  personal  beauty  and  intelligence.  She  set 
the  example  of  appearing  in  public  unveiled, 
and  after  preaching  against  polygamy  and  other 
Mohammedan  practices,  she  finally  left  her  hus- 
band and  family,  rfnd  devoted  herself  to  the 
propagation  of  the  new  religion.  Her  purity 
of  character  was  never  questioned  by  either 
party.  The  adherents  of  the  Bab  soon  became 
numerous.  The  late  shah  did  not  molest  them, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Nasir-ed-Din  in  1848, 
apprehending  a  persecution,  they  took  up  arms, 
announcing  the  advent  of  the  Bab  as  universal 
sovereign.  Two  large  armies  sent  against  them 
were  routed,  but  the  insurrection  was  at  last 
crushed,  and  the  Bab,  who  had  held  aloof  from 
the  revolt,  was  arrested.  After  18  months' 
imprisonment  he  was  put  to  death  with  one 


BABO 


BABOON 


183 


of  his  disciples  in  1850.  This  gave  a  new  im- 
petus to  his  doctrines.  At  an  assembly  of  the 
leaders  in  Teheran  a  young  man  of  16,  Mirza 
Gahara,  son  of  the  governor  of  the  city,  was  re- 
cognized as  Bab  and  took  the  name  of  "  Eternal 
Highness."  He  ordered  his  followers  not  to 
take  up  arms  again  until  he  should  give  tfite 
signal.  An  attempt  of  three  Babists,  however, 
to  assassinate  the  shah  in  1852  led  to  a  new 
persecution.  Numbere  of  the  believers  were 
simultaneously  executed  at  Teheran  with  hor- 
rible tortures,  and  among  the  victims  was  Gur- 
ret-ul-Ayn.  She  was  treated  at  first  with  re- 
spect, being  of  noble  rank,  but  finally,  after 
being  forcibly  veiled,  was  sentenced  to  be  burn- 
ed alive.  The  executioner,  however,  smothered 
her  before  setting  fire  to  the  pile.  The  Bab 
himself  was  not  captured.  Since  that  time  the 
Babists,  as  a  secret  sect,  are  supposed  to  have 
made  great  progress  in  Persia,  India,  and  a  part 
of  Turkey. — The  Babist  doctrine  asserts  the 
unity  of  the  Godhead,  but  upon  this  it  engrafts 
many  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics  and  Brah- 
mins. All  beings  are  emanations  from  the 
Deity,  and  all  will  at  the  day  of  judgment  be 
reabsorbed  into  the  divine  personality.  The 
Bab  has  not  revealed  the  whole  truth,  but  will 
be  followed  by  a  successor  who  will  complete 
the  revelation.  The  Bab  is  superior  to  Mo- 
hammed, as  Mohammed  was  superior  to  Jesus. 
The  number  19  is  sacred,  for  the  original  unity 
of  the  Deity  consisted  of  19  persons,  of  whom 
the  Bab  was  the  chief.  At  the  death  of  a 
prophet  or  saint,  his  soul  does  not  quit  the 
earth,  but  joins  itself  to  some  other  soul  still  in 
the  flesh,  who  carries  on  his  work.  Babism 
enjoins  few  prayers,  and  only  upon  fixed  occa- 
sions. Women  are  to  discard  veils,  and  share 
in  the  intercourse  of  social  life.  Concubinage 
and  divorce  are  forbidden,  and  polygamy  is 
discountenanced,  though  not  absolutely  prohib- 
ited.— See  Les  religions  et  philosophies  dans 
FAsie  centrale  (Paris,  1866),  by  Gobineau,  who 
gives  a  translation  of  "  The  Book  of  Precepts," 
the  sacred  book  of  the  Babists. 

BABO,  Franz  Marina  TOD,  a  German  dramatist, 
born  at  Ehrenbreitstein,  Jan.  14,  1756,  died  in 
Munich,  Feb.  5,  1822.  His  Otto  ton  Witteh- 
bach  is,  next  to  Goethe's  Goete  von  Berlichin- 
gen,  the  best  German  historical  tragedy.  His 
dramas  have  been  collected  in  two  volumes. 
(Berlin,  1793-1804.) 

BABOON,  a  division  of  the  monkeys  of  the 
old  world,  belonging  to  the  genus  cynocephalvs 
of  Ouvier.  This  genus  is  characterized  by  the 
position  of  the  nostrils  at  the  very  end  of  the 
muzzle,  which  is  lengthened  and  truncated; 
the  teeth  are  32  in  number,  as  in  man,  but  the 
canines  are  remarkably  strong,  and  the  last 
lower  molar  has  a  fifth  point ;  the  ridges  over 
the  eyes  are  very  distinct,  and  the  occipital 
crest  for  the  origin  of  the  powerful  muscles  of 
the  skull  and  jaws  is  as  large  in  proportion  as 
in  the  true  carnivora ;  the  face  is  lengthened, 
giving  the  appearance  of  that  of  a  dog,  whence 
the  generic  name,  and  in  the  adult  is  marked 


with  longitudinal  furrows.  All  the  species 
have  cheek  pouches  and  callosities.  The  ba- 
boons are  among  the  largest  of  the  quadruma- 
na,  and  their  strength  is  enormous ;  their  dis- 
position is  fierce  and  malignant,  and  their  habits 
are  of  the  most  disgusting  character ;  they  hardly 
possess  a  good  quality,  and  are  almost  always 
rebellious  in  confinement  and  dangerous  when 
at  liberty.  Their  dispositions  are  exceedingly 
fickle,  and  they  pass  on  the  slightest  provoca- 
tion from  a  pleased  condition  into  a  paroxysm 
of  rage.  In  a  wild  state  they  are  very  cun- 
ning, and  when  attacked  are  most  dangerous 
enemies.  When  trained  from  their  youth,  they 
exhibit  a  considerable  degree  of  docility ;  bnt 
they  can  never  be  trusted.  They  are  semi- 
terrestrial  ;  from  the  nearly  equal  length  of  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs,  they  run  well  on  the 
ground,  and  are  also  excellent  climbers ;  their 
anterior  extremities  are  remarkably  powerful. 
Their  food  is  principally  vegetable,  consisting 
of  fruits,  roots,  the  tender  twigs  of  plants,  and 
occasionally  eggs  and  young  birds ;  in  a  state 
of  captivity  they  will  eat  almost  anything.  In 
some  species  the  colors  are  bright,  and  the  fur 
long  and  fine,  forming  a  kind  of  mane  on  the 
upper  parts.  They  are  generally  divided  into 
two  groups:  the  baboons  proper,  with  long 
tails,  the  genus  cynocephalus  of  Cuvier;  and 
the  mandrills,  with  short  tails,  of  which  Bris- 
son  has  made  the  genus  papio.  There  are  six 


Chacma  (Cynocephalus  porcarius). 

well  marked  species  of  the  former  group:  1. 
The  chacma,  or  pig-faced  baboon  (O.  porcarius, 
Desm.),  is  a  native  of  Africa,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  color 
is  greenish  or  grayish  black  above,  palest  on 
the  flanks  and  fore  part  of  the  shoulders ;  the 
hair  on  the  neck  of  the  male  adult  is  long,  like 
a  mane,  whence  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire's  specific 
name  of  comatus  ;  the  face  and  extremities  are 
violet  black,  paler  round  the  eyes ;  the  upper 
eyelids  are  nearly  white ;  the  tail  is  long  and 


184 


BABOON 


tufted.  This  animal  is  exceedingly  ferocious, 
even  when  brought  up  from  youth  in  captivity; 
in  its  native  haunts  it  hunts  greedily  after 


Dog-faced  Baboon  (Cynocephalus   hamadryas). 

scorpions,  which  it  devours  alive  in  great  quan- 
tities, having  first,  with  exceeding  quickness, 
broken  off  the  end  of  the  tail  containing  the 
sting.  2.  The  dog-faced  baboon  (C.  hamadryas, 
Linn.),  an  allied  species,  inhabits  Africa  and 
the  borders  of  the  Persian  gulf  of  Arabia.  The 
color  is  blackish  gray,  tinged  with  brown ;  the 
hair  on  the  fore  parts  is  very  long  and  shag- 
gy ;  the  face  is  flesh-colored ;  the  females  and 
young  have  short  muzzles,  of  a  bluish  color. 
It  is  equally  fierce  and  dangerous  with  the  pre- 
ceding, of  which  by  some  authors  it  is  consid- 
ered a  variety.  3.  The  Guinea  baboon  (C. 
papio,  Desm.)  inhabits  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
The  color  is  brown  above,  paler  beneath ;  the 
cheeks  are  yellowish ;  the  face,  ears,  and  hands 


adult,  in  this  as  in  all  the  other  species.  This 
animal  is  of  large  size,  and  very  fierce.  4. 
The  little  baboon  (0.  babuin,  F.  Cuvier)  is 
supposed  by  its  describer  to  be  one  of  the  quad- 
rumana  adored  by  the  Egyptians,  and  fre- 
quently seen  among  their  hieroglyphics,  and  is 
probably  the  simia  cynocephalm  of  Linnaeus. 
It  inhabits  northern  Africa.  The  color  of  the 
male  is  a  uniform  yellowish  green  above,  paler 
beneath;  the  face 'is  livid;  the  nasal  cartilage 
is  not  longer  than  the  upper  jaw ;  the  tail, 
though  raised  at  its  origin,  is  of  consider- 
able length,  reaching  below  the  hams.  5.  The 
ribbed-nose  baboon  (G.  mormon,  Desm.,  or 
C.  maimon,  Linn.)  is  a  native  of  the  Guinea 
.coast,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  menageries. 
This  and  the  next  species,  forming  the  genus 
papio  of  Brisson,  have  the  tail  very  short 
(almost  a  tubercle),  very  large  ischiatic  callosi- 
ties, a  more  elongated  muzzle  armed  with  for- 
midable teeth  and  a  greater  size  than  any  other 


Little  Baboon  (Cynocephalua   oabuiu). 

are  black ;  the  nasal  cartilage  exceeds  the  jaws 
in  length ;  the  upper  eyelids  are  white.  In 
the  young  the  muzzle  is  shorter  than  in  the 


Mandrill  (Cynocephalus  mormon). 

species,  and  the  most  fierce  and  disgusting 
characters  of  the  baboon  tribe.  In  C.  mormon 
the  colors  of  the  adult  are  rich,  and  their  effect 
is  increased  by  the  blue,  red,  and  purplish  tints 
of  the  face,  nose,  and  naked  parts  of  the  skin ; 
in  the  young  the  fur  is  of  a  uniform  tawny 
green,  paler  beneath,  and  yellowish  on  the 
cheeks ;  in  the  adult  male  the  color  is  olive- 
brown,  mixed  with  gray  above  and  white  be- 
neath, with  a  yellow  beard,  and  the  furrowed 
muzzle  of  a  livid  blue,  with  a  bright  red  nose 
and  dull  flesh-colored  lips;  in  the  young  the 
furrows  do  not  appear,  and  the  tints  of  the 
naked  parts,  as  in  the  females,  are  less  vivid. 
The  species  is  usually  called  the  mandrill.  It 
recedes  much  in  form  from  the  typical  qnad- 
rumana,  and  approaches  the  carnivora  in  its 
structure,  instincts,  and  appetites ;  it  has  been 
known  to  tear  to  pieces  and  devour  living  prey 
with  the  ferocity  of  a  tiger.  6.  The  drill  (C. 
leucophoius,  F.  Cuv.),  also  a  native  of  Africa,  is 


BABOON 


BABYLON 


185 


nearly  as  fierce  and  powerful  as  the  mandrill. 
The  color  above  is  greenish  brown,  tinged  with 
gray,  beneath  white;  the  face  is  a  uniform 


Drill  (Cynocephalus    leucophseus). 

.dull  black,  and  the  muzzle  has  no  furrows; 
the  under  lip  is  red.  The  females  are  smaller 
in  size,  and  of  a  duller  color. — Other  baboons 
are  described,  but  not  with  sufficient  exactness 
and  authority  to  admit  of  a  general  recogni- 
tion. Some  species  of  the  genus  macacus,  in- 
habiting India  and  its  archipelago,  have  been 
incorrectly  called  baboons ;  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  M.  silenus,  Geoff. ;  M.  rhesus, 
Geoff. ;  M.  nemestrinus,  Geoff. ;  and  M.  niger, 
Desm.  These,  with  others,  are  intermediate 
between  the  guenons  and  the  baboons,  and  in 
some  respects  resemble  the  true  cynocephali. 
— A  peculiar  species  has  recently  been  intro- 


Gelada  (G.  EuppelUi). 

duced  to  the  notice  of  naturalists  by  Dr.  Rilp- 
pell  in  his  work  on  the  fauna  of  Abyssinia. 
This  is  the  gelada  (gelada  Ruppellii),  a  large 


brown  baboon,  having,  when  full  grown,  a 
very  remarkable  shaggy  mane  around  his  neck 
and  shoulders.  About  the  paws  the  hair  is 
nearly  black.  The  young  gelada  is  entirely 
destitute  of  the  hairy  mane,  and  is  much 
lighter  in  color  than  the  adult  animal. 

BABYLON  (Gr.  BapvMv,  Heb.  Babel),  an  an- 
cient city  in  what  is  now  Turkey  in  Asia,  in 
lat.  32°  39'  K,  Ion.  44°  30'  E.,  lying  on  both 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  or  rather,  perhaps,  of 
a  broad  bayou  flowing  eastward  of  the  main 
channel,  which  formerly  ran  five  or  six  miles 
to  the  west  of  its  present  course,  close  under 
the  walls  of  Borsippa,  the  site  of  the  mound  of 
Birs  Nimrud,  identified  as  the  ancient  Babel, 
about  300  miles  above  the  junction  of  the  Eu- 
phrates with  the  Tigris,  near  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  Hilleh.  According  to  this  view  it  stood 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Euphrates  proper,  and 
at  such  distance  from  it  as  to  be- above  reach 
of  its  inundation ;  but  the  bayou  itself,  flowing 
directly  through  the  city,  lined  with  quays,  and 
bordered  by  great  buildings,  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  main  river.  (For  the  origin  and 
import  of  the  name,  see  BABEL  ;  for  the  general 
history  of  the  city,  see  ASSYEIA,  BABYLONIA, 
and  CHALDEA.)  Babylon  owed  its  chief  great- 
ness to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  describes  it  as 
"  the  great  Babylon  that  I  have  built  for  the 
house  of  the  kingdom  of  my  power,  and  for  the 
honor  of  my  majesty."  Herodotus,  who  saw 
it  about  100  years  after  the  death  of  that  mon- 
arch, describes  it  thus :  "  The  city  stands  on 
a  broad  plain,  and  is  an  exact  square  120  stadia 
in  length  each  way,  so  that  the  entire  circuit 
is  480  stadia.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 
and  deep  moat,  full  of  water,  behind  which 
rises  a  wall  50  royal  cubits  in  width  and  200 
in  height  (the  royal  cubit  is  longer  by  three 
fingers'  breadth  than  the  common  cubit).  .  .  . 
On  the  top,  along  the  edges  of  the  wall,  they 
constructed  buildings  of  a  single  chamber  fa- 
cing one  another,  leaving  between  them  room 
for  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  In  the  circuit 
of  the  wall  are  a  hundred  gates,  all  of  brass, 
with  brazen  lintels  and  side  posts."  As  120 
stadia  are  equal  to  14  miles,  the  walls  would 
measure  56  miles,  enclosing  an  area  of  196  sq. 
m.  X)ther  writers  reduce  the  circuit  of  the 
walls  by  a  fourth,  making  it  360  stadia.  As 
wo  learn  that  within  the  walls  were  included 
gardens  and  pasture  grounds,  it  is  not  be- 
yond belief  that  their  circuit  may  have  been 
as  great  as  represented.  But  the  height  given 
for  the  walls  seems  incredible.  It  is  agreed 
that  the  royal  cubit  was  equal  to  22'4  inches. 
The  height  of  the  walls  would  then  have  been 
373  ft.  4  in.,  thickness  93  ft.  4  in.  For  all 
purposes  of  defence  a  wall  of  60  feet  is  as 
good  as  one  of  any  greater  height.  Strabo 
and  the  historians  of  Alexander  reduce  the 
200  cubits  to  50,  which  has  led  some  to  sus- 
pect that  Herodotus  wrote  palms  instead 
of  cubits.  "My  own  belief,"  says  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  "is  that  the  height  of  the  walls 
of  Babylon  did  not  exceed  60  or  70  feet." 


186 


BABYLON 


Herodotus  adds  that  there  was  an  inner  wall 
of  less  thickness  than  the  first,  but  very  lit- 
tle inferior  to  it  in  strength.  Of  the  circuit 


The  Kasr. 

of  this  inner  wall  we  are  not  informed.  M. 
Oppert  believes  that  he  has  found  traces  of 
both  walls,  and  in  the  plan  which  he  gives  it  is 
represented  as  running  parallel  to  the  outer 
one  at  a  distance  of  about  a  mile.  Others  be- 
lieve that  this  was  the  wall  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's new  city,  or  rath'er  citadel,  which  had  a 
circuit  of  five  miles.  Herodotus  also  says  that 
"  the  centre  of  each  division  of  the  town  was 
occupied  by  the  fortress,  in  one  of  which  stood 
the  palace  of  the  kings,  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  great  strength."  The  ruins  of  this  have 
been  found  in  one  of  the  three  great  existing 
mounds,  known  as  the  Kasr.  In  the  'other 
division  was  "  the  sacred  precinct  of  Jupiter 
Belus,  a  square  enclosure  of  two  stadia  each 
way,  with  gates  of  solid  brass."  This  has  been 
identified  as  the  ruins  now  called  Babil,  a  mass 
of  unburned  brick  rising  to  the  height  of  140 
feet,  which  may  have  been  about  the  height  of 
the  original  wall.  The  accounts  of  different 
writers  may  be  thus  summed  up :  The  Euphra- 
tes traversed  the  city  from  north  to  south. 
From  each  of  the  25  gates  on  each  side  ran 


Babil,  from  the  West. 

a  broad  street  to  the  opposite  gate,  dividing 
the  city  into  625  squares,  each  about  2J  miles 
in  circumference.  The  river  bank  on  each  side 


was  guarded  by  a  wall  with  gateways  at  the 
foot  of  each  street,  and  steps  leading  down  to 
the  river.  The  usual  means  of  crossing  was  by 
boats ;  but  a  single  bridge  was  thrown  over. 
This  consisted  of  stone  piers  sunk  in  the  bed 
of  the  stream,  connected  by  wooden  platforms 
which  were  removed  at  night.  It  is  said,  but 
apparently  on  no  good  authority,  that  there 
was  also  a  tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the  river. 
The  famous  hanging  gardens  do  not  seem  to 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  Herodotus. 
According  to  other  writers,  they  were  built  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  gratify  his  wife  Amyitis,  a 
native  of  Media,  who  longed  for  something  in 
this  flat  country  to  remind  her  of  her  mountain 
home.  They  consisted  of  an  artificial  moun- 
tain 400  ft.  on  each  side,  rising  by  successive 
terrraces  to  a  height  which  overtopped  the 
walls  of  the  city.  The  terraces  themselves 
were  formed  of  a  succession  of  piers,  the  tops 
of  which  were  covered  by  flat  stones  16  ft.  long 
and  4  ft.  wide.  Upon  these  were  spread  beds 
of  matting,  then  a  thick  layer  of  bitumen, 
covered  with  sheets  of  lead.  Upon  this  solid 
pavement  earth  was  heaped,  some  of  the  piles 
being  hollow,  so  as  to  afford  depth  for  the  roots 
of  the  largest  trees.  "Water  was  drawn  from 
the  river  to  irrigate  these  gardens,  which  thus 
presented  to  the  eye  the  appearance  of  a  moun- 
tain clothed  in  verdure.  Herodotus  speaks  of 
writing  a  special  work  on  the  history  of  As- 
syria. If  this  was  ever  written,  it  is  not  now 
extant.  He  makes  in  his  general  history  only 
a  passing  reference  to  the  "many  sovereigns 
who  had  ruled  over  Babylon,  and  lent  their 
aid  to  the  building  of  its  walls  and  the  adorn- 
ment of  its  temples."  He  does  not  even 
refer  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  name  was 
stamped  upon  the  bricks  of  every  important 
structure.  He  mentions  two  queens  as  having 
a  great  share  in  them.  These  are  Semiramis 
and  Nitocris,  of  whom  the  former  is  a  legend- 
ary character  (See  ASSYRIA.)  Nitocris  seems 
to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  mother  of  Nabonadius.  (See  BABYLONIA.) 
Herodotus  affirms  that  this  queen  changed  the 
course  of  the  river  above  Babylon  from  a 
straight  to  a  winding  course,  so  that  it  came 
several  times  in  view  of  the  village  of  Arde- 
ricca,  and  a  person  sailing  down  the  river 
had  to  pass  three  times  in  as  many  days 
in  sight  of  the  same  spot.  Sir  Henry  Raw- 
linson  says  that  no  such  cutting  ever  could 
have  existed;  an  assertion  corroborated  by 
all  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  per- 
manently change  the  course  of  a  great  river 
flowing  through  an  alluvial  region.  She  also 
dug  an  immense  reservoir  420  stadia  in  circuit, 
facing  the  interior  walls  with  stone.  Into  this 
she  turned  the  river,  leaving  its  bed  dry  at 
Babylon,  so  tha"t  she  could  lay  there  the  piers 
for  the  bridge.  All  this  was  done  to  shut  out 
the  Medes  from  intercourse  with  Babylonia. 
If  such  an  excavation  had  existed,  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  traces  of  it  should  not  now  remain. 
In  a  region  where  for  100  miles  not  a  pebble  is 


BABYLON 


187 


to  be  found,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  whence 
these  stones  could  be  brought;  and  if  once 
brought,  it  is  equally  difficult  to  imagine  whith- 
er they  have  been  carried.  They  are  not  there 
now,  and  are  not  to  be  found  among  the  ruins 
of  Seleucia  or  Ctesiphon,  built  from  the  frag- 
ments of  Babylon.  A  careful  comparison  qf 
existing  facts  with  the  relations  of  the  writer! 
from  whom  the  accounts  of  Babylon  have  been 
drawn  will  evince  that  these  accounts  are 
greatly  exaggerated.  Still,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  Babylon  as  built  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar and  captured  by  Cyrus  was  one  of  the  great 
cities  of  the  world,  though  of  necessity  built 
mainly  of  perishable  materials.  The  descrip- 
tion given  by  the  great  king  in  his  "  standard 
inscription  "  appears  to  tell  the  true  story.  We 
quote  with  abridgments  a  few  passages :  "  The 
double  enclosure  which  Nabopolassar,  my  fa- 
ther, had  made,  but  not  completed,  I  finished. 
Nabopolassar  made  its  ditch.  With  two  long 
embankments  of  brick  and  mortar  he  bound  its 
bed.  He  lined  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates 
with  brick.  He  made  a  bridge  over  the  Eu- 
phrates, but  did  not  finish  its  buttresses.  With 
bricks,  burnt  as  hard  as  stones,  he  made  a  way 
for  the  branch  of  the  Shimat  to  the  waters  of 
the  Yapur-Shapu,  great  reservoir  of  Babylon. 
I  finished  the  great  double  wall.  With  two 
long  embankments  of  brick  and  mortar  I  built 
the  side  of  its  ditch.  I  strengthened  the  city. 
Across  the  river,  to  the  west,  I  built  the  walls 
of  Babylon  with  brick.  The  reservoir  I  filled 
completely  with  water.  Besides  the  outer  wall, 
the  impregnable  fortification,  I  constructed  in- 
side of  Babylon  a  fortification  such  as  no  king 
had  ever  made  before  me,  namely,  a  long  ram- 
part 4,000  ammas  (5  miles)  square,  as  an  extra 
defence.  Against  presumptuous  enemies,  great 
waters  I  made  use  of  abundantly.  Their  depths 
were  like  the  depths  of  the  vast  ocean.  I  did 
not  allow  the  waters  to  overflow ;  but  the  full- 
ness of  their  floods  I  caused  to  flow  on,  restrain- 
ing them  with  a  brick  embankment.  Thus  I 
completely  made  strong  the  defences  of  Baby- 
lon. May  it  stand  forever."  He  describes 
another  structure  :  "  Inside  the  brick  fortifica- 
tions I  made  another  great  fortification  of  long 
stones  of  the  size  of  great  mountains.  And 
this  building  I  raised  for  a  wonder ;  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  people  I  constructed  it."  This  is 
the  only  case  in  which  stone  is  mentioned. 
Not  improbably  this  was  the  structure  spoken 
of  as  the  hanging  gardens.  He  describes  his 
palace  called  Tapratinisi,  "  the  wonder  of  the 
world,"  which  had  also  been  begun  by  his 
father.  He  tells  how  it  used  to  be  flooded  by 
the  inundations  of  the  river,  and  how  he  raised 
the  platform  of  brick  upon  which  it  stood ;  and 
goes  on :  "I  cut  off  the  floods  of  the  water,  and 
the  foundations  (of  the  palace)  I  protected 
against  the  water  with  bricks  and  mortar.  I 
finished  it  completely.  Long  beams  I  set  up 
to  support  it.  With  pillars  and  beams  plated 
with  copper  and  strengthened  with  iron  I  built 
up  its  gates.  Silver,  and  gold,  and  precious 


stones,  whose  names  were  almost  unknown,  I 
stored  inside,  and  placed  there  the  treasure- 
house  of  my  kingdom."  Here  again  there  is 
nothing  but  brick  and  mortar  and  wooden 
beams;  the  gates  of  the  palace  itself,  which 
Herodotus  saw  and  supposed  to  be  of  solid  brass, 
were  of  wood  plated  with  copper  and  strength- 
ened with  iron.  The  shapeless  Kasr  affords  no 
means  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  of  his  palace ; 
but  there  is  a  ruin  which  in  a  measure  affords 
such  a  test.  This  is  Birs  Nimrud.  (See  BA- 
BEL.) The  height  of  this  mound,  crowned  by 
a  tower,  was  153  ft.,  and  as  it  was  beyond 
doubt  among  the  loftiest  of  the  Babylonian 
structures,  we  are  enabled  to  rectify  the  extrav- 
agant heights  attributed  to  the  city  walls. — 


Eire  Nimrud. 

Babylon,  at  least  in  its  later  period,  after  it  had 
sprung  up  to  be  the  capital  of  a  great  empire, 
was  noted  for  the  luxury  and  depravity  of  its  in- 
habitants. "  Nothing,"  says  Q.  Curtius,  "  could 
he  more  corrupt  than  its  morals,  nothing  more 
fitted  to  excite  and  allure  to  immoderate  pleas- 
ures. The  rites  of  hospitality  were  polluted 
by  the  most  shameless  lusts."  Once  at  least  in 
her  life  every  woman  was  obliged  to  prostitute 
herself  in  the  temple  of  Belus.  Of  the  popu- 
lation of  Babylon  there  exists  no  ground  for 
even  probable  estimate.  As  a  centre  of  em- 
pire and  commerce,  its  population  would  be 
limited  only  by  the  capacity  for  subsistence  of 
the  fertile  region  from  which  its  supplies  were 
drawn.  Considering  its  vast  extent,  but  bear- 
ing in  mind  that  only  a  small  portion,  probably 
not  more  than  a  tenth,  was  built  over,  1,500,000 
is  not  an  improbable  conjecture.— The  site  of 
the  ancient  Babel  was  probably  at  Borsippa 
(Birs  Nimrud),  a  little  below  the  later  Baby- 
lon, and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  main  Eu- 
phrates. Borsippa  was  a  suburb  with  separate 
fortifications,  for  Nabonadius,  after  being  de- 
feated in  the  field  by  Cyrus,  threw  himself  into 
it,  leaving  Babylon  proper  in  the  charge  of  hif 
son  Belshazzar.  For  an  unknown  period  Baby- 
lon was  a  town  of  minor  importance,  the  suc- 
cessive capitals  of  the  Chaldean  kingdom  ly- 
ing lower  down  the  plain.  Babylon  first  comes 
prominently  into  notice  about  the  time  of  the 


188 


BABYLON 


foundation  of  the  dynasty  of  Nabonassar  (747 
B.  C.).  Babylonia  having  been  reconquered  by 
Sennacherib,  it  became  about  680  one  of  the 
two  capitals  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  Tinder 
Esarhaddon,  the  son  of  that  conqueror.  Its 
great  importance  dates  from  the  fall  of  Nine- 
veh, when  Nabopolassar  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  Chaldean  empire,  and  began  that  great 
series  of  fortifications  and  public  works  which 
were  completed  by  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar 
(604-561).  The  last  successor  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Nabonadius,  joined  the  league  formed 
to  check  the  threatening  power  of  Persia. 
This  brought  upon  him  the  invasion  by  Cy- 
rus. Having  associated  with  himself  in  the 
government  his  son  Belshazzar,  Nabonadius, 
leaving  him  in  command  of  Babylon,  advance^ 
to  meet  Cyrus.  Being  defeated  in  the  field,  he 
threw  himself  into  Borsippa,  while  Cyrus  ad- 
vanced to  the  siege  of  Babylon.  The  city  was 
provisioned  for  a  long  siege  and  the  strength 
of  its  walls  defied  direct  assault.  It  was  taken 
only  by  the  stratagem  of  diverting  the  river 
from  its  course,  and  marching  in  through  its 
dry  bed.  Herodotus  relates  that  Cyrus  turned 
the  Euphrates  into  the  great  reservoir  exca- 
vated by  Nitocris.  This  appears  incredible; 
for  even  assuming  the  existence  of  this  reser- 
voir, its' waters  must  have  been  on  a  level  with 
those  of  the  river,  and  no  cutting  could  have 
laid  bare  the  river  bed.  Xenophon,  a  much 
better  authority  in  this  matter,  says  that  Cyrus 
drained  the  bed  by  means  of  two  new  cuttings 
of  his  own,  from  a  point  above  the  city  to  an- 
other below  it.  If  we  suppose  that  the  river 
was  not  the  Euphrates  itself,  but  a  bayou  or 
side  branch,  shallower  than  the  river,  the  whole 
operation  becomes  perfectly  comprehensible. 
He  had  only  to  dam  up  the  mouth  of  the  bayou 
above  the  city,  and  deepen  the  channel  below 
by  which  it  reentered  the  Euphrates.  In  an 
hour  after  cutting  away  the  bulkhead  below, 
the  channel  would  be  dry.  This  was  done  in 
the  dead  of  night.  It  was  a  complete  surprise. 
So  confident  were  the  besieged  in  the  impreg- 
nability of  their  outer  defences  that  they  neg- 
lected to  close  the  water  gates  which  fronted 
the  river  at  the  foot  of  each  street,  and  Bel- 
shazzar and  his  court  passed  the  night  in  rev- 
elry. When  morning  dawned  the  inner  de- 
fences had  all  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  be- 
siegers (538).  Cyrus,  having  dismantled  Baby- 
lon, moved  upon  Borsippa,  still  held  by  Nabo- 
nadius, who  surrendered  and  received  kind 
treatment.  Cyrus  assigned  him  a  residence 
and  estate  in  Caramania,  where  the  last  king 
of  Babylon  ended  his  days  in  peace.  For  a 
time  Babylon  was  a  royal  residence  of  the  Per- 
sian kings.  Two  attempts  were  made  to  re- 
volt, and  each  time  Babylon  stood  a  siege  and 
was  further  dismantled.  It  ceased  to  be  a 
royal  city ;  its  brick  walls  and  palaces  fell  into 
decay;  and  when  Alexander  the  Great  took 
possession,  it  was  comparatively  a  ruin.  He 
intended  to  restore  the  city,  and  make  it  his 
Asiatic  capital,  but  his  death  prevented  the  ex- 


ecution of  the  scheme.  His  Syrian  successors 
chose  for  their  capital  Seleucia,  a  few  miles  to 
the  northeast,  on  the  Tigris.  A  great  part  of 
this  city  was  built  with  materials  carried  from, 
Babylon;  and  when  Seleucia  fell  into  decay, 
from  its  materials  the  Parthians  built  Ctesiphon. 
Besides  these  great  cities,  the  Persian  Madain, 
the  Cufah  of  the  caliphs,  and  in  a  measure  the 
more  modern  Bagdad,  have  been  successively 
built  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  The  place  had 
become  a  ruin  in  the  time  of  Strabo  (about  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era).  St.  Jerome,  in 
the  4th  century,  learned  that  it  had  been  con- 
verted into  a  hunting  ground  for  the  recreation 
of  the  Persian  monarch,  who  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  game  had  partially  restored  the  walls. 
From  that  time  it  passed  more  and  more  out  of 
notice,  until  its  very  site  became  forgotten.  It  is 
only  since  1847  that  it  has  been  satisfactorily 
identified.  Its  modern  representative  is  the 


A  Babylonian  Brick. 

village  of  Hilleh,  with  about  7,000  inhabitants. 
As  Birs  Nimrud  marks  the  site  of  Borsippa,  the 
ruins  of  Babylon  proper  consist  mainly  of  three 
mounds :  1.  Babil,  probably  the  temple  of  Belus. ' 
This  is  an  oblong  mass,  200  yards  long,  140  wide, 
and  140  ft.  high.  2.  The  Kasr,  or  palace  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar. This  is  an  irregular  square  about 
700  yards  each  way,  surmounted  with  the  re- 
mains of  a  square  structure,  the  walls  of  which 
are  composed  of  burnt  bricks  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  of  excellent  quality,  bound  together  with 
a  lime  cement,  and  stamped  with  the  name 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  3.  A  mound,  now  called 
Amran,  of  an  irregular  triangular  shape,  the 
sides  being  1,400,  1,100,  and  850  ft.  This  is 
supposed  to  be  the  ruins  of  a  palace  older  than 
Nebuchadnezzar,  for  bricks  have  been  found 
there  inscribed  with  the  names  of  more  ancient 
kings.  Besides  these  there  are  merely  frag- 
ments of  embankments,  which  may  be  parts  of 
some  of  the  walls. — For  ancient  Babylon  the 
principal  authorities  are  Herodotus  and  Diodo- 
rus  Siculus ;  for  the  history  and  ruins,  Raw- 
Imson's  "Herodotus"  and  "Five  Ancient  Mon- 
archies," Lenormant and Chevallier's  "Ancient 


BABYLONIA 


189 


History  of  the  East,"  Smith's  "Ancient  Histo- 
ry of  the  East,"  Loftus's  "Chaldiea,"  and  Lay- 
ard's  "Nineveh  and  Babylon."  To  these  may 
be  added  Rich'8  "Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of 
Babylon"  (1818),  and  "Narrative  of  a  Journey 
to  England  by  Bussorah,  Bagdad,  and  the  Ruins 
of  •Babylon"  (1826);  Chcsney's  "Euphrates 
Expedition "  (1850)  ;  and  Oppert's  maps  rfhd 
plans  (Paris,  1858). 

BAB VLOM.l.  a  name  applied  to  the  southern 
part  of  Mesopotamia  in  the  wider  sense,  of 
which  Babylon  became  the  capital.  Babel,  the 
corresponding  Hebrew  name,  is  occasionally 
used  in  Scripture  in  this  sense ;  but  the  usual 
term  to  designate  the  country  and  the  people  is 
Chasdim,  which  in  the  Septuagint  and  most 
other  versions  becomes  Chaldea  and  the  Chal- 
deans. Babylonia  included  the  space  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  now  known  as 
Irak-Arabi  (see  IBAK-ABABI),  together  with 
the  strip  of  territory  west  of  the  Euphrates, 
bordered  -by  the  Arabian  desert.  This  coun- 
'  try,  made  wonderfully  fertile  by  an  almost 
unparalleled  network  of  canals,  and  peopled 
by  Semites,  Oushites,  and  Turanians,  was  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  powerful 
kingdoms  of  antiquity.  (See  CHALDEA.)  From 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  down  to 
625  B.  0.  the  history  of  Babylonia  is  chiefly 
known  in  connection  with  its  contests  with  As- 
syria. (See  ASSYRIA.)  About  that  year  lower 
Babylonia  rose  against  Assyria,  and  was  joined 
by  Media.  Asshur-bani-pal,  the  Assyrian  king, 
placed  the  force  in  Babylonia  under  the  com- 
mand of  Nabopolassar,  apparently  a  Chaldean. 
But  Nabopolassar  entered  into  a  league  with 
Oyaxares  the  Mede,  to  whose  daughter  he  mar- 
ried his  son,  afterward  the  great  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. The  Assyrians  were  defeated  by  the  com- 
bined Medes  and  Babylonians,  and  Nineveh  was 
destroyed.  Babylonia  became  independent,  her 
boundaries  being  enlarged  on  the  north  by 
the  addition  of  a  few  miles  between  the  rivers, 
on  the  west  by  a  strip  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  annexation  of  Susiana. 
The  greater  portion  of  Assyria  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Medes.  For  nearly  the  whole  of 
his  reign,  which  ended  in  604,  Nabopolassar 
was  occupied  in  organizing  his  kingdom.  To- 
ward its  close  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  attempt- 
ed to  extend  his  dominion  to  the  Euphrates. 
The  Assyrian  king  sent  against  him  an  army 
under  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  Egyp- 
tians suffered  a  total  rout,  at  Oarchemish  on 
the  Euphrates,  and  the  victors  took  possession 
of  the  whole  country  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  "river  of  Egypt"— not  the  Nile,  but 
a  small  stream  falling  into  the  Mediterranean 
at  El-Arish.  Nebuchadnezzar  had  pursued 
the  beaten  enemy  to  the  frontier  of  Egypt 
when  he  received  tidings  that  his  father  was 
dead.  Intrusting  his  army,  with  the  captives 
and  spoil,  to  the  command  of  his  lieutenant, 
to  lead  them  home  by  the  usual  circuitous 
route,  he  hurried  with  a  small  escort  straight 
across  the  desert.  The  chief  of  the  Chaldean 


priests  had  acted  as  regent ;  and  when  Nebu- 
chadnezzar appeared  the  crown  passed  to  him 
without  opposition.  He  reigned  43  years 
(604-561).  With  the  exception  of  the  period 
of  his  seven  years'  madness,  probably  near 
the  close  of  his  life,  his  was  among  the  most 
glorious  reigns  in  history.  Yet,  save  his  name 
stamped  upon  innumerable  bricks,  and  the 
"standard  inscription"  found  among  the  d6- 
bris  of  the  temple  of  Belus,  there  is  not  a  line 
of  native  contemporary  history  of  his  reign. 
The  standard  inscription  speaks  only  o.f  the 
great  architectural,  military,  and  hydraulic 
works  which  he  constructed  at  Babylon.  On 
that  series  of  events  which  connect  him  with 
the  history  of  the  Jews,  the  Bible  speaks  with 
considerable  minuteness ;  for  the  rest  we  have 
only  a  few  scattered  fragments  preserved  by 
the  chronographers.  Herodotus  never  names 
him ;  and  Xenophon  had  another  hero  to  cele- 
brate. His  wars  lasted  about  35  years,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  became  master  of  Syria, 
Judea,  Phoenicia,  Moab,  and  Edom,  and  twice 
carried  his  victorious  arms  into  Egypt,  far  up 
the  Nile,  apparently  subjugating  the  country, 
and  placing  upon  the  throne  a  monarch  of  his 
own  choosing.  But  during  all  this  time  he  was 
busy  in  completing  the  great  works  at  Babylon 
which  his  father  had  commenced.  For  these 
his  conquests  gave  him  an  abundance  of  such 
material  as  could  not  be  supplied  by  the  clay 
of  his  own  dominion ;  while  his  settled  policy 
of  dealing  with  conquered  peoples,  transporting 
them  in  mass  to  Babylonia,  furnished  the  re- 
quisite laborers.  He  was  thus  able,  without 
burdening  his  own  people,  to  carry  out  his 
great  architectural  schemes.  The  captives 
were  colonized  in  all  parts  of  Babylonia ;  forced 
labor  was  required  of  them,  and  by  this  the 
walls  of  Babylon  were  raised,  the  temples  and 
palaces  built,  the  canals  and  reservoirs  exca- 
vated, which  formed  the  special  glory  of  the 
Babylonian  monarchy.  Making  all  allowance 
for  the  evident  exaggeration  of  later  historians, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  the  greatest  building  ruler  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  Still,  from  its  very  nature,  his  king- 
dom could  not  he  a  lasting  one.  Literally,  as 
well  as  metaphorically,  its  feet  were  of  clay. 
Its'  chief  military  strength  lay  in  its  caval- 
ry. The  low  hot  country  could  furnish  no 
stout  infantry  capable  of  withstanding  the  at- 
tacks of  the  formidable  Medo-Persian  power 
which  was  growing  up  among  the  mountains 
on  the  east.  Nebuchadnezzar  must  have  per- 
ceived this ;  for,  in  the  absence  of  all.  natu- 
ral defences,  he  set  himself  to  transform  his 
capital  into  an  immense  fortified  camp,  capa- 
ble of  holding  a  nation,  and  with  walls  im- 
pregnable to  assault.  Within  three  years  after 
the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar  Cyrus  revolted 
against  Astyages,  and,  placing  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  now  formidable  Medo-Persian 
kingdom,  began  that  series  of  wars  in  which 
Babylonia  became  involved,  and  which  in  less 
than  20  years  ended  in  her  overthrow.  Nebu- 


190 


BABYLONIA 


BABYLONISH   CAPTIVITY 


chadnezzar  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Evil- 
merodach,  of  whom  but  a  single  act  is  recorded. 
He  released  Jehoiachin,  the  captive  king  of 
Judah,  from  his  imprisonment  of  37  years,  and 
treated  him  with  distinguished  favor,  though 
still  detaining  him  in  Babylon.  After  a  reign 
of  two  years  Evil-merodach  was  assassinated 
by  his  brother-in-law  Neriglissar,  who  died  in 
less  than  four  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Laborosoarchod,  a  mere  boy,  who  in 
nine  months  was  put  to  death  by  a  conspiracy 
formed  by  his  relations.  He  was  succeeded 
(555)  by  Nabonadius,  the  sixth  and  last  king 
of  Babylonia.  He  appears  to  have  belonged, 
like  Neriglissar,  to  the  priestly  order;  and 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  married 
to  Nitocris,  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  that  she  was  queen  regnant.  This  con- 
jecture, if  admitted,  would  confirm  the  state- 
ment of  Herodotus  that  many  of  the  defensive 
works  at  Babylon,  especially  designed  to  re- 
pel the  Medes,  were  the  work  of  a  queen 
named  Nitocris.  It  is  certain  that  some  of 
these  were  constructed  during  the  reign  of 
Nabonadius.  If  we  may  assume  that  his  queen 
was  a  daughter  of  the  great'  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and  co-sovereign  with  her  husband,  it 
would  be  quite  natural  that  tradition  should 
give  her  the  credit  for  these  constructions. 
Moreover,  we  are  told  that  Nabonadius  was 
not  related  to  the  boy  Laborosoarchod,  and 
so  could  not  have  been  a  descendant  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar; but  in  Daniel  the  queen  ad- 
dresses Belshazzar,  the  son  of  Nabonadius,  as 
the  son  or  descendant  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  If 
now  we  suppose  this  queen  to  have  been  the 
queen-mother,  and  so  the  wife  of  Nabonadius, 
all  the  accounts,  are  brought  into  harmony. 
She  speaks  also  with  a  kind  of  authority  natu- 
ral for  a  mother  in  addressing  her  son,  but 
hardly  to  be  expected  from  a  young  oriental 
queen  toward  her  husband.  The  queen  also  is 
especially  distinguished  from  the  wives  of  Bel- 
shazzar. At  all  events,  Nabonadius  at  length 
perceived  the  danger  which  was  impending 
from  the  direction  of  Persia.  Cyrus  was  en- 
gaged in  his  war  against  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia. 
Nabonadius  joined  in  the  alliance  between 
Lydia  and  Egypt  against  Cyrus ;  but  it  appears 
that  the  Babylonian  forces  did  not  arrive  in 
time  to  take  part  in  the  campaign  which 
ended  with  the  overthrow  of  Croesus  at  Sar- 
dis.  Lydia  subjected,  Cyrus  turned  his  arms 
against  Babylonia.  In  539  the  Persian  army 
moved  to  the  Tigris.  They  wintered  on  the 
banks  of  the  Gyndes,  and  in  the  spring 
crossed  the  Tigris  and  overran  the  whole  up- 
per country.  Nabonadius,  leaving  his  young 
son  Belshazzar  in  charge  of  the  capital,  gave 
battle  under  the  walls  of  the  city.  The  As- 
syrians were  defeated,  and  the  king  threw 
himself  into  the  strong  fortress  of  Borsippa, 
a  few  miles  distant.  Cyrus  now  formally  in- 
vested the  city,  and  having,  after  a  long  siege 
and  bold  enterprise  (see  BABYLON),  secured 
complete  possession  of  it,  was  about  to  attack 


Borsippa  ;  but  Nabonadius  surrendered  with- 
out ottering  any  defence.  Thus,  in  538,  the 
Babylonian  kingdom  came  to  an  end.  The 
book  of  Daniel  relates  that  Darius  the  Mede, 
son  of  Ahasuerus,  was  made  king  over  the 
realm  of  the  Chaldeans,  being  then  62  years 
of  age.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  identify 
this  Darius  with  several  princes  of  Medo-Per- 
sia.  All  these  attempts  involve  insuperable 
chronological  difficulties.  Possibly  he  was  a 
Median  nobleman,  not  elsewhere  named,  whom 
Cyrus  appointed  as  viceroy  over  Babylonia. 
This  seems  indeed  to  be  implied  by  the  phrase 
of  Daniel,  that  "he  was  made"  king.  His 
viceroyalty  lasted  only  two  years,  being  most 
likely  ended  by  his  death  ;  and  Cyrus  then  per- 
sonally assumed  the  sovereignty.  The  captive 
Jews,  who  were  subject  to  the  direct  rule  of 
Darius,  naturally  spoke  of  him  as  king,  and 
usually  reckoned  the  years  of  Cyrus  from  the 
beginning  of  his  personal  reign  at  Babylon, 
though  he  had  been  king  of  Persia  for  20 
years.  Among  the  first  acts  of  Cyrus  after 
taking  upon  himself  the  government  of  Baby- 
lonia, was  to  issue  an  edict  permitting  such 
Jews  as  chose  to  do  so  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
and  rebuild  the  temple.  The  date  of  the  issue 
of  the  edict  is  one  of  the  epochs  which  have 
been  fixed  upon  as  the  close  of  the  70  years  of 
captivity.  (See  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY.)  The 
overthrow  of  the  Babylonian  kingdom  marks 
the  period  when  the  empire  of  the  East,  so 
long  held  by  the  Semitic  stock,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Aryan  race,  who  retained  it  for 
12  centuries,  when  it  was  again  wrested  from 
them  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest.  But  for 
2,400  years  Babylonia  has  ceased  to  have  any 
special  history  of  its  own,  being  successively 
under  the  sway  of  the  Persians,  Greeks,  Par- 
thians,  Neo-Persians,  Saracens,  and  finally 
Turks,  under  whom  the  country  has  sunk 
deeper  and  deeper  into  decay. 

BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY,  the  period  during 
which  the  Jewish  people  who  had  been  carried 
away  from  their  country  to  Babylonia,  with 
their  descendants  or  any  part  of  them,  were 
forcibly  detained  in  a  foreign  land.  It  is 
reckoned  as  beginning  at  some  point  in  the 
reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  ending  in  the 
reign  of  Cyrus  or  of  Darius  I.  The  earliest 
point  thus  fixed  for  the  beginning  of  the  cap- 
tivity is  605  B.  0.,  when  Nebuchadnezzar,  com- 
manding the  forces  of  his  father  Nabopolassar, 
first  took  Jerusalem;  the  latest  516,  when  the 
building  of  the  second  temple  was  finished. 
But  here  is  an  interval  of  89  years,  whereas 
the  duration  of  the  captivity  is  several  times 
stated  to  have  been  70  years.  There  are  two 
periods  of  this  length,  either  of  which  might 
properly  be  considered  as  measuring  the  cap- 
tivity. Counting  70  years  from  605  B.  C., 
when  Daniel  was  carried  off,  brings  us  to  535, 
or,  loosely  speaking,  to  536,  the  date  of  the 
decree  of  Cyrus  permitting  the  return  of  the 
Jews.  This  would  naturally  be  the  term  of 
the  captivity  in  the  mind  of  Daniel,  who  re- 


BABYLONISH   CAPTIVITY 


BABYROUSSA 


191 


fers  to  the  prediction  of  Jeremiah  that  70 
years  should  "accomplish  the  desolations  of 
Jerusalem."  Nebuchadnezzar  several  times  in- 
vaded Judea  to  punish  the  repeated  revolts 
of  his  vassals,  and  at  each  tune  carried  oft' 
considerable  numbers,  but  still  did  not  go  to 
the  extent  of  devastating  the  country.  It^vas 
not  till  the  rebellion  of  Zedekiah,  in  588,  that 
he  proceeded  to  the  extremity  of  destroying 
Jerusalem,  burning  the  temple,  and  carrying 
away  all  except  the  common  people  of  the 
country.  This  wholesale  destruction,  executed 
in  586,  would  seem  to  be  a  natural  period  from  j 
which  to  date  the  captivity.  From  this  time  ! 
to  that  when  the  temple  was  reconstructed, 
516,  is  another  period  of  70  years,  covering  just 
the  time  during  which  the  temple  worship  and 
sacrifices  were  necessarily  discontinued. — The  [ 
indications  of  the  extent  of  the  captivity  are 
not  clear ;  but  it  seems  certain  that  first  and  , 
last  it  included  a  very  considerable  portion  of 
the  population.  The  few  numbers  given  seem 
rather  to  relate  to  separate  companies  of  cap- 
tives. When  the  decree  of  Cyrus  permitting 
the  return  was  proclaimed,  a  company  of  42,- 
360,  besides  7,337  slaves,  at  once  set  out  un- 
der Zerubbabel ;  and  it  is  probable  that  there 
was  a  considerable  stream  of  emigration  back 
to  Judea.  But  it  is  evident  that  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  Jewish  people  returned.  The 
temple  being  reestablished,  the  priests  would 
be  among  the  most  likely  to  return ;  and  as 
out  of  the  24  courses  only  four  went,  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  at  least  five  sixths  of  the 
people  remained  in  their  new  homes.  There 
was  little  inducement  for  them  to  migrate  to 
Judea,  an  outlying  satrapy  of  a  great  empire, 
impoverished  by  war,  and  bordered  by  un- 
friendly peoples.  They  had  become  natural- 
ized in  their  present  homes,  where  their  treat- 
ment was  mild.  In  Psalm  cxxxvii.,  where  the 
exiles  pour  out  their  griefs,  the  only  complaint 
as  to  their  treatment  in  captivity  is  that  they 
were  required  to  sing  their  native  songs.  The 
burden  of  their  imprecations  is  against  the 
atrocities  committed  in  actual  warfare,  and 
against  their  former  neighbors,  the  Edomites, 
who  had  exulted  over  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. They  were  captives  only  in  name.  They 
were  really  colonists,  not  slaves.  They  had 
followed  the  wise  advice  of  Jeremiah,  to  live 
peaceably  with  their  neighbors,  build  houses  and 
dwell  in  them,  and  plant  gardens  and  eat  of  the 
fruit  of  them.  There  was  nothing  to  prevent  a 
Jew  from  rising  to  the  highest  eminence  in  the 
state.  Daniel  occupied  an  eminent  position  in 
Babylon,  both  under  the  Chaldeans  and  the 
Persians.  It  is  no  wonder  that  with  the  pru-  | 
dence  of  their  race  the  majority  chose  to  re- 
main in  the  prosperous  regions  where  they 
were  born,  rather  than  migrate  to  the  dis- 
turbed country  whence  their  fathers  had  been 
brought.  Before  long  they  were  scattered 
through  every  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 
We  find  no  instance  of  hostility  to  them  for 
more  than  half  a  century  of  Persian  rule,  when 
65  VOL.  ii. — 13 


their  ancestral  enemy  Haman  succeeded  in  ex- 
citing the  suspicions  of  the  vain  and  jealous 
Ahasuerus,  the  Xerxes  of  classical  history. 
That  they  had  by  this  time  become  very  nu- 
merous is  evinced  by  the  loss  which  their  ene- 
mies met  in  the  attempt  to  massacre  them.  In 
the  capital  alone  800  were  killed,  and  in  the 
provinces  75,000.  It  was  not  till  long  after 
this  date,  when  the  Persian  empire  had  fallen 
into  disorder,  that  any  considerable  proportion 
of  the  Jewish  population  migrated  to  Palestine ; 
and  even  then  great  numbers  went  to  other 
countries,  where  for  centuries  they  were  known 
as  "the  dispersion." — It  is  probable  that  a 
portion  of  the  descendants  of  the  Israelite  cap- 
tives who  had  been  carried  to  Assyria  more 
than  a  century  before  the  first  Jewish  depor- 
tation under  Nebuchadnezzar,  gradually  amal- 
gamated with  the  captives  from  Judea,  so  that 
the  present  Hebrews  all  over  the  world  belong 
to  the  twelve  tribes,  not  merely  to  the  two  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin  and  the  Levites  who  lived 
among  them.  This  amalgamation  appears  to 
have  begun  early,  for  of  the  42,000  who  went 
up  with  Zerubbabel  under  the  decree  of  Cyrus, 
about  30,000  are  specially  noted  as  belonging 
to  Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Levi,  whence  it  may 
be  fairly  inferred  that  the  remaining  12,000  be- 
longed to  the  other  tribes. 

BABYROISSA,  or  Babirnsa,  an  animal  of  the 
swine  family,  peculiar  to  some  of  the  Malay 
islands.  It  is  about  3£  ft.  long  and  2£  ft.  high  ; 
the  legs  being  longer  and  the  body  more  slender 
than  in  others  of  the  swine  species.  It  does  not 
root  in  the  ground,  but  lives  upon  fallen  fruits. 
The  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are  long  and  sharp. 
Those  of  the  upper  jaw,  instead  of  growing 
downward  in  the  usual  manner,  are  reversed, 
growing  upward  from  bony  sockets  near  the 
snout,  and  curving  backward  until  they  almost 
touch  the  forehead.  They  sometimes  attain 
the  length  of  8  or  10  inches,  and  are  found 
only  in  the  male.  Their  use  is  undetermined ; 


Babyroussa  iSus  babirusa). 

they  cannot  be  weapons  of  offence.  Some  have 
supposed  that  they  serve  to  protect  the  eyes 
from  the  spiny  plants  among  which  the  animal 
finds  its  food ;  but  they  would  for  this  purpose 
be  equally  necessary  for  the  female,  which 
must  seek  its  food  in  the  same  way  as  the 


192 


BACCARA 


BACCHANALIA 


male.  From  these  horn-like  tusks,  and  its 
comparative  lightness  of  appearance,  it  de- 
rives its  Malay  name,  which  signifies  the  "hog- 
deer."  It  is  quite  as  fierce  as  the  wild  boar, 
and  an  excellent  swimmer,  often  taking  to  the 
water  for  mere  pleasure. 

BACCARA,  or  Baccarat,  a  French  game  of  cards, 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  France 
from  Italy  at  the  time  of  the  wars  of  Charles 
VIII.  Any  number  of  players  may  partici- 
pate, and  as  many  packs  of  cards  may  be  used 
as  necessary.  The  face  cards  each  count  ten, 
and  the  others  according  to  the  number  of  their 
spots.  After  the  bets  have  been  made  the 
banker  deals  two  cards  to  each  of  the  players, 
including  himself.  The  aim  is  to  make  the 
numbers  9,  19,  29,  or  as  nearly  those  as  possi- 
ble, as  8,  18,  28;  and  any  player  is  at  liberty 
either  to  "  stand  "  or  be  "  content "  with  the 
two  cards  first  dealt,  or  to  call  for  more  at  the 
risk  of  exceeding  29,  when  his  stake  is  forfeited 
to  the  dealer.  If,  after  the  first  distribution  of 
two  cards  to  each,  any  player  has  a  "natural," 
that  is,  a  sum  making 
9,  or  next  in  value  19, 
he  declares  it  wins,  and 
the  banker  pays  all  who 
hold  superior  hands  to 
his  own,  and  claims 
from  those  holding  infe- 
rior. This  game  has  be- 
come common  in  Amer- 
ica, where  it  is  played 
in  a  slightly  different 
manner,  the  face  cards 
and  tens  counting  noth- 
ing, and  the  "  natu- 
rals" being  the  sums  9 
and  8. 

BACCARAT,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Meurthe,  16 
m.  by  railway  S.  E.  of 

Luneville;  pop.  in  1866,  4,763.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  moun- 
tain on  the  river  Meurthe,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  flint-glass  manufactory,  which  employs  1,100 
hands,  and  produces  over  3,000,000  francs' 
worth  annually.  The  manufacture  was  greatly 
improved  and  cheapened  by  the  invention  of  a 
bellows  for  shaping  the  glass  by  one  of  its  work- 
men, Ismael  Robinet,  about  1823. 

BACCHANALIA,  or  IMonysla.  the  festivals  of  the 
Greek  god  Bacchus  or  Dionysus.  The  most 
important  were  held  in  Attica  and  Athens, 
and  were  four  in  number.  1.  The  country  or 
lesser  festival  was  held  in  all  the  country  dis- 
tricts of  Attica,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  demarchs  or  local  magistrates,  in  the 
month  Poseideon  (December),  when  the  vin- 
tage was  just  over.  There  was  a  tumultuous 
procession  of  men  and  women,  some  riding  in 
a  cart  and  casting  scurrilous  jests  and  abusive 
language  at  the  bystanders,  and  some  carrying 
the  phallus,  the  emblem  of  the  generative  pow- 
er in  nature.  The  phallic  hymn  was  sung, 


old  comedies  and  tragedies  were  enacted,  the 
slaves  had  temporary  liberty,  large  quantities 
of  wine  were  drunk,  and  unbounded  license  pre- 
vailed. 2.  The  wine  press  festival,  or  Lenaia, 
was  held  in  a  suburb  of  Athens  in  the  month 
Gamelion  (January),  when  the  wine  was  just 
made  and  the  presses  cleaned.  This  festival, 
which  was  celebrated  in  Asia  Minor  also,  was 
at  Athens  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
king-archon,  and  the  expenses  were  paid  by 
the  state.  There  was  a  public  banquet,  a  pro- 
cession, and  dramatic  entertainments  in  which 
new  comedies  were  represented.  3.  The  flower 
festival,  or  Anthesteria,  was  held  at  the  same 
place  as  the  Lensea,  in  the  month  Anthesterion 
(February),  and  lasted  three  days.  On  the 
first  day  the  vintage  was  broached  and  tasted, 
and  persons  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries 
of  Bacchus.  On  the  second  day  there  were 
games,  and  on  the  third  flowers  were  offered 
to  the  god.  During  the  festival  the  slaves 
were  free,  presents  were  sent  to  friends, 
and  pupils  paid  their  instructors.  4.  The 


Bacchanalian  Procession. 

town  or  great  festival  was  held  at  Athens 
in  the  month  Elaphebolion  (March),  when 
the  city  was  filled  with  strangers  from  all 
Greece.  The  festival  was  celebrated  in  the 
most  magnificent  manner  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  chief  archon,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  state,  and  consisted  of  a  ban- 
quet, a  procession,  and  the  acting  of  trage- 
dies. A  prize  was  awarded  for  the  best  play, 
and,  with  exceptions  in  favor  of  yEschylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  no  play  which  had 
once  won  a  prize  could  be  repeated.  All  these 
festivals  were  seasons  of  riotous  merriment 
and  drunkenness.  In  the  processions  Bacchus 
himself  was  represented,  attended  by  delirious 
women  called  Lena?  or  Bacchantes,  who  car- 
ried thyrsus  staffs,  cymbals,  swords,  or  serpents, 
and,  made  furious  by  dithyrambic  songs,  fiutes, 
and  wine,  danced  along  in  a  state  of  frenzy. 
Men,  covered  with  skins,  masked,  and  painted 
to  represent  fauns  and  satyrs,  accompanied 
them. — The  Romans  celebrated  the  Bacchana- 
lia every  third  year ;  but  such  excesses  attend- 


BACCHANTES 


BACCIOOHI 


193 


ed  the  secret  initiation,  which  was  held  by 
night,  and  tlie  society  became  so  dangerous, 
that  in  186  B.  C.  the  consuls,  by  the  authority 
of  the  senate,  issued  a  proclamation  command- 
ing that  no  Bacchanalia  should  be  held  either 
in  Rome  or  in  Italy.  After  this  decree  the 
I.iberalia,  the  festival  of  Liber,  a  similar  but 
more  moderate  rite,  was  celebrated  annuVilly 
on  the  16th  of  March,  and  on  that  day  the 
young  men  assumed  the  toga  virilis. 

BACCHANTES,  in  early  antiquity,  those  wo- 
men who  took  part  in  the  secret  festivities  in 
honor  of  Bacchus;  subsequently,  when  males 
were  also  admitted,  the  term  was  applied  to  all 
those  initiated  into  the  Bacchanalia.  In  the 
slang  of  mediaeval  university  students,  the 
name  was  given  to  those  who  had  not  yet  com- 
pleted their  first  year's  studies,  and  under  im- 
posing rites  and  plausible  pretexts  were  taxed 
for  drinking  purposes  and  initiated  in  debauch- 
eries by  the  seniors.  Later  the  name  was  ap- 
plied to  idle  students  who  led  a  dissipated  life, 
begging  under  the  pretence  of  collecting  the 
means  for  future  studies.  They  were  organized 
into  bodies  with  constitution  and  rituals,  and 
in  many  cities  public  boarding  houses  were 
established  for  them.  Sometimes  they  man- 
aged to  become  teachers,  and  it  was  a  recom- 
mendation for  a  high  school  to  have  many  such 
scholars.  For  heavy  fees  in  drink  they  gave 
instruction  in  the  tricks  of  their  wandering  life 
to  younger  students,  who,  under  the  name  of 
Tirones,  acted  as  their  servants,  stole  and 
begged  for  them,  and  were  harshly  treated. 
There  exist  in  German  two  autobiographies  of 
such  Bacchantes,  Burkard  Lingg  and  Thomas 
Plater.  The  reformation  stopped  these  prac- 
tices ;  but  traces  of  them  lingered  in  Germany 
and  England  down  to  the  19th  century. 

BACCHIGL10NE,  a  river  of  northern  Italy,  in 
Venetia,  about  90  in.  long,  which  rises  in  the 
Alps,  N.  W.  of  Vicenza,  flows  past  that  city 
and  Padua,  and  empties  into  the  lagoon  of 
Venice  near  Chioggia.  Large  boats  ascend  it 
to  Vicenza. 

K.U'CIII  S,  in  classical  mythology,  the  god  of 
wine,  known  among  the  Greeks  as  Dionysus, 
and  often  called  by  the  Romans  Liber.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  the  daugh- 
ter of  King  Cadmus.  Juno  avenged  herself  by 
visiting  Semele  in  disguise,  and  inducing  her  to 
demand  of  Jupiter  that  he  should  appear  before 
her  clothed  in  the  attributes  of  his  majesty. 
No  mortal  could  bear  this  sight,  and  Semele 
was  destroyed.  Jupiter,  however,  preserved 
the  still-born  child,  enclosed  him  in  his  own 
thigh  until  the  proper  period  for  birth,  and 
gave  him  to  the  sister  of  Semele  and  her  hus- 
band, and,  when  Juno  persecuted  these,  to  the 
nymphs,  for  education.  The  nymphs  brought 
him  up  at  Nysa  in  Thrace,  where  Silenus  also 
assisted  in  teaching  him.  Bacchus  taught  men 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  art  of  wine- 
making.  He  collected  bands  of  worshippers, 
principally  women,  and  surrounded  by  these, 
and  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  panthers  or 


leopards,  he  passed  through  many  countries, 
and  even  penetrated  to  India.  His  followers, 
maddened  with  wine  and  license,  and  carrying 
the  thyrsus,  a  hollow  wand  twined  with  ivy  and 
vine  leaves,  attacked  those  even  of  their  own 
families  who  resisted  the  introduction  of  the 
new  religion.  Pentheus  of  Thebes  was  thus 
killed  by  his  own  mother,  who  was  among  the 
Bacchantes. — The  Greek  legends  of  the  adven- 
tures of  the  god  were  almost  innumerable.  lie 
flayed  Damascus  alive,  who  opposed  him  in  Sy- 
ria; visited  Lycurgus,  king  of  the  Edones,  with 
madness  in  which  he  killed  his  own  son ;  and 
after  the  king  again  became  sane,  caused  him 
to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  wild  horses.  He  over- 
came the  Amazons.  Carried  off  to  sea  while 
he  slept  by  a  party  of  sailors  who  purposed 
selling  him  as  a  slave  in  Egypt,  he  caused  the 
vessel  to  stand  still  while  vines  and  ivy  grew 
around  the  mast  and  spars,  and  wine  flowed 
from  the  deck ;  then  he  assumed  the  form  of  a 
lion,  and  afterward  of  a  bear,  killed  the  cap- 
tain, and  changed  the  seamen  into  dolphins, 
preserving  only  the  pilot,  who  had  warned  the 
crew  against  molesting  the  god.  The  tra- 
ditions concerning  him  are  very  differently 
given  by  different  authors.  Even  concerning 
his  birth  the  legends  were  contradictory,  while 
the  methods  of  his  worship  in  different  coun- 
tries were  widely  at  variance.  He  was  repre- 
sented in  some  works  of  art  as  an  infant,  but 
generally  by  the  Greeks  as  a  beautiful  boy ; 
while  in  the  East  he  was  pictured  as  a  mini 
of  middle  age  and  majestic  figure,  clothed  in 
long  robes.  His  festivals  and  religious  rites, 
which,  originating  in  Thrace,  became  wild 
orgies  and  scenes  of  license  in  Greece  and 
Rome  (see  BACCHANALIA),  and  were  finally 
suppressed  in  the  latter  city,  were  probably 
originally  simple  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the 
rich  and  productive  power  of  nature,  which 
he,  as  god  of  wine,  undoubtedly  represented. 
Among  the  powers  which  were  attributed  to 
Bacchus  were  those  of  prophecy,  of  healing 
certain  diseases,  and  of  increasing  the  produc- 
tiveness of  the  earth. 

BACCHYLIDES,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  lulis  in 
the  island  of  Ceos  about  512  B.  C. ;  the  period 
of  his  death  is  uncertain.  He  was  a  nephew 
of  Simonides  and  a  contemporary  of  Pindar, 
and  passed  most  of  his  life  at  the  court  of  Hiero 
of  Syracuse.  Fragments  of  his  works  were 
published  by  Neue  of  Berlin  in  1822.  They 
are  also  found  in  Bergk's  Poetce  Lyrici  Grceci 
(2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1 853).  The  most  recent  edition 
is  by  Hartung,  with  a  German  version  (in  the 
Griechische  Lyriker,  6  vols.,  1857). 

BACCIO  DELLA  PORTA.     See  BAKTOLOMMEO. 

BACCIOCHI,  Napolcone  Elisa,  a  Bonaparte  prin- 
cess, cousin  of  Napoleon  III.,  only  daughter  of 
Elisa,  the  eldest  sister  of  Napoleon  I.,  princess 
of  Lucca  and  Piombino,  and  afterward  grand 
duchess  of  Tuscany,  and  of  Prince  Felice  Pas- 
quale  Bacciochi,  a  Corsican  nobleman  (see  BO- 
NAPARTE), born  in  Italy,  June  3,  1806,  died  in 
her  chateau  Kour-el-Ouet,  Brittany,  Feb.  3  or 


194 


BACH 


4, 1869.  In  1825  she  married  Count  Camerata, 
a  wealthy  landed  proprietor  of  Ancona.  Sepa- 
rating from  him  in  1830,  she  resided  on  her  Illy- 
rian  domain,  engaged  in  lawsuits  for  inheritance 
against  her  uncles.  She  devised  ineffectual 
plans  for  the  escape  from  Schonbrunn  of  her 
cousin  the  duke  of  Keichstadt,  in  whose  fate 
she  took  a  profound  interest.  She  spent  the 
latter  part  of  her  life  in  France,  and  bequeath- 
ed the  bulk  of  her  fortune  to  the  prince  im- 
perial, son  of  Napoleon  III. — Her  only  son, 
NAPOI.EONE  CAMEEATA,  killed  himself  March  3, 
1853.  Her  nephew,  Count  FELICE  BAOOIOOHI, 
born  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  died  in 
Paris,  Sept.  23,  1866.  He  inherited  the  large 
fortune  of  his  grandfather,  prince  of  Lucca 
and  Piombino.  He  was  the  devoted  friend 
and  first  chamberlain  of  Napoleon  III.,  super- 
intendent of  the  theatres  of  France,  and  short- 
ly before  his  death  was  made  a  senator. 

BACH,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  musical 
family  in  Germany.  In  no  department  of  sci- 
ence, art,  or  literature  has  any  single  family 
ever  achieved  such  distinction,  either  from  the 
number  of  its  members  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  same  pursuit,  or  the  talents, 
genius,  and  learning  which  they  have  mani- 
fested in  it,  as  that  of  Bach  in  music.  Fifty 
individuals  at  least  of  this  name,  whose  lives 
spread  over  a  period  of  2J  centuries,  would 
deservedly  occupy  an  extended  space  in  an 
exclusively  musical  cyclopaedia.  I.  V«lt,  the 
founder  of  the  German  family  of  the  name, 
was  originally  a  baker  by  trade,  a  Protestant 
in  religion,  at  Presburg  in  Hungary,  whence 
about  the  year  1600  he  was  driven  by  persecu- 
tion, with  his  family,  and  sought  a  refuge  in 
one  of  the  small  cities  of  Thuringia.  He  had 
received  a  musical  education,  and  was  noted 
for  his  skill  upon  the  guitar.  II.  Hans  (JO- 
HANNES), the  eldest  son  of  Veit  Bach,  and  the 
ancestor  of  most  of  those  of  whom  mention 
will  be  made,  was  a  manufacturer  of  tapestry 
and  town  musician  at  Wechmar  in  Gotha.  He 
died  in  1626,  leaving  three  sons:  JOHANN, 
born  in  1604,  who  was  appointed  organist  and 
director  of  the  city  music  at  Erfurt,  which 
offices  he  retained  from  1635  till  his  death  in 
1673;  CHBISTOPH,  born  in  1613,  died  in  1661 ; 
and  III.  lli'inrirh,  born  at  Wechmar  in  1615, 
died  at  Arnstadt  in  1 690.  He  was  instructed 
in  music  by  his  father  until,  needing  a  teacher 
of  greater  knowledge,  he  was  sent  to  his  broth- 
er Johann  at  Erfurt,  where  in  a  few  years  he 
became  a  very  accomplished  organist  and  mu- 
sician in  the  fashion  of  that  epoch.  He  was 
employed  in  these  capacities  successively  by 
the  city  authorities  of  Schweinfurt  and  Erfurt, 
until  he  was  called  in  1641  to  Arnstadt  as 
organist,  a  place  which  he  filled  with  great 
honor  till  his  death. — The  Bachs  of  the  next 
(the  fourth)  generation  were  nine  in  number. 
IV.  Johann  JGgidius,  the  second  and  the  most 
noted  of  the  three  sons  of  Johann,  born  in 
1645,  died  in  1717.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
father  he  succeeded  him  as  organist  and  direc- 


'  tor  of  the  city  music  at  Erfurt.  V.  Georg 
Christoph,  eldest  son  of  Christoph,  born  in  1642, 
died  in  1697,  was  cantor  and  composer  at 
Schweinfurt.  VI.  Johann  Ambrosias,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1645,  died  in  1695. 
He  was  a  court  and  city  musician  at  Eisenach, 
a  sound  theorist  and  of  repute  in  practical 
music,  and  was  the  father  of  the  great  Johami 
Sebastian.  VII.  Johann  Christoph,  eldest  of  tin- 
two  sons  of  Ileinrich,  born  in  1643,  died  in 
1703.  He  stands  in  musical  history  as  one 
of  the  very  first  of  German  organists,  contra- 
puntists, and  composers  of  his  era.  He  studied 
music  with  his  father  so  successfully  as  at  the 
age  of  22  to  be  called  to  Eisenach  into  the 
service  of  the  court  and  city,  as  organist.  At 
the  time  in  which  he  lived  but  little  music 
comparatively  appeared  from  the  press,  and  the 
works  of  one  who  lived  the  retired  life  of  an 
organist  in  a  small  Saxon  city  could  scarcely 
become  known  out  of  his  own  immediate 
sphere.  His  compositions,  of  which  he  left  a 
vast  number  in  manuscript,  composed  for  the 
church  and  court  where  he  officiated,  prove, 
says  Gerber,  "  that  he  was  truly  a  great  man,  as 
rich  in  invention  as  he  was  strong  in  the  pow- 
er of  musical  expression  of  emotion."  A  cen- 
tury after  his  death,  at  the  time  when  Mozart, 
Haydn,  and  Gluck  had  become  models  in  com- 
position, selections  from  his  works  were  per- 
formed in  Hamburg  with  great  success,  excit- 
ing no  small  degree  of  astonishment  by  their 
freshness,  beauty,  and  freedom  from  the  tram- 
mels of  the  dry  contrapuntal  school.  So  far 
as  the  musical  taste  of  his  age  allowed,  his 
works  in  general  are  found  to  be  melodious  and 
truly  vocal,  at  the  same  time  being  remarkably 
full  in  harmony  and  very  grand  in  effect.  One 

1  of  his  compositions,  dated  1684,  is  a  motet  in 
free  style,  in  which,  among  the  (at  that  time) 
novelties  of  construction  and  harmony,  is  found 
the  extreme  sharp  sixth.  On  the  back  of  the 
sheet  upon  which  it  is  written  is  another  piece 
of  sacred  music  in  22  parts,  obbligato,  the  har- 
monic relations  of  which  to  the  motet  are  per- 
fect. The  list  of  his  works  contains  also  a 
motet  for  St.  Michael's  day  in  22  real  parts,  a 
piece  of  wedding  music  in  12  parts,  another 
motet  for  eight  voices,  instrumented  for  two 
choirs  and  orchestras,  a  solo  for  an  alto  voice 
with  accompaniment  for  violin,  three  viols 
di  gamba,  and  bass,  &c.  VIII.  Johann  Michael, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  2d  son  of  Heinrich, 
was  born  at  Arnstadt  about  1660,  and  became 
organist  and  city  scribe  in  one  of  the  Thurin- 
gian  towns.  He  was  an  industrious  and  effec- 
tive composer  for  the  church,  harpsichord,  and 
organ.  One  of  his  vocal  works,  performed  in 
Berlin  a  few  years  ago,  surprised  every  auditor 
by  its  beauty  and  modern  coloring.  His  daugh- 
ter became  the  first  wife  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach. — The  family  tree  gives  17  Bachs  of  the 
next  (the  fifth)  generation,  of  whom  the  most 
distinguished  were  the  .following:  IX.  Johann 
Bernard,  eldest  son  of  J.  yEgidius,  born  Nov. 
23,  1676,  died  June  1,  1749.  He  was  organist 


BACH 


195 


of  the  Merchants'  church  of  his  native  city, 
Eisenach,  of  a  church  in  Magdeburg,  and  in 
1703  successor  of  Johann  Christoph  as  court 
and  city  organist  at  the  former  place.  He 
distinguished  himself  especially  in  his  choral 
preludes,  and  by  his  overtures  in  Telemann's 
style.  Xt  Johann  Sebastian,  in  some  respects 
the  greatest  musician  that  has  lived,  third  an«i 
youngest  son  of  Johann  Ambrosius,  born  at 
Eisenach,  March  21,  1685,  one  month  after 
the  birth  of  Handel  at  Halle,  died  at  Leipsic, 
July  30,  1750.  At  a  very  early  age  he  lost 
his  mother,  and  had  hardly  completed  his  10th 
year  when  his  father  died  also.  The  little  or- 
phan was  then  placed  under  the  care  of  his 
brother  Johann  Christoph,  organist  at  Ohrdruff. 
with  whom  he  continued  his  musical  studies 
and  began  the  practice  of  keyed  instruments — 
the  harpsichord  and  organ.  His  pupilage  here 
was  short,  being  ended  by  the  death  of  Chris- 
toph, which  occurred  shortly  afterward.  He 
then  found  a  place  as  treble  singer  in  a  choir 
at  Luneburg,  not  many  miles  from  Hamburg, 
remaining  there  until  his  voice  changed,  with 
the  advantages  of  an  excellent  school  and  the 
best  musical  instruction,  and  in  the  receipt  of 
a  small  stipend,  yet  sufficient  for  his  boyish 
necessities.  His  enthusiasm  for  the  organ  and 
his  zeal  for  music  in  other  forms  and  styles,  at 
this  period,  are  sufficiently  attested  by  his  foot 
journeys  to  Hamburg  to  hear  Reinke,  the  great 
organist,  and  to  Celle  to  listen  to  the  French 
band  in  the  service  of  the  prince.  With  the 
change  in  his  voice  came  the  loss  of  his  place 
and  the  necessity  of  entering  upon  a  new  field. 
Like  Handel,  he  had  studied  the  violin,  and  it 
was  now  his  resource.  At  the  age  of  18  he 
journeyed  to  Weimar,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  court  there  as  violinist.  His  leisure 
hours  were  still  devoted  to  the  organ,  to  coun- 
terpoint, and  composition,  and  in  less  than  two 
years,  though  hardly  20  years  of  age,  he  was 
called  to  Arnstadt  to  fill  the  place  of  organist, 
probably  in  the  church  where  his  father's  uncle 
Heinrich  had  so  long  officiated.  The  three 
years  spent  in  Arnstadt  were  years  of  most 
devoted  study,  and  during  that  time  he  devel- 
oped those  powers  which  afterward  placed  him 
above  all  rivalry.  Besides  the  labor  which  he 
devoted  to  the  working  out  of  his  own  con- 
ceptions, he  let  nothing  escape  him  which  ap- 
peared from  the  pens  of  Bruhns,  Reinke,  and 
Buxtehude.  He  was  so  charmed  with  the 
works  of  the  last  named  that  he  went  to  Lu- 
beck  to  hear  him  play,  and  prolonged  his  visit 
to  a  stay  of  three  months,  merely  to  listen  to 
him  in  the  church,  for  his  acquaintance  he  did 
not  make.  In  1707  he  accepted  a  call  to  Muhl- 
liausen,  and  the  following  year  returned  to 
Weimar  in  the  capacity  of  court  organist.  En- 
couraged by  the  continued  applause  of  the  court,  ', 
he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  and  his  prin- 
cipal compositions  for  the  organ  date  during 
the  seven  years  of  his  service  there.  In  1714 
he  became  concert  master  to  the  duke,  with  the 
additional  duty  of  composing  and  conducting  the  , 


i  vocal  music  of  the  ducal  chapel.  Here,  doubt- 
less, began  the  enormous  list  of  works  in  every 
form  of  sacred  music,  which,  mostly  in  manu- 
script, are  preserved  in  the  musical  libraries 

I  of  Berlin,  Leipsic,  and  other  cities.  Here,  too, 
he  had  constant  practice  in  writing  orchestral 
works  and  instrumental  chamber  music,  and  fit- 
ted himself  for  a  larger  stage  of  action.  In  1717 
Marchand,  then  at  the  head  of  French  organ- 
ists, appeared  in  Dresden,  and  charmed  King 
Augustus  so  greatly  by  his  skill  as  to  receive 
an  offer  of  a  very  large  salary  to  enter  his  ser- 
vice. Volumier,  also  a  Frenchman,  the  con- 
cert master  of  the  king,  invited  Bach  to  the 
capital  to  a  trial  of  skill  with  Marchand.  The 
Saxon  accepted  the  invitation,  and  through  the 
kindness  of  Volumier  had  an  opportunity  of 
hearing  his  rival.  With  the  knowledge  and 
consent  of  Augustus,  Bach  sent  his  challenge  to 
the  French  artist,  which  was  accepted.  At  the 
time  fixed,  Bach  appeared  at  the  house  of  the 
minister  where  the  contest  was  to  take  place. 
The  king  and  company  waited  long,  but  Mar- 
chand came  not.  At  length  came  news  that  he 
had  left  the  city  early  that  day  by  extra  post. 
The  greatness  of  the  German  organist,  however, 
more  than  made  good  the  loss.  Bach  returned 
to  Weimar,  but  soon  after  accepted  the  office  of 
kapellmeister  to  the  court  at  Kothen,  where  he 
remained,  composing  for  and  directing  the  or- 
chestra, till  1723,  when  the  city  authorities  of 
Leipsic  elected  him  to  the  position  of  musi- 
cal director  and  cantor  of  the  Thomas  school. 
At  the  age  of  38,  then,  Bach,  rich  in  all  that 
study  of  theory,  hearing  the  best  models  of 
his  age  and  country,  practice  as  member  and 
leader  of  orchestras,  and  constant  exercise  in 
composition  for  church  and  concert  room, 
could  give  him,  devoted  himself  to  teaching 
and  to  the  working  out  of  his  lofty  conceptions 
of  the  musical  art.  Twenty-seven  years  he 
thus  lived  and  labored,  surrounded  by  his  pu- 
pils and  his  large  family  of  sons,  composing 
music  sacred  and  secular  in  all  the  forms  then 
known  except  the  opera  and  dramatic  oratorio, 
and  leaving  as  the  fruits  of  those  years  a  mass 
of  compositions  which,  for  number,  variety, 
and  excellence,  form  perhaps  the  most  astonish- 
ing monument  of  musical  genius  and  learning. 
Mozart  and  Handel  alone  can  at  all  come  in 
competition  with  him  in  this  regard.  Of  the 
few  works  from  his  pen  which  appeared  in  his 
lifetime,  most  are  said  to  have  been  engraved 
upon  copper  by  himself  with  the  assistance  of 
his  son  Friedemann,  and  this  labor,  added  to  his 
others  so  numerous,  finally  cost  him  his  sight. 
A  few  years  later,  at  the  age  of  65,  an  attack 
of  apoplexy  carried  him  to  the  tomb.  He  was 
twice  married,  and  left  10  sons,  all  of  them  fine 
musicians,  and  several  of  them  among  the  very 
first  of  that  great  period  in  the  history  of  the 
art  of  which  Mozart,  Haydn,  and  Gluck  were 
the  chief  ornaments.  This  great  musician  had 
no  cause  to  complain  of  a  want  of  due  apprecia- 
tion, either  as  organist  or  composer.  Very  soon 
after  his  establishment  in  Leipsic,  the  duke  of 


196 


BACH 


ntL'ls  conferred  upon  Mm  the  title  of  ka- 
pellmeister, with  the  emoluments  of  the  office, 
without  requiring  his  personal  attendance  at 
court;  and  in  1736  Augustus  of  Saxony  created 
him  "  royal  Polish  and  Saxon  electoral  court 
composer."  In  1747  he  was  persuaded  to  ac- 
cept an  invitation  from  Frederick  II.,  king  of 
Prussia,  to  visit  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Notice  was 
given  the  king  of  his  arrival  in  the  latter  city, 
just  as  a  private  concert  in  the  palace  was  to 
hegin.  "  Gentlemen,"  said  Frederick,  "  old 
Bach  has  come !  "  The  old  organist  was  instant- 
ly sent  for,  and  without  affording  him  time  to 
change  his  dress,  he  was  brought  to  the  palace. 
The  king  had  several  of  Silbermann's  piano- 
fortes in  various  apartments — one  may  still  be 
seen  there — and  to  these  in  succession  Bach 
was  taken  and  called  upon  to  try  their  powers. 
At  length  the  king  gave  him  a  theme  for  a 
fugue,  which  was  so  wrought  out  as  to  afford 
him  the  highest  gratification,  and  he  immedi- 
ately afterward  demanded  an  extemporaneous 
fugue  in  six  parts.  Bach  thought  a  moment, 
and,  selecting  the  theme,  worked  it  up  to  the 
astonishment  not  only  of  the  king  but  of  the 
several  distinguished  musicians  present.  Upon 
his  return  to  Leipsic  he  wrote  out  the  fugue, 
added  to  it  another  in  three  parts,  and  a  ricercar 
also  in  six,  both  upon  the  same  theme,  together 
with  other  specimens  of  his  powers,  and  pub- 
lished them  with  the  title  of  "  A  Musical  Offer- 
ing." The  only  works  by  Bach  published  dur- 
ing his  life  are  exercises  for  the  harpsichord,  in 
three  parts,  which  appeared  at  intervals ;  an  air 
with  30  variations ;  six  choral  preludes  in  three 
parts  for  the  organ ;  variations  in  canon  upon 
the  choral  Vom  Himmel  Koch;  and  the  "Musi- 
cal Offering."  The  rest  of  his  works,  left  in 
manuscript,  have  come  out  one  by  one,  or  still 
remain  imprinted.  The  Bach  society  at  Leip- 
sic, having  over  500  members  in  all  parts  of 
the  art  world,  has  been  engaged  since  1850  in 
publishing  a  complete  collection  of  his  works. 
Among  them  are  found  five  complete  sets  of 
vocal  pieces  for  the  church,  for  all  the  Sundays 
and  festivals  of  the  year ;  a  great  collection  of 
oratorios,  masses,  magnificats,  sanctus,  pieces 
for  birth,  wedding,  and  funeral  occasions,  and 
not  a  few  comic  compositions ;  five  "  passions," 
so  called,  compositions  to  which  the  accounts 
of  the  suffering  and  death  of  Christ,  as  given 
by  the  evangelists,  furnish  the  text ;  more  than 
100  sacred  cantatas  are  preserved  in  the  libra- 
ry of  the  Thomas  school  alone.  "The  Well- 
tempered  Clavier,"  a  collection  of  48  preludes 
and  48  fugues,  is  known  to  every  earnest  stu- 
dent of  the  pianoforte,  as  remarkable  in  its 
adaptation  to  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  per- 
former to  conquer  the  difficulties  of  that  in- 
strument. His  works  for  organ,  harpsichord, 
orchestra,  and  every  solo  instrument  in  use  a 
century  since,  are  as  numerous  and  effective  as 
his  vocal  compositions,  and  begin  again  to  form 
a  part  of  the  programmes  in  the  principal  con- 
certs of  central  Europe.  As  a  virtuoso  upon 
keyed  instruments,  Bach  seems  to  have  antici- 


pated the  wonderful  effects  produced  in  our 
own  days  by  Thalberg,  and  even  Liszt.  In  his 
own  age  he  was  in  this  regard — as  has  been 
said  of  Shakespeare  as  a  pod — so  far  above  all 
others  as  to  have  no  second.  The  fingering 
invented  by  Bach  was  the  basis  of  his  son 
Emanuel's  work  upon  the  pianoforte,  which 
opened  a  new  era  for  the  instrument,  and  led 
the  way,  through  Mozart  and  dementi,  to  the 
extraordinary  perfection  exhibited  by  the  vir- 
tuosos of  our  own  time.  To  it  he  was  brought 
by  his  own  works,  for,  as  he  himself  said,  "he 
had  often  been  compelled  to  study  long  at 
night,  how  to  play  the  compositions  which  he 
had  written  during  the  day."  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  points  in  Bach's  compositions  are 
the  marvellous  invention  they  exhibit,  and  their 
extraordinary  grandeur,  power,  and  science. 
— Of  the  sixth  generation  of  the  Bach  family, 
some  30  in  number,  the  more  distinguished 
were  the  following:  XI.  Joliann  Ernst,  born  at 
Eisenach,  June  28,  1722,  died  in  1781.  Ik- 
was  educated  at  the  Thomas  school  and  the 
university  of  Leipsic,  made  jurisprudence  his 
profession,  and  settled  as  an  advocate  in  his 
native  city.  But  he  was  a  Bach,  and  music 
early  drew  him  from  the  law.  At  the  age  of 
28  he  was  made  asssistant  organist  to  his  father, 
and  finally  appointed  kapellmeister  by  the  duke 
at  Weimar.  Life  at  court  proved  disagreeable 
to  him,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  duke  he  re- 
turned to  Eisenach  and  to  his  former  position. 
He  was  an  industrious  and  successful  composer 
for  the  church,  and  while  at  Weimar  produced 
i  a  great  number  of  orchestral  works.  Few  of 
his  compositions  were  printed.  XII.  \\  illiHiu 
Frledemann,  eldest  son  of  Johann  Sebastian, 
born  at  Weimar  in  1710,  died  in  Berlin,  July 
1,  1784.  Of  all  the  Bachs  born  since  Sebastian, 
this  man  seemed  by  nature  the  best  fitted  to 
succeed  to  the  high  position  which  his  father 
held  in  the  art.  His  genius  was  of  the  highest 
order,  and  the  progress  which  he  made  in 
childhood  under  his  father's  instructions  gave 
rise  to  the  brightest  hopes  for  the  future.  In 
his  early  and  extraordinary  mastery  both  of  the 
practice  and  theory  of  music,  he  seems  to  have 
more  nearly  rivalled  Mozart  than  any  other. 
His  compositions  were  remarkable  for  their 
power  and  depth,  and  by  his  command  of  the 
liarpsichord  and  organ  in  reproducing  instantly 
any  musical  idea  which  occurred  to  him,  he 
aroused  the  wonder  of  all  who  heard  him.  He 
studied  the  violin  with  the  celebrated  Graun, 
afterward  concert  master  to  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia,  with  equal  success.  He  passed  through 
regular  courses  of  instruction  at  the  Thomas 
school,  and  then  entered  the  university  at 
Leipsic,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  jurispru- 
dence and  mathematics.  To  the  latter  science 
he  specially  inclined,  and  retained  his  fondness 
for  it  throughout  life.  Music,  however,  was 
not  neglected,  and  in  his  23d  year  he  was  called 
to  Dresden  as  organist  in  the  Sophia  church. 
He  remained  there  till  1747,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Halle  as  music  director  and  organist, 


BACH 


197 


where  he  remiiined  about  20  years,  and  hence 
is  often  named  in  musical  works  "  the  Halle 
Bach."  At  the  age  of  37  he  gave  up  his  place, 
and  departed  to  Leipsic,  with  nothing  certain 
in  view.  During  the  remaining  17  years  of 
his  life,  without  a  fixed  position,  he  was  a  sort 
of  vagabond,  teaching  and  practising  music  in 
Brunswick,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  dying  in  a 
miserable  condition  at  the  age  of  74.  This  man 
was  recognized  by  all  his  contemporaries  as  the 
greatest  musical  genius  then  living.  Unfortu- 
nately he  was  also  a  man  of  execrable  temper, 
rude  in  his  manners,  almost  brutal ;  possessed 
of  a  professional  pride  which  rendered  him 
intolerable  to  other  artists ;  absent-minded  in 
the  highest  degree ;  and  a  drunkard.  During 
his  long  residence  in  Halle  he  was  a  constant 
source  of  trouble  at  the  church  of  which  he 
was  organist.  When  on  his  way  thither,  he 
would  sometimes  forget  his  errand  and  wonder 
why  the  bells  were  ringing;  sometimes  he 
would  enter  the  church  at  one  door,  forget 
himself,  and  pass  out  at  the  other.  He  often 
gave  the  organ-blower  the  keys  of  the  instru- 
ment in  order  that,  in  case  of  his  forgetfulness, 
some  one  else  might  take  his  place.  Sometimes 
he  would  forget  himself  while  at  the  instrument, 
and  play  on  until  the  patience  of  priest  and 
people  was  alike  exhausted.  In  consequence 
of  a  severe  reproof  upon  such  an  occasion,  the 
now  old  man  gathered  up  his  worldly  pos- 
.sessions  and  went  off  to  Leipsic.  The  works  of 
Friedemann  Bach  are  few  in  number,  but  these 
few  are  such  as  to  cause  every  musician  to  de- 
plore the  sad  waste  of  genius  and  talent  which 
his  life  exhibits.  XIII.  Karl  Philipp  Kmanuol, 
sometimes  called  the  Hamburg  Bach,  third  son 
of  Johann  Sebastian,  born  in  Weimar,  March 
14,  1714,  died  in  Hamburg,  Sept.  14,  1788. 
In  his  childhood  he  was  thoroughly  grounded 
in  music,  practical  and  theoretical,  and  after- 
ward followed  his  brother  Friedemann  to  the 
Thomas  school  and  university  in  Leipsic.  Like 
him,  too,  he  studied  jurisprudence  there,  and 
pursued  the  science  further  in  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder.  In  this  city  he  founded  and  directed 
a  musical  society,  which  often  sang  composi- 
tions from  his  pen.  At  the  age  of  24  he  re- 
moved to  Berlin,  where  he  lived  privately  till 
1740,  when  he  was  appointed  chamber  musi- 
cian and  accompanist  to  Frederick  II.  in  that 
monarch's  flute  solos.  In  1767  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Hamburg  as  music  director.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  prolific  composers  of  his  time, 
and  his  works  were  popular  to  such  a  degree, 
that  the  list  of  those  published  during  his  life 
surpasses  in  extent  that  of  any  German  com- 
poser until  the  appearance  of  Joseph  Haydn. 
He  was  equally  great  in  all  departments  of  com- 
position except  the  lyric  drama,  in  which  he 
had  no  call  to  exert  his  powers.  The  choruses 
of  his  oratorio  "Israel  in  the  Wilderness,"  and 
of  some  of  his  more  extended  works  for  the 
church,  place  him  nearer  Handel,  perhaps,  in 
their  power,  beauty,  and  ravishing  vocal  effects, 
than  any  other  composer.  As  a  writer  of  songs, 


odes,  and  psalms,  he  surpassed  all  his  contem- 
poraries, and  some  of  his  collections  reached 
their  4th  and  5th  editions  soon  after  their 
publication.  As  a  symphonist  and  writer  of 
chamber  music  he  held  the  first  rank.  Like 
the  works  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven  at  a 
later  period,  his  were  censured  as  being  full  of 
strange  modulations,  crudities,  and  difficulties ; 
but  they  made  their  way  in  spite  of  the  crit- 
ics, and  became  the  foundation  upon  which 

j  Haydn  erected  his  temple.  While  restrained 
within  due  limits  by  the  example  and  instruc- 
tions of  his  father,  he  nevertheless  made  music 

j  the  medium  of  expression  for  the  varying  emo- 

!  tions  of  his  naturally  poetic  spirit,  and  thoughts 
sublime,  pathetic,  and  humorous  are  often  com- 

I  bined  in  a  manner  then  utterly  new  and  sur- 
prising. Haydn  was  a  most  diligent  student  of 
his  works,  and  declared  in  his  old  age,  when 
he  stood  in  the  musical  world  with  no  rival 
but  Mozart,  "  For  what  I  know,  I  have  to  thank 
Karl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach."  dementi  has 
the  reputation  of  being  the  father  of  modern 
pianoforte  playing.  That  great  man,  however, 
acknowledged  in  Bach  his  master.  He  became 
what  he  was  through  his  study  of  Emanuel's 
works,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  publication  of 
many  of  them.  The  works  of  Bach  for  this 
instrument,  trios,  sonatinas  with  accompani- 
ment, concertos  with  orchestra,  and  sonatas,  are 
numbered  by  hundreds,  the  motive  of  which 
he  explained  by  saying,  "In  my  opinion,  the 
grand  object  of  music  is. to  touch  the  heart, 
and  this  end  can  never  be  attained  by  the 
pianist  by  mere  noise,  drumming,  and  arpeggios, 
at  all  events  not  by  me."  His  great  work  upon 
the  pianoforte,  the  foundation  of  all  the  valu- 
able ones  which  have  since  appeared,  was  the 
Versuch  ulter  die  wahre  Art  das  Klavier  zu 
spielen  ("Essay  on  the  true  Art  of  playing  the 
Harpsichord,"  first  part,  Berlin,  1759),  which 
reached  its  third  and  improved  edition  before 
his  death ;  the  second  part,  treating  the  accom- 
paniment and  the  free  fantasia,  was  published 
in  1762.  The  basis  of  this  work,  as  may 
naturally  be  supposed,  was  found  in  the  in- 
structions and  example  of  his  father.  It  inter- 
prets and  renders  available  the  science  of  Se- 
bastian Bach.  XIV.  Johann  Christoph  Friedrieh, 
known  as  the  Bilckeburg  Bach,  tenth  son  of 
Johann  Sebastian,  born  in  Leipsic  in  1732, 
died  Jan.  26,  1795.  He  studied  jurisprudence 
like  his  brothers  above  named,  and  like  them 
also  afterward  devoted  himself  to  music.  He 
received  the  appointment  of  kapellmeister  at 
an  early  age  from  the  duke  of  Lippe-Schaum- 
burg,  and  passed  his  life  in  his  service'  at  Bilcke- 
burg. His  compositions  were  very  numerous, 
especially  for  the  church,  no  festival  being  al- 
lowed to  pass  without  a  new  work  from  hia 
pen.  Although  neither  as  a  pianist  nor  as  a 
composer  reaching  the  rank  of  his  two  elder 
brothers,  he  was  worthy  of  his  name,  and  be- 
sides his  salary  received  valuable  presents  and 
testimonials  from  his  patrons.  His  published 
works  consist  principally  of  songs  and  chamber 


198 


BACH 


BACHE 


music,  of  which  six  violin  quartets  originally 
appeared  in  London.  XV.  Johann  Christian, 
knuwn  as  the  Milan  or  the  London  Bach,  the 
eleventh  son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  horn  in  Leip- 
sic  in  1735,  died  in  January,  1782.  He  enjoyed 
his  father's  instructions  until  his  16th  year, 
when  upon  his  death  he  went  to  Berlin,  to 
prosecute  his  musical  studies  with  his  brother 
Emanuel.  He  bade  fair  to  rival  his  elder 
brothers  in  that  style  of  music  which  seems  to 
have  been  in  some  degree  peculiar  to  the  family, 
and  had  already  produced  several  smaller  com- 
positions successfully,  when  he  was  induced, 
at  the  age  of  19,  by  some  of  the  Italian  vocalists 
of  Berlin,  to  visit  Italy.  During  a  short  stay 
in  Milan,  he  attracted  so  much  attention  by 
his  abilities  as  to  be  elected  one  of  the  organists 
in  the  cathedral.  But  he  devoted  himself  al- 
most exclusively  to  composition  for  the  voice, 
and  in  1759,  upon  his  appearance  in  London, 
had  lost  much  of  his  previous  skill  as  a  virtuoso 
upon  .keyed  instruments.  His  style  was  so 
much  admired,  however,  that  he  endeavored 
to  recover  his  former  great  skill,  but  was  never 
able  to.  fully  make  up  the  loss  his  hands  had 
sustained  through  disuse.  In  1763  he  was  in- 
vited to  compose  an  opera  for  the  London 
stage,  and  produced  Orione,  which  had  a  most 
successful  run  of  three  months.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  works,  some  entirely  of  his 
composition,  others  partially  so.  Many  of  his 
airs  are  admirable,  and  at  the  time  were  ex- 
ceedingly popular,  being  always  natural,  ele- 
gant, and  in  the  then  best  Italian  style.  He 
was  particularly  noted  for  the  richness,  varie- 
ty, and  beauty  of  his  accompaniments,  which 
showed  the  influence  of  his  father  and  elder 
brothers  upon  him,  and  the  profoundness  of 
his  theoretical  studies.  His  pianoforte  music, 
however,  was  in  a  light  and  pleasing  style,  very 
different  from  that  of  any  other  of  his  name. 
Emanuel  once  reproved  him  for  it,  in  a  letter 
to  which  he  answered,  "  I  am  obliged  to  use 
baby  talk,  that  children  may  understand  me." 
Schubert  says  of  his  works:  "  His  church  music 
has  great  depth,  but  there  is  a  certain  worldly 
air  to  it,  and  one  finds  therein  a  sort  of  taint 
of  corruption.  All  the  operas  written  by  him 
for  Italy,  Germany,  and  England  show  a  mas- 
ter-spirit in  the  realm  of  music.  This  Bach 
had  it  in  his  power  to  be  whatever  he  would, 
and  he  may  well  be  compared  to  the  Proteus 
of  fable.  Now  he  spouts  water,  now  he  breathes 
forth  flame.  In  the  midst  of  the  trivialities  of 
fashionable  style,  the  giant  spirit  of  his  father 
may  be  discovered."  His  wife,  Ccecilia  Giassi, 
was  long  prima  donna  in  the  London  opera. 

BACH,  Alexander,  baron,  an  Austrian  states- 
man, born  at  Loosdorf,  Jan.  4,  1813.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  an  extensive  law  prac- 
tice, and  was  at  first  a  liberal ;  was  prominent 
during  and  shortly  after  the  revolution  of 
March,  1848,  when  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  justice,  but  soon  seceded  from  the  revolu- 
tionary ranks,  and  as  member  of  the  constitu- 
ent assembly  of  that  year,  and  minister  of  the 


interior  as  successor  of  Count  Stadion  (1849- 
'59),  he  became  an  uncompromising  advocate 
of  the  strictest  centralizing  principles  and  the 
most  decided  opponent  of  the  autonomy  of 
Hungary  and  other  nationalities.  He  reorgan- 
ized the  judiciary,  carried  out  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  peasantry  from  feudal  burdens, 
which  the  revolution  had  decreed,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  indemnity  to  the  owners  of  land,  re- 
modelled the  political  administration  of  the 
crown  lands,  and  promoted  the  concordat.  De- 
tested by  the  liberals,  he  left  office  after  the 
Italian  war  of  1859,  and  was  minister  to  Rome 
till  the  end  of  1865. 

BACHARACH,  a  town  of  Khenish  Prussia,  26  m. 
by  railway  S.  by  E.  of  Coblentz,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine;  pop.  about  1,800.  It  is  surrounded 

I  by  an  old  wall  flanked  with  12  towers,  has  a 
ruined  Gothic  church  of  St.  Werner,  and  the 
dilapidated  castle  of  Stahleck,  and  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  excellent  wines,  especially 
muscatel,  although  the  Bacharach  wines  at  the 
present  day  do  not  maintain  their  ancient  re- 
pute. In  the  middle  ages  the  town  was  with 
Cologne  a  chief  depot  of  the  wine  trade,  which 
is  still  active.  The  name  is  traditionally  de- 
rived from  a  rock  in  the  Rhine,  called  Bacchi 
ara  (altar  of  Bacchus),  the  exposure  of  which 
in  very  dry  weather  is  regarded  as  prophetic 
of  a  good  vintage. 

BACHAUMONT,  Francois  le  Coisncux  de,  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Paris  in  1624,  died  in  1702. 
He  was  a  councillor  in  the  parliament  of  Paris, 
and  acquired  celebrity  by  his  satirical  publica- 
tions, in  prose  and  verse,  against  Mazarin.  He 
was  the  first  to  apply  the  term  frondeurs 
(slingers)  to  the  cardinal's  adversaries,  compar- 
ing them  to  boys  throwing  stones  from  slings. 
When  the  parliament  of  Paris  became  recon- 
ciled with  Mazarin,  Bachaumont  sold  his  coun- 
cillor's commission.  With  his  intimate  friend 
Chapelle  he  travelled  in  southern  France,  and 
the  witty  narrative  of  the  journey,  their  joint 
production,  was  separately  published  in  1704 
and  1732,  while  other  writings  of  Bachaumont 
are  included  in  Chapelle's  works  (1755). 

BACHE,  Alexander  Dallas,  an  American  savant 
and  hydrographer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July 
19,  1806,  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Feb.  17,  1867. 
He  was  the  son  of  Richard  Bache  and  Sophia 

i  Burnet  Dallas,  and  a  great-grandson  of  Benja- 
min Franklin.  He  attended  a  classical  school 
in  Philadelphia,  and  in  his  15th  year  was  ap- 
pointed a  cadet  at  West  Point,  where  he  grad- 
uated with  high  honors  in  1825,  becoming  a 
lieutenant  of  engineers.  He  was  retained  for 
some  time  at  the  academy  as  an  assistant  pro- 
fessor, and  subsequently  served  two  years  under 
Col.  Totten  in  engineering  work  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Miss 
Nancy  Clarke  Fowler,  afterward  his  wife  and 
his  collaborator  in  astronomical  observations. 
He  next  filled  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy 
and  chemistry  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania at  Philadelphia,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  newlv  established  Franklin  institute. 


BACHE 


BACHELET 


199 


A  full  account  of  his  arduous  labors  in  that  ' 
period  for  the  promotion  of  mechanical  arts 
is  contained  in  the  "Journal"  of  the  institute 
for  1828-'35.  He  was  associated  with  Hare, 
Espy,  and  other  learned  men  in  the  American 
philosophical  society,  and  built  a  private  ob- 
servatory, where  with  his  assistants  he  de- 
termined, for  the  first  time  in  the  United 
States,  the  periods  of  the  daily  variations  of  i 
the  magnetic  needle,  and  made  other  novel 
and  interesting  observations.  In  1836  he  was  j 
chosen  president  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  [ 
Girard  college,  preparatory  to  organizing  that 
institution,  and  went  to  Europe  to  examine 
the  educational  systems  of  England,  France, 
Prussia,  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  On 
his  return  in  1838  he  submitted  to  the  trus- 
tees a  full  report,  which  contributed  much  to 
improve  the  American  methods  of  public  in- 
struction. Owing  to  delays  in  the  opening  of 
the  college,  he  relinquished  his  salary  as  presi- 
dent, though  retaining  this  title  till  1842.  In 
the  meanwhile  he  organized  a  system  of  free 
education  in  Philadelphia,  at  first  gratuitous- 
ly, and  subsequently  receiving  a  salary  from 
the  city  authorities.  While  engaged  in  this 
work  he  also  cooperated  with  the  British  as- 
sociation in  the  determination  by  contempo- 
raneous observations  of  the  fluctuations  of 
magnetic  and  meteorological  phenomena.  In 
1842,  having  completed  the  organization  of 
the  schools,  which  served  as  models  for  many 
similar  institutions,  he  resumed  his  former 
chair  in  the  university.  In  November,  1843, 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  coast  survey  as  successor  of  Mr.  Hass- 
ler.  To  this  work  he  imparted  a  value  and 
efficiency  such  as  it  had  never  possessed  before. 
He  was  also  superintendent  of  weights  and 
measures,  lighthouse  commissioner,  and  after-  ! 
ward  member  of  the  lighthouse  board,  regent  j 
of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  and  a  vice  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  sanitary  commis- 
sion. The  degree  of  LL.  D.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  various  universities,  and  he  received 
medals  from  foreign  governments  and  institu- 
tions. He  was  successively  president  of  the 
American  philosophical  society,  of  the  Amer- 
ican association  for  the  advancement  of  science, 
and  of  the  national  academy  of  sciences,  the 
establishment  of  the  last  two  societies  having 
been  chiefly  promoted  by  his  influence,  and  he 
was  associated  with  almost  all  distinguished 
scientific  bodies  in  both  hemispheres.  He  be- 
queathed about  $42,000  to  the  national  acade- 
my of  sciences  for  the  prosecution  of  researches 
in  physical  and  natural  science,  by  assisting 
experimenters  and  observers  in  such  manner 
as  shall  be  agreed  upon  by  Professors  Henry, 
Agassiz,  and  Peirce,  or  their  successors,  or  by 


any  two  of  them,  these  three  trustees  to  con- 
stitute a  board  for  the  selection  of  scientific 
subjects,  and  for  the  publication  of  the  observa- 
tions and  experiments,  the  expense  to  be  de- 
frayed out  of  the  annual  income  accruing  from 
the  legacy,  without  encroaching  on  the  capital. 


Among  his  works  are :  "  Observations  at  the 
Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observatory  at 
the  Girard  College"  (3  vols.,  1840-'47);  his 
annual  reports  on  the  coast  survey  and  on 
weights  and  measures;  numerous  contributions 
to  periodical  publications  of  scientific  societies, 
including  many  valuable  essays  in  the  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science"  (1829-'65) ;  and 
"Lecture  on  Switzerland,"  published  from  his 
MS.  in  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian  institu- 
tion for  1870. 

BACHE,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an  American  physi- 
cian, great-grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  born 
in  Monticello,  Va.,  Feb.  7,  1801.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  college  in  1819,  and  at  the 
medical  department  of  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1823 ;  entered  the  navy  as  assistant 
surgeon  in  1824,  and  in  1828  was  promoted  to 
be  surgeon.  While  on  furlough,  from  1838  to 
1841,  he  occupied  the  professorship  of  natural 
sciences  and  natural  religion  in  Kenyon  col- 
lege, Ohio.  He  served  as  fleet  surgeon  of  the 
Mediterranean  squadron  1841-'4,  and  of  the 
Brazil  squadron  1848-'50.  He  organized  and 
perfected  the  laboratory  at  New  York  whence 
are  supplied  all  the  appurtenances  of  the  medi- 
cal department,  and  of  which  he  was  director 
from  1855  to  1871.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  in  1861  he  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  government  by  rapidly  restocking 
the  laboratory  on  his  own  responsibility.  He 
was  placed  on  the  retired  list  in  1863,  and  in 
1871  was  promoted  to  be  medical  director  with 
the  relative  rank  of  commodore. 

BACHE,  Richard,  a  merchant  of  Philadelphia, 
born  in  England  in  1737,  died  in  Berks  county, 
Penn.,  July  29,  1811.  He  came  to  America  in 
early  life,  and  married  in  1 767  the  only  daughter 
of  Benjamin  Franklin.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution  he  was  president  of  the  republican 
society  of  Philadelphia,  and  from  1776  to  1782 
he  was  postmaster  general  of  the  United  States. 

BACHE,  Sarah,  the  only  daughter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  and  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  September,  1744,  died  in  1808. 
In  1780,  when  many  soldiers  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  were  going  barefooted  and  half-clad, 
money  was  collected  for  their  relief  and  ex- 
pended for  materials,  which  by  the  continued 
labors  of  many  women  were  soon  made  into 
the  needed  garments.  In  this  work  Mrs. 
Bache  was  prominently  engaged.  More  than 
2,200  women  were  thus  employed  by  her  at 
one  time  in  sewing  for  the  army.  The  marquis 
de  Chastellux,  then  visiting  in  Philadelphia, 
recommended  her  to  the  ladies  of  Europe  as  a 
model  of  domestic  virtues  and  feminine  patriot- 
ism. On  many  occasions  she  displayed  benevo- 
lence and  patriotism  by  serving  in  the  hospitals. 

BACHELET,  Jean  Louis  Theodore,  a  French  cy- 
clop»dist  and  historian,  born  in  1820.  He  has 
been  professor  of  history  in  various  colleges, 
and  finally  in  the  lyceum  of  Rouen.  In  con- 
cert with  Ch.  Dezobry  he  edited  a  Dictionnaire 
de  biogmphie  et  (Thistoire  (2  vols.,  1857),  and 


200 


BACHMAN 


BACKGAMMON 


Dietionnaire  general  den  lettres,  den  beaux  arts 
et  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques  (2  vols., 
1862-'3).  Among  his  historical  works  are:  La,  \ 
guerre  de  cent  an*  (1852),  Mahomet  et  les  Arabes 
(1853),  and  Les  hommes  illustres  de  France 
(Rouen,  1867). 

BACHMAN,  John,  an  American  naturalist  and 
clergyman,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  4, 1790.  In  1815  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Lutheran  church  in  Charleston,  8.  C.  He  was 
a  collaborator  of  Audubon,  and  the  principal 
author  of  the  work  on  the  quadrupeds  of  North 
America.  He  has  published  several  other  writ- 
ings, including  a  "Defence  of  Luther"  (1853), 
"  Characteristics  of  Genera  and  Species  as  ap- 
plicable to  the  Doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  the 
Human  Race"  (1854),  and  essays  contributed 
to  the  "  Medical  Journal  of  South  Carolina." 

BACK,  Sir  George,  an  English  navigator,  born 
at  Stockport,  Nov.  6,  1796.  He  entered  the 
royal  navy  in  1808,  was  for  five  years  a  French  ; 
prisoner  of  war,  subsequently  served  on  the 
Trent,  Lieutenant  Commander  John  Franklin, 
and  accompanied  Capt.  David  Buchan  on  an 
expedition  to  Spitzbergen.  In  1819  he  accom- 
panied Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition  from 
the  western  shore  of  Hudson  bay  to  the  north- 
ern coast  of  America,  near  the  Coppermine 
river.  The  party  reached  Fort  Enterprise  in 
July,  1820,  and  determined  to  winter  there, 
while  Mr.  Back  returned  to  Fort  Chipewyan 
(a  distance  of  500  miles),  to  obtain  fresh  sup- 
plies. He  acquitted  himself  of  this  duty  after 
undergoing  the  most  terrible  hardships  from 
cold  and  hunger,  and  rejoined  his  party  in  March, 
1821.  The  expedition  returned  to  York  Fac- 
tory in  1822,  and  early  in  1825  Lieut.  Back 
joined  Franklin's  second  expedition,  designed 
to  cooperate  with  Beechey  and  Parry  in  their 
efforts  to  discover  from  opposite  quarters  the 
northwest  passage.  He  penetrated  as  far  as 
lat.  70°  24'  N.,  Ion.  149°  37'  W. ;  and  on  Frank- 
lin's setting  out  from  Great  Bear  lake,  on  the 
return  of  the  expedition,  he  was  left  in  charge 
of  the  remaining  officers  and  men  at  Fort 
Franklin.  On  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  he 
started  for  York  Factory,  and  thence  set  sail 
for  England,  where  he  arrived  in  1827.  In 
1833  he  took  charge  of  the  party  sent  out  in 
search  of  Sir  John  Ross,  and  was  exposed  to 
hardships  and  perils  no  less  appalling  than  on 
the  previous  expeditions.  Receiving  intelli- 
gence of  Ross's  safety,  he  returned  home  in 
1835,  obtained  his  post  rank,  and  in  June,  1836, 
took  command  of  the  Terror  on  a  fresh  Arctic 
voyage,  but  without  accomplishing  anything. 
He  was  knighted  in  1837,  and  made  rear  ad- 
miral in  1857.  He  has  published  a  "  Narrative 
of  the  Arctic  Land  Expedition,"  &c.  (London, 
1836),  and  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  in 
H.  M.  ship  Terror"  (1838). 

BACKGAMMON,  a  game,  believed  to  be  of 
English  origin,  played  with  dice  and  30  pieces 
called  men,  upon  a  board  or  table  peculiarly 
divided  and  marked.  Chaucer,  Shakespeare, 
and  Bacon  mention  it  under  the  name  of 


"tables."'  The  mime  backgammon  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
words  bcec,  back,  and  gamone,  a  game;  by 
others,  from  the  Welsh  bac,/i,  little,  and  c/immon, 
a  battle.  The  game  is  played  as  follows :  The 
men,  15  of  which  are  black  and  15  white,  in 
shape  like  those  used  in  draughts,  are  arranged, 
as  shown  in  the  cut,  on  a  board  each  quarter 
of  which  is  marked  with  six  lines,  alternately 
white  and  black  or  red  and  black.  Each  of 
these  quarters  is  called  a  table ;  those  marked 
A  and  B,  in  which  the  game  begins,  are  the 
inner  tables,  the  others  the  outer.  The  num- 
ber of  lines  across  which  a  player  is  allowed  to 
move  his  men  is  decided  by  the  dice  ;  and  the  ob- 
ject of  the  player  having  the  white  men,  for  in- 
stance, is  to  move  those  of  his  men  which  are 
in  his  opponent's  table  (A)  through  the  tables 
C  and  D,  and  finally  into  his  own  inner  table 
B  ;  at  the  same  time  endeavoring  also  to  bring 
into  that  table  all  his  other  men,  wherever  on 


Backgammon  Board. 

the  board  they  may  be  placed.  The  player 
having  the  black  pursues  a  similar  course  in 
moving  his  men  gradually  around  to  his  inner 
table  A.  Neither  player  can,  no  matter  what 
throw  he  makes  with  the  dice,  place  his  men 
on  a  line  already  occupied  by  more  than  one 
of  his  opponent's  pieces.  Should  only  one  of 
these,  however,  be  found  on  a  line  to  which  he 
has  otherwise  the  right  to  move,  he  can  "  take 
up  "  this  solitary  man,  that  is,  remove  him  from 
the  board,  and  oblige  his  adversary  to  begin  with 
him  anew  in  the  furthest  table  from  his  own 
inner  one.  When  a  player  has  brought  all  his 
men  safely  into  his  inner  table,  he  may  begin 
to  "throw  off"  his  pieces,  that  is,  remove 
from  the  board  a  man  standing  on  any  point 
the  number  of  which  lie  throws.  Should  he 
throw  doublets,  he  may  remove  four  from  the 
point  indicated  by  them.  The  player  who  by 
this  means  first  rids  himself  of  all  his  men, 
wins  the  game.  Should  he  win  it  before  his 
opponent  brings  all  his  men  into  his  inner 
table,  he  is  said  to  "gammon"  him;  if  before 


BACKHUYSEN 


BACON 


201 


the  latter  even  has  all  the  men  out  of  his  first 
table,  to  "  backgammon  "  him. 

BACKHl'YSEN,  or  Bakhnysen,  Lndolf,  a  Dutch 
marine  painter,  born  at  Emden  in  1681.  died 
in  Amsterdam  in  1709.  While  a  merchant's 
clerk  in  Amsterdam  his  fondness  for  shipping 
led  him  frequently  to  the  port,  where  he  made 
admirable  drawings.  He  went  out  to  sea  dur- 
ing storms,  and  on  landing  immediately  trans- 
ferred his  impressions  to  canvas.  The  czar 
Peter  frequently  visited  Backhuysen's  studio, 
and  endeavored  to  make  drawings  of  vessels 
which  the  artist  had  designed.  His  most  cele- 
brated sea  picture,  with  a  multitude  of  vessels, 
and  a  view  of  Amsterdam  in  the  distance,  is  in 
the  Louvre,  together  with  seven  other  pictures  ; 
by  him. — His  grandson,  of  the  same  name,  a  I 
merchant  and  soldier,  and  finally  a  painter  of 
horses  and  battles,  born  Aug.  29,  1717,  died  in 
Rotterdam,  April  16,  1782. 

BACKUS,  Isaae,  an  American  Baptist  clergy- 
man, born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1724,  died 
Nov.  20,  1806.  He  left  the  Congregational 
church  for  the  Separatists,  derisively  styled 
"New  Lights,"  a  secession  from  the  "standing  \ 
order  "  on  grounds  connected  with  controver- 
sies that  grew  out  of  the  great  revival  under 
Edwards  and  Whitefield.  The  Separatists 
largely  sympathized  with  the  Baptists,  among 
whom  Mr.  Backus  became  a  leader.  To  his 
exertions  the  Baptist  denomination  in  Amer- 
ica is  largely  indebted  for  its  prosperity. 
He  was  sent  in  1774  as  an  agent  to  claim 
from  congress,  then  in  session  in  Philadel- 
phia, the  same  liberties  for  the  Baptist  that 
were  accorded  to  other  churches.  In  his  wri- 
tings upon  the  constitution  of  the  church  he 
advocated  the  entire  separation  of  the  church 
from  the  state.  He  was  one  of  the  most  volu- 
minous of  American  Baptist  writers,  and  left  a 
valuable  history  of  that  denomination,  of  which 
a  new  edition,  edited  by  the  Rev.  David  Wes- 
ton,  was  published  in  1871,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  "Backus  Historical  Society." 

BACLGR  D'ALBE,  Lonis  Albert  Ghislain,  baron 
de,  a  French  painter,  born  at  St.  Pol,  Oct.  21, 
1762,  died  at  Sevres,  Sept.   12,   1824.     He  is 
celebrated  for  his  views  of  Swiss  scenery,  re- 
markable for  a  knowledge  of  natural  history 
and  topography.     He  fought  at  Arcola,  and  his  ! 
picture  of  that  battle  is  regarded  as  his  mas-  ! 
ter-work.     He  accompanied  Napoleon  in  many  ! 
campaigns,   sketching  the  movements   of  the  , 
troops.     His  illustrated  works  comprise  Souve-  j 
airs  pittoresques  of  Switzerland,  of  the  Italian 
and  Spanish  campaigns,  and  of  Paris  and  its  en- 
virons.    He  also  painted  classical  subjects.     He 
was  appointed  brigadier  general  in  1813,  and 
(subsequently  director  of   the   war  depots   in 
Paris,  but  lost  this  office  in  1815. 

BACOLOR,  a  town  of  the  Philippines,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Pampanga  in  the  island  of 
Luzon,  about  38  m.  N.  W.  of  Manila,  near  the 
Pampanga  river;  pop.  about  8,500.  During 
the  British  occupation  of  Manila  (l762-'4)  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 


BACOJV,  Anne,  the  mother  of  Lord  Bacon,  born 
about  1528,  died  in  1600.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  tutor  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  who  imparted  to  her  and  her  three 
sisters  (respectively  married  to  Lord  Burleigh, 
Sir  John  Russell,  and  Sir  Henry  Killigrew)  a 
remarkable  degree  of  classical  and  theological 
learning.  She  prepared  excellent  translations 
of  Bishop  Jewell's  Apologia  and  of  Ochinus's 
14  Italian  sermons.  Beza  dedicated  his  "  Medi- 
tations "  to  her,  and  she  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  and  pious  women  of 
her  day.  She  became  the  second  wife  of  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  to  whom  she  bore  two  chil- 
dren, Anthony  and  the  celebrated  Francis. 

BACON,  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Albans  and 
Baron  Verulam,  an  English  philosopher  and 
lord  chancellor,  born  at  York  house,  in  the 
Strand,  London,  Jan.  22,  1561,  died  at  High- 
gate,  April  9,  1626.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon.  Early  in  life  he  gave 
signs  of  great  fertility  of  talent.  His  health  was 
exceedingly  delicate,  so  that  he  was  often  af- 
fected to  fainting  by  slight  atmospheric  changes. 
This  constitutional  infirmity  accompanied  him 
even  to  his  latest  days.  Nothing  is  known 
of  the  process  of  his  education,  except  that,  as 
both  his  parents  were  learned  persons,  in  the 
highest  walks  of  life,  he  must  have  been  early 
accustomed  to  study,  and  he  did  not  miss  the 
lessons  of  the  courtly  society  by  which  he  was 
surrounded.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  asked 
him,  yet  a  child,  how  old  he  was,  he  replied, 
"Two  years  younger  than  your  majesty's  happy 
reign."  In  his  llth  year  he  speculated  on  the 
laws  of  the  imagination.  A  year  later  he  was 
sent  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he 
was  matriculated  at  the  same  time  with  his 
brother  Anthony,  June  10,  1573.  As  a  student 
he  was  diligent  and  laborious,  but  thought  for 
himself,  and  before  he  was  16  had  already  con- 
ceived a  dislike  for  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
still  greatly  in  vogue  at  the  university.  "  They 
learn  nothing  at  the  universities,"  he  afterward 
said,  in  the  "Praise  of  Knowledge,"  "but  to 
believe.  They  are  like  a  becalmed  ship ;  they 
never  move  but  by  the  wind  of  other  men's 
breath,  and  have  no  oars  of  their  own  to  steer 
withal."  Some  years  after  he  quitted  Cam- 
bridge he  published  a  tract  on  the  defects  of 
universities,  in  which,  after  having  premised 
that  colleges  were  established  for  the  communi- 
cation of  the  knowledge  of  our  predecessors,  he 
proposed  that  a  college  be  appropriated  to  the 
discovery  of  new  truth,  "  to  mix,  like  a  living 
spring,  with  the  stagnant  waters."  These  sen- 
timents he  adhered  to  all  his  life,  for  in  his  will 
he  endowed  two  lectures,  in  either  of  the  uni- 
versities, "  by  a  lecturer,  whether  stranger  or 
English,  provided  he  is  not  professed  in  divin- 
ity, law,  or  physic."  And  in  one  of  his  latest 
works,  the  unfinished  philosophical  romance 
called  "New  Atlantis,"  he  developed  at  consid- 
erable length  the  idea  of  a  college  for  the  "in- 
terpreting of  nature,"  under  the  name  of  the 
"  college  of  the  six  days'  works."  At  the  close 


202 


BACON 


of  his  collegiate  course  his  father  sent  him  to 
Paris,  under  the  care  of  Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  the 
English  ambassador  at  that  court,  by  whom  he 
was  shortly  after  intrusted  with  a  mission  to  the 
queen.  He  then  travelled  in  the  French  prov-  j 
inces,  spending  some  time  at  Poitiers,  where  he  , 
prepared  a  work  upon  ciphers,  and  also  one 
upon  the  state  of  Europe ;  but  his  father  dying 
(1579)  while  he  was  engaged  upon  them,  he 
instantly  returned  to  England.  He  applied  for 
an  office,  which  he  failed  to  get,  when  he  en- 
tered as  a  student  of  law  in  Gray's  Inn  (1580). 
On  June  27,  1582,  he  was  called  to  the  bar; 
in  1586  he  was  made  a  bencher,  and  in  1590, 
when  he  was  but  28,  counsel  extraordinary  to 
the  queen — "  a  grace,"  says  his  biographer  Raw-  j 
ley,  "scarce  known  before."  At  that  time  the  j 
court  was  divided  into  two  parties,  of  which  ( 
one  was  headed  by  the  two  Cecils,  and  the  : 
other  by  the  earl  of  Leicester,  and  afterward  j 
by  his  son-in-law,  the  earl  of  Essex.  Bacon 
was  allied  to  the  Cecils,  being  a  nephew  of 
Lord  Burleigh,  and  first  cousin  to  Sir  Robert 
Cecil,  the  principal  secretary  of  state  ;  and  yet 
his  affections  lay  with  Essex.  His  advance- 
ment, however,  did  not  correspond  either  with 
his  abilities  or  his  connections.  The  Cecils  rep- 
resented him  as  rather  a  speculative  man,  not 
fitted  for  business.  After  renewed  solicitations 
they  procured  for  him  the  reversion  of  the  re- 
gistrar of  the  star  chamber,  with  about  £1,600 
a  year,  but  he  did  not  come  into  possession  of  it 
for  20  years.  In  1593  he  was  returned  to  par- 
liament as  a  knight  of  Middlesex.  His  first 
speech  there  was  delivered  in  favor  of  his  plan 
for  the  improvement  of  the  law  ;  another  speech 
related  to  the  postponement  of  certain  subsi-  ; 
dies  which  created  popular  discontent,  where- 
by he  provoked  the  anger  of  the  queen ;  and 
being  remonstrated  with,  he  replied  that  he 
"spoke  in  discharge  of  his  conscience  and  duty 
to  God,  to  the  queen,  and  to  his  country  " — a 
noble  reply,  which  he  did  not  himself  always 
in  after  life  remember.  Ben  Jonson  compli- 
ments his  parliamentary  eloquence  highly,  al- 
leging that  "no  man  ever  spake  more  neatly, 
more  pressly,  more  weightily,  or  suffered  less 
emptiness,  less  idleness  in  what  he  uttered ;  no 
member  of  his  speech  but  consisted  of  its  own 
graces.  His  hearers  could  not  cough  or  look 
aside  from  him  without  loss ;  he  commanded 
when  he  spoke,  and  had  his  judges  angry  or 
pleased  at  his  devotion.  The  fear  of  every  man 
that  heard  him  was  lest  he  should  make  an 
end."  In  the  spring  of  1594  the  solicitorship 
became  vacant,  by  the  promotion  of  Sir  Ed- 
ward Coke  to  the  office  of  attorney  general, 
and  Bacon  applied  for  it,  strenuously  backed 
by  Essex  ;  but  he  did  not  succeed,  the  superior 
influence  of  the  Cecils  being  against  him.  Es- 
sex, however,  as  some  compensation  for  his  dis- 
appointment, made  him  a  present  of  Twicken- 
ham court,  worth  about  £1,800,  and  so  beauti- 
ful that  Bacon  called  it  the  garden  of  paradise. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Elizabeth  rejected 
the  official  claims  of  Bacon  on  the  ground  that 


although  he  was  a  man  of  wit  and  learning,  lie 
was  yet  "not  very  deep."  During  this  year 
Bacon  published  his  first  political  tract,  en- 
titled "A  Declaration  of  the  Causes  of  the 
Great  Troubles,"  a  vindication  of  the  course 
of  England  in  respect  to  continental  policy. 
Three  years  later  (1597)  he  issued  a  small  12mo 
called  "  Essays,  Religious  Meditations,  and  a 
Table  of  the  Colors  of  Good  and  Evil."  It  con- 
tained but  10  essays  in  all,  of  which  he  says 
that  he  hopes  they  will  be  "like  the  late  new 
halfpence,  which,  though  the  pieces  are  small, 
the  silver  is  good."  Abounding  in  condensed 
and  practical  thought,  expressed  with  much 
simplicity,  and  without  much  imagery,  they 
yet  evinced  a  mind  of  wonderful  sagacity  and 
comprehensive  reach.  They  were  translated 
almost  immediately  into  French,  Italian,  and 
Latin,  and  have  proved,  as  subsequently  aug- 
mented both  in  number  and  length,  the  most 
popular  of  his  writings.  Dugald  Stewart  has 
properly  remarked  of  the  book  that  "it  may  he 
read  from  beginning  to  end  in  a  few  hours,  and 
yet,  after  the  twentieth  reading,  one  seldom  fails 
to  remark  in  it  something  overlooked  before." 
Dr.  Whately  published  in  1857  a  new  edition, 
with  an  excellent  introduction  and  many  valu- 
able notes.  By  Bacon's  contemporaries  it  was 
gratefully  received. — Bacon's  pecuniary  affairs 
at  this  time  were  in  a  wretched  state ;  in  order 
to  retrieve  them  he  twice  tried  to  form  lucra- 
tive matrimonial  connections ;  but  these  plans 
also  miscarried,  and  he  was  twice  arrested  for 
debt.  Early  in  1599  a  large  body  of  the  Irish, 
denied  the  protection  of  the  laws,  and  hunted 
like  wild  beasts  by  an  insolent  soldiery,  fled  the 
neighborhood  of  cities,  sheltered  themselves  in 
their  marshes  and  forests,  and  grew  every  day 
more  intractable  and  dangerous.  It  became 
necessary  to  subdue  them,  and  Essex  was  ap- 
pointed lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland;  but  his 
conduct  in  his  office  was  so  rash  and  haughty 
that  Bacon,  after  vainly  remonstrating  with 
him,  was  at  length  compelled  to  turn  against 
him.  By  this  means  he  lost  the  aid  of  that 
powerful  noble,  without  making  either  very 
many  or  very  sincere  friends  on  the  other  side. 
His  conduct  in  respect  to  Essex,  who  was  tried 
and  condemned  for  his  offences  in  the  year 
1600,  exposed  Bacon  to  the  charge  of  ingrati- 
tude and  double-faced  friendship ;  and  though 
Mr.  Basil  Montagu,  in  his  life  of  Bacon,  labored 
hard,  and  to  some  degree  justly,  to  acquit  him 
of  the  obloquy  with  which  he  was  then  visited, 
he  has  scarcely  escaped  all  blame  in  the  judg- 
ment of  posterity.  Bacon  not  only  appeared 
in  the  court  against  the  man  who  had  been  his 
benefactor  and  friend,  but,  in  pursuit  of  the 
good  will  of  the  queen,  he  used  all  his  skill  as 
a  lawyer  to  heighten  the  guilt  of  his  crime. 
He  did  not,  however,  gain  much  from  his  fidel- 
|  ity  to  this  sovereign,  who  either  did  not  discern 
or  wilfully  neglected  his  merits.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  James  in  1603  he  had  everything  to 
expect  from  the  disposition  of  that  monarch, 
who  was  a  lover  of  letters,  and  desired  to  di»- 


BACOX 


203 


tinguish  himself  as  a  patron  of  learning.  Ba-  [ 
con  possessed  the  additional  title  to  his  favor 
that  his  eloquence  and  information  gave  him  ! 
great  weight  in  parliament.  Appointed  by  the 
house  on  the  committee  to  make  a  representa- 
tion of  the  misconduct  of  the  royal  purveyors,  j 
he  discharged  the  task  with  so  much  discretion 
that  while  he  satisfied  the  king,  he  won  from  j 
the  house  a  vote  of  thanks.  James  made  him 
one  of  his  counsel,  an  office  to  which  a  small 
pension  was  attached,  and  from  that  time  he 
continued  to  rise  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
the  Cecils,  and  the  rivalry  of  Sir  Edward  Coke, 
the  attorney  general.  In  1607  he  was  made 
solicitor  general,  by  which  his  practice  in  West- 
minster hall  was  rapidly  extended.  About  the 
same  time  he  married  Alice,  daughter  of  Bene- 
dict Barnham,  a  wealthy  alderman  of  London —  | 
thus  succeeding  in  his  third  attempt  at  a  wealthy 
marriage.  His  tact,  his  knowledge,  and  his  j 
eloquence  combined,  raised  him  to  the  highest  ; 
point  of  reputation  in  the  commons,  while  his 
standing  at  the  bar  was  every  day  confirmed, 
and  his  favor  at  court  was  increased.  But 
these  political  and  personal  struggles  did  not 
separate  him  from  those  philosophical  inqui- 
ries which  were  the  first  love  of  his  heart. 
In  1605  he  published  "The  Advancement  of 
Learning"  (subsequently  expanded  into  the  De 
Augmentig),  a  work  which  inaugurated  an  era  in 
the  history  of  English  literature  and  science.  It 
professed  to  be  a  survey  of  existing  knowledge, 
with  a  description  of  the  parts  of  science  yet 
unexplored,  and  might  be  regarded  as  a  picture 
both  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  intellectual 
world,  and  of  its  outlying,  untrodden  deserts. 
This  work  alone  would  have  been  sufficient 
to  place  Bacon  among  the  intellectual  giants 
of  his  race.  Yet  his  active  and  vigorous  mind 
continued  to  busy  itself  with  other  specula- 
tions ;  besides  his  many  speeches  in  the  com- 
mons and  his  arguments  at  the  bar,  he  wrote 
numerous  tracts,  such  as  "  A  Discourse  on  the 
Happy  Union,"  "An  Advertisement  touching 
the  Controversy  of  the  Church  of  England," 
and  pamphlets  upon  law  reform  and  other 
topics  of  prevalent  interest.  All  the  while  he 
was  also  employed  in  meditating  the  great  No- 
vum  Orgcmum  Seientiarum,  of  which  sketches 
were  prepared  in  the  shape  of  his  Oogitata 
et  Visa,  Filum  Labyrinthi,-an<l  Temporis  Par- 
tw#  Maximus.  His  lesser  writings  he  under- 
took, as  he  says,  to  secure  him  a  degree  of  re- 
spect and  consideration  in  the  general  mind, 
which  might  afterward  serve  to  conciliate  it 
toward  the  peculiarity  of  his  opinions,  or  to 
answer  as  a  bulwark  against  unfriendly  as- 
saults. In  this  intention  he  wrote  and  sent 
forth  in  1609  "  The  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients," 
a  book  in  which  the  classical  fables  are  made 
the  vehicles  of  original  and  striking  thoughts, 
clothed  in  remarkable  beauty  of  language,  and 
ornamented  with  graceful  figures.  Meantime 
Ms  political  advancement  went  steadily  for- 
ward. In  1611  he  was  a  joint  judge  of  the 
knight  marshal's  court ;  and  the  next  year  he  i 


was  appointed  attorney  general,  and  elected  a 
member  of  the  privy  council.  While  lie  held 
the  office  of  attorney  general  he  was  engaged 
in  several  important  causes.  He  was  the  pros- 
ecutor of  Oliver  St.  John,  of  Owen  and  Talbot, 
and  of  the  old  clergyman  Peacham,  who  was 
indicted  for  the  treason  contained  in  a  sermon 
which  was  never  preached.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  examined  in  the  Tower  under  torture,  and 
that  Bacon  was  present  assisting  at  the  opera- 
tion. It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  founder  of 
modern  philosophy  should  have  consented  to 
the  barbarous  system  of  extorting  evidence  by 
the  rack.  A  more  important  trial  was  that 
of  the  earl  and  countess  of  Somerset  and  their 
accomplices  for  the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas 
Overbury,  in  the  conduct  of  which  he  earned 
the  highest  distinction.  The  pecuniary  embar- 
rassments under  which  he  once  suffered  were 
of  course  now  at  an  end.  His  professional 
practice  was  large ;  the  office  of  attorney  gen- 
eral was  worth  £6,000  per  annum ;  as  registrar 
of  the  star  chamber  he  was  entitled  to  £1,600 
per  annum;  his  father's  seat  at  Gorhambury 
had  passed  to  him  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  his  brother ;  and  he  was  also  possessed  of 
a  considerable  estate  in  Hertfordshire,  besides 
the  fortune  acquired  through  his  wife.  In 
1616  Bacon  relinquished  the  bar,  but  retained 
his  chamber  practice.  In  the  spring  of  the 
following  year  the  lord  chancellor,  Ellesmere, 
resigned  the  seals,  which  were  handed  over  to 
Bacon,  with  the  title  of  lord  keeper.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1618,  he  was  created  lord  high  chancel- 
lor, and  the  same  year  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age as  baron  of  Verulam.  His  higher  title  of 
Viscount  St.  Albans  was  not  conferred  upon 
him  till  1621.  Bacon  entered  upon  his  judicial 
duties  with  elaborate  pomp,  and  delivered  a 
long  and  eloquent  speech  in  the  presence  of 
the  judges  and  the  nobility. — The  Novum  Or- 
ffftnum,  the  great  restoration  of  the  sciences, 
which  had  been  the  burden  of  the  thoughts 
of  his  life,  was  first  printed  in  October,  1620. 
Twelve  times  it  had  been  copied  and  revised 
before  it  assumed  the  shape  in  which  it  was 
committed  to  posterity.  The  full  title  of  Ba- 
con's work  was  the  Novum  Organum  sine  In- 
dicia Vera  de  Interpretation  Natures,  et  Regno 
ffominis,  and  the  title  sums  up  its  principal 
object.  He  proposed  to  replace  the  scholastic 
logic  represented  in  the  Organon  of  Aristotle 
by  a  new  organon,  in  which  the  true  and  solid 
principle  of  investigating  nature  should  sup- 
plant the  old  principle  of  mere  verbal  dialec- 
tics, and  lead  to  "fruit "  in  the  shape  of  genu- 
ine knowledge.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  be- 
cause it  was  addressed  especially  to  the  learned 
men  of  Europe,  and  in  axioms,  or  short  pithj 
sentences,  that  it  might  strike  upon  their  minds 
by  its  repetitions,  and  be  easily  engraved  upon 
the  memory.  It  is  yet,  however,  but  a  part 
of  a  larger  work — of  that  Iwtauratio  Magna — 
in  which  he  designed  to  rehabilitate  not  only 
the  methods  of  science,  but  science  itself,  and 
of  which  the  De  Augmentis  was  an  opening 


20-i 


BACON 


chapter,  and  the  whole  of  modern  discovery 
the  completion.  Bacon's  leading  thought  was 
the  good  of  humanity.  He  held  that  study, 
instead  of  employing  itself  in  wearisome  and 
sterile  speculations,  should  be  engaged  in  mas- 
tering the  secrets  of  nature  and  life,  and  in 
applying  them  to  human  use.  His  method  in 
the  attainment  of  this  end  was  rigid  and  pure 
observation,  aided  by  experiment,  and  fructified 
by  induction.  Instead  of  hypotheses  he  asked 
for  facts,  gathered  laboriously  from  the  watch 
of  nature's  silent  revolutions,  or  extorted  skil- 
fully by  instruments  and  trials,  and  carried 
forward  by  careful  generalizations  from  the 
world  of  the  known  to  the  unknown.  From 
effects  to  causes,  and  not  from  causes  to  effects, 
was  the  spirit  of  his  recommendations.  And 
that  he  might  not  mislead  any  one  by  mere 
general  views,  Bacon  constructed  the  new  logic 
of  observation  and  induction,  and  sought  to 
exemplify  it  in  numerous  instances.  It  is  in 
this  latter  process  that  he  has  the  least  suc- 
ceeded; but  it  would  be  unjust  to  judge  of 
Bacon's  system  by  its  failures.  He  did  not  pro- 
pose to  himself  in  the  Novum  Organum  to 
make  discoveries,  but  simply  to  cause  them  to 
be  made,  or  to  teach  the  art  by  which  they 
could  be  made.  He  compared  himself  to  those 
statues  of  Mercury  which  indicate  the  way 
although  they  do  not  pass  over  it  themselves, 
or  to  a  trumpet  which  sounds  the  charge  while 
it  takes  no  part  in  the  battle.  Yet  even  in 
this,  the  least  happy  part  of  his  work,  Bacon 
exhibits  a  fine  scientific  sense,  and  anticipates 
discoveries  reserved  as  the  reward  of  later  re- 
search. He  clearly,  for  instance,  invented  a 
thermometer  (1.  ii.  aph.  13) ;  he  instituted  in- 
genious experiments  on  the  compressibility  of 
bodies,  and  on  the  density  and  weight  of  air ; 
he  suggests  chemical  processes  (aph.  48) ;  he 
suspected  the  law  of  universal  attraction  (aph. 
35,  36,  and  45),  afterward  demonstrated  by 
Newton ;  he  foresaw  the  true  explication  of 
the  tides  (aph.  45,  48),  and  the  cause  of  colors, 
which  he  ascribes  to  the  manner  in  which 
bodies,  owing  to  their  different  texture,  reflect 
the  rays  of  light.  Nor  did  Bacon,  as  some 
have  wrongly  supposed,  confine  his  method  to 
the  natural  sciences  alone ;  he  clearly  intended 
its  use  in  psychological  investigations  as  well; 
and  the  metaphysics  of  the  Scotch  school  are 
an  attempt  to  render  mental  science  according 
to  his  rules.  This  immense  and  unprecedent- 
ed book  was  received  with  admiration  by  a  dis- 
cerning few,  but  with  ridicule  and  scorn  by 
the  would-be  wits  and  geniuses.  Bacon's  old 
enemy  Coke  wrote  upon  the  title  page  of  a 
presentation  copy,  havins  the  device  of  a  ship 
passing  the  pillars  of  Hercules, 

"  It  deserveth  not  to  be  read  in  schools, 
But  to  be  freighted  in  the  ship  of  fools." 

Others  said  that  he  wrote  of  philosophy  like  a 
lord  chancellor.  King  James,  in  his  pedantic 
conceit,  compared  it  to  the  peace  of  God,  which 
passeth  all  understanding.  Yet  there  were 
some  who  perceived  its  truth,  among  the  rest 


Ben  Jonson  and  Sir  Henry  Wotton;  the  latter 
of  whom,  addressing  him,  said,  "Your  lord- 
ship hath  done  a  great  and  everlasting  benefit 
to  all  the  children  of  nature,  and  to  nature  her- 
self in  her  uppermost  extent  of  latitude:  who 
never  before  had  so  noble  and  so  true  an  in- 
terpreter, never  so  inward  a  secretary  of  her 
cabinet." — But  the  glory  of  Bacon  ascended 
on  the  eve  of  a  most  disgraceful  fall.  His 
moral  dignity  was  not  on  a  level  with  his  intel- 
lectual penetration.  He  had  a  broad,  and  deep, 
and  vigorous,  but  not  a  lofty  nature.  Giving 
himself  up  to  improvidence,  his  need  of  money 
betrayed  him  into  practices  of  corruption.  Jn 
the  house  of  commons  on  March  15,  1621,  Sir 
Robert  Phillips  reported  from  a  committee  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  abuses  of  courts  of 
justice,  two  cases  of  corruption  against  the  lord 
chancellor.  One  of  these  was  on  a  petition  of 
a  man  named  Aubrey,  who  alleged  that  he 
had  paid  Bacon  £100  to  advance  a  suit;  and 
another  on  that  of  one  Egerton,  who  had  given 
him  a  gratuity  of  £400.  Before  the  close  of 
the  proceedings,  similar  cases  to  the  number 
of  24  were  presented.  The  commons  referred 
the  case  to  the  house  of  peers,  as  the  only 
tribunal  capable  of  trying  the  lord  chancellor. 
Bacon  resolved  to  stand  up  manfully  against 
his  accusers;  but,  his  health  giving  way,  he 
could  only  write  to  the  lords.  He  requested 
that  his  case  should  be  conducted  according  to 
the  strictest  rules  of  justice,  to  which  the  lords 
replied  that  it  should  be.  His  friends  he  as- 
sured in  the  strongest  terms  of  his  innocence. 
In  14  cases  it  was  shown  that  the  presents  were 
given  long  after  the  suits  were  terminated ;  in 
other  cases  the  decrees  which  he  rendered  had 
been  against  the  donors;  and  in  other  cnsis 
the  presents  were  considered  not  as  gifts  but 
as  loans,  and  he  had  decided  against  his  credi- 
tors. Yet,  when  brought  to  the  test,  Bacon 
submitted  to  the  accusations.  His  submission, 
it  is  alleged,  was  brought  about  by  the  king, 
who  even  persuaded  Bacon  to  sacrifice  himself 
to  the  popular  excitement.  On  April  22,  1021, 
he  wrote  to  the  lords  that  he  abandoned  his 
defence,  and  moved  them  to  condemn  and  cen- 
sure him.  The  house  required  that  he  should 
furnish  categorical  answers  to  the  several  ar- 
ticles of  charge,  which  he  did,  saying  to  each, 
"I  do  plainly  and  ingenuously  confess  that  I 
am  guilty  of  corruption,  and  do  renounce  all 
defence,"  &c.  A  deputation  of  the  lords  being 
appointed  to  wait  on  him,  to  ask  if  the  confes- 
sion was  his,  he  said:  "It  is  my  act,  my  hand, 
my  heart.  I  beseech  your  lordships,  be  merci- 
ful to  a  broken  reed."  His  humiliation  was 
complete,  and  his  spirit  was  crushed  within 
him.  He  hoped  that  the  king,  or  his  son,  or 
their  favorite  Buckingham,  would  interfere  to 
stay  the  sentence ;  but  they  refused.  On  the  3d 
of  May  he  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £40,000, 
and  to  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  during  the 
king's  pleasure.  He  was  released  from  im- 
prisonment after  two  days,  and  the  fine  was 
subsequently  remitted;  but  his  disgrace  was 


BACON 


205 


final.  Once  afterward  he  was  summoned  to 
attend  parliament ;  but  he  never  recovered  his 
standing,  and  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
days  in  scientific  studies,  and  among  the  few 
friends  whom  adversity  had  left  him.  His 
"History  of  Henry  VII.,"  '"Apophthegms," 
some  works  on  natural  history,  and  a  new 
and  enlarged  edition  of  the  "Essays"  (1625),  | 
were  all  that  he  published  after  his  fall.  ; 
The  imputations  on  his  honor  were  doubt- 
less exaggerated  by  the  prejudices  of  the 
day,  but  his  own  confessions  force  us  to  believe 
that  they  were  well  founded,  or  else  that  he, 
in  base  subserviency  to  the  court,  subscribed 
himself  a  liar.  Mr.  Basil  Montagu,  in  his  life 
of  Bacon,  adopts  the  latter  alternative,  and 
argues  against  his  corruption  in  favor  of  his 
weakness.  The  practice  of  receiving  gifts  was 
an  habitual  one;  and  Bacon  probably  spoke 
the  truth  when  he  averred  that  he  had  been 
the  justest  chancellor  for  many  years.  He 
died,  saying  in  his  will  that  "my  name  and 
memory  I  leave  to  foreign  nations  and  to  my  i 
own  countrymen,  after  some  time  be  passed  j 
over." — Lord  Bacon  had  a  capacity  no  less  j 
adapted  to  grapple  with  the  principles  of  legal 
science  than  to  illustrate  other  departments 
of  knowledge.  He  lived,  however,  at  a  time 
when  the  English  law  consisted  mostly  of  bar- 
ren precedents,  and  judges  were  adverse  to  any 
reasoning  that  had  not  some  analogy  to  cases 
already  decided.  The  earliest  of  his  writings 
on  law,  which  he  entitled  "  Elements  of  the 
Common  Law  of  England,"  consisting  of  two 
treatises  on  "  Maxims  of  the  Law  and  the  other 
Uses  of  the  Law,"  appears  to  have  been  writ- 
ten in  1596.  It  was  dedicated  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, but  he  elicited  no  encouragement  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  work.  The  "Maxims"  exhibit  the 
same  nice  discrimination  of  analogies  that  was 
afterward  shown  in  his  popular  treatise  on  the 
"Colors  of  Good  and  Evil."  Bacon  says  in  the 
preface  that  he  had  collected  300  maxims,  but 
that  he  thought  best  first  to  publish  some  few, 
that  he  might  from  other  men's  opinions  either 
receive  approbation  in  his  course,  or  advice  for 
the  altering  of  those  which  remain.  He  received 
neither.  The  "  Maxims  "  expounded  were  but 
24  in  number,  and  all  the  residue  were  by  this 
cold  reception  lost  to  the  world.  Few  cases  i 
are  cited  from  the  books,  for  which  he  gives  j 
the  reason  that  it  will  appear  to  those  who  are 
learned  in  the  laws  that  his  instances  "are 
mostly  judged  cases,  or  sustained  by  similitude 
of  reason,  but  that  in  some  cases  he  intended 
to  weigh  down  authorities  by  evidence  of 
reason,  and  therein  rather  to  correct  the  law 
than  either  to  soothe  a  received  error,  or  by  un- 
profitable subtlety,  which  corrnpteth  the  sense 
of  the  law,  to  reconcile  contrarieties."  It  is  a 
common  remark  that  he  was  not  equal  to  some 
others,  particularly  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  ap- 
plying and  reasoning  from  cases,  but  it  is  entire- 
ly untrue  if  by  that  be  meant  less  discrimination 
of  adjudged  cases.  On  the  contrary,  no  man 
excelled  him  in  exact  judgment  of  authorities; 


but  often  he  found  these  authorities  unsupport- 
ed by  just  principles,  or  so  conflicting  that  the 
rule  was  to  be  sought  from  reasoning,  inde- 
pendent of  reported  cases.  Sixteen  years  later, 
when  he  had  become  attorney  general,  he  again 
referred  to  this  subject  in  "  A  Proposal  for 
Amending  the  Laws  of  England,"  a  tract  ad- 
dressed to  King  James,  in  which  he  speaks  of 
the  method  of  expounding  the  laws  upon  the 
plan  which  he  had  attempted  in  his  early  trea- 
tises, as  certain  to  be  productive  of  great  ad- 
vantage, and  professes  his  willingness  to  resume 
his  labors  if  desired  by  the  king  to  do  so.  The 
king,  however,  did  not  accept  the  proposal. 
During  the  five  years  that  he  survived  his  im- 
peachment and  removal  from  office,  Bacon 
again  recurred  to  this  favorite  project,  or 
rather  he  seems  never  to  have  laid  it  aside.  A 
treatise  on  universal  justice,  consisting  of  97 
aphorisms,  is  contained  in  the  De  Augmentis, 
published  during  that  period,  which,  he  says, 
he  wishes  "  to  serve  as  a  specimen  of  that 
digest  which  we  propose  and  have  in  hand." 
The  digest  referred  to  is  explained  in  an  offer 
addressed  to  the  king  about  that  time.  The 
plan  he  had  in  view  was  somewhat  different 
from  that  which  he  had  formerly  proposed.  It 
was  to  arrange  into  some  order  all  the  laws, 
whether  statute  or  common  law.  The  offer  met 
with  the  same  fate  as  the  preceding  one.  Bacon 
says,  in  a  letter  to  Bishop  Andrews:  "I  had  a 
purpose  to  make  a  particular  digest  or  recom- 
pilement  of  the  laws  of  mine  own  nation ;  yet 
because  it  is  a  work  of  assistance  and  that 
which  I  cannot  master  by  my  own  forces  and 
pen,  I  have  laid  it  aside."  Of  his  other  law 
writings,  the  "Readings  on  the  Statute  of 
Uses "  is  the  most  elaborate.  It  has  now  no 
practical  value,  in  consequence  of  the  change 
in  the  laws  wrought  by  time,  but  it  is  esteemed 
by  those  who  have  examined  it  critically  a 
very  profound  treatise. — Bacon's  life  has  been 
written  by  the  Rev.  William  Rawley,  who  was 
his  secretary  and  chaplain  (London,  1658); 
by  W.  Dugdale,  in  the  "  Baconiana  "  of  Thomas 
Tenison  (1679);  by  Robert  Stephens  (1734); 
by  David  Mallet,  at  the  head  of  an  edition  of 
his  works  (1740);  by  M.  de  Vauzelles  (Paris, 
1833);  and  by  William  Hepworth  Dixon, 
"  Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon  "  (London, 
1859).  The  best  and  most  complete  edition  of 
his  works  is  that  of  Spedding,  Ellis,  and  Heath 
(London,  1857).  Basil  Montagu's  edition  (1825 
-'34)  was  the  occasion  of  Macaulay's  famous 
essay  on  Lord  Bacon.  Bacon,  sa  vie  et  son 
influence,  by  Remusat  (Paris,  1857),  is  a  valu- 
able work.  An  important  monograph  on  Lord 
Bacon,  entitled  Franz  Bacon  von  Verulam,  by 
Kuno  Fischer,  was  published  in  Leipsic  in  1856. 
BACON,  John,  an  English  sculptor,  born  at 
South wark,  Nov.  24,  1740,  died  Aug.  7,  1799. 
He  was  apprenticed  at  an  early  age  to  a 
porcelain  manufacturer,  in  whose  employment 
he  learned  the  art  of  painting  on  china, 
i  and  also  of  making  ornamental  figures  in  that 
!  material.  At  the  age  of  18  he  sent  a  small 


206 


BACON 


figure  of  Peace  to  the  society  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  arts,  and  received  a  premium  of  ten 
guineas.  On  nine  successive  occasions  he  car- 
ried off  similar  prizes  from  the  society.  Bacon 
was  employed  at  Lambeth  to  make  statues  of 
artificial  stone,  an  art  which  he  did  much  to 
develop  and  render  popular.  On  the  opening 
of  the  royal  academy  in  1768  he  became  one  of 
its  students,  and  the  next  year  gained  the  first 
gold  medal  for  sculpture.  In  1770  he  was 
chosen  an  associate  of  that  body.  His  principal 
works  were  two  busts  of  George  III. ;  a  monu- 
ment to  the  founder  of  Guy's  hospital,  South- 
wark ;  a  monument  to  Lord  Chatham,  in  Guild- 
hall ;  a  monument  to  Lord  Halifax,  in  West- 
minster abbey;  the  statue  of  Blackstone  in 
All  Souls  college,  Oxford;  a  statue  of  Henry 
VI.  for  the  ante-chapel  at  Eton ;  a  recumbent 
figure  of  the  Thames,  in  .the  courtyard  of  Som- 
erset House ;  the  statues  of  Howard  and  John- 
son in  St.  Paul's  cathedral ;  and  a  second  monu- 
ment of  Chatham  in  Westminster  abbey. 

BACON,  Leonard,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb.  19,  1802. 
He  was  educated  at  Yale  college  and  at  An- 
dover  theological  seminary,  and  in  March, 
1825,  became  pastor  of  the  first  Congregation- 
al church  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  which  position 
he  held  till  September,  1866,  when  he  withdrew 
from  active  pastoral  duty.  From  1866  to  1871 
he  was  acting  professor  of  revealed  theology  in 
Yale  college;  and  since  1871  has  been  lecturer 
there  on  ecclesiastical  polity  and  American 
church  history.  From  about  1826  to  1838  he 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Christian  Spec- 
tator," a  religious  magazine  published  at  New 
Haven.  In  1843  he  aided  in  establishing  the 
"New  Englander,"  a  bi-monthly  periodical, 
with  which  he  is  still  associated.  From  1848  to 
1861  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of' "  The  In- 
dependent "  newspaper  of  New  York.  Among 
his  works  are:  "Life  of  Richard  Baxter" 
(1830) ;  "  Manual  for  Young  Church  Members  " 
(1833) ;  "  Thirteen  Historical  Discourses,  on  the 
Completion  of  Two  Hundred  Years  from  the 
Beginning  of  the  First  Church  in  New  Haven  " 
(1839) ;  "  Slavery  Discussed  in  Occasional  Es- 
says from  1833  to  1838"  (1846);  "Christian 
Self-Culture  "  (1863) ;  "  Introductory  Essay  " 
to  Conybeare  and  Howson's  "  Life  and  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul"  (1868);  and  many  addresses 
before  colleges  which  have  been  separately  pub- 
lished.— His  sister  DELIA,  born  in  1811,  was 
eminent  as  a  teacher,  and  author  of  "  Tales  of 
the  Puritans  "  (1830),  "  The  Bride  of  Fort  Ed- 
ward "  (1839),  and  "  The  Philosophy  of  Shake- 
speare's Plays  "  (1857),  in  which  she  attempted 
to  show  that  Francis  Bacon  was  their  author. 
She  resided  for  some  time  in  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  and  died  in  Hartford  in  August,  1859. 

BACON,  Nathaniel,  commonly  called  the  Vir- 
ginia rebel,  born  in  London  about  1630,  died 
in  January,  1677.  He  emigrated  to  Virginia 
in  1675,  during  the  administration  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Berkeley.  His  abilities  as  a  lawyer,  his 
wealth  and  popular  deportment,  gave  him 


great  influence.  Almost  immediately  after  his 
arrival  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  gov- 
ernor's council.  At  that  time  the  colony  was 
distracted  by  discontents.  Gov.  Berkeley  was 
highly  unpopular  on  account  of  his  inefficiency 
!  in  protecting  the  settlers  from  Indian  ravages. 
his  disposition  to  restrict  the  franchise,  and 
the  high  rate  of  taxes.  When  the  people  took 
arms  ostensibly  to  repel  the  savages,  but  in 
reality  to  force  the  authorities  to  do  their  duty, 
Bacon  became  the  leader  of  the  movement  in 
July,  1676.  Berkeley  was  compelled  to  make- 
concessions,  dismantle  the  forts,  dissolve  the 
old  assembly,  and  issue  writs  for  a  new  elec- 
tion. But  he  did  not  keep  faith  with  the  in- 
surgents, and  a  desultory  civil  war  broke  out, 
in  the  course  of  which  Jamestown,  the  capital 
of  the  colony,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  In 
the  end  the  governor  was  obliged  to  seek  shel- 
ter in  some  English  vessels  lying  in  James 
river,  but  before  Bacon  could  complete  his 
plans  in  respect  to  a  new  government  he  died 
of  a  disease  contracted  during  one  of  his  Indian 
campaigns.  Soon  after  his  death  the  rebelHon 
itself  was  extinguished. 

BACON,  Sir  Nicholas,  an  English  statesman, 
lord  keeper  of  the  seal  during  the  first  20  years 
of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  born  at  Chisel- 
hurst,  Kent,  in  1510,  died  Feb.  20,  1579.  He 
studied  at  Corpus  Christ!,  Cambridge,  and  after- 
ward in  Paris.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  in  1537  was 
appointed  solicitor  to  the  court  of  augmenta- 
tions. Nine  years  later  Henry  VIII.  made 
him  attorney  to  the  court  of  wards,  an  office 
in  which  he  continued  during  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  Being  a  Protestant,  he  was  excluded 
from  favor  under  Mary ;  but  on  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  (1558)  he  was  chosen  to  her  privy 
council,  and  soon  afterward  received  the  great 
seal,  with  the  rank  of  lord  chancellor.  At  the 
public  conference  held  in  Westminster  abbey 
in  March,  1559,  to  discuss  the  doctrines  and 
ceremonies  of  the  church  of  Rome,  he  presided. 
Being  suspected  in  1564  of  having  a  hand  in  a 
book  published  by  one  Hales  which  questioned 
the  title  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  to  succeed 
1  Elizabeth — a  view  of  the  case  not  then  held  by 
'  the  conrt — he  was  dismissed  from  the  privy 
council,  and  from  all  participation  in  public 
affairs  except  in  the  court  of  chancery.  Through 
the  efforts  of  his  brother-in-law  Cecil  he  was 
afterward  restored  to  favor.  He  was  the  fa- 
ther of  Sir  Francis  Bacon. 

BACON,  Roger,  an  English  Franciscan  scholar, 
born  near  Hchester,  Somersetshire,  in  1214, 
died  at  Oxford  in  1292  or  1294.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  sent  to  Oxford,  and  thence  he  went 
to  the  university  of  Paris,  then  the  most  famous 
in  Europe,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  theology.  About  1240  he  returned  to 
Oxford  and  entered  a  Franciscan  monastery, 
where  he  studied  Aristotle  and  all  the  ancient 
scholastic  philosophy,  mathematics,  physics,  and 
astronomy,  and  made  many  experiments  with 
instruments  constructed  by  himself.  The  igno- 


BAGS 


BACTERIUM 


207 


ranee  and  jealousy  of  the  other  monks  and 
of  the  clergy  in  general,  and  hostility  created 
by  Bacon's  denunciation  of  their  immorality, 
led  to  his  being  accused  of  studying  and  prac- 
tising magic ;  and  his  lectures  at  Oxford  were 
prohibited  and  the  circulation  of  his  writings 
confined  to  the  convent.  Robert  Grosseteste, 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  befriended  Bacon ;  and 
in  1265,  when  Clement  IV.,  who  had  been  a 
cardinal  legate  in  England,  was  raised  to  the 
papacy,  he  despatched  Raymond  de  Loudun  to 
the  Franciscan  monk  to  procure  some  of  his 
writings.  Bacon  sent  him  the  Opus  Majus, 
together  with  two  other  supplementary  works, 
the  Opus  Minus  and  the  Opus  Tertium.  It  is 
not  known  what  reception  Clement  gave  them, 
but  he  had  scarcely  got  them  in  hand  when  he 
died,  1268.  For  ten  years  thereafter  Bacon 
was  allowed  to  prosecute  his  studies  in  peace ; 
but  in  1278  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  superior  of  the 
Franciscan  order,  and  afterward  pope  under 
the  name  of  Nicholas  IV.,  was  appointed  legate 
to  the  court  of  France,  and  was  induced  to  sum- 
mon Bacon  to  Paris,  where  a  council  of  Fran- 
ciscans condemned  his  writings  and  sentenced 
him  to  be  confined  to  his  cell.  He  was  then 
in  his  64th  year,  and  ten  years  he  passed  in 
confinement.  Finally  his  release  was  obtained 
through  the  influence  of  prominent  persons  in 
England,  though  some  authorities  state  that 
he  died  in  prison.  Bayle  and  others  reckon 
101  of  his  treatises  on  various  subjects.  His 
chief  printed  works  are  :  Perspectita  (Frank- 
fort, 1614);  Speculum  Alchimice  (Nurem- 
berg, 1581) ;  De  Seeretis  Artii  et  Natura 
Operibus  (Paris,  1542) ;  De  Retardandis  Se- 
nectutis  Accidentibus  (Oxford,  1590);  and 
the  Opus  Majug,  edited  by  Dr.  Jebb  (Lon- 
don, 1733),  which  contains  a  digest  of  his 
writings,  and  is  the  principal  monument  of  his 
fame.  Manuscripts  of  his  works  exist  in  the 
Cottonian,  Harleian,  Bodleian,  and  Trinity  col- 
lege libraries.  A  second  manuscript  of  the 
Opus  Tertium  was  found  in  the  library  at 
Douay  by  Victor  Cousin,  who  gave  an  ac- 
count of  it,  with  an  elaborate  criticism  of  Bacon 
and  his  philosophical  character  in  the  Journal 
des  savants  for  1848.  Roger  Bacon  claims  for 
human  reason  the  right  to  exercise  control 
over  all  the  doctrines  submitted  to  its  approba- 
tion ;  he  insists  upon  the  dignity  and  importance 
of  all  the  sciences,  and  establishes  experience 
rather  than  reasoning  as  the  proper  method  of 
research.  He  fell  into  many  errors  on  the 
subject  of  alchemy  and  astrology,  but  his  scien- 
tific genius  was  wonderful  for  his  time.  His 
writings  anticipate  (according  to  some  authori- 
ties) the  discovery  of  the  telescope;  he  was 
acquainted  with  the  composition  of  gunpow- 
der ;  and  the  whole  tone  of  his  mind  and  scope 
of  his  thought  were  two  or  three  centuries  in 
advance  of  his  generation. 

Bits,  or  Itaeska,  a  county  in  southern  Hun- 
gary, surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  Danube 
and  Theiss;  area,  3,972  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870. 
576,149.     The  county  is  mostly  level,  and,  with 
66  VOL.  n. — 14 


the  exception  of  a  few  barren  tracts,  is  noted 
for  its  great  fertility  and  splendid  pastures. 
It  produces  wheat  of  the  best  quality,  wine, 
tobacco,  and  fine  cattle  and  horses.  The  inte- 
|  rior  is  traversed  by  the  Francis  canal,  near 
which  Zombor,  the  capital,  is  situated.  Other 
important  towns  are  Szabadka  or  Maria- 
Theresiopel,  on  the  railroad  uniting  Zombor 
with  Szegedin,  and  Neusatz,  on  the  Danube. 
The  population  consists  chiefly  of  Magyars, 
Germans,  and  Rascians  or  Serbs.  Shortly  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  Hungarian  revolution  in 
1848,  the  county  became  the  principal  seat  of 
the  Serb  rising  against  the  Magyars,  and  for 
more  than  a  year  witnessed  all  the  horrors  of 
a  war  of  races.  After  the  war  it  formed  with 
the  Banat  the  Serb  waywodeship  (Voivodina), 
but  has  since  been  restored  to  its  former  status. 
— Bits,  a  town  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  county, 
is  situated  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Danube ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,666. 

i:\< s\\ H,  Janos.  a  Hungarian  poet,  born  at 
Tapolcza,  in  the  county  of  Zala,  May  11,  1763, 
died  in  Linz,  Upper  Austria,  May  12,  1845. 
His  first  work  was  A  magyarok  vitezsege 
("The  Valor  of  the  Magyars,"  Pesth,  1785). 
He  cooperated  with  Kazinczy  in  editing  the 
Magyar  Museum,  and  with  him  was  implicated 
in  the  democratic  conspiracy  of  the  abbot  Mar- 
tinovich  of  1794,  and  was  sent  to  prison  at  the 
Spielberg,  where  he  was  confined  about  two 
years.  Having  marrried  the  German  poetess 
Gabriele  Baumberg  and  settled  in  Vienna,  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  that  city  in  1809  for  trans- 
lating Napoleon's  proclamation  to  the  Hunga- 
rians, and  took  refuge  in  Paris.  He  was  deliv- 
ered up  to  the  Austrian  authorities  after  the 
peace  of  1811,  and  kept  under  surveillance  in 
Linz.  He  published  his  collected  poems  at 
Pesth  in  1827  and  at  Buda  in  1835. 

l!UTi:iuni,  a  minute  and  exceedingly  low 
vegetable  form  or  monad,  liable  to  appear  in 
any  fluid  or  solid  substance  containing  vitalized 
matters.  It  is  a  mere  point  of  organized  matter, 
highly  refractive,  spherical  in  form,  and  moves 
with  considerable  activity.  The  first  forms 
of  living  organisms,  which  M.  B6champ  called 
microzymas,  have  been  found  in  chalk,  and  are 
among  the  smallest  living  beings  that  can  be 
seen.  They  are  found  also  in  concentrated 
alkaline  solutions,  in  all  the  tissues  of  organic 
beings,  in  various  morbid  products,  in  the 
sugar-producing  cells  of  the  liver,  in  the  blood 
of  man  and  animals,  in  the  liquids  of  the  eggs, 
larvse,  and  perfect  form  of  insects,  in  the  sap 
of  plants,  and  very  extensively,  if  not  univer- 
sally, in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 
They  act  as  powerful  organic  ferments,  as 
vegetable  cells,  in  the  transformation  of  cane 
sugar  and  fecula  into  glucose.  They  are  de- 
rived from  the  air,  in  which  the  germs  are  in 
suspension,  and  undergo  various  degrees  of 
development  before  they  begin  to  act  as  fer- 
ments. They  undoubtedly  play  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  both  healthy  and  morbid  processes ; 
they  assist  in  the  ripening  of  fruits,  in  elabo- 


208 


BACTRIA 


BADAJOZ 


rating  certain  matters  for  the  nourishment  of 
germs,  in  the  constant  regeneration  of  animal 
and  vegetable  organs,  and  in  the  formation 
and  action  of  cells.  They  may,  according  to 
B6champ,  develop  themselves  and  grow  equal- 
ly well  in  an  acid,  alkaline,  or  neutral  men- 
struum. The  normal  microzymas,  or  organic 
granules,  or  molecular  granulations,  as  they 
are  called,  in  plants  and  animals,  may  develop 
into  bacteriums,  and  many  forms  of  both  may 
exist  in  the  same  plant.  The  inoculation  of 
bacterium  in  a  plant  or  animal  causes  their  in- 
creased number,  not  by  multiplication,  but  by 
so  modifying  the  medium  that  the  normal  mi- 
crozymas more  readily  develop  themselves  into 
bacterium.  Many  of  the  phenomena  of  spon- 
taneous generation  find  their  explanation  in 
these  all-pervading  and  minute  organisms.  Ac- 
cording to  Bastian,  while  some  of  these  mo- 
nads originate  by  subdivision  of  preexisting 
individuals  (homogenesis),  others  originate  de 
novo,  just  as  crystals  by  certain  chemical  laws. 
He  thus  goes  further  than  those  advocates  of 
spontaneous  generation  who  believe  that  bac- 
teriums originate  by  transformation  of  living 
matter  (heterogenesis) ;  for  his  mode  of  spon- 
taneous generation  he  proposes  the  name  of 
archebiosis.  Torulas  are  very  similar  bodies, 
and  are  the  germs  of  the  yeast  of  fungus. 
Some  bacteriums  also  may  develop  into  fungi. 
(See  YEAST.) 

BACTRIA,  or  Bactriana,  an  ancient  country  of 
Asia,  bounded  S.  and  8.  E.  by  the  Paropami- 
sus  (Hindoo  Koosh)  and  N.  by  the  Oxus,  and 
corresponding  to  the  modern  territories  of  S. 
Bokhara,  Balkh,  and  Khoondooz.  It  was  in- 
habited by  a  warlike  people,  akin  to  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  and  generally  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  original  stock  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  races.  Zend  was  the  language 
of  the  country.  Bactra,  or  Zariaspe,  its  capi- 
tal, which  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern 
Balkh,  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Magi  and 
a  centre  for  the  ancient  Persian  worship. 
Bactria  was  in  very  early  times  a  powerful 
kingdom,  but  became  a  province  of  Persia 
about  the  time  of  Cyrus.  It  was  conquered 
by  Alexander,  who  left  a  colony  of  14,000 


Bactrian  Gold  Coin  of  King  Agathocles,  B.  C.  262-256. 
(In  the  Cabinet  of  France.) 

Greeks  there,  and  after  his  death  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Seleucida?. 
About  255  B.  C.  its  governor,  Diodotus  or  The- 


odotus,  revolted,  and  it  was  an  independent 
Greek  kingdom,  with  some  dependencies  or 
affiliated  realms  toward  India,  from  that  time 
till  about  126  B.  C.,  when  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Parthians.  It  was  overrun  by  Genghis 
Khan  and  Tamerlane  in  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries.  A  good  deal  of  light  was  thrown 
upon  the  history  of  Bactria  by  the  discovery! 
in  1824  by  Ool.  Tod  of  a  large  number  of  an- 
cient coins  in  the  topes  or  burial  places  of  Af- 
ghanistan. The  names  of  kings  and  inscrip- 
tions in  Greek  or  Zend  are  found  on  these, 
which  have  been  closely  studied  by  Prinsep, 
H.  H.  Wilson,  Lassen,  and  other  scholars. 
They  are  in  the  London  and  Paris  museums. 

BACZKO,  Lndwig  von,  a  German  author,  born 
at  Lyck,  East  Prussia,  June  8,  1756,  died  in 
Konigsberg,  March  27,  1823.  He  became 
blind  in  his  21st  year,  from  an  attack  of  small- 
pox, and  in  1816  was  made  superintendent  of 
the  blind  asylum  at  Konigsberg.  Among  his 
works  are  a  history  of  Prussia  in  6  volumes, 
and  a  history  of  the  French  revolution.  He 
wrote  also  several  romances  and  dramas. 

BADAJOZ.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in  Estre- 
madura,  bordering  on  Portugal;  area,  8,687 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  430,049.  It  has  a  diver- 
sified surface,  broken  by  several  mountain 
ranges,  is  well  wooded,  and  includes  many 
alluvial  lands  of  remarkable  fertility,  though 
agriculture  is  backward.  The  Guadiana  trav- 
erses the  province  from  E.  to  W.  The  climate 
is  hot  and  unhealthy.  There  are  mines  of 
lead,  copper,  silver,  and  quicksilver,  and  one 
of  gold.  Linen,  leather,  and  soap  are  the 
principal  manufactures.  Among  the  most  no- 
ted towns,  besides  the  capital,  are  Merida,  Za- 
fra,  and  the  fortresses  Albuquerque  and  Oli- 
venca,  near  the  Portuguese  frontier.  II.  A 
fortified  town  (anc.  Pax  Avgvsta,  corrupted 
by  the  Moors  to  Paxagousa,  whence  Badajoz), 
capital  of  the  preceding  province,  and  of  Estre- 
madura,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana,  5  m. 
from  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  and  203  m.  S.  W. 
of  Madrid ;  pop.  in  1867,  22,895.  It  is  built 
on  a  hill  nearly  300  ft.  high,  crowned  with 
the  ruins  of  a  Moorish  castle.  On  the  land 
side  the  city  is  protected  by  a  wall  flanked 
with  bastions,  around  which  are  a  moat  and 
outworks,  and  on  the  heights  beyond  several 
forts.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  mag- 
nificent stone  bridge  of  28  arches,  originally 
built  in  the  15th  century.  There  are  many 
Moorish  remains,  including  a  mosque.  The 
cathedral  was  begun  by  Alfonso  the  Wise, 
and  contains  several  paintings  by  Morales. 
There  were  formerly  eight  monasteries  and 
convents,  but  the  buildings  are  now  occupied 
for  other  purposes.  Badajoz  has  manufacto- 
ries of  soap  and  coarse  cloth,  and  carries  on 
an  active  trade  with  Portugal.  The  frontier 
position  of  the  town  and  its  strong  defences 
have  made  it  a  conspicuous  object  of  attack 
in  the  numerous  wars  in  Spain.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Moors  by  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Leon, 
in  1230.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Portuguese 


BADAKHSHAN 


BADEN 


without  success  in  16GO,  and  again  during  the 
war  of  the  succession  in  1705.  During  the 
French  invasion  it  was  besieged  by  Kellermann 
and  Victor  in  1808  and  1809,  and  was  surren- 
dered to  Marshal  Soult  March  11,  1811,  by 
the  treachery  of  Imaz,  commander  of  the  gar- 
rison. Beresford  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  recover  it,  and  it  was  afterward  be- 
sieged by  Wellington,  and  carried  by  assault 
with  fearful  loss  on  the  night  of  April  6,  1812. 
The  city  was  sacked  for  two  days  and  nights 
by  the  British  soldiers.  Wellington's  loss  dur- 
ing the  20  days'  siege  was  5,000,  of  whom 
3,500  fell  in  the  final  assault. 

KUHkllsiUN.  a  mountainous  country  of 
Central  Asia,  subject  to  the  Uzbeck  chief  of 
Koondooz,  situated  between  lat.  36°  and  38° 
N.,  and  Ion.  69°  and  73°  E.,  bounded  N.  by 
Khokan,  E.  by  the  table  land  of  Pamir,  S.  by 
Chitral  and  Kafiristan,  and  W.  by  Koondooz; 
area  estimated  at  40,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
500,000.  The  country  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Oxus  or  Amoo  Darya,  and  is  very  uneven, 
with  a  gradual  slope  to  the  west.  The  principal 
valleys  are  those  of  the  Amoo  audits  tributary 
the  Koksha.  The  lower  valleys  and  plains  are 
fertile,  but  the  mountains  are  bare  and  sterile. 
The  highest  central  range  is  the  Khoja  Moham- 
med, the  peaks  of  which  reach  an  altitude  of 
7,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  or  from  3,000  to  4,000 
above  the  surrounding  plains.  In  the  east  and 
south  the  mountains  are  higher  and  more  rug- 
ged. They  are  composed  largely  of  limestone, 
containing  lapis  lazuli.  Rubies  are  found  in 
crystal  deposits.  The  inhabitants  are  Tajiks, 
who  speak  the  Persian  language  and  belong 
to  the  Shiah  sect  of  Mohammedans.  Badakh- 
shan  was  a  dependency  of  the  Mogul  empire, 
and  after  its  fall  paid  a  doubtful  allegiance  to 
Cabool.  In  1823  it  was  reduced  by  the  Uz- 
becks  of  Koondooz.  Its  ancient  capital,  Fyza- 
bad,  and  many  other  cities  and  towns  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  former  still  lies  in  ruins.  A 
large  part  of  the  people  were  slaughtered  or 
sold  into  slavery,  and  in  many  fertile  districts 
the  population  is  still  very  thin.  The  present 
capital,  Jerm,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Koksha, 
105  m.  E.  of  Koondooz,  is  made  up  of  several 
scattered  hamlets,  with  about  1,500  inhabitants. 

BADEN,  a  grand  duchy  of  Germany,  situated 
between  lat.  47°  30'  and  49°  50'  N.,  and  Ion. 
7°  30'  and  9°  50'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  Bavaria,  E.  by  Wurtemberg 
and  the  Prussian  province  of  Hohenzollern,  S. 
by  Switzerland,  and  W.  by  Rhenish  Bavaria  and 
Alsace;  area,  5,910  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867, 1,434,- 
970,  of  whom  931,007  were  set  down  as  Cath- 
olics, 475,918  Protestants,  2,435  other  Chris- 
tian sects,  25,599  Jews;  pop.  in  1871, 1,461,428. 
In  1816  the  population  was  1,005,899;  it  in- 
creased about  10,000  a  year  till  1846,  after 
which,  owing  to  emigration,  there  was  a  period 
of  decrease  till  1855,  since  which  time  there 
has  been  a  gradual  increase.  The  grand  duchy 
is  divided  into  the  administrative  districts  of 
Constance,  Freiburg,  Carlsruhe,  and  Mannheim. 


The  capital  is  Carlsruhe,  which  in  1871  had 
36,622  inhabitants.  The  most  important  com- 
mercial city  is  Mannheim,  with  39,614  inhabit- 
ants ;  and  the  most  renowned  cities  are  Heidel- 
berg, the  seat  of  a  celebrated  university,  and 
Baden-Baden,  the  famous  watering  place. — On 
the  western  side  of  Baden,  and  stretching 
along  the  Rhine,  is  a  fertile  strip  of  land,  from 
which  the  rest  of  the  country  rises  toward  the 
east.  In  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  is  the 
Schwarzwald  (Black  Forest),  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Enz,  an  affluent  of  the  Neckar. 
North  of  the  latter  river  is  the  Odenwald 
mountain  range,  connected  by  ranges  of  hills 
with  the  Schwarzwald,  but  much  less  elevated. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Black  Forest  are  the 
Feldberg,  4,789  ft.,  and  the  Belchen,  4,490  ft. 
The  highest  point  of  the  Odenwald,  the  Katz- 
enbuckel,  is  about  2,000  ft.  high.  Between  the 
Rhine  and  the  little  river  Dreisam  is  the  Kai- 
serstuhl,  an  independent  volcanic  group  nearly 
10  m.  in  length  and  5  in  breadth ;  the  highest 
point  of  this  group  is  1,784  ft.— The  principal 
river  is  the  Rhine,  which  forms  the  boundary 
of  the  duchy  on  the  south  and  west.  The 
other  most  important  rivers  are  the  Neckar, 
Main,  and  Elz.  The  Danube  rises  in  Baden, 
on  the  extreme  east  of  the  Black  Forest,  under 
the  name  of  the  Brege.  Near  Donaueschingen 
it  unites  with  the  Brigach,  and  with  another 
rivulet  from  the  palace  yard  of  Donaueschin- 
gen, when  it  takes  the  name  of  Danube.  Ba- 
den has  a  number  of  small  mountain  lakes,  the 
Mummel,  Titti,  &c.  A  part  of  Lake  Constance 
belongs  to  Baden. — In  the  plains  and  valleys  the 
climate  is  mild  and  agreeable,  but  in  the  higher 
parts  it  is  cold  and  moist,  with  snow  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  with  frequent- 
ly very  sudden  transitions  from  winter  to  sum- 
mer. But  on  the  whole  the  climate  is  very 
salubrious. — In  the  valleys  and  plains  the  soil 
yields  wheat,  maize,  barley,  beans,  potatoes, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco ;  in  the  mountainous 
district,  rye,  wheat,  and  oats  are  cultivated. 
The  extensive  vineyards  produce  excellent 
wines,  and  the  finest  fruits  abound.  The  man- 
ufactures are  chiefly  confined  to  iron  and  hard- 
ware, and  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton. 
The  Black  Forest  is  distinguished  for  manufac- 
tures of  wooden  ornaments  and  toys,  watches, 
wooden  clocks,  musical  boxes,  organs,  and  bas- 
ket work.  St.  Blasien  is  an  important  seat 
of  ribbon  and  cotton  manufacture.  The  fab- 
rication of  jewelry  and  of  tobacco  and  cigars 
occupies  the  next  rank  in  importance.  The 
chiccory,  paper,  and  cloth  manufactures,  the 
tanneries,  and  breweries  are  also  noticeable. 
There  are  extensive  government  salt  works  at 
Dilrrheim  and  Rappenau.  The  most  excellent 
iron  mines  are  those  of  Oberwert  and  Kan- 
dern.  Gold  washing,  formerly  extensively  car- 
ried on  along  the  Rhine,  is  now  little  practised. 
Baden  has  more  than  60  mineral  springs,  the 
most  frequented  of  which  are  Baden-Baden, 
Badenweiler,  Antogast,  Rippoltsau,  and  Ueber- 
lingen.  The  exports  are  wine,  timber,  bread- 


210 


BADEN 


stuffs,  hemp,  tobacco,  fruits,  oil,  salt,  and  manu- 
factured articles.  The  principal  imports  are 
colonial  produce,  southern  fruits,  medicines, 
horses,  wool,  cotton,  silk  goods,  iron,  steel, 
and  various  articles  of  luxury.  The  currency 
is  the  Rhenish,  60  kreutzers  to  the  florin  or 
gulden.  The  weights  and  measures  are  ac- 
cording to  the  decimal  system.  —  There  are 
two  universities,  one  Protestant  at  Heidelberg, 
founded  in  1386,  and  one  Catholic  at  Freiburg, 
founded  in  1457.  At  Pforzheim  is  an  institu- 
tion for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  at  Freiburg 
one  for  the  blind.  The  Carlsruhe  polytechnic 
school,  established  about  1832,  is  one  of  the 
best  in  Germany.  The  population  of  the  up- 
per Rhine  springs  from  the  Alemanni;  along 
the  shores  of  the  Murg  and  the  lower  Rhine  j 
the  Frankiah  race  preponderates ;  the  popula-  . 
tion  along  the  lake  shores  are  of  Suevian  (Swa- 
bian)  and  Vindelician  origin.  The  character  | 
of  the  people  is  marked  by  honesty,  industry,  I 
and  courage;  but  the  population  of  the  Black  i 
Forest  is  most  typical  of  the  ancient  German  j 
character. — The  executive  government,  besides  : 
the  grand  duke,  is  composed  of  six  departments, 
the  ministers  being  responsible  to  the  legislature. 
The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  parlia- 
ment of  two  chambers,  called  the  first  and 
second.  The  first  chamber,  having  31  members 
in  1873,  consists  of  the  princes  of  the  reigning 
line,  the  heads  of  ten  noble  families,  the  pro-  | 
prietors  of  large  hereditary  landed  estates,  the 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Freiburg,  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Protestant  church,  two  deputies 
of  the  universities,  and  eight  other  members  ] 
appointed  for  life  by  the  grand  duke ;  the  sec- 
ond chamber  of  63  representatives,  chosen  for 
eight  years,  22  from  towns  and  41  from  rural 
districts.  In  1867-'8  the  revenue  was  22,824,371 
florins,  the  expenditures  22,834,371,  showing 
a  deficit  of  10,000  florins,  a  little  more  than 
$4,000.  In  1868-'9  there  was  a  deficit  of  nearly 
5,000,000  florins,  more  than  $2,000,000.  The 
estimates  for  1870-'71  showed  a  probable 
excess  of  465,982  florins,  something  less  than 
$200,000.  The  general  public  debt  on  Jan.  1, 
1871,  was  37,644,083  florins,  and  the  railway 
debt  118,015,028.  There  were  590  m.  of  rail- 
way, 977  m.  of  telegraph,  and  487  sailing  and 
steam  vessels  engaged  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Neckar.  Military  service  is  oblig- 
atory upon  all,  the  period  being  three  years  in 
active  service,  four  in  the  reserve,  and  five  in 
the  landwehr;  the  annual  contingent  is  4,700 
men.  The  actual  force  in  time  of  peace  is 
13,695  men  of  all  arms,  besides  568  artillery- 
men garrisoning  the  fortress  of  Rastadt,  and 
in  time  of  war  may  be  raised  to  43,705.— 
The  southern  portions  of  Baden  are  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  peopled  by  Celts,  who 
were  dispossessed  by  Alemanni.  The  country 
subsequently  formed  a  part  of  the  Frankish  em- 
pire. Berthold,  a  supposed  descendant  of  the 
Alemannian  dukes,  was  master  of  the  castle  of 
Zahringen,  near  Freiburg,  and  the  first  duke  of 
Zahringen,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  llth  cen- 


tury. His  descendants  assumed  the  title  of 
margraves  of  Baden,  but  in  1190  the  family 
was  split  into  two  brandies,  Baden  and  Hoch- 
berg,  and  other  divisions  took  place  afterward, 
as  well  as  various  acquisitions  by  marriage  or 
purchase.  Christopher  I.,  who  died  in  1527, 
united  most  of  the  possessions  of  the  house, 
but  on  his  death  the  margraviate  was  di- 
vided between  his  two  surviving  sons,  who 
thus  formed  the  two  lines  of  Baden-Baden 
and  Baden-Durlach.  The  line  of  Baden-Ba- 
den became  extinct  by  the  death  of  Augus- 
tus George  in  1771,  and  its  possessions  were 
united  with  Baden-Durlach,  under  the  long 
and  prosperous  reign  of  the  margrave  Charles 
Frederick.  By  the  treaty  of  Lun€ville  in  1801, 
Baden  acquired  a  considerable  addition  of  terri- 
tory, and  was  further  increased  in  1803,  when 
the  margrave  received  the  title  of  prince  elec- 
tor, and  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  in  1805.  In 
1806,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire, 
the  electorjoined  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
and,  upon  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the  heir 
apparent  with  Stephanie  Beauharnais,  received 
from  Napoleon  the  title  of  grand  duke  and 
1,950  square  miles  of  additional  territory  ;  some 
smaller  additions  in  1809  and  1810  increased 
Baden  to  its  present  extent.  After  the  battle 
of  Leipsic  in  1813  the  grand  duchy  returned 
to  the  German  confederation.  It  then  formed 
a  territory  of  about  5,800  sq.  m.,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  something  more  than  1,000,000.  The 
public  debt  was  large,  and  the  taxes  burden- 
some ;  and  moreover  a  strong  desire  had  grown 
up  among  the  people  for  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment. This  led  to  earnest  discussions  in  the 
chambers,  and  to  some  administrative  reforms. 
The  revolutionary  movements  of  1830  produced 
little  effect  upon  Baden  ;  but  after  the  procla- 
mation of  the  French  republic  in  1848  a  revo- 
lution broke  out  in  Baden,  which  was  soon  sup- 
pressed. (See  HECKER.)  In  May,  1849,  a  new 
revolution  expelled  the  grand  duke,  set  up  a 
provisional  government,  and  was  only  overcome 
in  July  by  aid  of  the  armed  force  of  Prussia. 
(See  RASTADT.)  In  1852  the  grand  duke  died, 
and  there  arose  a  question  as  to  the  succession, 
which  was  further  complicated  by  a  dispute 
between  the  civil  power  and  the  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Freiburg.  The  question  of  succession 
was  finally  disposed  of,  the  grand  duke  Frede- 
rick William  Louis  assuming  the  authority. 
He  married  in  1856  the  daughter  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  now  emperor  of  Germany.  On  the 
division  between  North  and  South  Germany 
in  1866,  Baden  was  forced  by  its  geographical 
position  to  side  with  South  Germany,  although 
its  sympathies  were  with  Prussia.  At  the 
close  of  1870  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Ger- 
man empire.  The  troops  of  Baden  form  the 
largest  part  of  the  14th  German  army  corps. 

I!  UIKV  I.  A  town  (anc.  Aquas  Pannonice) 
of  Lower  Austria,  on  the  river  Sehwechat,  14 
m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1869,  10,433. 
It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  as  a  bathing 
place,  having  13  hot  sulphur  springs.  The 


BADEN-BADEN 


211 


town  has  also  dye  works,  and  steel,  brass, 
furniture,  and  other  manufactories.  II.  A 
town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Aargau, 
on  the  Limmat,  13  m.  N.  E.  of  Aarau ;  pop. 
about  3,000.  Its  hot  sulphur  springs  were 
well  known  to  the  Romans,  who  built  a 
castle  upon  the  site  where  the  city  now 
stands.  The  hottest  and  most  celebrated  of 
the  springs  is  called  Verenabad.  The  rocky 
heights  on  each  side  of  the  river  form  a  portal 
through  which  the  Limmat  runs.  Before  the 
gorge  was  formed,  the  country  above  must  have 
been  a  considerable  -lake.  The  railway  passes 
by  a  tunnel  800  feet  long  under  the  castle 
hill.  Baden  from  the  15th  to  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century  was  the  seat  of  the  Swiss 
diet.  In  the  town  house  of  Baden  Eugene  of 
Savoy,  who  acted  as  representative  of  the  em- 
peror of  Austria,  signed  the  final  treaty  of  peace 
terminating  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
Sept.  7,  1714. 


BADEN-BADEN,  a  German  watering  place,  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  situated  on  the  Oos, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Black  Forest,  18  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Carlsruhe;  permanent  pop.  in  1871,  10,083. 
There  are  nearly  30  hot  springs,  flowing  from 
the  rock  at  the  foot  of  the  castle  terrace.  The 
waters  vary  in  temperature  from  115°  to  154°  F., 
and  are  carried  in  pipes  to  the  different  baths 
throughout  the  town.  A  pint  of  water  from 
the  Ursprung,  one  of  the  hottest  and  most  co- 
pious of  the  springs,  weighs  7,392  grains,  and 
contains  23-3  grains  of  solid  matter,  16  of  which 
consist  of  common  salt,  6|  of  sulphate,  muriate, 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  and  the  remainder  of  a 
small  portion  of  magnesia,  traces  of  iron,  and 
about  half  a  cubic  inch  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
The  number  of  visitors  to  the  baths  has  of  late 
been  about  50,000  a  year,  the  season  being  at 
its  height  in  July  and  August.  There  are  nu- 
merous hotels  and  several  public  baths.  The 
principal  place  of  resort  for  visitors  is  the  Con- 


Baden-Baden. 


versationshaiw,  which  is  surrounded  by  pleasure 
grounds  and  contains  an  assembly  room,  res- 
taurant, library  and  reading  room,  and  the  for- 
merly so  celebrated  gaming  tables,  the  licenses 
of  which  expired  in  1872,  and  have  not  been 
renewed.  The  drives  and  promenades  about 
the  town  are  beautiful.  There  is  a  parish 
church  containing  the  remains  of  the  mar- 
graves of  Baden,  who  resided  here  for  several 
centuries,  an  English  church  built  in  1867,  and 
a  Greek  chapel.  The  remains  of  Roman  vapor 
baths  have  been  discovered  just  beneath  the 
new  castle.  The  picturesque  ruins  of  the  old 
castle  of  the  margraves  still  crown  the  summit 
of  the  Schlossberg,  and  the  new  castle,  the 
summer  residence  of  the  grand  duke,  stands 
lower  down  on  the  hill  directly  overlooking 
the  town.  It  was  founded  in  1471,  burned  by 
the  French  in  1688,  and  subsequently  restored. 


Beneath  are  curious  dungeons  connected  with 
the  old  Roman  baths,  and  in  the  upper  part 
are  portraits  of  the  Baden  family. 

BADEN-BADEN,  Lndwlg  Wilbelm  I.,  margrave 
of,  a  German  general,  born  in  Paris,  April  8, 
1 655,  died  at  Rastadt,  Jan.  4, 1 707.  Louis  XIV. 
was  his  godfather.  He  served  first  under  Mon- 
tecuculi  against  Turenne,  and  then  under  the 
duke  of  Lorraine.  At  the  siege  of  Vienna  by 
the  Turks,  in  1683,  he  threw  his  forces  into 
the  city,  and  by  a  brilliant  sally  effected  a 
junction  with  King  Sobieski  and  the  duke  of 
Lorraine,  who  had  come  to  its  relief.  In  1689 
he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Nissa,  and  in  1691  at 
Salankamen.  He  also  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  France  in  1693,  and  after  the 
death  of  Sobieski  in  1696  aspired  to  the  crown 
of  Poland  ;  but  the  elector  of  Saxony  was  pre- 
ferred to  him.  He  again  commanded  in  the 


212 


BADGER 


campaign  of  1702,  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  and  took  Landau,  but  was  subse- 
quently defeated  by  Villars  at  Friedlingen  and 
at  Hochstadt.  He  built  the  famous  lines  of 
Stollhofen  from  the  Black  Forest  through  Buhl 
and  Stollhofen  to  the  Rhine. 

BADGER  (meleg,  Ouv.),  a  carnivorous  plan- 
tigrade quadruped  of  the  order  mammalia, 
originally  classified  with  the  bears,  raccoons, 
and  coatis  by  Linnimis,  but  separated  by  more 
recent  naturalists.  The  badgers  have  4  false 
molars  in  the  upper  and  8  in  the  under  jaw,  2 
and  4  on  each  side  respectively,  followed  by  a 
carnassier  and  a  single  tuberculous  tooth  of 
large  size.  They  are  the  least  carnivorous  of 
the  family  to  which  they  belong,  with  the  sin- 
gle exception  of  the  bears.  They  have  5  toes, 
before  and  behind,  deeply  buried  in  the  flesh, 
and  provided  with  powerful,  compressed  claws, 
adapted  for  burrowing  in  the  earth,  or  digging 
for  roots,  which  are  their  principal  food.  The 
body  is  long,  flat,  and  compressed ;  the  head 
small  and  flat,  with  an  elongated  snout;  the 
legs  sturdy  and  powerful ;  the  tail  short.  Be- 
low the  anus  there  is  a  slit,  from  which  exudes 
a  very  fetid  oleaginous  matter,  similar  in 
character,  though  not  in  odor,  to  that  of  the 
civets  and  genets.  The  badgers  are  inoffensive, 
timid,  nocturnal  animals,  sleeping  during  the 
day  in  their  burrows,  which  are  curiously  con- 
structed, with  a  single  entrance,  but  with  many 
different  chambers  within,  terminating  in  a  cir- 
cular apartment,  well  lined  with  dry  grass  or 
hay,  in  which  the  male  dwells  alone,  eschewing 
the  company  even  of  his  female.  The  badger 
is  a  very  cleanly  animal,  carefully  removing 
everything  that  might  become  offensive  from 
his  dwelling,  never  depositing  his  excrements 
near  its  entrance,  and  instantly  evacuating  it 
in  case  of  its  being  polluted  by  any  other  ani- 
mal. The  flesh  is  in  some  places  much  es- 
teemed as  an  article  of  food,  and  it  is  usually 
very  fat.  The  badger  makes  a  vigorous  defence 
when  attacked ;  and  as  its  bite  is  terrible,  it 
requires  a  brave  and  powerful  terrier  dog  to 
drag  it  from  its  burrow. — The  geographical 
distribution  of  the  badger  extends  over  the 
whole  of  Europe,  northern  and  central  Asia, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  North  America.  It 
does  not  extend  into  Africa  or  South  America, 
in  the  former  of  which  continents  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  rattel  (gulo  mellivora),  as  it  is 
in  the  latter  by  the  various  kinds  of  moufette 
(mephitis).  In  Australia  there  exists  no  plan- 
tigrade animal  of  any  kind.  In  the  eastern 
peninsula  and  the  Indian  isles  the  place  of  the 
badger  is  supplied  by  the  telagon  (mydaus  me- 
liceps).  This  genus  contains  at  the  most  only 
three  species,  and  some  writers  have  reduced  it 
to  a  single  one,  asserting  that  the  American 
badger  is  a  mere  variety  of  the  European,  and 
the  Indian  a  distinct  genus ;  for  neither  of 
which  opinions  does  there  appear  to  be  any 
foundation.  1.  The  common  badger  of  Europe 
(M.  vulgaris  or  taxus)  is  about  the  size  of  a 
moderately  large  dog,  but  longer  and  fatter  in 


the  body,  and  lower  on  the  legs.  The  head  is 
long  and  pointed,  the  ears  so  short  as  to  be  con- 
cealed by  the  fur.  The  tail  barely  reaches  to 
the  mid-thigh.  The  hair  is  long  and  coarse, 


Badger  (Meles  vulgaris). 

except  that  on  the  belly  and  breast,  which  is 
short  and  resembles  fur.  The  head  is  white, 
with  a  black  chin  and  two  black  bands  passing 
backward  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  in- 
cluding the  ears  and  eyes,  and  meeting  at  the 
nape.  Every  hair  of  the  upper  part  of  the  bad- 
ger has  three  distinct  colors,  yellowish  white 
at  the  roots,  black  at  the  middle,  and  ash-gray 
at  the  top,  which  gives  a  uniform  sandy  gray 
color  to  all  its  upper  parts.  The  throat,  breast, 
belly,  and  limbs  are  jet  black.  The  female  bad- 
ger produces  three,  four,  or  five  young  in  the 
early  spring,  suckles  them  for  about  five  weeks, 
and  then  gradually  accustoms  them  to  shift  for 
themselves.  When  taken  early  the  young  cubs 
are  easily  domesticated.  Badgers  are  hunted  in 
some  parts  of  England  by  moonlight,  principal- 
ly for  their  hides,  which,  when  properly  dressed, 
are  held  to  make  the  best  pistol  furniture. 
Their  hair  is  of  great  value  for  shaving  brushes 
and  for  paint  brushes.  The  hind  quarters,  when 
salted,  are  good  eating,  but  are  not  much  in  use 
in  England.  In  China  badgers'  hams  are  a 
choice  dainty.  2.  The  American  badger  (M. 
Labradoricd)  measures  about  2i  feet  from  the 
snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  extends  to 


American  Badger  (Melea  Labradorica). 

6  inches  more.  Its  head  is  less  attenuated  than 
that  of  the  European  species,  though  equally 
elongated.  The  claws  of  its  fore  feet  are  much 


BADIA  Y  LEBLIOH 


BABBLE 


213 


longer ;  its  tail  is  shorter,  its  fur  of  a  much 
softer  and  more  silky  character,  and  its  colors 
different.  It  frequents  the  sandy  plains  skirt- 
ing the  foot  of  the  liocky  mountains,  so  far 
north  as  the  Peace  river,  and  abounds  in  the 
country  watered  by  the  Missouri ;  but  its  south- 
ern and  western  limits  have  not  been  defined. 
It  is  a  far  more  carnivorous  animal  than  its 
European  congener,  and  is  also  believed  to  hi- 
bernate during  the  winter  months,  which  habit 
is  not  common  in  either  of  the  other  species.  It 
preys  on  the  marmots  of  the  plains,  the  sper- 
mopJiUitg  Hoodii  and  Jtichardnonii,  and  on  all 
the  smaller  quadrupeds,  as  field  mice  and  the 
like,  and  also  feeds  on  vegetable  matters.  It 
extends  into  Mexico,  where  it  is  called  ilia- 
coy  otl  or  coyotlhumuli  ;  and  very  fine  specimens 
have  been  sent  from  California.  3.  The  Indian 
badger,  balisaur,  or  sand  bear  (M.  or  arctonyx 
collaris),  is  about  the  size  of  the  European  bad- 
ger, but  stands  much  higher  on  its  legs,  and  is 
distinguished  by  its  attenuated  muzzle,  its  trun- 
cated snout  resembling  that  of  a  hog,  and  its 
short  tail.  Its  body  somewhat  resembles  that 


Indian  Badger  (Meles  collaris). 

of  the  bear;  and  when  attacked  it  sits  erect 
like' that  animal,  and  seems  to  possess  a  similar 
power  in  its  arms  and  claws,  which  are  truly 
formidable.  In  color  and  the  nature  of  its  fur 
it  closely  resembles  the  European  species.  The 
markings  of  the  head  are  exactly  like  those  of 
the  English  badger,  but  its  throat  is  white,  and 
the  black  bands  from  the  muzzle  to  the  ear,  in- 
stead of  meeting  at  the  nape,  encircle  the  white 
of  the  throat,  forming  a  distinct  gorget. 

BADIA  Y  I.I  III.KII,  Domingo,  a  Spanish  travel- 
ler, known  as  Ali  Bey,  born  in  1776,  died  near 
Aleppo  in  1818.  He  learned  Arabic  at  Valencia 
and  Jxmdon,  and  under  the  name  of  Ali  Bey 
and  in  the  disguise  of  a  Mussulman  spent  two 
years  (1803-'5)  in  Morocco  on  terms  of  high 
favor  with  the  emperor.  lie  then  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  stopping  some  time  in  Trip- 
oli, Cyprus,  and  Egypt,  afterward  visiting  Je- 


rusalem and  prominent  places  in  Syria,  and 
reaching  Constantinople  in  the  autumn  of  1807. 
He  was  there  for  the  first  time  suspected  of  not 
being  a  real  Mussulman.  He  fled,  and  return- 
ing home  in  1809  entered  the  public  service 
under  King  Joseph  Bonaparte,  on  whose  ex- 
pulsion he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  travels  at  Paris 
in  1814,  under  the  title  Voyages  d'Ali  Bei  en 
Afrique  et  en  Asie  pendant  les  annees  1803  d 
1807,  in  which  he  described  places  and  things 
which  no  Christian  before  him  had  seen. 
Four  years  later  he  set  out  on  a  second  jour- 
ney to  the  East,  but  died  soon  after  his  arrival 
in  Syria. 

BADIUS,  Jodoens,  or  Josse,  a  Flemish  printer  and 
author,  bom  at  Assche  (whence  he  was  sur- 
named  Ascensius)  near  Brussels  in  1462,  died 
in  1535.  He  was  well  educated,  especially  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  which  he  taught  for  12  years 
at  Lyons,  working  at  the  same  time  as  a  print- 
er. Early  in  the  16th  century  he  founded  in 
Paris  his  famous  printing  establishment,  the 
Prelum  Ascensianum,  from  which  issued  some 
of  the  most  famous  editions  of  classic  authors. 
He  was  himself  the  author  of  various  transla- 
tions and  annotations,  of  a  life  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  of  a  satire  on  women  entitled  Navi- 
culce  Stultarum  Mulierum,  and  other  works,  in 
prose  and  verse.  He  was  the  father-in-law  of 
Robert  Stephens.— His  son  CONBAD  succeeded 
him  in  the  printing  business,  removed  to  Ge- 
neva in  1549,  and  died  about  1565.  He  wrote 
Satires  chretiennes  de  la,  cuisine  papale  in 
French  verse. 

BAENA  (anc.  Castro,  Viniana),  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  34  m.  8.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Cordova;  pop.  about  11,600.  Grain  and  oil 
are  the  chief  articles  of  trade,  and  are  export- 
ed to  Malaga.  The  site  of  the  old  Roman 
town  is  still  distinguishable. 

BAER,  hurl  Ernst  TOD,  a  Russian  naturalist, 
born  in  Esthonia,  Feb.  12,  1792.  He  studied 
at  Dorpat  and  Wurzburg,  and  in  1819  became 
professor  of  zoology  in  the  university  of  Ko- 
nigsberg,  where  he  organized  the  zoological 
museum.  In  1834  he  was  called  to  St.  ^Peters- 
burg to  become  the  librarian  of  the  academy 
and  one  of  its  most  prominent  members.  In 
1837,  by  order  of  the  czar,  he  conducted  scien- 
tific explorations  on  the  northern  shores  of 
Russia  and  made  valuable  descriptions  of  the 
plants  and  animals.  He  has  written  numerous 
treatises  upon  zoology  and  botany,  especially 
those  of  northern  Russia. 

BAERLE,  Gaspard  van  (Lat.  Barlaus),  a  Dutch 
poet,  theologian,  and  historian,  born  in  Ant- 
werp, Feb.  12,  1584,  died  in  Amsterdam,  Jan. 
14,  1648.  He  studied  theology  at  Leyden, 
and  in  1617  was  elected  professor  of  logic 
there.  He  adopted  the  principles  and  wrote 
in  defence  of  Arminius  and  the  Remonstrants, 
for  which  he  was  at  length  deprived  of  his 
professorship.  He  then  studied  medicine  and 
obtained  a  doctor's  degree  from  Oaen,  but 
remained  at  Leyden,  supporting  himself  by 


214 


BAEZ 


BAGAUD.E 


giving  private  instruction,  till  1631,  when  he 
was  elected  professor  of  philosophy  and  rhet- 
oric in  the  newly  founded  athenaeum  at  Am- 
sterdam. He  was  one  of  the  best  Latin  poets 
of  that  period,  and  has  left  records  of  the 
government  of  Count  Maurice  of  Nassau  in 
Brazil,  and  of  the  reception  given  to  Maria  de' 
Medici  at  Amsterdam  in  1638. 

BAEZ,  Buenaventura,  president  of  the  Domin- 
ican republic,  born  at  Azua,  Santo  Domingo, 
early  in  this  century.  He  inherited  a  large 
fortune  from  his  father,  a  mulatto,  who  was 
prominent  in  the  revolution  of  1808;  cooper- 
ated with  Santana  in  the  establishment  of 
Dominican  independence;  and  was  president 
from  1849  till  1853,  when  he  was  supplant- 
ed by  Santana,  who  expelled  him  from  the 
country.  After  the  deposition  of  Santana  in 
May,  1856,  Baez,  who  had  spent  the  interval 
in  New  York,  resumed  the  presidency,  Oct.  6, 
1856 ;  but  he  was  once  more  ousted  by  Santana 
June  11,  1858,  and  obliged  to  remain  abroad 
till  after  the  evacuation  of  Dominica  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1865,  and  in  December  of  that 
year  he  was  elected  for  a  third  presidential 
term.  This  was  interrupted  in  March,  1866, 
by  an  insurrection  led  by  Gen.  Pimentel  in 
favor  of  Oabral,  in  consequence  of  which  Baez 
was  banished  to  St.  Thoinas.  A  new  revolu- 
tion in  December,  1867,  drove  Oabral  from 
power  and  restored  Baez.  After  various  di- 
rect and  indirect  negotiations,  he  signed  on 
Nov.  29,  1869,  two  treaties  with  President 
Grant,  one  for  the  cession  of  the  bay  of  Sa- 
mana  and  the  other  for  the  annexation  of  the 
Dominican  republic  to  the  United  States,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  people  of  the  re- 
public, which  was  ostensibly  obtained  in  an 
election  (decreed  by  Baez  Feb.  16,  1870)  held 
under  the  protection  of  American  men-of-war. 
The  United  States  senate,  however,  refused  to 
ratify  the  treaty.  A  commission  was  appoint- 
ed by  President  Grant,  under  authority  of  con- 
gress, to  visit  and  examine  the  island,  and  re- 
ported in  April,  1871,  in  favor  of  annexation ; 
but  the  measure  was  pressed  no  further.  Its 
failure  encouraged  Oabral  and  Pimentel  to  re- 
new the  civil  war. 

BAEZA  (anc.  Beatia),  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  23  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Jaen, 
3  m.  N.  of  the  Guadalquivir  ;  pop.  13,400.  It 
has  a  cathedral  and  several  fine  public  edifices, 
of  which  the  most  noteworthy  are  the  uni- 
versity, the  oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  the 
marble  fountain  with  caryatides  in  the  plaza, 
and  the  arch  of  Baeza.  In  the  days  when 
it  was  held  by  the  Moors,  it  had  a  popu- 
lation of  50,000,  was  surrounded  by  a  strong 
double  wall,  and  contained  the  residence  of 
several  Moorish  kings.  The  sculptor  Gaspar 
Becerra  was  born  here  in  1520.  The  trade 
and  manufactures  are  inconsiderable. 

BAFFIN,  William,  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  1584,  died  in  1622.  In  1612  he  accompanied 
James  Hall  on  his  fourth  arctic  expedition,  and 
on  his  return  wrote  an  account  of  it,  in  which 


a  method  is  laid  down  for  the  first  time  of  de- 
termining the  longitude  at  sea  by  an  observa- 
tion of  the  celestial  bodies.  In  1613  he  ex- 
plored the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  wrote  a 
narrative  of  his  voyage.  In  1615  Baffin  accom- 
panied Robert  Bylot  as  mate  on  a  voyage  to 
the  northwest  in  the  Discovery.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  again  sailed  with  Bylot,  and  on 
this  occasion  discovered  the  bay  which  has 
since  borne  his  name.  Baffin  published  an 
account  of  both  voyages,  and  gave  a  very  ac- 
curate description  of  the  bay.  He  afterward 
made  voyages  to  the  East,  and  in  1621  joined 
an  English  expedition  to  the  Persian  gulf, 
which  united  with  the  Persians  to  expel  the 
Portuguese,  and  was  killed  at  Ormuz. 

BAFFIN  (or  BYLOT)  BAY,  an  extensive  gulf  or 
inland  sea  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, communicating  with  the  Atlantic  by  Davis 
strait,  and  with  the  Arctic  ocean  by  Smith 
sound  to  the  north,  and  Lancaster  sound  to 
the  west.  It  extends  about  800  m.  from  S.  E. 
to  N.  W.,  has  an  average  width  of  280  m.,  and 
is  included  between  the  parallels  of  68°  and  78° 
N.,  and  the  meridians  of  50°  and  80°  W.  It 
was  named  in  honor  of  William  Baffin.  It  was 
visited  by  Oapt.  Ross  in  1818,  by  Capt.  Parry 
in  1819,  by  Inglefield  in  1852,  who  established 
the  existence  of  a  channel  connecting  it  with 
the  great  polar  sea,  and  by  McClure  in  1850-'53, 
who  was  the  first  to  sail  from  Behring  strait  to 
Baffin  bay.  The  coasts  are  rocky  and  precipi- 
tous, rising  in  many  places  to  the  height  of 
1,000  feet,  and  presenting  a  vast  number  of 
lofty  peaks  of  very  singular  shape.  Innumera- 
ble sounds  and  creeks  open  on  each  side  of  the 
bay.  Black  whales  of  large  size,  seals,  and 
walrus  are  captured  here,  and  bears  and  black 
foxes  and  various  sea  fowl  are  found  on  the 
shores.  The  depth  of  water,  as  far  as  ascer- 
tained, varies  from  200  to  1,050  fathoms. 

BAFFO,  called  the  Pure,  a  Venetian  woman 
of  remarkable  talent  and  beauty,  who  was 
captured  in  1580  by  corsairs  while  on  the  way 
witli  her  father  from  Venice  to  Corfu,  and 
carried  to  Constantinople,  where  she  became 
the  slave  and  afterward  the  sultana  of  Amu- 
rath  III.,  over  whom  she  exercised  extraordi- 
nary influence.  Amurath  subjected  the  female 
attendants  of  Baffo  to  the  torture  in  order  to 
extract  from  them  the  secret  of  her  fascina- 
tion; but  as  they  could  confess  nothing,  the 
legitimacy  of  the  sultana's  influence  was  no 
longer  questioned.  After  the  death  of  the  sul- 
tan she  became  adviser  of  her  son  Moham- 
med III.,  and  her  influence  did  not  wane  till 
1603,  when  her  grandson  Ahmed  consigned 
her  to  the  old  seraglio,  where  she  died. 

BAGAUDS,  or  Bagandl,  a  body  of  Gallic  peas- 
ants who  revolted  against  the  oppression  of  the 
Romans  about  A.  D.  270,  headed  by  one  Victo- 
ria, called  by  the  soldiers  Mother  of  Legions. 
They  besieged  and  took  Augustodunum  (Au- 
tun),  and  utterly  destroyed  what  was  previously 
a  flourishing  metropolis.  Claudius  temporari- 
ly quelled  them,  and  Aurelian  remitted  their 


BAGDAD 


215 


taxes,  and  granted  them  a  general  amnesty. 
Under  Diocletian,  in  294,  they  rose  again,  and 
Diocletian,  himself  engaged  in  putting  down 
the  Persians  and  the  barbarians  of  the  lower 
Danube,  sent  Maximian  against  them.  They 
rallied  under  two  leaders,  .  Hliniiu>  and  Aman- 
dus,  who  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  The 
coins  of  these  Bagaudian  emperors  are  still 
extant,  and  bear  pagan  inscriptions,  although 
they  were  reputed  to  be  Christians.  Maximian 
soon  compelled  the  Bagandse  to  capitulate. 
The  two  emperors  fell  in  battle.  The  place  of 
this  sanguinary  contest  was  long  known  as  the 
Fosses  des  Bagaudes.  The  Bagaudse  long  con- 
tinued to  be  troublesome,  and  infested  the 
forests  and  fastnesses  of  Gaul  with  an  irregu- 
lar kind  of  brigandage  until  the  end  of  the 
western  empire. 

BAGDAD,  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Tigris,  here  about  700 
feet  wide,  in  lat.  33°  20'  N.,  Ion.  44°  25'  E. ; 
population  estimated  at  about  100,000,  of  whom 


Ezekiel's  Tomb. 

about  15,000  were  Jews,  3,000  native  Chris- 
tians, and  the  remainder  Mohammedan  Arabs, 
Kurds,  Turks,  and  Persians.  Bagdad  is  une- 
qually divided  by  the  river  Tigris,  two  thirds 
being  on  the  left  bank,  and  the  remainder  on  the 
right,  and  the  two  divisions  are  connected  by 
two  bridges  of  boats.  The  town  is  fortified  on 
one  side  by  a  high  brick  parapet  wall,  flanked 
at  intervals  with  high-bastioned  towers  and 
surrounded  by  a  wide  fosse.  The  citadel  is 
situated  on  the  N.  W.  extremity.  A  large 
suburb,  enclosed  by  ramparts  to  resist  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Arabs,  is  on  the  other  side.  The 
houses  in  Bagdad,  like  those  of  other  oriental 
towns,  present  on  the  exterior  either  dead 
walls  or  ruins,  and  the  streets  are  narrow, 
winding,  and  unpaved.  The  interiors  of  the 
houses  of  the  wealthier  classes  are  comforta- 
ble in  an  eastern  sense,  and  compare  favora- 
bly with  those  of  Damascus  and  other  cities. 
There  are  several  mosques  ornamented  with 


glazed  tiles  of  various  colors,  and  crowned 
with  domes.  There  are  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Ar- 
menian, and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and 
several  Jewish  synagogues.  A  new  Jewish 
school  was  established  in  1872  by  the  alliance 
Israelite  uniterselle.  A  large  general  hospital 
has  recently  been  erected.  The  bazaar  built 
by  Daoud  Pasha  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
East,  and  well  stocked  with  home  and  foreign 
manufactures.  The  view  of  the  city  from  the 
river  presents  a  pleasant  spectacle,  the  luxu- 
riant date  groves  and  orange  gardens  forming 
an  agreeable  contrast  with  the  domes  and 
minarets.  In  summer  the  heat  is  intense, 
and  sometimes  the  thermometer  for  several 
days  ranges  between  110°  and  120°  F.  Five 
miles  below  Bagdad  the  Saklavieh  or  Isa  ca- 
nal brings  during  the  season  of  the  floods  a 
portion  of  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  into 
the  Tigris.  The  commercial  importance  of  this 
city  has  greatly  declined,  though  during  the 
last  25  years  its  decay  has  been  somewhat 
checked.  Large  rafts  support- 
ed by  200  or  300  inflated  skins 
are  much  used  for  the  trans- 
portation of  goods.  Fleets  of 
boats  of  from  40  to  70  tons 
burden  ascend  and  descend 
the  river  with  cargoes  to  and 
from  the  Persian  gulf,  and  car- 
avans carry  goods  in  different 
directions  from  this  great  em- 
porium. The  products  of  the 
region  round  Bagdad  are  to- 
bacco, timbac  (a  plant  used 
as  a  substitute  for  tobacco), 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  cotton, 
rice,  fine  wool,  goats'  hair, 
gall  nuts,  and  yellow  berries. 
The  fruits  are  grapes,  melons, 
apricots,  quinces,  figs,  cherries, 
pomegranates,  oranges,  lem- 
ons, citrons,  pears,  and  dates. 
Wild  asses  abound  on  the  plains. 
Besides  the  above-mentioned 
articles,  the  city  exports  also  horses,  pearls, 
coral,  honey,  raw  silk,  bitumen,  naphtha,  salt- 
petre, and  salt.  The  imports  from  Asiatic 
Turkey  and  Europe  are  soap,  silks,  woollen 
cloths,  prints,  opium,  and  copper ;  from  Arabia, 
raisins,  gum,  coffee,  and  drugs.  The  revenue 
derived  from  the  tax  on  transit  goods  is  estima- 
ted at  $3,500,000.  An  English  company  has 
projected  a  railway  from  Bagdad  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, by  way  of  Aleppo.  Bagdad  is  the 
seat  of  a  Turkish  vali  or  governor  general, 
whose  vilayet  contains  an  area  of  about  10,000 
sq.  m.,  comprehending  parts  of  Kurdistan  and 
Khuzistan,  most  of  Al-Jezireh,  and  Irak-Arabi. 
—The  city  was  built  by  the  caliph  Al-Mansour 
as  his  capital,  762-'6,  and  called  Medinat  el-Sa- 
lem,  "  City  of  Peace."  It  was  a  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  Abbasside  caliphs,  was  beauti- 
fied by  Haroun  al-Rashid,  and  under  his  son 
Al-Mamoun  became  the  great  seat  of  Arabian 
literature  and  learning.  In  873  the  city  was 


216 


BAGE 


BAGOT 


said  to  have  2,000,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
conquered  in  1258  by  Hulaku,  the  grandson  of 
Genghis  Khan,  and  by  Tamerlane  in  1401,  by 
the  Persians  and  Turks  successively  in  the 
15th  century,  by  the  Persians  again  in  1623, 
and  by  the  Turks  finally  in  1638.  It  suffered 
severely  from  plague  in  1831,  and  from  famine 
in  1870-'71. 

BAGE,  Robert,  an  English  novelist,  born  at 
Derby  in  1728,  died  at  Tamworth  in  1801. 
He  was  a  paper-maker,  in  which  trade  he  con- 
tinued for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  His 
principal  works  are  "Mount  Heneth,"  "Bar- 
ham  Downs,"  "The  Fair  Syrian,"  and  "James 
Wallace."  Sir  Walter  Scott  recommended  that 
he  should  be  included  in  Ballantyne's  "  Novel- 
ist's Library,"  and  wrote  his  life  for  that  work. 

BAGGESEN,  Jens  Immannel,  a  Danish  poet, 
born  at  Korsor  in  Seeland,  Feb.  15,  1764,  died 
in  Hamburg,  Oct.  3,  1826.  He  was  educated 
at  Copenhagen,  and  gained  considerable  repu- 
tation while  still  young  by  his  comic  tales  and 
a  collection  of  odes  and  songs.  The  most  re- 
markable of  his  writings  is  his  Labyrinthen,  a 
species  of  autobiography.  He  wrote  many 
lyrical  poems  in  German — a  language  which 
he  used  with  the  same  facility  as  his  native 
tongue.  A  collection  of  these  appeared  at 
Hamburg  in  1803,  and  at  Amsterdam  in  1808. 
His  best  German  work  is  his  poem  Parthe- 
naM,  of  which  a  French  translation  appeared 
in  1810.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
Danish  language  at  Kiel  in  1811.  A  few 
years  later  he  returned  to  Denmark,  but  finally 
left  his  native  country  in  1820.  A  new  edition 
of  his  Danish  writings  appeared  in  1845,  in  12 
volumes,  at  Copenhagen.  A  collection  of  his 
German  writings  was  also  made  in  1836. 

BAGHERIA,  or  Bagaria,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in 
the  province  and  9  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Palermo,  on  the 
railroad  from  Palermo  to  Termini;  pop.  13,200. 
Near  it  are  numerous  villas  of  the  nobility. 

BAGIIIRMI,  a  kingdom  of  central  Africa, 
S.  E.  of  Lake  Tchad,  between  the  Borneo  and 
Wadai  countries,  bounded  W.  by  the  Shari 
river  and  its  affluents;  greatest  length  from 
N.  to  S.,  about  240  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  150 
m. ;  pop.,  inclusive  of  the  pagan  dependencies 
in  the  outlying  S.  E.  provinces,  about  1,500,000, 
chiefly  negroes,  and  nominally  Mohammedans, 
though  there  are  still  many  remains  of  pagan 
rites.  The  country  is  principally  a  plain,  nearly 
1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  there  being  no  moun- 
tains excepting  in  the  extreme  north  and  in  the 
outlying  S.  and  S.  E.  provinces.  The  capital 
is  Masenya,  in  lat.  11°  38'  N.,  Ion.  16°  E.  The 
army  consists  of  10,000  infantry  and  3,000  cav- 
alry. The  chief  products  are  millet,  sorghum, 
sesamum,  beans,  ground  nuts,  a  kind  of  grass 
called  jojo,  rice,  cotton,  and  indigo.  Wheat  is 
raised  only  for  the  private  use  of  the  sultan. 
The  principal  trees  are  the  tamarind  and  the 
deleb  palm.  The  climate  is  extremely  hot. 
There  are  no  mines.  The  horses  are  fine,  and 
the  Shouwa  Arabs  wandering  between  Baghir- 
mi  and  Lake  Tchad  have  large  flocks  of  sheep 


and  cattle.  The  people  (Bagarmi)  are  superior 
in  appearance  and  character  to  other  central 
African  tribes,  and  the  women  are  among  the 
finest' in  Negroland;  but  the  men  are  cruel  in 
warfare  and  castrate  their  prisoners. — Baghir- 
mi  became  an  independent  kingdom  in  the  16th 
j  century,  and  was  afterward  converted  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. In  1815,  after  a  long  war,  it 
became  tributary  to  Bornoo  and  Wadai.  The 
title  of  the  ruler  is  banga  (sultan).  Dr.  Barth 
(1852)  was  the  first  European  to  visit  the 
country. 

BACNERES,  the  name  of  two  bathing  towns 
of  S.  W.  France,  in  the  Pyrenees,  both  known 
to  the  Romans,  though  under  what  names  is 
uncertain.  I.  Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  Campan,  13 
m.  S.  of  Tarbes;  pop.  in  1866,  9,433.  Its 
warm  and  hot  mineral  springs,  more  than  40 
in  number,  attract  numerous  invalids  and  pleas- 
ure-seekers. It  has  manufactories  of  bareges. 
II.  Bagneres-de-Lnchon,  in  the  department  of 
Haute-Garonne,  18  m.  S.  E.  of  the  preceding ; 
pop.  in  1866,  3,921.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Luchon, 
about  5  m.  from  the  Spanish  frontier.  It  has 
hot  and  cold  mineral  springs,  and  is  surround- 
ed by  fine  scenery.  In  the  neighborhood  are 
copper  mines  and  slate  quarries. 

BAGNOLES,  a  hamlet  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Orne,  in  a  valley  13  m.  S.  S.  E.  of 
Domt'ront.  This  village,  celebrated  for  its  baths 
and  mineral  springs,  was  built  in  the  17th 
century,  but  has  been  in  later  times  much  im- 
proved and  adorned  with  fine  buildings  and 
promenades. 

BAGOAS,  a  eunuch  in  the  service  of  Artax- 
erxes  Ochus  of  Persia,  who,  though  a  native 
of  Egypt,  aided  the  king  in  the  reconquest  of 
that  country.  He  was,  however,  so  much  dis- 
pleased by  the  sacrilege  of  the  king  to  the  sa- 
cred animals  and  other  objects  of  worship  in 
Egypt  that,  after  his  return  to  Persia,  he  poi- 
soned him,  and  raised  Arses,  his  youngest  son, 
to  the  throne,  having  murdered  all  the  others. 
Soon  becoming  offended  with  the  new  king 
also,  he  destroyed  him  and  made  Darius  Co- 
domannus  king  (336  B.  C.).  He  afterward  at- 
tempted to  poison  Darius,  but  was  detected 
and  poisoned  himself.  He  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  Bagoses  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus,  who  led  the  troops  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus 
to  Judea,  seized  the  temple,  and  compelled 
every  Jew  to  pay  a  tribute  of  50  shekels  for 
each  lamb  sacrificed. 

BAGOT,  Sir  Charles,  a  British  diplomatist, 
born  at  Blithfield,  Sept.  23,  1781,  died  at 
Kingston  in  Canada,  May  18,  1843.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  William,  first  Lord  Bagot. 
In  1807  he  was  appointed  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs ;  in  1814  was  sent  on  a 
special  mission  to  France;  in  1820  was  ambas- 
sador at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1824  in  Holland. 
|  On  the  death  of  Lord  Sydenham  in  1841  lie 


BAGPIPE 


BAHAMAS 


217 


was  made  governor  general  of  the  Oanadas, 
which  office  he  held  till  his  death. 

BAGPIPE,  a  wind  instrument  of  great  anti- 
quity, which  seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  with 
many  nations  of  Europe  in  the  dawn  of  musical 
taste,  but  is  so  identified  at  the  present  day 
with  the  Scotch  Highlanders  as  to  be  consid- 
ered almost  peculiar  to  them.  Its  invention 
is  traced  back  to  the  mythical  age  of  Greece, 
while  among  the  Romans  the  instrument,  al- 
most identical  in  form  with  that  now  in  use, 
was  familiarly  known  as  the  tibia  utricularis. 
It  was  also  known  to  many  of  the  Scandinavian 
tribes,  and  was  probably  introduced  into  Ire- 
land and  Scotland  by  the  Danes  and  Norwe- 
gians at  a  very  early  period.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  leather  bag,  inflated  through  a 
valved  tube  by  the  mouth  or  a  bellows,  con- 
nected with  which  is  a  flute  part  called  the 
chanter,  perforated  with  holes,  and  furnished 
with  a  reed,  the  action  of  the  air  from  the  bel- 
lows upon  which  produces  the  music.  Three 
pipes  or  drones,  two  of  which  are  in  unison 
with  D  on  the  chanter,  while  the  third,  or 
great  drone,  is  an  octave  lower,  complete  the 
instrument.  The  rude  construction  and  limited 
compass  of  the  bagpipe  render  it  available  for 
the  performance  only  of  tunes  consisting  of  a 
few  notes,  and  all  set  on  the  same  key.  As  it 
is  ignored  by  educated  musicians,  we  find  but 
little  music  written  for  it,  and  the  pipers  play 
almost  entirely  by  ear.  It  is  said  that  schools 
exist  in  some  of  the  Scottish  islands  for  instruc- 
tion on  the  bagpipe,  and  the  Highland  society 
of  Edinburgh  offer  annual  premiums  for  the 
sake  of  encouraging  the  art. 

BAGRADAS.     See  MEJERDA. 

BAGRATIDES,  or  Bagradltes,  a  royal  family  of 
Armenia  and  Georgia,  whose  founder  was  Ba- 
grat  or  Bagrad,  according  to  tradition  the  de- 
scendants of  a  Jewish  exile  of  the  time  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who  were  allowed  by  Valarsaces, 
first  king  of  Armenia  of  Parthian  race,  about  149 
B.  0.,  the  privilege  of  putting  the  crown  upon 
the  head  of  the  Armenian  monarchs.  About 
A.  D.  300  the  family  adopted  Christianity,  and 
in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  resisted  the  efforts 
of  the  Neo-Persians  to  bring  the  Armenians 
back  to  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  The  Byzantine 
emperors  and  afterward  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad 
conferred  the  dignity  of  governor  of  Armenia 
upon  several  of  the  Bagratides.  The  Bagratide 
Ashod  or  Ashot,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury, first  assumed  the  title  of  shah-in-shah  or 
prince  of  princes,  and  subsequently  the  kingly 
crown,  on  the  condition  of  rendering  a  small  trib- 
ute. This  dynasty  reigned  in  Armenia  till  1079, 
frequently  sharing  the  supremacy  with  princes 
of  other  houses.  Another  Ashod  had  ascended 
the  throne  of  Georgia  about  790,  and  his  son 
Bagrad  firmly  established  the  family  on  it  in 
841.  This  dynasty  maintained  its  indepen- 
dence till  the  occupation  of  Georgia  by  the 
Russians  at  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

i:  U.I!  U  lo\.  Peter,  prince,  a  Russian  general 
of  the  Georgian  Bagratide  family,  born  about 


1765,  died  Oct.  7,  1812.  He  entered  the  Rus- 
sian army  as  a  common  soldier,  and  first  served 
in  the  wars  against  the  mountaineers  of  the 
Caucasus ;  then  under  Suvarotf  against  the 
Turks  in  1788,  when  he  took  part  in  the  storm- 
ing of  Otchakov,  and  against  the  Poles  in  1794. 
Under  the  same  general  he  fought  with  distinc- 
tion against  the  French  in  Italy  and  Switzer- 
land (1799).  In  1805,  under  Kutuzoff,  he  com- 
manded the  vanguard  in  the  Austro-Russian 
campaign;  at  Znaim  he  successfully  resisted 
Murat  and  Lannes,  whose  forces  outnumbered 
his.  Having  been  created  a  lieutenant  general, 
he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  Austrian 
army  at  Austerlitz,  under  Prince  Lichtenstein. 
In  the  Prussian  campaign  of  1807,  his  resist- 
ance made  the  battle  of  Eylau  so  terrible  that 
even  Napoleon  shuddered  at  its  bloody  results. 
With  equal  stubbornness  he  fought  at  Fried- 
land.  In  1808  he  overran  Finland,  and  oc- 
cupied the  Aland  isles;  and  in  1809  he  com- 
manded against  the  Turks,  and  besieged  Silis- 
tria,  though  without  final  success.  In  1812  he 
fought  an  unsuccessful  battle  with  Davoust  at 
Mohilev,  but  succeeded  nevertheless  in  joining 
the  Russian  main  army.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  terrible  battle  of  Mozhaisk  or 
Borodino,  Sept.  7,  1812,  just  a  month  before 
he  died.  He  married  in  1810  a  lady  of  great 
beauty  and  wealth  descended  from  Catharine 
I.  At  the  congress  of  Vienna  she  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  fashion  and  gallantry,  and  sub- 
sequently lived  in  Paris  in  grand  style.  In 
1830  she  married  secretly  Col.  Caradoc,  after- 
ward known  as  Lord  Howden,  from  whom  she 
soon  separated  herself.  She  died  in  1856. 

BAGUL,  or  Baghnl,  a  small  state  in  N.  W. 
India,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  in  lat.  31° 
N.,  Ion.  77°  E. ;  area  about  100  s'q.  m. ;  pop. 
about  40,000.  The  surface  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, with  two  summits,  Bahadurghar  and 
Bara  Devi,  6,233  and  7,003  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  revenue  of  the  state  is  only  £5,000,  but  it 
maintains  an  army  of  3,000  men. 

BAHAMAS,  a  chain  of  islands  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  extending  N.  "W.  and  S.  E.  be- 
tween the  N.  coast  of  Santo  Domingo  and  the  E. 
coast  of  Florida,  and  lying  between  lat.  21°  and 
27°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  70°  30'  and  79°  5'  W. 
They  are  about  600  in  number,  of  which  only 
about  15  are  inhabited,  a  great  many  of  them 
being  merely  small  rocky  islets.  The  most 
important  of  them  are  Grand  Bahama,  Great 
and  Little  Abaco,  Andros,  New  Providence, 
Eleuthera,  San  Salvador,  Rum  Cay,  Great  Ex- 
uma,  Watling  Island,  Long  Island,  Crooked 
Island,  Atwood's  Key,  and  Great  and  Little 
Inagua.  The  group  is  about  600  m.  long,  and 
has  an  estimated  area  of  upward  of  3,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  39,162.  Most  of  the  islands  of  the 
group  are  situated  on  the  Bahama  banks.  They 
are  generally  very  flat,  long  and  narrow,  formed 
of  calcareous  rock,  with  a  light,  sandy  soil; 
though  without  running  streams,  there  are 
numerous  springs.  Fruit  is  produced  in  abun- 
dance. Maize,  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  oranges, 


218 


BAHAWALPOOE 


BAHIA 


limes,  lemons,  &c.,  are  among  the  products  of 
the  islands ;  there  are  also  several  valuable 
woods,  as  mahogany,  fustic,  lignum  vita?,  &c. 
In  the  more  southerly  islands  are  large  salt 
ponds.  The  principal  exports  are  salt,  sponge, 
pineapples,  and  oranges.  The  climate  is  salu- 
brious, and  very  beneficial  to  consumptives. 
The  imports  in  1869  amounted  to  £240,584,  and 
the  exports  to  £163,002.  The  government  is 
administered  by  a  governor,  aided  by  an  execu- 
tive council  of  9  members.  There  is  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  9  members  and  a  representative 
council  of  28  members.  The  capital  is  Nassau, 
on  the  island  of  New  Providence,  which  during 
the  civil  war  in  the  United  States  was  a  famous 
place  of  resort  for  blockade-runners.  The  com- 
mercial activity  by  which  it  was  then  charac- 
terized has  since  fallen  away. — San  Salvador, 
called  Guanahani  by  the  natives,  was  the  first 
land  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492.  The 


Bahamas  were  then  inhabited  by  an  inoffensive 
race,  whom  the  Spaniards  carried  away  and 
forced  to  labor  in  the  mines  of  Santo  Domingo 
and  the  pearl  fisheries  of  Cumana.  They  then 
remained  unoccupied  till  1629,  when  the  Eng- 
lish settled  them.  These  were  dispossessed  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1641,  and  the  islands  repeat- 
edly changed  masters  until  they  were  annexed 
permanently  to  the  British  empire  by  the  treaty 
of  1783.  At  the  close  of  the  American  revolu- 
tionary war  many  of  the  royalists  settled  in 
the  Bahamas. 

BAHAWALPOOR.     See  BHAWAI.POOK. 

BAHIA  (Port,  and  Span.,  bay).  I.  A  prov- 
ince of  Brazil,  bounded  E.  by  the  Atlantic, 
N.  W.  and  N.  by  Pernambuco  and  Sergipe, 
W.  by  Goyaz,  and  S.  by  Minas  Geraes  and 
Espiritu  Santo;  area,  about  200,000  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1867,  estimated  at  1,400,000,  includ- 
ing nearly  300,000  slaves.  It  is  traversed 


Bahia. 


from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  by  a  mountain  range 
having  various  local  names  and  sending  forth 
lateral  offshoots.  The  magnificent  primeval 
forests  are  disappearing  before  the  increas- 
ing cultivation  of  the  soil,  though  many  of 
them,  especially  in  the  Berra-Mar  region,  noted 
for  their  wealth  of  timber,  still  remain.  The 
mountainous  regions  are  the  least  fertile,  owing 
to  excessive  dryness.  The  principal  river  is 
the  Sao  Francisco,  which  forms  the  N.  and  N. 
W.  boundary,  and  has  a  rather  fertile  valley; 
but  the  most  productive  region  of  Bahia  and 
the  most  densely  populated  of  Brazil  is  the 
country  along  the  coast,  called  the  Reconcavo, 
with  many  villages,  farm  houses,  plantations, 
and  over  20  small  towns.  The  province  is 
rich  in  palm  trees  of  prodigious  size ;  in  ca- 
shew, nayha,  and  gum-yielding  trees ;  in  medi- 
cinal plants,  and  in  manioc,  fruits,  and  vege- 


tables. Minerals  abound,  but  are  not  worked. 
The  discovery  of  diamond  fields  by  a  slave 
in  1844,  in  the  Serra  Sincura,  led  to  a  great 
influx  of  population.  Bahia  exports  more 
sugar  than  all  the  rest  of  Brazil.  It  is  famous 
for  its  tobacco  and  for  the  increasing  produc- 
tion of  cotton,  rivalling  that  of  Pernambuco. 
The  rice  is  of  superior  quality ;  the  Brazil 
wood  equals  that  of  Pernambuco,  but  the  cof- 
fee is  inferior  to  that  of  Rio.  It  was  one  of 
the  first  of  the  Brazilian  provinces  peopled  by 
Europeans,  and  the  aborigines,  who  chiefly  in- 
habit the  mountains,  are  more  rapidly  declin- 
ing here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire. 
II.  Bahia,  or  San  Salvador,  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding province  and  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  situated  on  All  Saints'  bay  (Bahia  de 
Todos  os  Santos),  about  800  m.  N.'E.  of  Rio  da 
Janeiro,  in  lat.  13°  S.,  Ion.  38°  30' W. ;  pop.  over 


BAHIA 


BAHREIN 


219 


150,000,  composed  about  equally  of  whites, 
blacks,  and  mixed  races.  Among  the  whites 
are  many  foreign  merchants,  especially  from 
Hamburg  and  Bremen.  The  bay  from  which 
the  city  and  province  derive  their  name  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  being  37  m.  long 
from  N.  to  8.,  and  27  m.  wide  from  E.  to  W., 
with  two  entrances  from  the  south,  on  either 
side  of  the  island  of  Itaparica,  and  a  depth  of 
water  varying  from  8  to  40  fathoms.  The  bay 
contains  several  small  islands,  and  is  defended  j 
by  a  few  forts.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  E. 
shore,  near  the  entrance  and  just  inside  Cape 
Sao  Antonio.  It  is  built  partly  on  the  shore, 
but  chiefly  on  high  ground.  The  lower  town  j 
is  dirty  and  has  very  narrow  streets.  The 
houses  are  chiefly  of  stone,  and  some  of  them 
five  stories  high.  In  the  Praya,  the  great 
business  street,  which  runs  4  m.  along  the 
wharves,  are  the  church  of  the  Conception, 
built  of  stone  imported  from  Europe,  the  ex- 
change, the  warehouses,  the  arsenal,  and  ship 
yards.  The  number  of  churches  and  religious 
houses  exceeds  60.  The  archbishop  of  Bahia 
is  primate  of  Brazil.  In  the  upper  town, 
which  is  well  paved  and  has  pleasant  streets 
and  a  number  of  handsome  residences,  con- 
structed with  balconies  and  blinds  in  place  of 
windows,  is  the  most  renowned  Brazilian  ca- 
thedral (formerly  the  Jesuit  church),  built  of 
European  marble  and  containing  pictures  of 
Loyola  and  St.  Francis  Xavier.  The  ancient 
Jesuit  college  has  become  a  military  and  medical 
school.  There  is  a  large  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
an  extensive  library,  and  a  theatre.  Among 
other  public  buildings  of  the  upper  town  are 
several  hospitals  (partly  supported  by  lotteries), 
and  the  palaces  of  the  governor  and  the  arch- 
bishop. In  the  wooded  promenade,  laid  out  on 
an  abrupt  promontory,  is  an  obelisk  in  honor  of 
John  VI.  The  exports  include  sugar,  cotton, 
coffee,  tobacco,  nuts,  cacao,,  hides,  horns,  rum, 
piassara,  tapioca,  dyewoods,  and  rosewood. 
The  value  of  diamonds  exported  is  estimated 
at  $3,000,000  annually.  The  imports  are  cot- 
ton goods,  woollen  and  linen  cloths,  fish,  flour, 
provisions,  hardware,  wine,  copper  and  iron, 
soap,  coals,  and  other  articles.  Estimated 
value  of  exports,  $8,000,000;  value  of  imports, 
nearly  $10,000,000.  The  importations  from 
England,  which  formerly  constituted  the  great- 
est part  of  the  import  trade,  have  lately  declin- 
ed, and  the  trade  with  the  German  ports  is  also 
less  active  than  formerly.  About  400  British 
vessels  enter  and  leave  the  port  annually,  and 
the  shipping  of  all  nations  includes  nearly  800 
vessels.  The  commerce  with  the  United  States 
in  the  nine  months  ending  June  30,  1870,  in- 
cluded 61  inward  and  outward  vessels,  with 
cargoes  of  an  aggregate  value  of  about  $400,- 
000.  The  coasting  trade  is  exclusively  carried 
on  by  Brazilian  vessels. — The  bay  was  discov- 
ered in  1503  by  Americus  Vespucius,  and  the 
city  was  founded  in  1510  by  the  Portuguese 
navigator  Correa,  who  called  it  San  Salvador. 
In  1549  the  present  name  was  adopted  on  its 


becoming  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions, which  distinction  was  transferred  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1763.  The  city  sutfered 
greatly  during  the  commotions  which  led  to 
the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal.  The 
Portuguese  evacuated  it  on  July  1,  1823,  since 
which  it  has  acquired  vast  commercial  impor- 
tance as  the  foremost  Brazilian  city  next  to 
Rio.  Since  1858  there  has  been  railway  com- 
munication between  Bahia  and  Joazeiro.  Cap- 
tain Collins  of  the  United  States  steamer  Wa- 
chusett  captured  here  on  Oct.  7,  1864,  the 
confederate  cruiser  Florida. 

BAHR,  Johann  Christian  Felix,  a  German  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Darmstadt,  June  13, 1798.  He 
was  educated  at  Heidelberg,  and  became  pro- 
fessor there  in  1826,  and  subsequently  chief 
director  of  the  university  library,  and  of  the 
lyceum  and  the  philological  seminary.  His 
principal  works  are :  Geschichte  der  romischen 
Literatur  (3  vols.,  Carlsruhe,  1828;  4th  ed., 
1868),  and  Herodot  (1832-'5 ;  new  ed.,  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1855-'61). 

BAHRDT,  Karl  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Bischofswerda,  Aug.  25,  1741, 
died  in  Halle,  April  23,  1792.  He  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  but  his  violent  attacks  upon 
the  clergy  and  orthodoxy,  and  his  adventurous 
and  not  very  reputable  life,  involved  him  in 
perpetual  difficulties;  and  for  a  year. he  was 
a  prisoner  of  state  in  the  Prussian  fortress  of 
Magdeburg,  where  he  wrote  his  autobiography 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  1790).  His  writings  enjoyed  a 
transient  popularity,  especially  Briefe  uber  die 
Bibel  im  Volkston.  He  denied  the  authen- 
ticity of  miracles,  and  was  a  severe  critic  of 
the  Scriptures.  Kotzebue  published  Dr.  Bahrdi 
mil  der  eisernen  Stirn. 

BAHREIN  (or  AVAL)  ISLANDS,  a  group  consist- 
ing of  one  large  island  and  several  smaller  ones 
in  the  Persian  gulf,  in  a  bay  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Arabia,  between  lat.  25°  30'  and  26°  30' 
N.,  and  Ion.  50°  and  50°  30'  E. ;  pop.  about 
60,000.  ,The  most  important  of  them  is  Bah- 
rein, about  27  m.  long  and  10  broad.  The 
interior  is  hilly;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  pro- 
duces wheat,  barley,  dates,  figs,  and  other 
tropical  fruits.  Springs  are  plentiful  in  the 
interior,  but  on  the  coast  fresh  water  is  pro- 
cured in  skins  from  springs  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea,  by  divers.  Manamah,  the 
largest  town,  has  a  good  harbor  and  is  the 
centre  of  commerce.  The  island  next  in  size 
is  Moharrek,  so  named  from  the  capital,  situ- 
ated on  its  southern  side.  It  contains  two  or 
three  forts  close  to  the  seashore,  and  the 
sheikh's  palace.  The  Bahrein  islands  arc 
noted  for  their  extensive  pearl  fisheries,  which 
were  known  to  the  ancients,  and  employ  a 
large  number  of  boats,  each  manned  with  from 
8  to  20  men.  The  annual  value  of  the  pearls 
is  estimated  at  from  $1,000,000  to  $1,500,000. 
Tortoise  shell,  shark  fins,  and  dates  are  also 
exported.  The  inhabitants  are  Arabs,  gov- 
erned by  a  sheikh  tributary  to  the  sultan 
of  Oman.  • 


220 


BAIJE 


BAIL 


l!ll  t:  (now  Baja),  an  ancient  seaport  town 
and  watering  place  of  Italy,  about  10  m.  W. 
of  Naples,  on  the  bay  of  Baias,  between  the 
Lucrine  lake  and  Cape  Misenum,  and  opposite 
the  town  of  Puteoli.  The  narrow  strip  of  coast 
sheltered  by  a  semicircular  ridge  of  hills  on 
which  Baise  stood  was  covered  with  the  palaces 
and  baths  of  the  Roman  nobles.  For  want 
of  room  they  often  built  out  into  the  sea,  and 
remains  of  submarine  foundations  are  still  visi- 
ble. The  leading  attractions  of  Balsa  seem  to 
have  been  its  mild  climate,  its  numerous  hot 
springs,  and  its  delightful  scenery.  Julius 
Caesar,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero,  and 
Caracalla  all  frequented  this  spot ;  and  it  was 
the  favorite  resort  of  Horace  and  most  men  of 
wit  and  fashion  in  his  day.  Moralists  spoke 
of  it  as  a  hot-bed  of  vice  and  luxury.  It  re- 
tained its  prosperity  until  the  invasion  of  The- 
odoric  the  Goth.  With  the  fall  of  the  empire 
it  ceased  to  be  visited  ;  its  villas  were  left  to 
decay,  and  the  whole  coast  is  now  a  desert. 
The  springs,  no  longer  confined,  have  formed 
stagnant  pools,  giving  off  unwholesome  exhala- 
tions in  summer.  The  ground  is  strewn  with 
ruined  fragments  of  bricks,  marbles,  and  mo- 
saics. The  only  buildings  remaining  are  three 
or  four  edifices  of  a  circular  form,  two  of  which 
were  in  all  probability  warm  baths.  Another 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  temple  of  Venus. 
The  whole  coast  has  evidently  undergone  great 
changes  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  sunk  several  feet  below  its  an- 
cient level. 

BAIKAL  (Russ.  Svyatoe  More,  holy  sea),  a  lake 
in  the  S.  W.  part  of  eastern  Siberia,  on  the 
boundary  of  the  government  of  Irkutsk  and  of 
the  new  province  of  Transbaikalia,  between 
lat.  51°  and  56°  N.  and  Ion.  103°  and  110°  E. 
Its  length  from  S.  S.  W.  to  N.  N.  E.  is  about 
875  m.,  and  its  breadth  from  20  to  70  m.,  mak- 
ing it,  next  to  the  Caspian  and  Aral,  the  largest 
inland  body  of  water  in  Asia.  The  greatest 
depth,  according  to  soundings  taken  in  1872,  is 
over  600  fathoms  at  the  extreme  S.  W.  part  of 
the  lake.  It  is  surrounded  by  desolate  shores 
and  by  rugged  though  picturesque  mountains, 
densely  covered  with  forests,  from  whence  issue 
innumerable  streams.  The  tipper  Angara  river 
flows  into  the  lake  at  its  N.  end,  and  the  Lower 
Angara  issues  from  it  near  the  S.  end,  being 
its  only  outlet.  The  Selenga,  flowing  into  it 
on  the  S.  E.,  is  its  largest  tributary.  The 
greatest  island  of  the  lake,  Olkhon,  is  separated 
by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  W.  coast.  The 
principal  fisheries  are  in  the  Angara  river,  to 
which  many  kinds  of  salmon  are  carried 
through  the  Yenisei  from  the  Arctic,  especially 
the  omul  (salmo  autumnalig  or  migratorius). 
Baikal  is  one  of  the  very  few  lakes  which 
contain  fresh-water  seals.  Sturgeons  abound 
in  the  Selenga  river.  They  are  captured  in 
large  numbers,  and  their  skins  exported  to 
China.  The  golomynka  (caly animus  Baicalen- 
iis),  a  fish  4  to  6  inches  long  and  singularly 
fat,  is  never  taken  alive,  but  cast  dead  upon 


the  beach  in  great  quantities,  especially  after 
storms.  Its  oil  is  sold  to  the  Chinese.  The 
annual  value  of  the  fisheries  is  estimated  at 
200,000  rubles.  The  number  of  sailing  vessels  is 
about  50,  and  there  are  several  steamers ;  and 
the  activity  in  the  mines  of  Transbaikalia,  and 
the  trade  with  the  Amoor  Country  and  China, 
are  fast  increasing.  From  November  to  May 
the  lake  is  traversed  on  the  ice.  The  shores  of 
the  lake  and  of  the  Angara  and  Selenga  rivers 
are  chiefly  settled  by  Russians.  There  are  va- 
rious tribes  which  have  been  incorporated  since 
1856  under  the  name  of  the  Baikal  Cossacks. 
The  Tunka  Alps  border  the  S.  shore  of  the  lake, 
and  one  of  their  summits,  the  snow-clad  Kliar- 
ma  Davan,  is  6,000  ft.  high.  The  Baikalian 
mountains  proper  stretch  N.  E.  from  the  Lower 
Angara,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  fantastic 
peaks,  numerous  rivulets,  volcanic  formations, 
thermal  springs,  and  wealth  in  gold  and  silver 
and  various  gems.  Earthquakes  are  frequent, 
and  were  especially  violent  in  1861-'2. 

BAIL  (law  Fr.,  lailler,  to  deliver),  in  law,  the 
delivery  of  a  person  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
sheriff  or  other  officer  after  arrest  into  the  cus- 
tody of  one  or  more  sureties,  who  undertake  to 
be  responsible  for  such  person.  The  same 
term  was  also  used  to  designate  the  sureties 
themselves,  and  this  came  to  be  its  most  com- 
mon signification.  Bail  in  civil  cases  is  either 
for  appearance,  called  bail  below,  or  to  the  ac- 
tion, called  bail  above.  The  sureties  in  the 
first  give  an  undertaking  to  the  arresting  offi- 
cer that  the  defendant  shall  appear  in  the  cause 
in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  court, 
and,  if  the  case  is  one  requiring  special  bail, 
that  he  shall  cause  such  bail  to  be  duly  entered 
and  perfected.  For  the  sufficiency  of  this  bail 
the  officer  is  responsible,  and  when  it  is  accept- 
ed by  him  the  defendant  is  discharged  from  his 
custody.  Sureties  in  bail  to  the  action  under- 
take for  the  appearance  of  the  party  when  final 
judgment  shall  have  been  rendered  and  process 
shall  have  been  issued  thereon  to  take  the  body 
of  the  defendant  in  satisfaction.  The  sureties 
may  be  excepted  to  by  the  plaintiff,  in  which 
case  they  must  justify  their  responsibility  on 
oath;  but  if  not  excepted  to  in  due  time,  or 
if  they  justify  after  exception,  the  defendant's 
appearance  is  entered  and  the  bail  below  is 
discharged.  The  bail  piece  is  a  certificate  is- 
sued to  the  sureties  attesting  the  taking  of  bail. 
Formerly  the  plaintiff  was  entitled  to  bail  as 
of  course  in  most  cases,  but  now  by  the  pro- 
visions of  various  statutes  it  is  not  generally  de- 
mandable  in  civil  suits,  either  in  England  or  in 
the  United  States,  except  upon  a  showing  that 
some  tort  has  been  committed  to  the  damage 
of  the  plaintiff,  or  that  his  demand  springs 
from  the  official  or  professional  misconduct  or 
default  of  the  defendant,  or,  if  the  suit  is  upon 
contract,  that  there  was  fraud  in  contracting 
the  debt,  or  in  endeavoring  to  put  property 
beyond  the  reach  of  process  for  its  collection. 
The  showing  is  by  affidavit,  and  thereupon  an 
order  is  made  by  a  judge  or  commissioner  that 


BAILEY 


221 


the  defendant  be  held  to  bail  in  a  specified  sum. 
Although  on  giving  bail  the  defendant  is  set  at 
liberty,  he  is  supposed  to  be  constantly  in  the 
custody  of  his  sureties,  who  may,  at  any  time 
before  their  liability  has  been  fixed  by  forfeit- 
ure of  the  condition  of  their  obligation,  arrest 
and  surrender  him  into  custody  in  exoneration 
of  themselves.  "Common  bail"  is  fictitious 
bail  supposed  to  be  entered  by  the  defendant 
in  cases  where  special  bail  is  not  required,  or 
which  the  plaintiff  enters  for  the  defendant  if 
he  makes  default. — In  criminal  cases  it  is  pro- 
vided by  the  statute  1  William  and  Mary,  and 
also  by  the  constitutions  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  states,  that  excessive  bail 
shall  not  be  required;  but  what  is  excessive 
bail  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  offi- 
cer or  court  empowered  to  decide  upon  it. 
Formerly  the  accused  party  was  not  allowed 
to  give  bail  in  cases  of  felony,  but  now  he 
is  permitted  to  do  so  except  in  cases  of  the 
highest  crimes,  and  even  then  unless  the 
proof  of  guilt  is  apparent  or  the  presumption 
great.  The  undertaking  of  the  sureties  is  for 
the  appearance  of  the  defendant  to  abide  the 
order  of  the  court,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  re- 
cognizance.— The  term  bail  is  also  sometimes 
applied  in  law  to  those  who  become  sure- 
ties for  a  party  for  the  payment  of  money  or 
the  performance  of  some  other  act,  in  cases 
where  no  arrest  has  been  or  could  be  made. 

BAILEY,  Gamaliel,  an  American  journalist, 
born  at  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  Dec.  3,  1807,  died 
at  sea,  June  5,  1859.  He  studied  medicine  in 
Philadelphia,  taking  his  degree  in  1828.  After 
making  a  brief  visit  to  China  in  the  capacity  of 
physician  to  a  ship,  he  began  his  career  as  an 
editor  in  Baltimore,  in  conducting  the  "  Meth- 
odist Protestant."  In  1831  he  removed  to 
Cincinnati,  and  in  1836  joined  James  G.  Birney 
in  conducting  the  first  anti-slavery  newspaper 
in  the  West,  the  "Cincinnati  Philanthropist." 
During  the  first  year  their  printing  establish- 
ment was  twice  assailed  by  a  mob,  the  press 
thrown  into  the  Ohio  river,  and  the  books  and 
papers  burned.  In  1841  his  press  was  again 
destroyed  by  a  mob,  but  he  continued  the  pub- 
lication of  his  paper  in  Cincinnati  till  after  the 
presidential  election  of  1844.  He  was  after- 
ward selected  to  be  the  editor  of  a  new  anti- 
slavery  paper  at  Washington,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  and  foreign  anti-slavery  so- 
ciety, and  the  "  Philanthropist "  became  merged 
in  the  "National  Era,"  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  Jan.  1,  1847.  In  1848  he  had 
his  last  conflict  with  popular  violence,  when  a 
mob  for  three  days  besieged  his  office.  The 
"Era"  was  an  influential  organ  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party,  and  had  some  literary  preten- 
sions. It  was  the  medium  for  the  first  publi- 
»  cation  of  Mrs.  Stowe's  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 
At  the  time  of  his  death  Dr.  Bailey  was  on  a 
voyage  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health. 

BAILEY,  Jaeob  Whitman,  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Ware,  Mass.,  April  29,  1811, 
died  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  27,  1857.  He 


|  graduated  at  the  West  Point  military  academy 
j  in  1832,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant  in  the 
artillery.  After  passing  six  years  at  several 
military  stations  in  Virginia  and  Carolina,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry,  botany, 
and  mineralogy  at  the  military  academy  in 
1839.  He  was  especially  distinguished  as  a 
microscopist.  He  published  a  volume  of  "  Mi- 
croscopic Sketches"  containing  about  3,000 
original  figures,  and  gave  much  attention  to 
the  minute  animal  and  vegetable  organisms  at 
that  time  all  included  under  the  general  term 
infusoria,  and  to  the  whole  family  of  algss. 
Among  the  principal  subjects  of  his  research 
were  the  fossil  deposits  of  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg in  Virginia,  the  rice  fields  of  the  South, 
and  the  dredgings  of  the  coast  survey  and  of 
the  line  of  soundings  across  the  Atlantic,  made 
by  Lieut.  Berryman  in  reference  to  the  laying 
of  the  telegraphic  cable.  He  made  a  micro- 
scopical collection  of  more  than  3,000  objects, 
fixed  upon  slides,  catalogued,  and  marked.  His 
collection  of  algae  was  equally  complete,  con- 
sisting of  about  4,500  specimens,  systematically 
arranged  in  portfolios.  These  collections,  to- 
gether with  all  his  books  on  botany  and  micros- 
copy, his  sketches,  scientific  correspondence, 
and  a  large  store  of  rough  material  from  the 
localities  he  had  studied,  he  bequeathed  to  the 
Boston  society  of  natural  history.  He  also 
made  improvements  in  the  microscope. 

BAILEY,  or  Bally,  Nathan,  an  English  lexicog- 
rapher, a  schoolmaster  at  Stepney,  near  Lon- 
don, died  in  1742.  His  most  important  publi- 
cation was  an  "  Etymological  English  Diction- 
ary "  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1726 ;  2d  ed.,  1737 ; 
best  ed.,  by  J.  Nicol  Scott,  folio,  1764),  which 
furnished  the  basis  of  Dr.  Johnson's  famous 
work.  He  was  the  author  also  of  a  Dictiona- 
rium  Domesticum,  and  of  several  school  books. 
BAILEY,  Philip  James,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  the  parish  of  Basford,  Nottinghamshire, 
April  22,  1816.  He  assisted  his  father,  Thomas 
Bailey,  in  editing  the  "  Nottingham  Mercury," 
and  also  studied  law,  being  called  to  the  bar  in 
London  in  1840;  but  his  poem  of  "Festus," 
finished  in  1836  and  published  in  1839,  hav- 
ing attracted  great  attention,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  literature.  He  has  since  published 
"The  Angel  World"  (1850);  "The  Mystic" 
(1855);  "The  Age:  Politics,  Poetry,  and  Crit- 
icism "  (1858) ;  and  "  International  Policy  of 
the  Great  Powers"  (1861). 

BAILEY,  Samuel,  an  English  philosopher,  born 
in  Sheffield  in  1791.  He  was  a  banker  foi 
many  years,  and  has  spent  his  whole  life  in 
Sheffield.  He  attracted  great  attention  by  his 
"  Essays  on  the  Pursuit  of  Truth  and  on  the 
Progress  of  Knowledge"  (1821),  and  "Essays  on 
the  Formation  and  Publication  of  Opinions" 
(1829).  Among  his  later  works  are:  "The 
Theory  of  Reasoning"  (1851);  "Discourses  on 
Various  Subjects,  Literary  and  Philosophical " 
(1852);  "Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Human  Mind"  (1855-'63);  and  "On  the  Re- 
ceived Text  of  Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Writ- 


222 


BAILEY 


BAILLIE 


ings  and  its  Improvement"  (2  vols.,  1862-'6). 
He  is  a  utilitarian  and  a  follower  of  Locke. 

BAILEY,  Theodorus  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  in  1803.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  midshipman  in  1818,  and  was  made 
lieutenant  in  1827,  commander  in  1849,  and  j 
captain  in  1855.  In  the  latter  part  of  1861  he 
was  ordered  to  the  steam  frigate  Colorado,  with  I 
which  he  participated  in  the  bombardment  of 
the  confederate  works  near  Pensacola.  In  the  i 
capture  of  the  Mississippi  forts  by  the  squadron 
of  Flag  Officer  Farragut  (April,  1862),  he  com- 
manded the  second  division  of  the  attacking 
force.  On  the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in 
1862  he  was  made  commodore,  and  as  acting 
rear  admiral  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
eastern  gulf  blockading  squadron,  where  he 
was  very  successful  in  breaking  up  blockade- 
running  on  the  Florida  coast.  He  was  promo- 
ted to  rear  admiral  July  25,  1866,  and  in  the 
following  October  placed  on  the  retired  list. 

BAILIFF  (Fr.  bailli,  Lat.  balivus),  a  person  to 
whom  some  authority  or  charge  is  committed. 
The  term  as  used  by  the  Normans  designated 
the  chief  magistrates  of  counties  or  shires,  and 
bailiwick  is  still  retained  in  writs  and  other 
judicial  proceedings  as  defining  the  extent  of 
jurisdiction  within  which  the  process  may  be 
executed,  usually  the  same  as  county.  It  came 
into  general  use  as  a  designation  of  any  judicial 
or  ministerial  office  performed  by  a  deputy  of 
a  local  magistrate ;  but  as  the  judicial  functions 
of  sheriffs  and  lords  having  private  jurisdiction 
declined,  bailiffs  were  known  as  the  ministerial 
deputies  of  sheriffs.  A  bound  bailiff  (vulgarized 
into  bum-bailiff)  is  a  sheriff's  officer  who  has 
given  sureties  to  the  sheriff  for  his  official  con- 
duct. The  term  bailiff  was  also  applied  in 
England  to  magistrates  of  certain  towns,  keep- 
ers of  castles,  &c.,  and  is  still  used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  one  or  other  of  these  senses,  but  more 
commonly  expresses  a  steward  or  agent  of  a 
lord  or  other  large  land  proprietor.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  sometimes,  but  rarely,  used 
for  a  sheriff's  deputy  or  constable,  and  is  occa- 
sionally met  with  as  a  legal  designation  of  an 
agent  liable  to  account  for  the  rents  or  profits 
of  property  intrusted  to  him.  In  Scotch  law 
a  synonymous  term,  bailie,  is  applied  to  a  min- 
isterial officer  to  whom  writs  are  directed.  It 
is  also  used  to  designate  a  city  magistrate  simi- 
lar to  an  alderman  in  England. 

I!  III. I.I  :r.  Adrien,  a  French  scholar  and  writer, 
born  at  Neuville,  in  Picardy,  June  13,  1649, 
died  Jan.  21,  1706.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church,  but  devoted  his  life  to  study  and  au- 
thorship. His  most  important  publication  was 
entitled  "  Judgments  of  the  Learned  upon  the 
Principal  Works  of  Authors,"  a  book  of  criti- 
cism which  taught  better  rules  than  it  illustra- 
ted. He  also  produced  a  book  on  "  Devotion 
to  the  Holy  Virgin,"  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
which  extended  to  4  volumes,  a  life  of  Des- 
cartes, a  history  of  Holland  from  1609  to  1690, 
and  numerous  other  works.  For  26  years  he 
was  librarian  to  M.  de  Lamoignon,  advocate 


general  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  made  a 
catalogue  of  his  library  in  35  vols.  folio. 

i: 111  I.I  1 1.,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Nord,  near  the  Belgian  frontier;  pop.  in  1866, 
5,970.  Its  manufactures  embrace  lace,  thread, 
linen,  perfumes,  beet  sugar,  snuff,  crockery,  and 
pottery.  Bailleul  cheese  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
cellence. 

BA1LL1AGE  (territory  of  a  bailiff),  a  French 
term  equivalent  to  bailiwick  in  English.  In 
Switzerland  the  term  was  applied  to  districts 
into  which  the  aristocratical  cantons  were  di- 
vided, and  over  which  bailiffs  were  appointed 
by  the  governed,  and  also  to  those  territories 
which  were  subject  to  two  or  more  of  the 
cantons  and  governed  by  bailiffs  appointed  by 
and  responsible  to  such  cantons.  These  Swiss 
bailliages  anciently  formed  part  of  the  Milanese. 
Their  names  were  Mendrisio,  Balerna,  Locarno, 
Lugano,  Val  Maggia,  Bellinzona,  Riviera,  and 
Val  Brenna.  Most  of  these  were  ceded  to  the 
Swiss  cantons  in  1512  by  Maximilian  Sforza,  in 
gratitude  for  Swiss  aid  in  recovering  the  duchy 
of  Milan  from  the  troops  of  the  French  king, 
Louis  XII.  In  1802  the  canton  ofTessinwas 
formed  by  Bonaparte  out  of  the  Italian  bai- 
liwicks, which  arrangement  was  confirmed  by 
the  European  sovereigns  after  his  abdication 
in  1814,  and  also  by  the  Helvetic  diet. 

BAILLIE,  Joanna,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Bothwell,  Lanarkshire,  in  1762,  died  at  Hamp- 
stead,  near  London,  Feb.  23,  1851.  Her  father, 
a  Presbyterian  clergyman,  who  afterward  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  in  Glasgow  univer- 
sity, gave  her  a  sound  education.  When  her 
brother,  Dr.  Matthew  Baillie,  commenced  prac- 
tice in  London,  she  and  her  sister  Agnes  re- 
moved to  that  city  and  took  up  their  residence 
at  Hampstoad,  where  they  lived  for  over  60 
years.  In  1798,  at  the  age  of  36,  Miss  Baillie 
published  the  1st  volume  of  her  "Plays  on  the 
Passions,"  and  successive  volumes  appeared  in 
1802,  1812,  and  1836.  Each  of  these  plays  was 
intended  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  a  single  ruling 
passion  on  life  and  character.  A  volume  of 
miscellaneous  plays  appeared  in  1804;  it  con- 
tained a  Highland  tragedy  called  "  The  Family 
Legend,"  which  Scott  (who  made  her  acquain- 
tance in  1806)  caused  to  be  represented  at  the 
Edinburgh  theatre  early  in  1810,  with  a  pro- 
logue by  himself  and  an  epilogue  by  Henry 
Mackenzie.  "De  Montfort"  ran  for  11  nights 
at  Oovent  Garden  theatre,  Mrs.  Siddons  and 
John  Kemble  playing  the  leading  parts.  At  a 
later  period  Kean  produced  this  play,  but  it 
failed.  Her  plays  "Henriquez"  and  "The 
Separation  "  were  also  brought  out  in  London. 
She  also  wrote  two  plays  published  separately, 
called  "  The  Martyr  "  and  "  The  Bride."  Her 
dramas  were  written  rather  for  the  closet  than 
the  stage,  and,  though  greatly  admired  by  the 
most  competent  critics,  had  but  moderate  suc- 
cess when  acted.  Besides  ballads,  fugitive 
pieces,  occasional  poems,  and  songs  (many  of 
them  in  the  Scottish  dialect,  and  humorous), 
Miss  Baillie  published  metrical  legends  of  exalt- 


BAILLIE 


BAILLY 


223 


ed  characters,  and  a  prose  dissertation  called 
"  A  View  of  the  General  Tenor  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment regarding  the  Nature  and  Dignity  of  Je- 
sus Christ."  Miss  Baillie  was  greatly  esteemed 
by  two  generations  of  scholars.  Her  poetical 
works  were  collected  and  published  in  1851. 

BAILLIE,  Matthew,  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
at  the  manse  of  Shotts,  Lanarkshire,  Oct.  27, 
1761,  died  at  Cirencester,  Gloucestershire,  Sept. 
23,  1823.  He  was  the  elder  brother  of  Jo- 
anna Baillie,  and  nephew  of  William  and  John 
Hunter,  the  anatomists.  Having  spent  several 
years  at  the  Glasgow  university  and  one  year 
at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  he  went  to  London 
in  1780  to  study  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
William  Hunter,  to  whom  two  years  after  he 
became  assistant  and  demonstrator.  In  1783, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  Hunter,  who  bequeathed 
him  his  anatomical  theatre  and  the  use  of  his 
museum  for  30  years,  Mr.  Baillie  commenced 
giving  lectures  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Cruik- 
shank,  the  anatomist.  He  was  for  13  years 
physician  to  St.  George's  hospital,  and  in  1795 
published  a  very  valuable  treatise  on  morbid 
anatomy,  which  was  translated  into  German, 
French,  and  Italian.  He  afterward  published 
a  4to  volume  of  illustrations  to  this  work.  By 
the  time  he  was  40  his  fees  in  one  year  (during 
which  he  said  he  had  scarcely  time  to  take  a 
regular  meal)  amounted  to  £10,000.  He  be- 
queathed his  medical  library  and  his  valuable 
collection  of  anatomical  preparations  to  the 
college  of  physicians,  with  £600  to  keep  them 
in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  His  lectures 
were  published  after  his  death. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  a  Scottish  theologian,  born 
at  Glasgow  in  1599,  died  in  July,  1662.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Glasgow  university  and 
ordained  by  Archbishop  Law  in  1622.  In  the 
religious  controversies  of  the  day  he  generally 
preserved  a  moderate  tone.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  general  assembly  of  1638,  which  protest- 
ed against  the  episcopacy,  and  in  1640  was 
chosen  as  commissioner  to  London  to  prefer 
charges  against  Archbishop  Laud.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Glasgow  in  1642  he  became  a  professor 
of  divinity  in  the  university,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  West- 
minster assembly  of  divines,  where  he  main- 
tained the  rights  of  the  presbytery  with  great 
spirit.  After  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  in 
1649  he  was  sent  to  Holland  to  invite  Charles 
II.  to  accept  the  crown  and  covenant  of  Scot- 
land. After  the  restoration  in  1660  he  was 
made  principal  of  the  Glasgow  university.  Dr. 
Baillie  wrote  Opus  ffistoricum  et  Chronologi- 
eum  (Amsterdam,  1663)  and  many  other  works, 
mostly  theological  pamphlets  and  discussions. 
His  "  Letters  and  Journals,"  of  great  historical 
value,  were  first  published  in  1775,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Hume  and  Eobertson  (new  ed.,  3  vols. 
8vo,  1841-'3). 

BAILLOT,   Pierre  Marie    Francois  de  Sales,  a 

French   violinist,    born  at   Passy,  near  Paris, 

Oct.  1,  1771,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  15,  1842.     He 

was  a  professor  in  the  conservatoire  for  many 

67  VOL.  ii.— 15 


years,  and  wrote  several  treatises  and  address- 
es on  musical  subjects.  He  traveDed  in  Russia, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  England,  and  was  con- 
sidered without  a  rival  in  the  severely  classical 
style. 

BAILLY,  Jean  Svhain.  a  French  astronomer 
and  statesman,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  15,  1736, 
guillotined  Nov.  12,  1793.     His  father  was  an 
artist,  and  intended  that  he  should  follow  the 
same  profession ;  but  he  was  attracted  more  by 
poetry  and  belles-lettres  until  his  acquaintance 
with  La  Caille,  when  he  turned  his  attention 
to  astronomy.     In  1763  he  was  admitted  to 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  published  a  reduc- 
tion of  La  Caille's  observations  on  the  zodiacal 
stars.     He  competed  with  Lagrange   for  the 
academy's  prize   on  the  theory   of  Jupiter's 
satellites  in  1764.     His  treatise  on  that  subject, 
published  in  1766,  contains  a  history  of  that 
department  of  astronomy.     In  1771   he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  the  light  of  those  bodies. 
The  1st  volume  of  his  "  History  of  Astronomy  " 
appeared  in  1775,  the  4th  in  1783.     To  these 
he  afterward  added  a  volume  on  oriental  as- 
tronomy.    He  also  published  letters  to  Voltaire 
on  the  origin  of  the  sciences  and  of  the  people 
of  Asia,  and  on  Plato's  Atlantis.     In  1784  he 
was  chosen  secretary  of  the  academy  of  scien- 
ces and  admitted  to  the  French  academy,  and 
the  next  year  to  the  academy  of  inscriptions. 
About  this  time  he   wrote   his  graceful   and 
eloquent  eloges  on  Charles  V.,  Corneille,  Leib- 
nitz, Moliere,  and  La  Caille.     In  1784  he  was 
one  of  the  .commissioners  to  investigate  Mes- 
mer's  discoveries,  and  made  a  clear  and  saga- 
cious report  on  the  subject.     He  espoused  the 
democratic  cause  in  the  revolution,  was  elected 
from  Paris  in  1789  first  deputy  of  the  tiers- 
etat,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the  popu- 
lar division  of  the  states  general  in  Versailles. 
When  the  national  assembly  was  formed,  he 
retained  the  presidential  chair,  and   dictated 
the  oath  by  which  the  members  swore  that 
they  would  "  resist  tyrants  and  tyranny,  and 
never  separate  until  they  had  secured  a  free 
constitution."     In  July,  1789,  he  was  chosen 
mayor  of  Paris,  and  discharged  his  duties  dur- 
ing 26  months  with  great  firmness  and  wis- 
dom.    His  vigor  in  suppressing  a  riotous  dem- 
onstration  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  July  17, 
1791,  and  in  defending  the  queen  from  charges 
brought  against  her,  having  lessened  his  pop- 
ularity, he  resigned  his  office  in  September, 
but  was  induced  to  retain  it  two  months  long- 
er.    He  then  lived  for  some  time  at  Nantes, 
and   afterward  with  Laplace  at  Melun ;    but 
in  1793   he  was  seized   by   the  Jacobin   sol- 
diery, and  dragged  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
charged  with  being  a  royalist  conspirator  and 
executed.     He  is  considered  one  of  the  noblest 
victims  of  the  reign  of  terror.    Several  posthu- 
mous works  of  his  have  appeared ;  the  most 
noted  are 'an  "Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Fables 
and  Ancient  Religions,"  and  his  "  Memoirs  of 
an  Eye-witness  of  the  Revolution,"  embracing 
the  period  from  April  to  October,  1789. 


224 


BAILMENT 


BAINBRIDGE 


BAILMENT  (Fr.  bailler,  to  deliver),  in  law, 
the  delivery  of  a  thing  upon  some  trust,  express 
or  implied,  usually  the  redelivery  of  the  thing 
itself  or  its  equivalent,  or  some  disposition  of 
it  according  to  the  direction  of  the  bailor.  The 
different  kinds  of  bailment  are :  1,  a  deposit  for 
safe  keeping ;  2,  lending  or  hiring  for  use  of 
bailee;  3,  a  pledge  or  pawn  as  security  for 
something  done  or  to  be  done  by  pawnee ;  4, 
delivery  of  a  thing  for  the  purpose  of  having 
work  done  upon  it,  or  of  being  carried  to  some 
place  designated.  When  the  bailment  is  exclu- 
sively for  the  use  of  the  bailee,  as  where  a 
thing  is  borrowed  for  use  by  bailee,  the  strict- 
est degree  of  care  is  required.  If  the  trust  is 
to  keep  the  thing  bailed  or  to  do  something  in 
respect  to  it  for  the  benefit  of  bailor  without 
compensation,  ordinary  care,  such  as  a  man 
bestows  upon  his  own  property,  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired ;  and  if  he  is  habitually  careless  about 
his  own  affairs,  he  is  not  bound  to  do  more  for 
another  than  he  does  for  himself.  If  the  trust 
is  for  mutual  benefit,  as  when  goods  are  to  be 
kept  or  something  done  respecting  them  for  a 
reward,  ordinary  diligence  is  to  be  exercised, 
such  as  prudent  and  careful  men  would  give  to 
their  own  affairs.  In  respect  to  two  classes  of 
bailments,  the  rule  of  law  is  peculiar,  viz.,  the 
cases  of  innkeepers  and  common  carriers; 
both  of  whom  are  made  responsible  absolutely 
for  the  goods  intrusted  to  them,  except  against 
inevitable  accident  called  the  act  of  God,  and 
against  the  act  of  the  public  enemy.  It  is  not 
sufficient  that  they  use  the  utmost  care ;  they 
are  held  to  be  insurers  of  the  safety  of  the 
goods  except  as  above  specified.  The  innkeep- 
er therefore  is  answerable  for  the  property  of 
his  guest,  even  if  lost  by  theft  or  burglary ;  and 
a  carrier  for  the  goods  in  his  charge,  against 
every  casualty  except  loss  by  lightning  or  tem- 
pest, and  he  is  not  exonerated  in  case  of  de- 
struction by  fire,  in  which  last  particular  the 
rule  is  even  more  severe  than  it  is  in  respect  to 
the  innkeeper.  The  English  law  of  bailment 
was  quite  imperfect  until  the  time  of  Lord 
Holt,  who  resorted  to  the  civil  law  to  supply 
the  deficiency  then  existing  in  the  adjudged 
cases.  His  classification,  as  given  in  Ooggs  V. 
Bernard,  Lord  Raymond's  Reports,  909,  is  fa- 
mous. Sir  William  Jones  was  the  first  English 
writer  who  treated  of  this  subject  at  length ; 
but  he  had  been  anticipated  in  France  by  Po- 
thier,  whose  work  on  "Obligations"  is  now 
an  acknowledged  authority  in  English  and 
American  law.  The  American  treatises  of 
Justice  Story  and  Mr.  Edwards  give  the  results 
of  the  more  recent  cases. 

BAILY,  Edward  Hodges,  an  English  sculptor, 
born  at  Bristol,  March  10,  1788,  died  May  22, 
1867.  His  father  was  a  ship  carver.  The  son 
was  placed  in  a  counting  house,  but  his  taste 
for  art  led  him  to  take  up  the  vocation  of  a 
modeller  in  wax,  in  which  he  gained  some 
reputation.  In  1807  he  went  to  London,  and 
entered  the  studio  of  Flaxman.  From  the 
society  of  arts  and  sciences  he  received  the 


silver  medal,  and  from  the  royal  academy  he 
gained  both  the  gold  and  silver  medals,  and  a 
purse  of  50  guineas ;  his  subject  on  the  latter 
occasion  being  "  Hercules  restoring  Alcestis  to 
Admetus."  At  the  age  of  25  he  produced  the 
statue  of  "Eve  at  the  Fountain."  Among  his 
other  works  were  "Hercules  casting  Lichas 
into  the  Sea,"  "Apollo  discharging  his  Ar- 
rows," the  colossal  statue  of  Nelson  in  Trafal- 
gar square,  well  known  statues  of  Earl  Grey, 
Sir  Astley  Cooper,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  por- 
tions of  the  sculptures  at  Buckingham  palace, 
"Eve  listening  to  the  Voice,"  "Preparing 
for  the  Bath,"  "The  Graces,"  "The  sleeping 
Nymph,"  and  "The  fatigued  Huntsman." 

BAILY,  Francis,  an  English  astronomer,  born 
in  1774,  died  in  1844.  He  was  a  London  bro- 
ker, and  author  of  several  works  on  annuities, 
assurances,  and  kindred  subjects,  but  devoted 
the  last  years  of  his  life  almost  wholly  to  the 
service  of  the  astronomical  society  and  the 
British  association.  He  prepared  the  astro- 
nomical society's  star  catalogue,  and  contrib- 
uted many  important  papers  to  its  memoirs. 
Sir  John  Herschel  wrote  his  biography. 

BAIN,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  philosopher,  born 
in  Aberdeen  in  1818.  He  was  educated  at 
Marischal  college,  and  was  teacher  of  moral 
and  natural  philosophy  there  1841-'5,  profes- 
sor of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Andersonian 
university  1845-'6,  assistant  secretary  of  the 
metropolitan  sanitary  commissioners  1847-'8, 
and  of  the  general  board  of  health  1848-'50, 
examiner  in  logic  and  moral  philosophy  at  the 
university  of  London  1857-'62,  examiner  in 
moral  science  for  the  India  civil  service  1858- 
'60  and  1863,  and  professor  of  logic  and  English 
literature  in  the  university  of  Aberdeen  1860- 
'64.  In  the  latter  year  he  again  became  ex- 
aminer in  the  university  of  London.  He  be- 
came a  contributor  to  the  "  Westminster  Re- 
view" in  1840,  wrote  for  the  "  Cyclopaedia  " 
and  other  publications  of  the  Messrs.  Chambers, 
including  text  books  on  various  sciences  for 
their  school  series,  and  edited  Paley's  "Moral 
Philosophy,"  with  dissertations  and  notes 
(1852).  His  principal  works  are :  "The  Senses 
and  the  Intellect "  (1855) ;  "  The  Emotions  and 
the  Will"  (1859);  "The  Study  of  Character" 
(1861) ;  "  English  Composition  and  Rhetoric  " 
(revised  ed.,  1866);  "Mental  and  Moral  Sci- 
ence" (1868);  and  "Logic"  (1870). 

BAINBBLDGE,  William,  an  American  naval  of- 
ficer, born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1833.  He  had  a 
command  in  the  merchant  service,  when,  upon 
the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in  1798,  he  re- 
ceived the  commission  of  lieutenant.  In  Sep- 
tember of  that  year,  while  cruising  off  Gua- 
deloupe, his  vessel  was  captured  by  a  French 
squadron,  and  he  and  his  officers  and  men  were 
held  as  prisoners  until  December  following. 
On  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  was  pro- 
moted, and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
brig  Norfolk,  in  which  vessel  he  cruised  in  the 
West  Indies  during  a  large  portion  of  the 


BAIRAM 


BAIRD 


225 


trouble  with  France.  In  May,  1800,  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  appointed 
to  the  frigate  George  Washington,  which  was 
ordered  to  carry  a  large  amount  of  tribute  to 
the  regency  of  Algiers.  After  the  completion 
of  this  mission  the  dey  compelled  him,  by 
threats  of  capture  and  of  a  declaration  of  war, 
to  convey  an  Algerine  embassy  to  Constan- 
tinople, where  Bainbridge  during  a  stay  of  two 
months  was  treated  with  great  distinction.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1801,  and  was 
soon  employed  in  the  Mediterranean  again  in 
command  of  the  frigate  Essex.  Upon  the  dec- 
laration of  war  against  the  United  States  by 
Tripoli  in  1803,  he  was  appointed  to  the  frigate 
Philadelphia,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the  squadron 
sent  against  that  power  under  the  command 
of  Commodore  Edward  Preble.  He  displayed 
great  vigor  in  this  service,  capturing  on  Aug. 
26  a  Moorish  frigate  with  an  American  prize ; 
hut  on  Oct.  31  his  vessel  ran  aground,  and  was 
captured  and  carried  to  Tripoli,  where  Bain- 
bridge  and  his  men  to  the  number  of  315  were 
retained  as  prisoners  till  the  close  of  the  war, 
a  period  of  19  months.  On  his  return  to  the 
United  States  in  1805,  Bainbridge  was  received 
with  very  general  demonstrations  of  kindness 
and  respect.  A  court  of  inquiry  was  held  for 
the  loss  of  the  Philadelphia,  and  the  result  was 
an  honorable  acquittal ;  and  under  the  act  of 
April,  1806,  reorganizing  the  navy,  he  became 
the  seventh  on  the  list  of  captains.  On  the 
declaration  of  war  in  1812  Capt.  Bainbridge 
united  with  Capt.  Stewart  in  an  effective  re- 
monstrance against  the  government's  project 
of  laying  up  the  ships  of  war  through  fear  of 
the  immense  superiority  of  the  enemy  at  sea. 
In  September,  1812,  Bainbridge,  now  a  com- 
modore, was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Constitution,  44 
guns  (flag  ship),  Essex,  32,  and  Hornet,  and 
sailed  from  Boston  on  Oct.  25  for  a  cruise. 
On  Dec.  29,  in  a  severe  engagement  off  San 
Salvador,  the  Constitution  captured  the  British 
frigate  Java,  49  guns,  the  Java  losing  her  com- 
mander, Capt.  Lambert,  and  174  men,  and  the 
Constitution  33  men.  On  his  return  to  the 
United  States  Bainbridge  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm;  congress  voted  a  gold 
medal  to  him,  and  silver  ones  to  his  officers, 
and  $50,000  were  distributed  to  the  crew  as 
prize  money.  In  1815  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  a  squadron  of  20  sail,  intended 
to  act  against  Algiers,  but  peace  was  concluded 
before  it  reached  the  Mediterranean.  Bain- 
bridge, however,  during  this  command,  settled 
disputes  with  the  Barbary  powers.  Upon  his 
return  he  was  appointed  to  command  afloat  at 
Boston.  In  1819-'21  lie  again  commanded  in 
the  Mediterranean.  From  this  time  until  his 
death  he  was  almost  constantly  employed  in 
important  shore  service,  being  for  some  time 
president  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners. 
BAIRAM,  a  Persian  term  designating  the  two 
principal  holidays  of  Islam,  which  are  cele- 
brated with  great  festivities,  especially  the 


little  Bairam  (Turk.  Tcutchuk  bairam;  Arab,  aid 
el-saghir,  the  little  feast,  or  aid  el-fethr,  the 
feast  of  fast-breaking).  It  succeeds  Ramadan, 
beginning  at  sunrise  of  the  first  day  of  the 
month  of  Shevval,  and  lasts  three  days,  the 
mosques  being  illuminated,  the  sultan  holding 
public  receptions,  salutes  being  fired,  and  every 
one  who  can  afford  it  putting  on  new  dresses. 
The  Turkish  capital  and  its  environs  exhibit 
during  this  period  great  animation.  Sixty 
days  after  the  little  Bairam  is  the  festival  of 
the  great  Bairam  (Turk,  buyuic  bairam,  gen- 
erally Durban  bairam;  Arab,  aid  el-kebir,  the 
great  feast,  or  aid  el-korban,  the  feast  of  sacri- 
fice). It  begins  on  the  10th  of  the  month  of 
Zilhije,  and  lasts  four  days,  during  which  sheep 
and  oxen  are  sacrificed,  and  the  same  festivities 
observed  as  during  the  little  Bairam.  Every 
family  or  two  families  in  conjunction  kill  a 
lamb.  At  Mecca  sheep,  oxen,  and  camels  are 
slaughtered,  and  the  flesh  is  distributed  among 
the  poor  pilgrims.  The  sultan  on  both  occa- 
sions visits  the  mosque  with  great  ceremony. 
He  also  holds  public  receptions  attended  by 
the  foreign  ministers  and  Turkish  officials,  the 
latter  being  treated  to  a  banquet,  and  16  of 
them  receiving  presents  of  robes  furred  with 
sable.  Formerly  the  ambassadors  also  received 
presents. 

BAIRD,  Sir  David,  a  British  general,  born  at 
Newbyth,  Scotland,  Dec.  6,  1757,  died  Aug. 
18,  1829.  He  went  to  India  as  captain  in  the 
73d  Highlanders,  and  in  1780  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner  in  the  disastrous  affair  near 
Conjeveram  in  the  Carnatic,  where  Hyder  Ali 
destroyed  an  entire  British  detachment.  He 
was  held  captive  at  Seringapatam  nearly  four 
years,  and  when  that  fortress  was  taken  by 
assault  in  1799,  Baird,  then  a  major  general, 
commanded  and  led  the  storming  party.  For 
his  gallantry  on  this  occasion  he  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
preference  shown  to  Wellesley,  he  obtained 
leave  of  absence  in  1803,  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  received  with  great  dis- 
tinction. In  1805  he  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  Dutch  settlements  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  in  1807  he  led  a  division  in  the 
attack  on  Copenhagen ;  and  in  1808  he  joined 
Sir  John  Moore  in  Spain,  succeeding  to  the 
command  when  that  officer  fell  at  Corunna.  He 
was  severely  wounded,  however,  and  obliged 
to  retire  from  active  service.  He  was  knighted 
in  1804,  and  created  a  baronet  after  the  victory 
of  Corunna  in  1809. 

BAIRD,  Robert,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  of  Scotch  parentage  in 
Fayette  county,  Penn.,  Oct.  6,  1798,  died  at 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  15,  1863.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Jefferson  college,  Pennsylvania,  and 
at  the  Princeton  theological  seminary,  and  in 
1822  took  charge  of  an  academy  in  Princeton. 
He  became  agent  of  the  missionary  society  of 
New  Jersey  in  1828,  and  did  much  toward 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  present  system  of 
public  school  education  in  that  state.  In  1829 


226 


BAIRD 


BAIREDTH 


he  was  appointed  agent  of  the  American  Sun- 
day school  union,  and  succeeded  in  raising  the 
annual  revenue  of  the  society  from  $5,000  to 
$28,000.  In  1835  he  visited  Europe,  and  re- 
mained abroad,  with  the  exception  of  two  hrief 
visits  home,  for  eight  years,  striving  to  revive 
the  Protestant  fuith  in  the  southern  countries 
of  Europe,  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  tem- 
perance in  the  northern  countries.  Upon  the 
formation  of  the  foreign  evangelical  society, 
afterward  merged  in  the  American  and  foreign 
Christian  union,  he  was  made  its  agent  and 
corresponding  secretary.  In  the  summer  of 
1842  Dr.  Baird  published  in  Scotland  a  work 
entitled  "  Religion  in  America,"  which  was 
translated  into  several  of  the  continental  lan- 
guages. Among  his  other  works  were  "A 
Visit  to  Northern  Europe,"  "Protestantism  in 
Italy,"  "History  of  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses, 
and  Vaudois,"  and  "  History  of  the  Temper- 
ance Societies  of  the  United  States." 

BAIRD,  Spencer  Fnllerton,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Reading,  Penn.,  Feb.  3,  1823.  j 
He  was  educated  at  Dickinson  college,  and  ' 
in  1846  became  professor  of  natural  science  in 
that  institution.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  institution 
in  Washington,  which  position  he  still  occupies 
(1873).  His  first  scientific  and  literary  work 
of  any  magnitude  was  a  translation  from  the 
German  of  the  Bilder- Atlas  of  Heck,  a  sup- 
plement to  the  Conversations- Lexicon  of  Brock- 
haus,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  several  schol- 
ars in  different  specialties  ("  Iconographic  En- 
cyclopaedia," 4  vols.  8vo  of  text  and  2  vols.  4to 
of  plates,  New  York,  1849  et  seq.).  His  next 
important  publication  was  the  report  on  the 
mammals  of  North  America,  constituting  vol. 
viii.  of  the  "Reports  of  the  Survey  of  the 


Railroad  Routes  to  the  Pacific."  This,  which 
appeared  in  1857,  was  followed  in  1858  by  a 
still  more  extended  work  (vol.  ix.  of  the  series) 
upon  the  birds  of  North  America.  In  1864 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  a  work,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  institution, 
upon  the  birds  of  the  new  world  generally, 
under  the  title  of  "  Review  of  American  Birds 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion." He  has  also  been  engaged  for  several 
years  in  preparing  a  new  account  of  the  birds 
of  North  America,  which  is  now  (1873)  in 
press,  and  in  which  he  is  assisted  by  Dr.  T.  M. 
Brewer  of  Boston.  In  1871  he  was  appointed 
by  President  Grant  United  States  commissioner 
of  fish  and  fisheries,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
inquiries  into  the  causes  of  the  decrease  of  the 
supply  of  food  fishes  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  methods  of  restoring  it.  Numerous  minor 
papers  upon  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fish- 
es of  North  America  have  appeared  from  his 
pen  in  the  "  Proceedings  "  of  the  academy  of 
natural  sciences  of  Philadelphia,  the  New  York 
lyceum  of  natural  history,  and  elsewhere. 

BAIREUTH,  or  Bayrenth,  a  city  of  Bavaria, 
capital  of  the  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Red  Main,  about  50  m.  by  rail- 
way N.  N.  E.  of  Nuremberg  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
17,837,  chiefly  Protestants.  The  town  is  well 
built  and  partly  surrounded  by  ancient  walls. 
It  has  a  castle,  riding  school,  gymnasium,  thea- 
tre, public  library,  and  public  garden,  an  active 
trade,  principally  in  grain,  several  breweries 
and  distilleries,  and  manufactures  of  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  leather,  and  earthenware. 
There  are  three  palaces  in  the  vicinity.  The 
Hermitage  palace  is  a  fanciful  building,  where 
Frederick  the  Great  and  his  sister  the  mar- 
gravine of  Baireuth  resided.  Schwanthaler's 


Balrcuth. 


BAIUS 


BAKAC8 


227 


bronze  statue  of  Richter,  who  died  and  was 
buried  here  in  1825,  is  in  the  Gymnasiums- 
platz,  and  an  inscription  in  gold  letters  marks 
his  house  in  the  Fried  richsstrasse.  In  front 
of  the  old  castle,  now  used  for  government 
offices,  is  a  monument  in  honor  of  Maximil- 
ian II.  erected  in  I860,  and  in  the  square  in 
front  of  the  new  castle  stands  an  equestrian 
statue  of  the  margrave  Christian  Ernst.  The 
corner  stone  of  a  great  festival  theatre,  design- 
ed by  Richard  Wagner  for  the  promotion  of 
the  German  lyric  drama,  and  especially  for  the 
performance  of  his  own  Nibelungen  trilogy, 
was  laid  at  Baireuth  in  1872. — Baireuth  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  the 
same  name  (previously  of  Kulmbach),  the  his- 
tory of  which  was  long  associated  with  that 
of  the  principality  of  Anspach.  Christian,  a 
son  of  the  elector  John  George  of  Branden- 
burg, who  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
succeeded  as  ruler  of  Baireuth,  while  his  brother 
became  prince  of  Anspach,  removed  the  capital 
from  Kulmbach  to  Baireuth.  In  1763,  on  the 
death  of  the  margrave  Frederick,  who  had 
greatly  promoted  public  prosperity,  Baireuth 
and  Anspach  were  united  into  one  princi- 
pality, and  both  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1791. 
After  passing  under  the  power  of  the  French 
in  1806,  Baireuth  was  transferred  to  Bavaria 
in  1810. 

I! Ill  S,  or  De  Bay,  Michael,  a  Flemish  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Melin  in  Hainault  in  1513,  died 
Sept.  16,  1589.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  in  which  he  became  a 
professor  and  ultimately  chancellor.  His  zeal- 
ous advocacy  of  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine 
brought  him  into  collision  with  his  colleagues, 
who  in  1552  laid  18  of  his  most  objectionable 
dogmas  before  the  university  of  Paris,  which 
in  1560  condemned  15  of  them  as  heretical 
and  the  other  three  as  false.  Notwithstanding 
this  decision,  the  Spanish  court  sent  Baius  as 
its  representative  to  the  council  of  Trent  in 
1563.  In  the  two  following  years  he  published 
various  controversial  works,  which  called  forth 
on  Nov.  1,  1567,  the  denunciatory  bull  of  Pope 
Pius  V.,  which  anathematized  76  of  his  fa- 
vorite dogmas,  but  did  not  name  him.  Baius 
afterward  recanted  and  professed  obedience, 
was  engaged  a  few  years  later  in  similar  con- 
troversies, and  made  a  second  retraction  in 
1580.  The  contest  was  renewed  from  time  to 
time  until  his  death.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Cologne  in  1696,  and  his  doctrines 
subsequently  became  the  basis  of  Jansenism. 

BAJAZET,  Itajfuid.  or  Bayazid.  I.  An  Otto- 
man sultan,  born  in  1347,  died  in  1403.  He 
succeeded  his  father  Amurath  I.,  who  was 
killed  at  the  hour  of  victory  in  the  battle  of 
Kosovo  in  1389,  and  to  prevent  any  trouble  with 
his  family  strangled  his  younger  brother.  He 
was  incessantly  occupied  in  the  first  years  of 
his  reign  in  subduing  his  rebellious  subjects  or 
adding  to  his  conquests.  In  Europe  his  armies 
penetrated  beyond  the  Danube,  into  Wallachia 
and  Hungary,  subdued  the  countries  around 


the  Balkan,  and  devastated  parts  of  Greece. 
He  brought  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  under 
the  Turkish  government.  In  1391  he  subdued 
Philadelphia,  the  last  of  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia,  and  in  1394  laid  siege  to  Constantino- 
ple, continuing  it  for  years.  European  nations 
became  alarmed  at  his  progress,  and  Sigis- 
mund,  king  of  Hungary,  with  a  large  army 
reenforced  by  a  select  body  of  French  troops, 
set  out  to  check  his  progress;  but  in  1396 
Bajazet  utterly  routed  his  army  near  Nico- 
polis.  He  overran  the  whole  of  the  Morea, 
but  his  career  of  conquest  was  checked  by 
Tamerlane,  who  invaded  his  possessions  in 
Asia  Minor.  The  two  conquerors  met  on 
the  plains  of  Angora  in  Galatia  with  im- 
mense armies  in  1402,  and  Bajazet  was  total- 
ly defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  and,  accord- 
ing to  accounts  which  modern  historians  do 
not  consider  literally  true,  was  carried  about  in 
an  iron  cage  till  his  death.  On  account  of  the 
rapidity  of  his  movements  Bajazet  was  called 
Ilderim  (the  lightning).  He  was  succeeded  by 
Mohammed  I.  II.  An  Ottoman  sultan,  son  of 
Mohammed  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantino- 
ple, born  in  1447,  died  in  1512.  On  his  father's 
death  in  1481,  his  brother  Zizim  disputed  the 
succession.  He  was  defeated,  however,  and  • 
fled  to  Egypt,  and  afterward  to  Rhodes,  whenc'e 
D'Aubusson,  the  grand  master,  sent  him  to 
France.  Bajazet's  hatred  pursued  him  in  his 
exile,  and  is  believed  to  have  procured  his 
death  by  poison.  Bajazet  was  continually  en- 
gaged in  war,  with  varying  success,  against 
the  Venetians,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Per- 
sians. His  reign  was  brought  to  a  close  by 
the  rebellion  of  three  of'his  sons,  claimants  of 
the  throne,  in  which  Selim,  the  youngest,  was 
at  last  successful,  and  Bajazet  abdicated  in  his 
favor,  and  was  poisoned  by  him  a  few  days 
later.  During  the  reign  of  Bajazet  II.  the 
Venetians  obtained  the  right  to  appoint  a  con- 
sul at  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  treaties  were 
concluded  with  Poland  and  the  czar. 

BAJAZID,  or  Bayazid,  a  fortified  town  of 
Turkish  Armenia,  150  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Erze- 
rum,  S.  W.  of  Mount  Ararat ;  pop.  variously 
estimated  at  from  5,000  to  15,000,  mostly 
Kurds.  It  lies  around  a  hill  crowned  by  a 
citadel,  and  has  a  palace,  arsenal,  mosque, 
and  monastery.  The  town,  which  is  the  cap- 
ital of  a  sanjak,  has  declined  since  the  Rus- 
sian conquest  of  Georgia. 

BAKACS,  Tamiis  a  Hungarian  statesman  and 
prelate,  died  in  1521.  The  son  of  a  serf,  he 
became  by  his  talents  secretary  of  King  Mat- 
thias Corvinus,  who  ennobled  him,  and  after 
whose  death  he  labored  for  the  accession  of 
Ladislas  II.  of  Bohemia  to  the  throne  (1490). 
The  latter  accordingly  made  him  chancellor, 
which  office  he  relinquished  in  1505  for  a  car- 
dinal's hat,  having  previously  been  the  in- 
cumbent of  various  episcopal  sees,  and  finally 
of  the  archbishopric  of  Gran.  He  even  as- 
pired to  the  holy  see,  but  succeeded  only  in 
being  appointed  legate  in  Hungary,  and  in 


228 


BAKALAHARI 


BAKER 


being  allowed  to  hold  simultaneously,  contrary 
to  law,  many  ecclesiastical  endowments  and 
functions.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Julius  II. 
(1513)  he  revisited  Rome,  still  in  the  hope  of 
winning  the  papacy ;  and  when  this  hope  was 
blasted  by  the  election  of  Leo  X.,  he  obtain- 
ed permission  to  preach  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks.  But  the  army  of  peasants  and  vaga- 
bonds which  rallied  under  Dozsa  in  obedience 
to  his  appeals,  instead  of  fighting  the  infidels, 
turned  their  arms  against  the  Hungarian  no- 
bility and  committed  frightful  ravages,  until 
they  were  routed  by  John  Z&polya.  This 
peasants'  war,  and  the  somewhat  suspicious 
part  played  in  the  whole  movement  by  Ba- 
kacs,  have  been  graphically  described  in  Mag- 
yarorsedg  1514-5«ra  ("  Hungary  in  1514  "),  by 
Baron  Eotvos  (3  vols.,  Pesth,  1847-'8).  The 
families  Erdodi  and  P&lffy  inherited  the  vast 
fortune  of  Bakacs. 

I!  t h  IU1!  tlil,  the  oldest  of  the  African  Be- 
chnana  tribes,  occupying  the  great  Kalahari 
desert,  between  the  Orange  river,  lat.  29°  S., 
and  Lake  Ngami,  and  between  Ion.  24°  and  the 
Great  Fish  river.  They  are  found  roaming 
with  the  Bushmen,  but  retain  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  Bechuana  tribes,  and  exhibit  an 
inclination  to  industrial  pursuits  and  settled 
life.  They  cultivate  the  thin  soil,  rear  goats, 
and  carry  on  a  small  traffic  in  furs. 

BAKER,  the  name  of  counties  in  four  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Alaba- 
ma, bounded  E.  by  the  Coosa  river,  and  watered 
by  affluents  of  that  stream  and  of  the  Alabama 
and  Oahawba;  area,  665  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,194,  of  whom  1,137  were  colored.  The  Sel- 
ma,  Rome,  and  Dalton,  and  the  South  and 
North  Alabama  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  11,728 
bushels  of  wheat,  131,311  of  Indian  corn,  6,238 
of  oats,  29,571  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,360 
bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Grantville.  II.  A 
N.  E.  county  of  Florida,  bounded  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  Georgia,  from  which  it  is  partly  separated 
by  the  N.  fork  of  the  St.  Mary's  river ;  area,  570 
gq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,325,  of  whom  290  were 
colored.  It  is  watered  by  several  streams  and 
small  lakes,  and  the  Okefenoke  swamp  extends 
in  the  N.  W.  portion.  The  Florida  Central 
railroad  passes  through  the  county.  In  1870 
the  county  produced  10,403  bushels  of  corn, 
1,715  of  oats,  6,150  of  sweet  potatoes,  83  bales 
of  cotton,  29  hhds.  of  sugar,  and  3,075  gallons 
of  molasses.  Capital,  Sanderson.  III.  A  S. 
W.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  S.  E.  by  Flint 
river  and  intersected  by  Ichawaynoochaway 
creek;  area,  1,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,843, 
of  whom  4,955  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  153,986  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  5,684  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  5,556  bales 
of  cotton.  Capital,  Newton.  IV.  A  S.  E.  coun- 
ty of  Oregon,  bounded  E.  by  Idaho,  and  S.  by 
Nevada;  area  about  6,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,804,  of  whom  680  were  Chinese.  It  is  wa- 
tered by  the  Owyhee  and  Malheur  rivers,  and 


other  branches  of  the  Saptin  or  Snake,  which 
runs  on  its  E.  border.  The  Blue  mountains 
skirt  the  N.  W.  corner.  The  county  has  mines  • 
of  gold  and  silver.  In  1870  the  chief  produc- 
tions were  2,306  bushels  of  wheat,  37,426  of 
oats,  17,732  of  barley,  7,377  of  potatoes,  and 
1,944  tons  of  hay.  Capital,  Auburn. 

BAKER,  Edward  Dickinson,  an  American  sen- 
ator and  soldier,  born  in  London,  England, 
Feb.  24,  1811,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's 
Bluff  in  Virginia,  Oct.  21,  1861.  The  family 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1815,  settling 
first  in  Philadelphia,  and  afterward  at  Belle- 
ville, 111.  Having  been  admitted  to  the  bar, 
Baker  took  up  his  residence  at  Springfield,  111. 
He  was  elected  member  of  the  legislature  in 
1837,  of  the  state  senate  in  1840,  and  represen- 
tative in  congress  in  1844.  When  the  war 
with  Mexico  broke  out  in  1846,  he  resigned  his 
seat  in  congress,  became  colonel  of  a  regiment 
of  volunteers  from  Illinois,  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo.  In  1848  he  was 
again  elected  to  congress,  but  declined,  having 
become  connected  with  the  Panama  railway. 
In  1852  he  settled  in  California,  where  he 
practised  law  with  success,  took  an  active  part 
in  political  discussions,  and  was  nominated 
by  the  republicans  for  congress,  but  was  not 
elected.  He  removed  to  Oregon,  and  in  1860 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  from 
that  state.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out 
he  raised  a  regiment  in  New  York  and  Phil- 
adelphia, of  which  he  was  appointed  colonel, 
having  declined  a  commission  as  general.  At 
the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  where  he  command- 
ed a  brigade,  he  received  several  bullets,  one 
of  which  passed  through  his  head,  killing  him 
on  the  field. 

BAKER,  Henry,  an  English  naturalist  and 
teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  born  in  Lon- 
don, May  8,  1698,  died  Nov.  25,  1774.  He  was 
brought  up  to  the  bookselling  business,  but 
afterward  devoted  himself  to  scientific  studies, 
and  especially  to  observations  with  the  mi- 
croscope and  to  botany.  He  introduced  into 
England  several  valuable  exotic  plants ;  among 
others,  the  large  Alpine  strawberry,  and  the 
rkeum  palmatum,  or  true  rhubarb.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  society  of  antiquaries  and  of 
the  royal  society.  He  contributed  several  pa- 
pers to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and 
published,  besides  his  microscopic  observations, 
a  small  collection  of  poems.  Many  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  in  the  instruction  of  deaf 
mutes,  whom  he  taught  to  articulate  after  the 
method  of  Wallis  and  Holden.  lie  married 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Daniel  Defoe. 

BAKER,  Osmon  Cleander,  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church,  born  in  Marlow,  N.  H.,  July  30,  1812, 
died  Dec.  20,  1871.  At  the  age  of  15  he  en- 
tered Wilbraham  academy,  and  in  1830  went 
to  the  Wesleyan  university,  Middletown,  Conn., 
where  he  studied  three  years,  receiving  a  de- 
gree, although  bad  health  prevented  him  from 


BAKER 


BAKHTCHISERAI 


229 


finishing  the  usual  studies.  In  1834  lie  was 
appointed  teacher  in  Newbury  seminary,  Vt., 
and  in  1839  became  its  principal.  This  position 
he  occupied  till  1844,  when  he  entered  the 
work  of  the  pastorate.  In  1847  he  was  elected 
to  a  chair  in  theology  in  the  Methodist  gene- 
ral Biblical  institute  at  Concord,  N.  II.,  since 
become  the  school  of  theology  of  the  Boston 
university.  Subsequently  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  this  institution,  where  he  remained  till 
1852,  when  he  was  elected  bishop.  His  chief 
labors  were  in  behalf  of  theological  education. 
Among  other  writings,  he  was  the  author  of  a 
commentary  on  the  ecclesiastical  law  and  polity 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church. 

BAKER,  Sir  Samuel  White,  an  English  explorer, 
born  June  8,  1821.  In  1848,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  he  established  a  model  farm 
and  coffee  estate  in  the  island  of  Ceylon.  He 
gave  some  account  of  his  life  there  in  "The 
Rifle  and  the  Hound  in  Ceylon "  (1853)  and 
"Eight  Years'  Wanderings  in  Ceylon"  (1855). 
In  1861  he  organized  a  large  expedition  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  the  head  waters  of  the 
Nile,  with  the  especial  design  of  meeting  and 
succoring  Speke  and  Grant,  who  had  set  out 
from  Zanzibar  for  the  same  purpose.  Baker, 
accompanied  by  his  wife,  a  Hungarian  by  birth, 
set  out  from  Cairo,  April  15,  1861,  and  on  the 
13th  of  June  reached  the  junction  of  the  At- 
bara  with  the  Nile.  For  nearly  a  year  he  ex- 
plored the  regions  of  Abyssinia  whence  comes 
the  Blue  Nile,  and  in  June,  1862,  returned  to 
Khartoom,  at  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and  the 
White  Nile.  Here  he  organized  a  party  of  96 
persons  to  explore  the  course  of  the  White 
Nile.  They  set  out  Dec.  18,  1862,  sailing 
southward  up  the  river.  They  reached  Gondo- 
koro,  lat.  4°  55'  N.,  Ion.  31°  46'  E.,  on  Feb.  2, 
1863.  Here  on  the  15th  Baker  was  met  by 
Grant  and  Speke,  who  coming  from  the  south 
had  discovered  the  Victoria  N'yanza,  which 
they  believed  to  be  the  ultimate  source  of  the 
Nile.  They  had  left  the  river  for  some  dis- 
tance, but  thought  it  probable  that  there  was 
still  another  great  lake  connected  with  the 
Victoria  N'yanza.  Baker,  resolved  to  supple- 
ment the  explorations  of  Grant  and  Speke, 
started  from  Gondokoro  by  land,  March  26, 
1863,  the  route  being  first  eastward,  then  nearly 
south,  then  trending  toward  the  west.  The 
journey  was  adventurous  and  toilsome,  and 
Mrs.  Baker  suffered  a  sunstroke  which  nearly 
cost  her  life.  On  March  14,  1864,  Baker  came 
in  sight  of  a  great  fresh-water  lake,  heretofore 
unknown,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Albert 
N'yanza.  (See  N'YANZA.)  After  navigating 
a  small  portion  of  the  lake,  he  set  out  on 
his  homeward  journey  early  in  April,  1864; 
but  owing  to  illness  and  the  disturbed  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  he  did  not  reach  Gondo- 
koro until  March  23,  1865.  He  then  returned 
to  England,  where  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  and  published  an  account  of  his 
explorations,  "  The  Albert  N'yanza  "  (London, 
1866).  In  1869  he  returned  to  Africa,  was 


created  a  pasha  by  the  khedive  of  Egypt,  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  put 
down  the  slave  trade  carried  on  by  the  natives 
and  Arabs  in  the  basin  of  the  Nile. 

BAKEWELL,  a  market  town  of  Derbyshire, 
England,  situated  on  the  river  Wye,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Derwent,  20  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
Derby;  pop.  in  1871,  10,727.  It  is  the  prop- 
erty of  the  duke  of  Rutland,  whose  seat,  Had- 
don  Hall,  is  two  miles  from  the  town.  It  has 
a  spacious  cruciform  church  founded  in  Saxon 
times,  showing  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture of  different  periods,  and  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Wye  are  traces  of  a  castle  built  by 
Edward  the  Elder  in  924.  Cotton  mills  were 
first  established  here  by  Ark  wrigh t,  and  there 
are  coal  and  lead  mines  in  the  vicinity.  There 
are  also  chalybeate  springs  and  warm  baths, 
formerly  much  resorted  to.  Chatsworth  house, 
the  splendid  residence  of  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire, is  three  miles  distant. 

BAKEWELL,  Robert,  an  English  agriculturist, 
born  at  Dishley  in  Leicestershire  about  1725, 
died  Oct.  1,  1795.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
1 760  as  proprietor  of  the  Dishley  farm,  where  he 
introduced  the  long-horned  breed  of  cattle  and 
paid  special  attention  to  the  development  of 
sheep.  His  horses  and  pigs  were  also  noted  in 
their  day.  His  ami  was  to  secure  cattle  that 
would  fatten  on  the  smallest  quantity  of  food. 
Mr.  Bakewell  introduced  into  English  agricul- 
ture the  practice  of  flooding  meadows.  He 
never  contributed  anything  to  literature,  but 
Arthur  Young,  in  his  "Annals  of  Agriculture," 
fully  described  and  praised  his  plans  and  im- 
provements. 

BAKHHtT,  a  town  of  S.  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment and  138  m.  E.  of  the  town  of  Yekateri- 
noslav;  pop.  in  1867,  10,392.  The  town  has 
large  establishments  for  rendering  tallow,  and 
near  it  are  coal  mines  and  alabaster  quarries. 

BAKHTCHISERAI  (Turkish,  palace  of  gardens), 
a  Tartar  town  of  the  Crimea,  now  included  in 
the  Russian  government  of  Taurida,  in  lat.  44° 
47'  N.,  Ion.  33°  54'  E.,  23  m.  N.  E.  of  8e- 
bastopol,  in  a  long  deep  valley  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tchuruk  Su;  pop.  in  1867,  11,448,  of 
whom  1,500  were  Caraite  Jews,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians,  and  the  rest  Tartars.  The  khan 
serai,  or  palace  of  the  ancient  khans  of  the 
Crimea,  consists  of  a  range-  of  spacious  build- 
ings one  story  high,  richly  adorned  with  ara- 
besques and  inscriptions,  a  splendid  mosque, 
beautiful  marble  fountains,  and  luxuriant  gar- 
dens. The  manufactures  consist  of  morocco 
leather, 'saddlery  and  other  leather  articles, 
beeza  (a  spirit  distilled  from  millet),  silks, 
common  cutlery,  gold  and  silver  plate,  pot- 
tery, and  arms.  About  four  miles  distant  are 
the  renowned  seat  of  the  Caraites,  Tchufut 
Kale,  or  Jews'  Castle,  and  a  deserted  monas- 
tery containing  70  cells  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  rock.  Bakhtchiserai  first  became  the 
residence  of  the  khans  about  1475.  In  the 
16th  century  their  dominion  extended  not  only 
over  the  Crimea,  but  over  all  the  outlying 


230 


BAKHTEGAN 


BAKU 


territory  from  the  Danube  to  the  Caucasus. 
Gradually,  however,  Russia  undermined  their 
authority,  until  in  1783  it  became  extinct. 
During  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  (1855)  Bakh- 
tchiserai  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Russian 
army. 

BAKHTEGAN,  a  lake  of  Persia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Fars,  in  lat.  29°  30'  N.,  and  between 
Ion.  53°  30'  and  54°  30'  E. ;  length  E.  and  W. 
upward  of  60  m. ;  breadth  8  m.  It  dries  up 
in  summer,  leaving  immense  quantities  of  salt. 

BAKHTISHVVA,  the  name  of  a  Christian  Nes- 
torian  family,  which  during  the  8th,  9th,  10th, 
and  llth  centuries  gave  six  famous  physicians 
to  the  court  of  Bagdad.  Caliph  Al-Hadi,  after 
having  been  restored  to  health  by  the  skill  of 
Ben  Giurgis  Bakhtishwa  in  786,  proposed  that 
all  the  physicians  who  had  unsuccessfully  prac- 
tised upon  him  should  be  put  to  death;  but 
Bakhtishwa  saved  the  lives  of  his  colleagues 
by  administering  poison  to  the  caliph.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century  Giabril  ben  Giur- 
gis ben  Bakhtishwa,  after  helping  Haroun  al- 
Kashid  over  an  apoplectic  fit,  was  sentenced 
to  death  because  the  caliph  had  a  relapse. 
His  life  was  only  saved  by  the  death  of  the 
caliph.  The  most  learned  of  the  Bakhtishwas 
was  Abu  Sa,  who  flourished  about  the  middle 
of  the  10th  century.  He  is  the  reputed  author 
of  a  medical  work  in  50  chapters,  dedicated  to 
Caliph  Motaki,  and  entitled  the  "Garden  of 
Medicine." 

BAKONY,  or  Forest  of  Bakony,  a  mountain 
range  in  Hungary,  S.  of  the  Danube,  between 
the  Raab  and  Lake  Balaton,  separating  the 
great  and  little  Hungarian  plains.  Its  ave- 
rage height  is  about  2,000  ft.  It  is  crowned 
with  dense  forests,  and  has  quarries  of  very 
fine  marble.  Immense  herds  of  swine  are  fed 
in  the  forest,  and  the  keepers  figure  as  robbers 
in  Hungarian  literature. 

BAKU,  or  r.akuo.  I.  Formerly  an  indepen- 
dent khanate,  now  a  government  of  Russia,  in 
Transcaucasia,  bordering  on  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  comprising  the  territory  of  Shirvan  and 
part  of  Daghestan;  area,  14,922  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1867,  486,229,  including  Russians,  Caucasians, 
Armenians,  and  Parsees.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  easternmost  ranges  of  the  Caucasus,  and 
watered  by  the  Kur  and  the  Aras.  The  penin- 
sula of  Apsheron,  'comprised  within  this  gov- 
ernment, is  remarkable  for  its  mud  volcanoes 
and  naphtha  springs.  Near  the  town  of  Baku 
there  are  about  100  bituminous  springs,  seve- 
ral of  which  are  worked,  producing  white  and 
black  naphtha.  The  principal  sourcestire  situ- 
ated at  a  spot  called  Balegan,  about  6  m.  from 
the  city  of  Baku.  The  quantity  annually  ob- 
tained in  the  district  amounts  to  about  36,000 
Ibs.  of  the  pure  and  9,600,000  Ibs.  of  the  black 
naphtha.  The  naphtha  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
illuminating  purposes.  The  country  for  seve- 
ral miles  round  the  town  of  Baku  is  impreg- 
nated with  inflammable  matter.  About  15  m. 
N.  E.  of  the  town  is  a  fire  temple  of  the  Gue- 
bres  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference,  from  the 


centre  of  which  rises  a  bluish  flame.  Here  are 
some  small  houses,  and  the  inhabitants  when 
they  wish  to  smother  the  flame  cover  the  place, 
enclosed  with  walls,  by  a  thick  loam.  When 
an  incision  is  made  in  the  floor,  and  a  torch 
applied,  the  gas  ignites,  and  when  the  fire  is 
no  longer  needed  it  is  again  suppressed  by  clos- 
ing the  aperture.  Not  far  from  the  town  there 
is  a  boiling  lake  which  is  in  constant  motion, 
and  gives  out  a  flame  altogether  devoid  of  heat. 
After  the  warm  showers  of  autumn  the  whole 
country  appears  to  be  on  fire,  and  the  flames 
frequently  roll  along  the  mountains  in  enor- 
mous masses  and  with  incredible  velocity.  The 
fire  does  not  burn,  nor  is  it  possible  to  detect 
the  least  heat  in  it,  nor  are  the  reeds  or  grass 
affected  by  it.  These  appearances  never  pccur 
when  the  wind  blows  from  the  east.  In  for- 
mer times  the  burning  field  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  ateshgahs  (shrines  of  grace)  among 
the  Guebres.  Previous  to  its  occupation  by 
the  Russians  a  voluntary  human  sacrifice  was 
annually  offered  here — a  youth  who  leaped 
with  his  horse  into  one  of  the  fissures.  A  few 
adherents  of  this  sect  still  make  pilgrimages 
to  the  great  ateshgah  to  worship  the  fire  and 
perform  penitential  exercises,  chiefly  by  night. 
The  place  is  a  walled  quadrangle  with  an  altar 
raised  on  a  flight  of  steps  in  the  centre.  At 
each  of  the  four  corners  stands  a  chimney  25 
ft.  high,  from  which  issues  a  flame  3  ft.  long. 
Round  the  walls  of  this  sanctum  are  a  number 
of  cells  in  which  the  priests  and  Guebres  re- 
side. The  peninsula  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
salt  formation :  in  different  parts  of  it  there  are 
10  salt  lakes,  only  one  or  two  of  which  are 
worked,  yielding  annually  about  10,000  tons. 
There  are  no  trees  in  this  peninsula,  but  por- 
tions of  the  territory  have  a  layer  of  mould  on 
which  are  raised  wheat,  barley,  maize,  melons, 
fruits,  rice,  cotton,  and  saffron.  Opium  is  pre- 
pared, and  a  species  of  red  and  highly  flavored 
onion  not  found  elsewhere  is  cultivated.  II.  A 
seaport  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  Caspian, 
the  capital  of  the  preceding  government,  in  lat. 
40°  22'  N.  and  Ion.  49°40'  E.,  situated  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron ; 
pop.  in  1867,  12,383,  chiefly  Mohammedans. 
The  houses,  terraced  like  those  of  other  oriental 
towns,  are  built  of  naphtha  and  earth.  The 
town  is  protected  by  a  double  wall  built  in  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Great,  has  a  custom  house,  mil- 
itary school,  16  Mohammedan  private  schools, 
23  mosques,  Russian,  Greek,  and  Armenian 
churches,  and  a  palace  of  the  ancient  khans 
built  about  the  7th  century,  and  now  used  as 
an  artillery  arsenal.  The  walls  were  once 
washed  by  the  Caspian,  but  they  are  now  15 
ft.  from  it ;  and  in  other  places  the  sea  has  en- 
croached upon  the  land,  and  the  ruins  of  sub- 
merged buildings  are  discovered  at  a  depth  of 
18  ft.  The  port  of  Baku  is  the  most  important 
on  the  Caspian,  and  a  principal  Russian  naval 
station.  The  chief  articles  of  trade  are  naph- 
tha, iron,  silk,  shawls,  linen  and  woollen  goods, 
cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  fruits,  fish,  salt,  and 


BAKUNIN 


BALAKLAVA 


231 


saffron.  There  are  no  factories.  Baku  existed 
in  the  4th  century.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Saracens,  and  after  the  downfall  of  the 
caliphate  it  passed  into  the  power  of  the 
princes  of  Shirvan.  In  1509  it  was  annexed  to 
the  Persian  monarchy,  and  later  was  taken  by 
the  Turks,  but  recaptured  by  Shah  Abbas  I. 
In  1723  the  city  capitulated  to  the  Russians 
under  Matushkin,  but  was  returned  to  the  Per- 
sians at  the  peace  of  1735.  Later  it  was  taken 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1806 
it  was  again  taken  by  the  Russians  under  Gen. 
Bulkhakoff  and  finally  annexed  to  Russia. 

I. tkl  M V  Mikhail,  a  Russian  revolutionist, 
born  at  Torzhok,  Tver,  in  1814.  He  belongs  to 
an  old  family,  left  the  military  service  for  the 
study  of  philosophy,  and  became  conspicuous 
by  his  affiliations  with  revolutionary  French- 
men, Germans,  and  Poles,  and  as  a  resolute 
and  reckless  agitator.  He  resided  after  1841, 
when  he  left  Russia,  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Switzerland ;  and,  declining  to  return  to  Rus- 
sia, his  estates  were  confiscated.  In  1847  he 
was  expelled  from  France  at  the  request  of  the 
czar  for  having  made  an  inflammatory  speech 
in  favor  of  a  Polish-Rnssian  alliance  for  the 
overthrow  of  Russian  despotism.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  was  prominent  at  the 
Slavic  congress  in  Prague  and  in  the  ensuing 
conflict,  after  which  he  fled  to  Berlin.  Ex- 
pelled from  Prussia,  he  appeared  in  May,  1849, 
as  a  member  of  the  revolutionary  government 
and  as  the  most  daring  leader  of  the  outbreak 
in  Dresden.  Captured  at  Chemnitz  after  the 
suppression  of  the  insurrection,  he  was  incar- 
cerated for  eight  months  in  a  Saxon  fortress. 
His  sentence  to  death  in  May,  1850,  being 
commuted  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  he  was 
surrendered  to  the  Austrian  government,  which 
likewise  condemned  him  to  death  and  com- 
muted the  sentence,  and  which  in  its  turn  gave 
him  up  to  Russia,  where  he  was  confined 
in  St.  Petersburg  and  in  Schlusselburg  till 
after  the  Crimean  war,  when  he  was  sent  to 
Siberia.  He  availed  himself  of  a  permission  to 
settle  in  the  Amoor  Country  for  escaping  to 
Japan,  and  reached  the  United  States  early  in 
1861,  after  which  he  returned  to  Europe,  lately 
residing  chiefly  in  Switzerland,  still  engaged 
more  or  less  in  revolutionary  and  journalistic 
enterprises.  He  is  the  author  of  Hussische  Zu- 
stdnde  (Leipsic,  1847),  and  of  other  publications. 

BALAAM  (Heb.  Bil'arri),  a  soothsayer  and  di- 
viner of  Pethor,  on  "the  river"  (Euphrates), 
whom  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  alarmed  at  the 
discomfiture  of  his  neighbors  the  Amorites  by 
the  Hebrews,  sent  for  to  pronounce  a  curse 
upon  the  invaders.  Balaam  refused,  saying 
that  he  could  not  curse  the  people  whom  God 
had  blessed ;  but  upon  being  further  urged,  he 
agreed  to  say  only  what  should  be  commanded 
by  God.  He  set  out,  riding  upon  an  ass ;  but 
on  the  way  he  was  met  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  visible  to  the  ass,  but  not  to  the  rider. 
The  ass  refused  to  pass  the  opposing  angel,  and 
three  times  turned  out  of  the  way,  being  each 


time  beaten  by  Balaam.  At  last  the  ass  spoke 
in  a  human  voice,  asking  why  he  had  been 
beaten.  Then  Balaam's  eyes  were  opened,  and 
he  saw  the  angel  of  the  Lord  standing  with  a 
drawn  sword  to  bar  his  way.  The  angel  told 
him  to  go  on  to  Balak,  but  he  must  only  say 
what  should  be  commanded  to  him.  Balaam 
went  to  Balak,  and  after  due  sacrifices  deliv- 
ered his  message,  which  proved  to  be  a  bless- 
ing upon  the  Hebrews,  instead  of  the  desired 
curse.  This  was  repeated  four  times,  with  the 
same  result ;  and  on  the  last  occasion  Balaam 
predicted  that  the  Israelites  should  overthrow 
Moab,  Edom,  Amalek,  and  other  neighboring 
tribes.  Some  Biblical  critics  consider  the  story 
of  Balaam  (Numbers  xxii.-xxiv.)  as  an  inter- 
polation; other  expounders  have  interpreted 
the  speaking  of  the  ass  as  a  vision  or  trance  in 
which  the  diviner  thought  he  saw  an  angel, 
and  fancied  that  he  heard  the  ass  speaking. 

BALAKLAVA,  a  small  seaport  town  of  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the  S.  W.  coast 
of  the  Crimea  and  a  small  bay  of  the  Black 
sea,  about  8  m.  8.  S.  E.  of  Sebastopol;  pop. 
about  750.  Known  in  antiquity  as  Symbolon 
Portus,  the  bay  of  Balaklava  was  called  in  the 
middle  ages  Cembalo  and  Bella  Chiava,  being  a 
possession  of  the  Genoese,  who  built  a  fortress 
on  the  heights  above  the  harbor.  Catharine 
II.  sent  to  Balaklava  2,000  Greek  and  Arme- 
nian soldiers  as  guards  of  the  coast,  and  their 
descendants  formed  from  1795  to  1859  the 
so-called  Balaklava-Greek  battalion.  In  the 
Crimean  war,  the  British  troops  under  Lord 
Raglan,  a  few  days  after  their  landing  in  the 
peninsula,  compelled  the  small  Russian  garri- 
son to  surrender,  Sept.  26,  1854,  and  estab- 
lished their  naval  headquarters  there,  building 
fortifications  and  a  railway  to  Sebastopol,  and 
laying  a  submarine  cable  to  Varna.  Balaklava 
was  attacked  on  Oct.  25  by  the  Russians,  who 
stormed  four  redoubts,  feebly  defended  bj 
Turkish  troops,  and  captured  11  guns;  but 
after  the  repulse  of  their  cavalry  by  the  High- 
landers and  their  defeat  by  the  English  heavy 
brigade,  they  made  no  further  efforts  to  ad- 
vance. The  earl  of  Cardigan,  upon  an  order 
alleged  to  have  been  given  by  Lord  Lucan  for 
the  capture  of  certain  Russian  guns,  led  the 
charge  of  his  light  brigade,  composed  only  of 
about  600  horsemen,  against  the  formidable 
array  of  the  enemy,  his  men  cutting  their  way 
through  and  back  again  under  the  play  of  the 
Russian  batteries.  The  survivors  of  this  bril- 
liant but  useless  exploit  did  not  exceed  150. 
The  first  who  fell  was  Capt.  Nolan,  the  officer 
who  conveyed  the  disputed  order  from  Lord 
Lucan.  The  English  evacuated  the  place  in 
June,  1856.  Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
entrance,  the  harbor  is  now  used  only  for  the 
coasting  trade  with  other  Crimean  ports.  On 
an  elevated  rock,  about  4  m.  W.  of  the  town,  is 
the  old  monastery  of  St.  George,  with  a  new 
Greek  church,  and  a  maritime  convent,  the  in- 
mates of  which  officiate  as  priests  for  sailors. 
Either  the  monastery  or  a  neighboring  locality 


232 


BALALAIKA 


BALANCE 


JBalaklava. 


is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  celebrated  tem- 
ple of  Diana  Taurica,  of  which  in  the  legend 
Iphigenia  was  priestess. 

BALALAIKA,  a  musical  instrument  with  two 
or  three  strings,  played  with  the  fingers  like 
the  guitar,  very  popular  in  Russia  for  accompa- 
niments, and  found  in  almost  all  the  cottages 
of  the  peasantry.  Russian  ballads  have  been 
collected,  under  the  title  of  this  national  instru- 
ment, in  French  (1837)  and  in  German  (1863). 

BALANCE,  an  instrument  intended  to  measure 
different  amounts  or  masses  of  matter  by  the 
determination  of  their  weight,  using  as  stand- 
ards of  comparison  certain  fixed  units,  as  the 
gramme,  the  pound,  the  ton,  &c.  The  instru- 
ment is  founded  on  the  law  that  gravitation 
acts  in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  mass,  and  on  the 
mechanical  principle  that  when  a  solid  body  is 
suspended  on  one  point,  the  centre  of  gravity 
will  place  itself  always  perpendicularly  under 
that  point.  If  therefore  a  beam,  alt,  fig.  1,  is 
supported  in  the  middle  at  c,  and  movable 
around  this  point,  its  centre  of  gravity,  »,  will 
place  itself  under  the  point  c  ;  and  if  disturbed 
from  that  position,  this  centre  will  oscillate  like 
a  pendulum,  and  the  beam  will  finally  come  to 
rest  only  with  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  per- 
pendicular passing  through  the  point  of  sup- 
port. It  is  evident  that  when  the  distances 
from  atoc  and  from  6  to  c  are  equal,  the  two 
sides  of  the  beam  equal,  and  the  whole  made 
of  homogeneous  material,  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion will  be  arrived  at,  and  also  when  at  a  and 
6  equal  weights  pp  are  suspended ;  the  gravity  of 
such  scales  and  weights  must  be  considered  con- 
centrated in  the  points  of  suspension  a  and  J, 
and  their  common  centre  of  gravity  will  be 
either  in,  under,  or  above  the  point  of  support, 
according  as  the  line  ab  uniting  them  passes 


through,  under,  or  above  the  support  c.  But 
suppose  we  place  an  additional  weight  r  in 
one  of  the  scales,  then  the  common  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  weights  in  the  scales  will 
be  shifted  toward  the  side  of  that  additional 
weight.  Suppose  it  to  be  in  d,  then  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  whole  balance  will  be  in  the 
line  ds,  uniting  the  centre  of  gravity  d  of  the 

FIG.  l. 


Common  Balance. 

weights  with  that  of  the  balance  «  ;  if  then  it  is 
somewhere  at  TO,  it  is  evident  that  the  balance 
can  no  longer  maintain  the  horizontal  position, 
but  will  only  come  to  rest  when  m  is  under  c, 
or  the  line  cm  has  attained  a  perpendicular  posi- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  the  angle  which  the 
beam  in  this  case  makes  with  a  horizontal  line  is 
equal  to  the  angle  sem.  If  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity is  in  the  point  of  support,  the  balance  is 
indifferent ;  that  is,  it  will,  when  charged  with 
equal  weights,  remain  at  rest  in  any  position. 
And  if  the  centre  of  gravity  is  above  the  point 
of  support,  we  have  a  case  of  so-called  unstable 
equilibrium ;  the  balance  will  with  equal  ease 
tip  over  to  the  right  or  left,  and  the  beam  can 
never  be  brought  into  the  horizontal  position.  In 
either  case  the  balance  is  useless,  and  it  follows 


BALANCE 


233 


from  this  that  the  centre  of  gravity  must  be 
under  the  point  of  support,  and  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  instrument  depends  to  a  great  ex- 
tent on  the  distance  between  these  two  points. 
This  derived  degree  of  sensitiveness  varies  with 
the  purposes  for  which  balances  are  to  be  used. 
The  most  delicate  balances  are  those  used  for 
physical  and  chemical  investigation ;  and  in 
order  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  degree  of 
sensitiveness  the  conditions  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  must  lie 
as  near  as  possible  under  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion ;  it  is  evident  that  when  this  centre  of 
gravity  «  is  raised,  the  point  m  will  be  raised 
also,  and  the   angle   sent  will  become  larger, 
which  results  in  a  greater  deflection  of  the 
beam  in  case  there  is  no  proper  equilibrium. 
Fine  balances  are  provided  with  an  upright  rod 
above  their  point  of  suspension,  on  which  a 
small  weight  may  be  screwed  up  or  down,  in 
order  to  raise  or  lower  the  centre  of  gravity,  and 
so  to  increase  or  diminish  the  delicacy  of  the 
instrument.     In  fig.  1  this  rod  is  represented 
below,  which  is  only  admissible  when  no  great 
degree  of  sensitiveness  is  required,  as  in  this 
case  the  centre  of  gravity  is  lowered  too  much. 

2.  The  beam  should  be  as  long  as  compatible  with 
strength.     As  the  distance  cd  becomes  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  arms,  any 
difference  in  the  two  weights  with  which  the 
balance  is  charged  will  be  the  more  perceptible 
the  longer  the  arms  are.     3.  The  beam  should 
also  be  as  light  as  compatible  with  strength ; 
the  smaller  the  weight  of  the  balance  itself,  the 
greater  the  influence  of  minute  differences  in 
the  load  will  be  to  shift  the  position  of  the 
point  d  from  the  centre.     Therefore  the  beams 
of  chemical  balances  are  made  like  an  elongat- 
ed frame,  with  large  openings  between,  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  walking  beams  of  steam 
engines  are  constructed.     4.  The  points  of  sus- 
pension of  the  two  scales  must  be  such  that 
the  line  uniting  them  passes  exactly  through 
the  point  of  support ;  if  this  line  passes  under 
that  point,  the  sensitiveness  of  the  balance  will 
diminish  too  much  when  the  load  is  increased. 
This  takes  place  in  any  case  to  a  small  degree, 
as  no  beam  is  so  perfectly  inelastic  that  a  slight 
flexion  will  not  take  place  under  the  maxi- 
mum load.     5.  The   distances  of   the   points 
of  suspension  of  the  scales  a  and  J  from  the 
centre  c  should  be  perfectly  equal ;  this  is  best 
verified  by  changing  the  weights  in  the  two 
scales,  when  if  the   equilibrium  remains  un- 
changed their  distances  are  equal.     Some  bal- 
ances have  screw  arrangements  to  correct  small 
differences  in  this  respect.    In  fig.  2  a  chem- 
ical balance  is  represented  as  used,  in  a  glass 
case,  which  serves  to  protect  it  not  only  from 
dust,  but  also  against  air  currents  which  might 
prevent  a  truly   sensitive  balance  from   ever 
coming  to  rest,  and  thus  make  correct  weigh- 
ings impossible.     The    turning   point  of  the 
beam,  in  order  to  reduce  the  friction  to  the 
least  amount,   is  a  knife-edge    or  triangular 
prism  of  hardened  steel  passing  at  right  angles 


through  the  beam,  and  resting  when  in  use 
upon  polished  plates  of  agate  (one  each  side  of 
the  beam),  which  are  set  exactly  upon  the  same 


FIO.  2. 


Chemical  Balance.    . 

horizontal  plane.  This  knife-edge  is  polished 
and  brought  to  an  angle  of  30°.  The  points  of 
suspension  are  also  knife-edges,  one  set  across 
each  extremity  of  the  beam.  Great  care  is 
required  that  the  line  connecting  them  shall 
be  precisely  at  right  angles  with  the  line  passing 
through  the  centres  of  motion  and  of  gravity. 
The  index  or  pointer  is  sometimes  a  long  nee- 
dle, its  line  passing  through  the  centre,  and  ex- 
tending either  above  or  below  the  beam,  or  it 
is  a  needle  extended  from  each  extremity  of 
the  beam.  In  either  case  it  vibrates  with  the 
motion  of  the  beam  over  a  graduated  arc,  and 
rests  upon  the  zero  point  when  the  beam  is 
horizontal.  The  degrees  upon  each  side  of  the 
zero  of  the  scale  indicate,  as  the  needle  oscil- 
lates past  them,  the  intermediate  point  at  which 
this  will  stop,  thus  rendering  it  unnecessary  to 
wait  its  coming  to  rest.  In  order  to  save  the 
knife-edges  from  wear,  the  beam  is  made,  in 
delicate  balances,  to  rest  when  not  in  use 
upon  a  forked  arm,  and  the  pans  upon  the 
floor  of  the  case  in  which  the  instrument 
stands.  The  agate  surfaces,  being  lifted  by 
means  of  a  cam  or  lever,  raise  the  beam  off  its 
supports  and  put  it  in  action  ;  or  the  supports, 
by  a  similar  contrivance,  are  let  down  from  the 
beam,  leaving  it  to  rest  upon  the  agate ;  the 
pans  in  the  latter  case  must  always  remain  sus- 
pended.— However  perfectly  a  balance  may  be 
made,  there  is  always  great  care  to  be  exer- 
cised in  its  use.  Errors  are  easily  made  in  the 
estimation  of  the  nice  quantities  it  is  used  to 
determine.  The  sources  of  some  are  avoided 
by  a  simple  and  ingenious  method  of  weighing 
suggested  by  Borda.  The  body  to  be  weighed 
is  exactly  counterpoised,  and  then  taken  out 
of  the  pan  and  replaced  by  known  weights, 
added  till  they  produce  the  same  effect.  A 
false  balance  must  by  this  method  produce  cor- 


234 


BALANCE 


rect  results.  The  weights  employed  for  deli- 
cate balances  are  either  troy  grains,  one  of 
each  of  the  units,  one  of  each  of  the  tens,  and 
the  same  of  the  hundreds  and  thousands,  as 
also  of  the  tenths,  hundredths,  and  thousandths 
of  a  grain  ;  or  they  are  the  French  gramme 
weights,  with  their  decimal  parts.  The  latter 
are  the  most  commonly  used  in  chemical  assays 
and  analyses.  The  larger  weights  are  of  brass, 
the  smaller  of  platinum,  «nd  these  are  always 
handled  by  means  of  a  pair  of  forceps.  The 
beam  of  the  balance  is,  according  to  the  meth- 
od introduced  by  Berzelius,  frequently  marked 
by  divisional  lines  into  tenths,  and  one  of  the 
small  weights,  as  a  tenth  or  hundredth  of  a 
grain,  or  a  milligramme,  is  bent  into  the  form 
of  a  hook,  so  that  it  may  be  moved  along  the 
beam  to  any  one  of  these  lines  to  bring  the 
balance  to  exact  equilibrium.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  picking  up  and  trying  one  weight 
after  another  is  avoided,  and  the  proportional 
part  of  the  weight  used  is  that  indicated  by 
the  decimal  number  upon  the  beam  at  which 
it  rests  to  produce  equilibrium.  The  best  ma- 
terials for  a  balance  are  those  which  combine 
strength  with  lightness,  and  are  least  liable  to 
be  affected  by  the  atmosphere  and  acid  vapors. 
Brass,  platinum,  or  steel  is  used  for  the  beam ; 
but  probably  aluminum  will  prove  to  be  better 
adapted  for  this  purpose  than  either.  The  pans 
are  commonly  of  platinum,  made  very  thin, 
and  suspended  by  fine  platinum  wires.  The 
support  is  a  brass  pillar  secured  to  the  floor 
of  the  glass  case  in  which  the  instrument  is 
kept.  Doors  are  provided  in  front  and  at 
the  sides,  by  which  access  is  had  to  the  instru- 
ment; but  these  are  commonly  kept  closed, 
and  are  always  shut  in  delicate  weighing,  that 
the  beam  shall  not  be  disturbed  by  currents 
of  air.  So  delicate  are  the  best  balances,  that 
when  lightly  loaded  and  left  to  vibrate,  they 
may  be  affected  by  the  approach  of  a  person 
to  one  side  of  the  glass  case,  the  warmth  radi- 
ated from  the  body  causing  the  nearest  arm 
of  the  beam  to  be  slightly  expanded  and  elon- 
gated, so  as  to  sensibly  preponderate.  The 
degree  of  sensibility  is  estimated  by  the  small- 
est weight  in  proportion  to  the  load  that  will 
cause  the  beam  to  be  deflected  from  a  horizon- 
tal line.  It  is  said  that  a  balance  is  in  posses- 
sion of  Bowdoin  college,  Maine,  which,  with  a 
charge  of  10  kilogrammes  in  each  scale,  is  sen- 
sitive to  -f$  of  a  milligramme.  Becker  and  Sons 
of  New  York  made  the  balance ;  and  they  make 
ordinary  chemical  balances  which  with  one  kilo- 
gramme in  each  scale  are  sensitive  to  one  tenth 
of  a  milligramme ;  their  small  balances  now  in 
use  in  the  assay  office,  New  York,  show  a  dif- 
ference in  load  of  less  than  -^  part  of  a  mil- 
ligramme.— The  torsion  balance,  invented  by 
Coulomb  to  measure  minute  electrical  forces,  is 
still  more  delicate  than  the  best  beam  balance. 
It  consists  of  a  brass  wire,  hung  by  one  end 
and  stretched  by  a  light  weight,  carrying  at  its 
lower  end  a  horizontal  needle.  Any  force  ap- 
pliad  to  one  end  of  this  needle,  tending  to  rotate 


BALANOUINI 

it  horizontally,  will  be  measured  by  the  angle 
through  which  it  causes  the  needle  to  move ; 
that  is,  by  the  torsion  of  the  wire.  (See  ELEC- 
TRICITY.)— The  steelyard,  the  Roman  statera, 
is  one  of  the  forms  of  the  balance,  the  two 
arms  being  of  unequal  length,  the  body  to  be 
weighed  being  suspended  in  a  pan  or  otherwise 
from  the  short  arm,  and  the  counterpoise,  which 
is  a  constant  weight,  being  slid  along  the  longer 
arm  until  equilibrium  is  established.  As  this 
occurs  when  the  weight  on  one  side  multi- 
plied by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum  is  equal 
to  the  weight  on  the  other  multiplied  by  its 
distance  from  the  fulcrum,  and  as  on  one  side 
the  weight  is  constant,  and  on  the  other  the 
distance  from  the  centre  of  motion,  the  un- 
known weight  must  be  determined  by  the  dis- 
tance of  the  constant  weight  from  the  centre. 
— The  Danish  balance  differs  from  the  common 
steelyard  in  having  the  counterpoise  fixed  at 
one  end,  and  the  fulcrum  being  slid  along  the 
graduated  beam.  The  graduation  commences, 
at  a  point  near  the  counterpoise,  at  which  the 
beam  with  the  pan  suspended  at  the  other  end 
is  in  equilibrium,  and  the  numbers  increase  to- 
ward the  pan.  A  balance  called  the  bent  lever 
is  employed  to  some  extent  for  purposes  not 
requiring  extreme  accuracy.  The  pan  is  at- 
tached to  one  end  of  the  beam  and  the  other 
carries  a  constant  weight.  From  the  bent  form 
of  the  lever  this  weight  is  raised  to  a  height 
varying  with  the  weight  placed  in  the  scale 
pan.  A  pointer  attached  to  the  constant  weight 
and  moving  along  a  graduated  arc  indicates  by 
the  number  at  which  it  stops  the  weight  of  the 
body  in  the  scale  pan.  Its  indications  are  the 
least  to  be  depended  upon  when  the  constant 
weight  approaches  to  the  horizontal  or  vertical 
line  passing  through  the  centre  of  motion.  The 
scales  generally  used  in  the  United  States  for 
weighing  loaded  wagons  and  canal  boats  are 
modifications  of  the  steelyard,  wherein  the 
weight  of  these  ponderous  bodies  is  divided 
by  means  of  levers,  and  a  known  fraction  of 
it  sustained  by  one  end  of  a  beam,  the  other 
end  of  which  is  graduated  for  a  moving  weight. 
Modern  modifications  of  the  steelyard  contain  a 
pan  hung  at  the  end  of  the  arm  to  receive  larger 
weights,  while  the  sliding  weight  is  used  only 
to  balance  the  fractional  parts. — Spring  bal- 
ances are  popular  instruments,  and  consist  of  a 
helix  of  wire  enclosed  in  a  cylinder.  The  body 
to  be  weighed  is  suspended  to  a  wire  passing  up 
through  the  centre  of  the  helix  and  fastened  to 
the  upper  coil,  which  carries  a  pointer  down  a 
narrow  slit  in  the  cylinder,  thus  indicating  the 
weight  on  the  graduated  sides  of  the  cylinder. 
i:\l.\M.IIM.  or  Bangingee,  an  islet  of  the  Ma- 
lay archipelago,  in  the  Sulu  group,  claimed  by 
Spain  as  part  of  the  province  of  Zamboangan 
in  the  Philippine  island  of  Mindanao,  in  lat.  5° 
57'  30"  N.,  Ion.  121°  39'  E.  It  is  about  3  m. 
long  and  1  broad,  and  gives  its  name  to  the 
most  daring  Malay  pirates.  In  1848  it  was 
captured  by  the  Spaniards,  who  had  11  officers 
and  170  men  killed  and  wounded ;  450  of  the 


BALARD 


BALBINUS 


235 


pirates  were  killed,  refusing  to  take  quarter. 
The  forts  and  houses  of  the  island  were  level- 
led to  the  ground,  and  to  make  it  uninhabita- 
ble about  8,000  cocoa  palms  were  cut  down. 

BALARD,  Antoine  Jerftme,  a  French  chemist, 
born  in  Montpellier,  Sept.  30,  1802.  He  was 
an  apothecary  and  subsequently  professor  of 
pharmacy  and  chemistry,  and  acquired  celeb- 
rity in  1826  by  the  discovery  of  bromine  in  sea 
water,  also  by  the  extraction  of  sulphate  of 
soda,  which  increased  the  supply  and  lowered 
the  price  of  potash.  He  has  written  on  these 
discoveries  and  on  other  subjects  in  the  Annales 
de  chimie  et  de  physique,  and  in  the  Memoires 
of  the  academy.  He  succeeded  Th6nard  in  the 
chair  of  chemistry  in  the  faculty  of  sciences  of 
Paris,  and  Pelouze  in  the  college  de  France  in 
1851.  He  became  a  member  of  the  academy 
in  1844.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  inspector 
general  of  superior  instruction  and  honorary 
professor  at  the  faculty  of  sciences. 

BALARUC,  a  French  watering  place,  in  the  de- 
partment of  H6rault,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  Montpel- 
lier ;  pop.  600.  The  springs  were  known  to 
the  Romans,  who  formed  aqueducts  and  built 
a  temple  here.  They  have  a  temperature  of 
about  129°  F.  in  summer  and  115°  in  winter, 
and  are  recommended  for  paralysis.  A  public 
hospital  gives  gratuitous  relief  to  the  destitute 
and  to  soldiers. 

BALASORE,  a  city  in  the  presidency  of  Ben- 
gal and  province  of  Orissa,  India,  the  principal 
seaport  of  Outtack,  120  m.  S.  W.  of  Calcutta; 
pop.  about  11,000.  It  formerly  had  factories 
of  almost  all  European  nations,  but  has  much 
declined,  the  principal  trade  being  limited  to 
imports  of  the  products  of  the  cocoanut  and  of 
coir,  cowries,  tortoise  shell,  and  salted  fish  from 
the  Maldive  islands,  in  exchange  for  rice,  sugar, 
and  English  manufactured  goods  and  hard- 
ware. It  is  provided  with  dry  docks  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  small  vessels  at  spring  tides. 
Denmark  ceded  the  town  to  England  in  1844. 

BALASSA-GYARMATH,  a  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Nograd,  situated  in 
a  delightful  region  on  the  Eipel,  42  m.  N.  of 
Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  6,435.  It  has  an  old 
mountain  castle,  and  carries  on  considerable 
trade  in  oil  and  wine.  In  1626  a  peace  was 
concluded  here  between  Austria  and  Turkey. 

BALATON,  Like  (Ger.  Plattensee),  a  large 
lake  in  8.  W.  Hungary,  in  the  counties  of  Zala, 
Veszpr6m,  and  Somogy;  length,  from  S.  W. 
to  N.  E.,  about  47  m. ;  greatest  breadth  9  m. ; 
depth  from  27  to  36  feet ;  area,  about  450  sq. 
m.  It  is  fed  by  the  river  Szala,  and  discharges 
its  waters  through  the  Si6,  which  falls  into 
the  Sarviz,  an  affluent  of  the  Danube.  The 
lake  abounds  in  fish.  The  fogas,  a  kind  of 
large  perch,  is  found  only  in  this  lake ;  it  fre- 
quently weighs  10  to  15-  and  sometimes  20 
pounds.  There  is  also  a  species  of  white  fish 
resembling  the  herring,  which  appears  in  large 
shoals  during  the  winter.  Crabs,  crayfish,  tor- 
toises, and  mussels  are  found.  Iron  sand  occurs 
on  the  shores,  which  exhibits  under  the  mi- 


croscope grains  of  garnet,  ruby,  topaz,  ame- 
thyst, and  other  precious  stones. 

BALBI,  Adriano,  an  Italian  geographer,  born 
in  Venice,  April  25,  1782,  died  there,  March  14, 
1848.  After  holding  a  professorship  of  geogra- 
phy, sciences,  and  statistics  in  Italy,  he  spen'; 
many  years  in  Portugal  while  preparing  seve- 
ral works  relating  to  that  country.  He  subse- 
quently resided  in  Paris,  receiving  assistance 
from  the  French  government,  in  1832  went  to 
Padua,  and  finally  to  Vienna,  where  the  Aus- 
trian government  gave  him  a  pension.  His 
principal  works  are  :  Atlas  ethnographiqwe  dw 
globe  (Paris,  1826),  a  work  of  superior  arrange- 
ment, containing  the  latest  researches  of  Ger- 
man philologists,  and  Abrege  de  geographic  (2 
vols.,  1832),  a  summary  of  geographical  sci- 
ence, which  has  been  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  European  languages  (English  transla- 
tion, "Abridgment  of  Geography,"  New  York, 
1835).  With  La  Renaudiere  and  Huot  he  used 
to  some  extent  unpublished  writings  of  Malte- 
Brun  in  preparing  a  Traite  elementaire  de  ge- 
ographic (2  vols.,  1830-'31).  Among  his  other 
publications  are :  La  monarchic  francaise  com- 
paree  awx  principaux  etats  de  V Europe  (Paris, 
1828);  Balance  politique  du  globe  (1828); 
L1  Empire  russe  comparee  aux  principaux  etats 
du  monde  (1829) ;  "  The  World  compared 
with  the  British  Empire"  (1830).  His  son, 
the  geographer  EUGENIO  BALBI,  has  edited 
a  collection  of  his  Scritti  geogrqfici  (5  vols., 
Turin,  1841-'2). 

BALBI,  Giovanni  de  Janna  or  Jannensls  (from 
his  birthplace,  Genoa),  a  Dominican  friar  of  the 
13th  century,  author  of  a  universal  cyclopaedia 
or  Catholicon  (about  1286),  which  owes  its  ce- 
lebrity principally  to  the  fact  that  it  became 
one  of  the  earliest  monuments  of  the  art  of 
printing.  The  original  edition,  Summa  Gram- 
matwalis  valde  Notabilis  qua  Catholicon  nomi- 
natur,  was  printed  at  Mentz  by  Faust  and 
Schoffer  in  1460,  and  was  reprinted  at  Augs- 
burg in  1469  and  1472,  at  Nuremberg  in  1483, 
at  Venice  in  1487,  and  at  Lyons  in  1520. 

BALBI,  Conntess  de,  a  favorite  of  the  count  de 
Provence,  afterward  Louis  XVIIL,  born  in 
1753,  died  in  Paris  about  1836.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  the  marquis  de  Caumont  de  la  Force, 
and  was  lady  in  waiting  to  the  countess  de 
Provence,  and  the  wife  of  the  Genoese  count 
de  Balbi,  who  became  insane  in  consequence 
of  her  misconduct.  The  count  de  Provence 
continued  to  lavish  vast  amounts  upon  her  even 
after  the  smallpox  had  destroyed  her  beauty. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  she  per- 
suaded him  to  leave  France,  but  he  subse- 
quently discarded  her,  and  she  was  expelled 
from  many  capitals  on  account  of  her  dissipa- 
tion and  intrigues.  On  her  return  to  France 
she  was  exiled  to  Montauban,  where  she  estab- 
lished a  gambling  house.  She  died  in  obscurity. 

U  t  I.I!  I M  s.  Deelmus  Ctelins,  a  Roman  emperor, 
slain  in  A.  D.  238.  He  was  a  senator,  and  twice 
consul,  and  was  elected  emperor  by  the  senate 
in  conjunction  with  Maximus,  in  opposition  to 


BALBO 


BALBUS 


Maximin — a  third  emperor,  the  young  Gordia- 
nus,  being  adjoined  to  them  by  the  clamors  of 
the  people  and  the  soldiery.  Maximin  being 
killed  by  his  own  mutinous  soldiers  at  the  siege 
of  Aquileia,  Maximus  was  triumphantly  receiv- 
ed in  Rome ;  but  soon  falling  out  with  Balbi- 
nus,  he  depended  only  for  his  support  upon  a 
body  of  Germanic  barbarians  against  the  prre- 
torians,  who  disliked  both  emperors.  While 
the  citizens  were  witnessing  the  Capitoline 
games,  the  two  rulers  were  put  to  death  by  the 
prsetorians,  who  proclaimed  the  boy  Gordianus 
sole  emperor. 

BALBO,  Cesare,  count,  an  Italian  statesman 
and  author,  born  in  Turin,  Nov.  21,  1789,  died 
there,  June  3, 1853.  Through  the  favor  of  Na- 
poleon, he  was  appointed  auditor  to  the  French 
privy  council  in  1807,  afterward  secretary  to 
the  French  commissioners  in  Tuscany  and  the 
Papal  States,  and  in  1812  commissioner  of  II- 
lyria.  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  he  was 
secretary  of  legation  in  London  until  the  out- 
break of  the  Sardinian  revolution  in  1821,  when 
he  returned  to  Turin.  He  translated  Leo's 
work  on  the  municipal  institutions  of  Lombar- 
dy  from  German  into  Italian,  under  the  title 
of  Communi  Italiani.  His  reputation  was 
firmly  established  by  his  Speranze  d'ltalia 
(1843),  in  favor  of  national  independence.  His 
Delia  storia  d'ltalia,  dalV  origine  fino  al  1814 
(5th  edition,  Bastia,  1849)  was  distinguished 
by  the  same  patriotic  spirit  and  by  historical 
merit.  In  1848  he  formed  the  first  constitu- 
tional cabinet  of  Charles  Albert,  which,  how- 
ever, lasted  but  a  few  months,  and  after  the 
Sardinian  reverses  in  the  field  he  exerted  great 
influence  as  a  leader  of  the  moderate  party  and 
supporter  of  D'Azeglio.  His  biography  was 
published  by  Ricotti  (Florence,  1856),  and  a 
monument  by  Vela  has  been  erected  in  his 
honor  in  Turin. 

BALBOA,  Vaseo  Nnfiez  de,  a  Spanish  American 
discoverer,  born  at  Xeres  de  los  Caballeros,  Es- 
tremadura,  in  1475,  beheaded  at  Castilla  de  Oro, 
Darien,  in  1517.  He  was  a  nobleman  who 
escaped  from  his  creditors  to  Hispaniola,  and 
subsequently  joined  Enciso's  Darien  expedition. 
Quarrels  between  rival  commanders  made  him 
chief  of  the  new  settlement.  His  humane  pol- 
icy reconciled  the  Indians,  and  while  engaged 
in  exploring  the  isthmus  he  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  a  mountain  from  which  he  discovered 
the  Pacific,  Sept.  26, 1513.  He  erected  a  cross 
on  the  spot,  and  took  possession  of  the  whole 
region  for  Spain.  But  before  the  news  of  this 
important  discovery  reached  Madrid  Enciso's 
intrigues  had  resulted  in  Balboa's  displacement 
by  Davila,  who  soon  lost  the  advantages  gained 
by  his  predecessor.  The  Spanish  government, 
at  length  enlightened  in  regard  to  the  great 
achievements  of  Balboa,  named  him  deputy 
governor;  but  Davila  opposing  his  installation, 
he  went  in  search  of  new  settlements.  This 
exasperated  Davila  still  more,  but  his  wrath 
was  for  a  time  appeased  by  the  intercession  of 
influential  personages,  and  he  even  gave  his 


daughter  in  marriage  to  Balboa.  The  contin- 
ued success  of  the  latter,  however,  revived  his 
jealousy,  and  he  seized  a  pretext  for  charging 
him  with  treason,  and  subjecting  him  to  a  mock 
trial.  Balboa  and  four  of  his  friends  were  exe- 
cuted, he  protesting  to  the  last  his  innocence 
and  his  loyalty. 

BALBRIGGAJV,  a  town  of  Ireland  in  the  county 
and  18  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Dublin;  pop.  about 
2,500.  It  is  the  seat  of  thriving  manufactures 
of  cotton  goods  and  hosiery.  The  cotton  stock- 
ings made  here  are  remarkable  for  the  fineness 
of  their  texture ;  many  females  are  also  employ- 
ed in  embroidering  muslins.  In  1780  Baron 
Hamilton,  with  the  help  of  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment, established  cotton  works  here,  and  built 
a  pier,  to  which  an  inner  dock  was  afterward 
added  by  a  member  of  the  same  family.  The 
railroad  crosses  the  harbor  by  a  viaduct  of  11 
arches  of  30  ft.  span.  Balbriggan  is  a  favorite 
watering  place. 

BALBl'ENA,  Bernardo  de,  a  Spanish  poet  and 
prelate,  born  at  Val  de  Pefias  in  1568,  died  in 
Porto  Rico  in  1627.  He  was  educated  in  Mex- 
ico, became  provost  in  Jamaica,  and  in  1620 
bishop  of  Porto  Rico.  He  wrote  El  siglo  de 
oro  ("  The  Age  of  Gold  "),  a  pastoral  romance, 
the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the  new  world ; 
La  grandeza  Mejicana  (new  edition,  1821) ;  and 
El  Bernardo  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  1 624 ;  new  ed.,  3 
vols.  8vo,  1808),  an  epic  which  is  among  his 
most  finished  productions. 

BALBUS.  I.  Lncins  Cornelius  (Major),  a  Roman 
consul,  born  in  Gades  (Cadiz)  in  the  1st  century 
B.  C.  He  served  in  the  Sertorian  war,  after 
which  Roman  citizenship  was  conferred  on  his 
family.  Shortly  afterward  he  removed  to  Rome. 
He  accompanied  Csesar  into  Spain  in  61,  and 
into  Gaul  in  58,  and  was  appointed  prtefectus 
fabrum  to  his  legions.  During  the  Gallic 
wars  he  spent  much  time  at  Rome,  where  he 
managed  Csesar's  private  property,  and  acted 
as  agent  for  the  sale  of  spoils  taken  from  the 
enemy.  In  56  his  foes  and  those  of  the  tri- 
umvirs charged  him  with  having  assumed  ille- 
gally the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen ;  but  he 
won  the  trial,  owing  to  his  defence  by  Pompey, 
Crassus,  and  especially  by  Cicero.  Balbus  did 
not  bear  arms  against  the  Pompeians  in  the 
civil  wars,  but  remained  at  Rome  working  in 
the  interest  of  Caesar,  and  finally  succeeding 
in  gaining  Cicero  for  the  dictator's  cause.  On 
the  assassination  of  Cfflsar  Balbus  retired  to 
his  country  seat,  where  he  remained  until  the 
arrival  of  Octavius  in  Italy.  He  then  has- 
tened to  Naples  to  meet  the  latter,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Rome,  and  who  appointed 
him  sedile,  prator,  and  in  40  consul,  he  being 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  adopted  citi- 
zen who  filled  that  office.  In  his  will  he 
bequeathed  20  denarii  to  every  Roman  citi- 
zen. -  He  wrote  a  diary  of  the  most  eventful 
occurrences  in  his  own  and  Csesar's  life,  and 
provided  for  the  continuation  of  the  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Gallic  War."  Four  of  his  let- 
ters to  Cicero  are  extant.  II.  Lneins  Cornelius 


BALDE 


BALDWIN 


237 


(Minor),  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
(Jades.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he 
made  ineffectual  attempts  to  detach  the  consul 
L.  Cornelius  Lentulus,  an  intimate  friend  of  his 
family,  from  his  allegiance  to  Pompey.  Balbus 
attended  Csesar  throughout  all  the  campaigns 
of  this  period,  and  after  their  termination  was 
appointed  pontiff.  While  quaestor  to  Asinius 
Pollio  in  Further  Spain  in  44  and  43  B.  0.  he 
greatly  enlarged  and  improved  his  native  city. 
But  his  quaestorship  was  marked  by  fraud  and 
oppression,  and  he  ultimately  fled  to  Africa 
(43),  and  20  years  afterward  reappeared  as 
proconsul  of  Africa.  While  holding  this  office 
he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Garamantes, 
which  procured  him  the  honor  of  a  triumph  in 
Rome,  the  first  ever  enjoyed  by  an  adopted  cit- 
izen. Balbus,  like  his  uncle,  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  He  built  a  theatre  at  Rome,  and  was 
a  favorite  of  Augustus.  III.  Qnintus  Lnelllns, 
a  Roman  philosopher,  of  the  earlier  half  of 
the  1st  century  B.  0.,  whom  Cicero  compared 
to  the  best  Greek  philosophers,  and  made  the 
expositor  of  stoical  opinions  in  his  dialogue 
De  Natura  Deorum.  IV.  Lucius  Oetavins,  a  Ro- 
man jurist,  probably  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  one  of  those  who  were  executed  by 
order  of  the  triumvirs  Octavius,  Antony,  and 
Lepidus.  V.  Titos  Ampins,  a  Roman  tribune, 
who  in  63  B.  0.  sought  to  obtain  for  Pompey 
the  honor  of  wearing  a  laurel  crown  and  all 
the  insignia  of  a  triumph  at  the  Circensian  and 
other  games,  in  consideration  of  his  Asiatic 
victories.  He  was  next  an  unsuccessful  candi- 
date for  the  sedileship,  though  sustained  by  Pom- 
pey. In  59  he  was  prsetor,  and  in  58  governor 
of  Cilicia.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
he  joined  the  Pompeians.  After  the  over- 
throw of  his  party  at  Pharsalia  he  was  ban- 
ished, but  the  mediation  of  Cicero  put  an  end 
to  his  exile.  He  wrote  a  work  on  contempo- 
rary events,  an  extract  of  which  is  given  in 
Suetonius. 

BALDE,  Jakob,  a  German  Latin  poet,  born  at 
Ensisheim,  Alsace,  in  1603,  died  at  Neuburg, 
in  the  Palatinate,  Aug.  9,  1668.  He  was  a 
professor  of  literature,  joined  the  society  of 
Jesus,  and  became  chaplain  of  the  elector  of 
Bavaria.  His  complete  works,  including  lyri- 
cal and  other  Latin  poems,  were  published  in 
Munich  in  8  vols.,  1729.  He  has  been  called 
the  German  Horace,  and  Herder  translated 
several  of  his  compositions.  New  editions  of 
his  Carmina  Lyrica  and  Satraehomyomachia 
appeared  at  Munster  in  1856-'9,  the  latter  with 
a  German  version. 

BALDI,  Bernardino,  an  Italian  scholar,  born  in 
Urbino,  June  6,  1553,  died  there,  Oct.  12, 1617. 
He  was  a  fellow  student  with  Tasso,  and  be- 
came an  intimate  friend  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  and  was  in  possession  of  the  rich  abbey 
of  Guastalla  from  1586  to  1611.  He  was  fa- 
miliar with  16  languages,  and  the  author  of 
about  100  miscellaneous  works  on  mathemat- 
ics, geography,  history,  &c.,  and  commentaries 
and  translations.  His  sonnets  and  his  didactic 


poem  in  blank  verse,  La  Nautica  (1590 ;  French 
version  in  prose,  Paris,  1840),  are  among  the 
finest  productions  of  his  day.  He  prepared  a 
translation  of  the  Chaldaic  Targum  of  Onke- 
los,  Arabic  and  Persian  grammars,  and  Turkish, 
Hungarian,  and  Arabic  dictionaries. 

BALDUR,  or  Balder,  in  northern  mythology, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga,  and  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  beloved  of  the  gods  of  Odin's  race. 
He  was  the  husband  of  Nanna  and  the  father 
of  Forseti.  His  home  was  in  Breidablik,  the 
most  beautiful  part  of  Asgard,  the  northern 
Olympus.  Baldur  having  long  been  troubled 
by  dreams  and  evil  omens,  indicating  danger  to 
his  life,  his  mother  travelled  through  the  whole 
universe,  eliciting  from  every  created  thing  a 
promise  not  to  injure  the  god.  She  only  neg- 
lected to  ask  this  from  the  mistletoe,  which 
seemed  to  her  entirely  harmless.  Loki,  the 
most  deceitful  among  the  gods,  and  an  enemy 
of  Baldur,  remarked  this  omission,  and  cut 
from  the  mistletoe  a  piece  for  the  point  of  a 
dart.  The  other  gods,  surrounding  Baldur, 
made  proof  of  his  invulnerability,  in  sport,  by 
casting  at  him  their  weapons,  with  stones  and 
clubs  of  wood ;  but  nothing  injured  him.  Then 
Loki  approached  and  induced  the  blind  god 
Hodur  to  throw  the  dart  he  had  made  from 
the  forgotten  mistletoe.  Baldur  was  pierced 
by  it  and  killed.  The  gods,  lamenting  his  loss, 
sent  his  brother  Hermodur  to  Hel,  the  under 
world,  to  ask  upon  what  condition  the  goddess 
of  the  dead  would  release  him.  The  reply  was 
that  he  could  only  be  spared  if  everything  in 
the  world  would  weep  for  him.  All  consented 
except  Loki,  who  had  disguised  himself  as  a 
giantess.  The  gods  then  celebrated  Baldur's 
funeral  with  the  greatest  pomp.  His  body  was 
carried  to  the  seashore  and  burned  on  his  great 
ship  Hinghorni,  which  was  lifted  out  of  the  sea 
by  the  aid  of  the  giantess  Hirrokin.  Nanna 
died  of  grief,  and  her  body  was  burned  with 
his.  By  the  ancient  Germans  Baldur  was  wor- 
shipped as  the  god  of  peace;  other  northern 
nations  seem  also  to  have  imagined  him  as  a 
deity  similar  to  the  Greek  Apollo. 

BALDWIN.  I.  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  N.  by  Little  river,  and  intersected  by 
the  Oconee ;  area,  257  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,618,  of  whom  6,774  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  diversified.  The  river  bottoms  are  high- 
ly fertile,  but  much  of  the  land  in  other  places 
is  nearly  worn  out.  The  Milledgeville  branch 
of  the  Georgia  Central  railroad  and  the  MacoH 
and  Augusta  railroad  pass  through  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  3,553  bush- 
els of  wheat,  89,857  of  Indian  corn,  18,285  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  4,036  bales  of  cotton. 
Capital,  Milledgeville.  II.  A  S.  county  of  Ala- 
bama, separated  on  the  E.  from  Florida  by  the 
Perdido  river  and  bay,  hounded  S.  by  the  gulf 
of  Mexico  and  W.  by  Mobile  bay  and  the  Mo- 
bile and  Alabama  rivers,  and  intersected  by  the 
Tensaw  river ;  area,  about  1,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,004,  of  whom  2,845  were  colored.  The 
Mobile  and  Montgomery  railroad  passes  through 


238 


BALDWIN 


the  county.  The  surface  is  level  or  moderately 
uneven.  The  soil  is  sandy  and  unproductive, 
but  supports  a  valuable  growth  of  pine  timber. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,025 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  19,411  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 87  bales  of  cotton,  and  9,864  Ibs.  of  wool. 
Capital,  Blakely. 

BALDWIN  (Fr.  Baudouin  or  Balduin),  the 
name  of  several  counts  of  Flanders. — Bald- 
win I.,  surnamed  Iron- Arm,  was  a  son-in-law 
of  Charles  the  Bald,  king  of  France,  and  died 
in  879. — Baldwin  II..  the  Bald,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, died  in  918.  He  waged  war  against  the 
kings  of  France,  Eudes  and  Charles  the  Sim- 
ple.—Baldwin  IV.,  the  Bearded,  died  in  1036. 
He  increased  his  family  domain  by  several 
conquests,  especially  that  of  Valenciennes,  and 
received  from  the  emperor  Henry  II.  the  island 
of  Walcheren.— Baldwin  V.,  of  Lille,  the  Debon- 
naire,  son  of  the  preceding  and  son-in-law  of 
King  Robert  of  France,  died  in  1067.  He  con- 
quered Hainault,  was  regent  of  France  during 
the  minority  of  his  nephew  Philip  I.,  and  helped 
William  of  Normandy,  his  son-in-law,  in  the 
conquest  of  England. — Baldwin  VIII.  died  in 
1195.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Philip  Augustus, 
but  became  reconciled  and  swore  allegiance  to 
Mm  in  1192. — Baldwin  IX.,  son  of  the  preceding. 
See  BALDWIN  I.  of  Constantinople. 

BALDWIN,  the  name  of  two  emperors  of 
Constantinople. — Baldwin  I.  (the  ninth  Flem- 
ish count  of  that  name),  born  in  Valenciennes 
in  1171,  died  in  1205  or  1206.  He  brought  to 
a  close  a  war  with  Philip  Augustus,  appointed 
his  uncle  William,  his  brother  Philip,  and  Bou- 
chard d'Avesnes  regents  of  Flanders,  took  holy 
orders  in  Brussels  in  1200  or  1201,  and  joined 
the  crusaders,  together  with  his  brother  Thier- 
ry. Subsequently  he  cooperated  with  the  Ve- 
netians under  Dandolo,  and  with  the  conni- 
vance of  Alexis,  son  of  the  deposed  Byzantine 
emperor  Isaac,  in  the  capture  of  Constantino- 
ple, when  he  was  crowned  as  emperor,  May 
16,  1204.  His  power  was  only  nominal,  the 
crusaders  dividing  the  Byzantine  provinces 
among  their  other  leaders.  Baldwin  delivered 
Thrace  from  the  Turkish  invaders,  but  the 
Greeks  having  invoked  the  assistance  of  the 
Bulgarians  against  him,  he  was  captured  April 
14, 1205,  near  Adrianople,  and  subjected  to  tor- 
tures from  which  he  died.  Some  accounts,  how- 
ever, leave  it  doubtful  whether  he  fell  in  battle 
or  died  in  prison. — Baldwin  II.,  last  Latin  em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  born  in  1217,  died  in 
1273.  He  was  a  son  of  Peter  de  Courtenay,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Robert  in  1228,  and,  though 
aided  by  the  pope  and  King  Louis  IX.,  was 
finally  driven  from  Constantinople  by  Michael 
Palseologus,  who  gained  possession  of  the  city 
by  stratagem  in  July,  1261.  Baldwin  fled  in 
disguise  to  the  island  of  Negropont,  and  from 
thence  to  Italy,  where  he  died  in  obscurity. 

BALDWIN,  the  name  of  five  kings  of  Jerusa- 
lem.—Baldwin  I.,  born  in  1058,  died  in  1118. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  the  fifth  count  of  Flan- 
ders, and  joined  his  brother  Godfrey  de  Bouil- 


lon in  the  first  crusade.  He  quarrelled  with 
Tancred  and  other  crusaders,  retired  to  Edessa, 
where  he  was  elected  count,  and  in  1100,  after 
the  death  of  Godfrey,  was  chosen  to  the  throne 
of  Jerusalem.  In  1102,  after  commanding  in 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Rama,  he  was  besieged 
in  Jaffa  by  the  Saracens,  but  put  them  to  flight. 
The  next  year  he  was  repulsed  before  St.  Jean 
d'Acre  (Ptolemais),  but  he  captured  it  with  the 
aid  of  the  Genoese  in  1104,  after  a  20  days'  siege. 
In  1109  he  took  Berytus  (Beyrout)  after  a  siege 
of  75  days,  and  in  1110  Sidon  (Saida).  He  fell 
ill  during  an  expedition  to  Egypt  and  died  on 
his  homeward  journey  to  Jerusalem.  His  in- 
testines were  buried  in  a  place  which  is  called 
the  sepulchre  of  Baldwin,  and  the  rest  of  his 
remains  were  interred  in  Jerusalem  by  the 
side  of  his  brother. — Baldwin  II.,  surnamed  Du 
BOBEG,  died  Aug.  21,  1131.  He  was  the  son 
of  Hugh,  count  of  Rethel,  and  a  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  whom  he  succeeded  as  ruler  of 
Edessa  in  1100.  In  1118  he  was  crowned  king 
of  Jerusalem,  and  in  1119  relieved  Antioch 
from  the  Moslems.  In  February,  1124,  while 
attempting  to  rescue  Jocelin,  count  of  Edes- 
sa, and  Galeran,  his  relative,  he  was  captured, 
and  ransomed  in  August  together  with  Joce- 
lin, Tyre  having  been  conquered  during  his  ab- 
sence by  the  regent  Eustache  Gamier.  After 
his  return  to  Jerusalem  Baldwin  made  an  in- 
eftectual  attempt  to  take  Aleppo,  but  he  suc- 
ceeded in  other  military  exploits,  and  consider- 
ably extended  the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom. 
The  order  of  the  templars  was .  sanctioned  by 
the  Roman  see  under  his  reign.  He  was  one 
of  the  bravest  knights  of  his  day,  and  remark- 
able both  for  his  valor  and  his  piety.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son-in-law  Fulk  of  Anjou. — 
Baldwin  III.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  1130,  died  Feb.  23,  1162.  He  succeeded 
his  father  Fulk  in  1143,  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  mother  Melisanda.  In  1148  he  joined 
the  emperor  Conrad  and  Louis  VII.  of  France 
in  the  siege  of  Damascus.  After  the  failure 
of  this  enterprise,  he  restored  and  fortified  the 
ancient  town  of  Gaza;  and  in  1153  he  cap- 
tured Ascalon  after  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
and  made  his  brother  Amaury  its  ruler.  In 
1159  he  took  Cuesarea,  which  he  gave  to  Re- 
naud,  prince  of  Antioch.  He  secured  the  alli- 
ance of  the  Greek  emperor  Manuel  by  marry- 
ing his  daughter  Theodora,  but  died  childless, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Amaury, 
He  was  regarded  as  a  model  knight. — Baldwin 
IV.,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1160, 
succeeded  his  father  Amaury  in  1173,  died 
March  11,  1186.  It  was  in  his  reign  that  Sala- 
din  assumed  the  title  of  sultan,  and  began  hi? 
warfare  with  the  Franks  of  Palestine,  narrowly 
missing  the  capture  of  Baldwin  near  Sidon  in 
1178,  but  being  defeated  in  1182  near  Tiberias. 
Attacked  with  leprosy  in  1183,  Baldwin  caused 
his  nephew,  the  son  of  his  sister  Sibyl  by  her 
first  marriage  with  Count  William  of  Montfer- 
rat,  to  be  crowned  as  Baldwin  V.,  and  at  the 
same  time  chose  Guy  de  Lusignan  as  second 


BALDWIN 


BALFE 


239 


husband  of  his  sister  and  regent  during  Bald- 
win's minority.  Guy,  however,  was  soon  dis- 
placed at  the  demand  of  the  harons,  and  retired 
to  Ascalon,  where  he  defied  a  weak  effort  of 
Baldwin  to  bring  him  to  trial.  Baldwin  IV. 
died  while  an  embassy  from  his  court  was  on 
the  way  to  Europe  to  invoke  assistance  against 
Saladin.  Baldwin  V.  was  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  by  his  mother  (1186)  in  order  to 
secure  the  crown  for  Lusignan,  who  according- 
ly succeeded. 

BALDWIN,  John  Dennison,  an  American  jour- 
nalist and  archieologist,  born  at  North  Stoning- 
ton,  Conn.,  Sept.  28, 1809.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
was  thrown  entirely  upon  his  own  exertions.  He 
fitted  himself  in  the  common  school  and  at  an 
academy  to  enter  college.  Not  being  able  to  pur- 
sue a  collegiate  course,  he  began  the  study  of  law, 
but  soon  abandoned  it  for  theology,  and  while 
pursuing  his  theological  studies  at  the  divinity 
school  in  New  Haven  went  through  the  course 
pursued  by  the  freshman,  sophomore,  and  junior 
classes  in  Yale  college,  from  which  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  A.  M.  In  1833  he  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  was  settled  at  North 
Branford,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  seven  or 
eight  years.  He  acquired  the  French  and  Ger- 
man languages,  and  by  1844  had  begun  to  give 
special  attention  to  archaeology  and  its  bearing 
upon  the  current  schemes  of  ancient  history. 
He  also  wrote  much  for  magazines  and  news- 
papers, and  became  editor  of  the  "Charter 
Oak,"  an  anti-slavery  newspaper  published  in 
Hartford,  and  afterward  of  the  "Common- 
wealth," published  in  Boston.  In  1859  he  be- 
came editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Worcester 
Spy,"  one  of  the  oldest  journals  in  New  Eng- 
land. In  1863  he  was  elected  to  congress,  and 
was  twice  reelected.  In  1847  he  published 
"  Raymond  Hill,"  a  small  volume  of  poems. 
While  a  member  of  congress  he  continued  his 
archaeological  studies,  and  in  1869  published  a 
work  on  "  Prehistoric  Nations,"  and  in  1872 
one  on  "  Ancient  America." 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean,  the  principal  of  which  are  Ma- 
jorca, Minorca,  and  the  penal  settlement  of 
Cabrera,  forming  a  province  of  Spain,  situated 
opposite  that  of  Valencia,  between  lat.  39°  6' 
and  40°  5'  N.  and  Ion.  2°  20'  and  4°  21'  E. ; 
area,  1,860  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  284,398. 
Formerly  the  islands  of  Iviza  and  Formente- 
ra,  lying  between  Majorca  and  the  mainland, 
were  generally  considered  a  part  of  this  group. 
Both  Majorca  and  Minorca  are  mountainous, 
the  highest  mountain  rising  over  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  climate  is  delightful,  and 
the  soil  extremely  fertile,  but  agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding  are  neglected,  despite  of  fine 
pasture.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  very  large,  how- 
ever, and  mules  and  asses  are  reared  for  ex- 
portation. The  principal  products  are  olives, 
oranges,  figs,  and  other  fruits,  red  and  white 
wine,  and  saffron.  The  exports  comprise  these 
articles  as  well  as  oil,  brandy,  home-made  palm 
brooms,  baskets,  and  wooden  wares.  The 
68  VOL.  ii. — 16 


trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  Majorca  and 
Minorca.  The  inhabitants  resemble  the  Cata- 
lans. The  language  of  the  common  people  is 
a  corrupt  Catalan  dialect  mixed  with  words 
from  various  eastern  languages.  The  islands 
were  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  under 
their  present  name,  which  they  derived  from 
pdUstv,  to  throw,  in  reference  to  the  great 
skill  of  the  inhabitants  as  slingers.  Early  set- 
tlements were  made  by  the  Phoenicians  and 
Carthaginians.  During  the  Pnnic  wars  the 
islanders  served  as  slingers  in  the  armies  of 
both  Carthage  and  Rome.  Subsequently  their 
piracies  caused  them  to  be  subdued  by  the 
Romans  under  Q.  C.  Metellus  (123  B.  C.),  hence 
surnamed  Balearicus.  They  successively  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  the  Visigoths, 
and  the  Moors;  were  held  by  Charlemagne 
six  years,  and  retaken  by  the  Moors,  who  were 
not  expelled  till  the  13th  century.  Conquered 
by  James  I.  of  Aragon  in  1229,  they  formed 
after  his  death,  for  about  70  years,  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Majorca,  and  in  1343  reverted  to 
Aragon. 

BALECHOr,  Jean  Jacques  Nicolas,  a  French  en- 
graver, born  at  Aries  in  1715,  died  in  Avignon, 
Aug.  18,  1765.  His  finest  work  is  the  full- 
length  portrait  of  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland, 
after  Rigaud,  in  the  Dresden  gallery.  Among 
his  works  were  three  fine  plates  after  Claude 
Vernet,  and  one  of  Ste.  Genevieve,  after  Vanloo. 

BALEN,  Hendrik  van,  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
in  Antwerp  in  1560,  died  there  in  1632.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Adam  von  Oort,  the  teacher  of 
Rubens,  perfected  his  art  in  Italy,  and  became 
the  instructor  of  Vandyke  and  Snyders,  and 
the  first  of  Flemish  painters  who  succeeded  in 
purity  of  coloring.  His  cabinet  pictures,  chief- 
ly classical  subjects,  with  landscapes  by  Jan 
Breughel  and  Kierings,  enjoyed  great  popular- 
ity. Altar  pieces  of  his  are  in  the  Antwerp 
cathedral. 

BALESTRA,  Antonio,  an  Italian  painter,  born 
in  Verona  in  1666,  died  April  2,  1740,  or  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts  in  1734  or  1744.  He 
left  commerce  for  art,  studied  in  Venice,  Bo- 
logna, Rome,  and  Naples,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  St.  Luke  in  Rome,  which 
conferred  a  prize  upon  his  "Defeat  of  the 
Giants."  In  1695  he  removed  to  Venice,  and 
afterward  to  Verona.  He  was  one  of  the  last 
great  representatives  of  the  Venetian  school. 
He  engraved  in  aquatint,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  copperplate  engraver  Giovan- 
ni Balestra. 

BALFE,  Michael  William,  an  Irish  composer, 
born  in  Dublin,  May  15,  1808,  died  in  London, 
Oct.  20,  1870.  When  eight  years  old  he  played 
a  concerto  on  the  violin  at  a  public  concert. 
At  the  age  of  nine  he  wrote  the  ballad  called 
"  The  Lover's  Mistake,"  effectively  introduced 
into  the  play  of  "Paul  Pry"  by  Mme.  Vestris. 
He  lost  his  father  in  1823,  and  went  to  London 
with  Mr.  Charles  Horn,  the  composer,  as  an 
articled  pupil  for  seven  years.  He  was  soon 
engaged  as  principal  violinist  at  the  Drury 


240 


BALFOUR 


BALI 


Lane  oratorios,  and  in  the  Drury  Lane  orches- 
tra, under  Thomas  Oooke.  In  1825  he  went 
on  the  stage.  His  voice,  which  he  had  culti- 
vated, was  a  rich  baritone,  but  he  utterly  failed 
from  timidity  as  Casper  in  Der  Freischutz,  at 
the  Norwich  theatre.  Immediately  afterward 
Count  Mazzara,  who  fancied  that  he  resembled 
a  son  whom  his  wife  had  lost,  took  young  Balfe 
with  him  to  Rome,  where  the  countess  received 
him  very  tenderly.  Here  he  remained  for  a 
year,  studying  under  the  best  masters.  After 
this,  still  through  the  bounty  of  Count  Mazzara, 
he  had  similar  advantages  at  Milan,  where  his 
first  production  of  any  pretension,  a  ballet  called 
La  Peyrouse,  was  performed  with  great  success. 
Passing  on  to  Paris,  where  Rossini  held  out 
hopes  of  an  engagement  at  the  Italian  opera, 
he  applied  himself  to  study  for  several  months, 
and  at  last  appeared  as  Figaro  in  the  "Barber 
of  Seville,"  with  Sontag  as  Rosina.  His  career 
as  a  dramatic  singer  was  triumphant,  in  Italy 
as  well  as  in  France,  after  this.  He  sang  in 
New  York  in  1834,  and  in  1835  returned  to 
London,  accompanied  by  his  wife,  who  had 
been  Mile.  Lina  Rezer,  prima  donna  of  the 
troupe  in  Sicily.  He  sang  at  the  ancient  and 
philharmonic  concerts  in  London,  and  appeared 
at  Drury  Lane  in  his  "  Siege  of  Rochelle,"  "  The 
Jewess,"  and  Chiara  de  Rosenberg.  The  "  Maid 
of  Artois,"  written  for  Mme.  Malibran,  and  in 
which  she  won  one  of  her  greatest  triumphs, 
came  next.  A  variety  of  operas,  among  which 
"Falstaff"  deserves  particular  mention,  fol- 
lowed, and  most  of  them  were  popular.  In 
1839  Mr.  Balfe  became  manager  of  the  English 
opera  house,  but  did  not  succeed.  His  "  Bohe- 
mian Girl,"  the  most  popular  and  one  of  the 
best  of  all  his  works,  filled  the  treasury  at 
Drury  Lane,  and  is  still  a  favorite  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  Toward  the  close  of 
Mr.  Balfe's  life  it  was  successfully  produced  in 
Paris  under  the  composer's  direction.  "The 
Daughter  of  St.  Mark,"  "The  Enchantress," 
"  The  Bondman,"  " The  Rose  of  Castile,"  "  The 
Puritan's  Daughter,"  "Satanella"  (1858),  and 
other  operas  were  subsequently  produced,  and 
many  of  them  were  represented  with  great 
success  in  Germany. — In  the  spring  of  1857  his 
daughter,  Miss  VICTORIA  BALFE,  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  London  as  a  vocalist.  In  1860  she 
married  Sir  John  Crampton,  from  whom  she 
was  divorced  in  1863;  and  in  1864  she  married 
the  Spanish  duke  de  Frias.  She  died  in  Ma- 
drid, Jan.  21,  1871. 

BALFOUR,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  the  parish  of  Monikee,  Forfarshire,  March  1, 
1767,  died  Sept.  18,  1829.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  weaver,  failed  in  business  in  London  (1815), 
and  eventually  became  a  clerk  of  the  Messrs. 
Blackwood  in  Edinburgh.  Mr.  Canning  ob- 
tained for  him  a  grant  of  £100  from  the  nation- 
al treasury.  He  wrote  "Campbell,  or  the 
Scottish  Probationer"  (1819);  "The  Found- 
ling of  Glenthorn,  or  the  Smuggler's  Cave " 
(1823) ;  and  "  Highland  Mary."  He  edited  the 
poems  of  his  friend  Richard  Gall,  and  contrib- 


uted to  the  "Edinburgh  Review."  D.  M. 
Moir  published  a  posthumous  selection  from 
his  writings  under  the  title  of  "Weeds  and 
Wild  Flowers,"  with  a  biographical  notice. 

i:\UOI  li.  Sir  James,  a  Scottish  jurist  and 
politician,  born  in  Fifeshire  early  in  the  16th 
century,  died  about  1583.  He  was  educated 
for  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  but  joined  the 
Protestants,  took  part  in  the  conspiracy  against 
Cardinal  Beaton,  was  made  prisoner  at  the 
surrender  of  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and 
with  Knox,  who  called  him  the  blasphemous 
Balfour,  was  imprisoned  in  the  French  galleys. 
He  escaped  in  1550,  again  changed  his  religion, 
attached  himself  to  Bothwell's  fortunes,  was 
made  privy  councillor,  and  received  many 
other  appointments,  including  the  governor- 
ship of  Edinburgh  castle.  He  was  present  at 
the  murder  of  Rizzio,  and  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  the  death  of  Darnley.  He  gave  up  to 
the  confederate  lords  the  celebrated  letters  in- 
trusted to  him  for  safe  keeping  by  Bothwell, 
on  which  it  was  attempted  to  establish  Mary's 
guilt.  Murray  afterward  made  him  president 
of  the  court  of  session,  and  Morton  employed 
him  with  Skene  in  compiling  the  revision  of 
the  Scottish  statutes,  known  as  "The  Prack- 
ticks."  One  of  his  last  acts  was  compassing 
Morton's  death  by  furnishing  the  deed  signed  by 
him  at  the  time  of  the  assassination  of  Darnley. 

BALFOrR,  Walter,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  the  parish  of  St.  Ninians,  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  about  1776,  died  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  Jan.  3,  1852.  He  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  of  the  church  of  Scotland,  and  after 
preaching  a  few  years  emigrated  to  America. 
He  was  still  in  the  faith  of  the  Scottish  kirk, 
but  at  the  age  of  30  became  a  Baptist.  A  few 
years  later  some  circumstances,  among  which 
he  always  reckoned  the  letters  of  Prof.  Stuart 
of  Andover  to  the  Rev.  W.  E.  Channing,  written 
in  1819,  led  him  to  think  of  the  doctrines  of 
Universalism,  and  finally  to  embrace  them.  In 
1823  he  avowed  his  opinions,  and  was  from 
that  time  a  laborious  writer  and  preacher  in 
support  of  the  doctrines  he  then  espoused. 

It  tll'KI  Ml.  or  lialfiini.li.  a  town  of  Persia, 
in  the  province  of  Mazanderan,  situated  on  the 
river  Bahbul,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  9 
arches,  about  12  m.  from  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  about  100  m.  N.  E.  of 
Teheran ;  pop.  about  60,000.  It  is  situated  in 
a  swampy  but  fertile  country,  in  the  midst  of 
tall  trees.  It  formerly  had  an  extensive  trade 
with  Russia,  and  many  fine  bazaars  and  col- 
leges, but  has  much  declined  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  the  plague  and  the  cholera,  and  the 
unhealthy  climate. 

BALI,  or  Little  Java,  an  island  of  the  Malay 
archipelago,  the  westernmost  of  the  Little  Sunda 
islands,  situated  between  Java  and  Lombok,  70 
m.  long  by  35  m.  average  breadth ;  area  about 
2,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  600,000.  The  geol- 
ogy resembles  that  of  Java,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait.  The  island  is 
traversed  E.  and  W.  by  mountain  ranges,  which 


BALIOL 


BALKH 


241 


terminate  in  a  volcanic  peak  orer  11,000  ft. 
high.  The  eruption  in  1815  of  another  volcano, 
Gunung  Batur,  7,000  ft.  high,  caused  great 
loss  of  life.  The  coast  is  rugged,  and  has  few 
harbors.  The  land  is  productive,  and  abun- 
dantly watered.  The  chief  products  in  the 
south  are  grain  and  sweet  potatoes,  and  in  the 
north  rice.  The  imports  are  opium,  betel, 
ivory,  gold,  and  silver ;  and  the  exports  include 
hides,  oil,  edible  birds'  nests,  and  other  articles. 
The  natives  are  skilful  artificers  in  gold  and 
iron,  and  manufacture  firearms.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  be  descended  from  Hindoo  colonists 
of  Java,  and  are  with  those  of  Lombok  the 
only  people  in  the  archipelago  who  observe 
Hindoo  rites.  The  Kavi  is  the  religious  lan- 
guage, and  the  Sunda  is  spoken  by  the  masses. 
Widows  are  killed  by  their  nearest  relatives, 
and  their  bodies  burned.  Among  the  nobles 
the  practice  of  burning  the  dead  also  prevails 
to  some  extent.  Many  of  the  higher  classes 
are  fond  of  letters,  and  have  large  collections 
of  MSS.,  chiefly  translations  from  Javanese 
and  Malay.  There  are  in  the  island  about 
4,000  Mohammedans  and  8,000  Chinese.  The 
island  was  divided  in  1815  into  nine  principali- 
ties or  rajahships,  the  village  administration  be- 
ing about  the  same  as  in  Java.  The  prince  of 
Klongkong  has  a  theocratic  supremacy  over  all 
the  islands  by  virtue  of  his  reputed  descent 
from  Deva  Agung,  the  deified  progenitor  of 
the  Balinese.  The  most  powerful  of  all  the 
principalities  is  Karang  Assam,  in  the  north- 
east, which  is  dynastically  united  with  the 
neighboring  island  of  Lombok.  The  Dutch 
in  1846  resented  an  alleged  insult  to  one 
of  their  diplomatic  agents  by  capturing  the 
chief  fortress,  Baliling,  and  extorting  a  treaty, 
the  violation  of  which  led  to  a  new  expedition 
in  1847,  in  which  they  were  defeated  with 
considerable  loss.  Subsequent  expeditions  were 
more  successful,  both  in  checking  the  Bali  pi- 
rates and  inducing  the  ruling  princes  to  make 
important  concessions.  The  Dutch  have  a 
settlement  at  Badong  on  the  S.  coast. 

BALIOL.     See  BALLIOL. 

BALIZE,  or  Belize,  a  town  of  British  Hon- 
duras, Central  America,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  lat.  17°  29'  N.,  Ion. 
88°  8'  W. ;  pop.  about  12,000,  many  of  whom 
are  negroes.  It  is  built  along  a  single  street 
running  parallel  with  the  seashore  ;  from  this 
extend  only  a  few  inconsiderable  side  streets, 
almost  every  house  in  the  town  facing  the  main 
thoroughfare.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
market  (an  iron  structure),  the  government 
savings  bank,  a  hospital  and  an  insane  asylum, 
and  several  churches.  There  are  also  numer- 
ous schools.  The  trade  of  Balize  is  consider- 
able ;  cochineal  and  mahogany  are  the  leading 
articles  of  export.  Balize  was  first  settled  by  J 
the  English  about  1670 ;  and  after  numerous  j 
contests  with  the  Spaniards,  who  claimed  pos- 
session of  the  site,  it  was  finally  confirmed  to 
the  British  by  the  treaty  of  1783.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  legislature  of  British  Honduras. 


BALKAN    MOUNTAINS,    an    extensive    range 
bounding  the  great  plains  of  Bulgaria  S.  of  the 

1  lower  Danube.  The  true  Balkan,  or  ancient 
Htemus,  commences  on  the  Black  sea  at  Cape 
Einineh  or  Haemus,  lat.  42°  43',  and,  after 
making  a  curve  to  the  north,  runs  W.  S.  W.  to 
the  sources  of  the  Maritza,  the  ancient  Hebrus, 
comprising  about  four  degrees  of  longitude, 
dividing  Bulgaria  from  Roumelia  or  Thrace. 
Here  it  is  intersected  at  an  acute  angle  by  a 
range  running  N.  W.  and  S.  E.  from  Roumelia 
into  Servia,  and  called  by  the  ancients  Rho- 
dope  and  Scomius,  by  moderns  Despoto  Dagh 
and  Dupansha  Dagh.  Further  west,  after  mak- 
ing a  sharp  curve  toward  the  southern  frontier 
of  Servia,  it  becomes  the  Mount  Orbelus  of  the 
ancients.  Between  Servia  and  Albania  it  is 
the  Mons  Scardus,  or  Kara  Dagh,  and  thence 
crosses  Albania,  joining  the  Dinaric  Alps  and 
approaching  the  Adriatic  sea.  The  offshoots 
of  the  Balkan  both  N.  and  S.  are  very  numer- 
ous, extending  toward  the  Carpathians  on  one 
side,  and  the  mountains  of  Macedonia  on  the 
other.  The  average  elevation  of  these  moun- 
tains is  about  4,000  ft.  The  loftiest  peaks  rise 
about  4,000  ft.  higher.  The  Balkan  is  the  nat- 
ural northern  defence  of  Turkey.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  passes,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of 
Shumla,  by  which  the  Russians  under  General 
Diebitsch  effected  a  passage  in  1829.  Some  of 

;  the  rivers  which  take  their  rise  in  the  Balkan 
are  of  considerable  importance.  Those  which 
flow  from  the  northern  watershed  are  tributa- 
ries to  the  Danube,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  which  run  into  the  Black  sea.  On  the 
south  the  Maritza  and  its  tributaries  flow  into 
the  ^Egean  sea.  From  the  western  range  the 
Morava  (Margus)  and  the  Drina  (Drinus)  flow 
north  through  Servia  from  Mount  Orbelus.  On 
the  south  the  Mesta  or  Kara  Su  (Nestus),  Stru- 
raa  (Strymon),  and  Vardar  (Axius)  carry  off 

'  the  waters  into  the  gulfs  of  Contessa  and 
Salonica.  The  mountains  are  principally  of 
granitic  formation.  Marble  is  abundant  in  the 
southern  ranges.  Gold  and  silver  were  found 
by  the  ancients.  Copper,  iron,  and  lead  mines 
also  exist. 

BALK  ASH,  Balkhash,  or  Tengiz,  a  lake  of  S.  W. 
Siberia,  between  lat.  44°  and  47°  N.,  and  Ion.  74° 
and  79°  E. ;  length  from  N".  E.  to  S.  W.,  250  m. ; 
greatest  breadth,  70  m. ;  area  about  8,01)0  sq.  m. 
It  has  no  visible  outlet.  It  is  enclosed  by 
mountains  on  the  E.  and  W.  On  the  S.  and 
S.  W.  it  receives  the  Hi,  whose  valley  was  a 
century  ago  the  principal  domain  of  the  Dzun- 
garis.  They  were  nearly  annihilated  by  the 
Chinese,  who  introduced  various  settlers  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  lake  is  frozen 
during  winter.  It  contains  only  small  fish. 
The  Russian  government  has  attempted  to  nav- 
igate part  of  the  Hi  since  1852. 

BALKH.  I.  A  country  of  central  Asia,  the 
main  part  of  ancient  Bactria,  situated  between 
lat.  35°  and  37°  N.,  and  Ion.  63°  and  69°  E., 
bounded  N.  by  the  Oxus,  E.  by  Badakhshan, 
W.  by  the  desert,  and  S.  by  the  Hindoo  Koosh 


242 


BALL 


BALLANTYNE 


and  its  western  continuation ;  area,  nearly  ' 
30,000  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  about  1,000,000,  chiefly  i 
Uzbecks.  The  southern  part  is  rocky,  but  has 
many  fine  valleys ;  the  eastern  is  mountainous, 
but  less  barren  than  the  western  and  northern 
parts.  Its  inhabitants  comprise  both  peaceful 
and  warlike  tribes.  Many  are  engaged  in  the 
caravan  trade  between  Russia,  China,  and  In- 
dia; others  are  mechanics  and  agriculturists. 
Balkh  formerly  included  Koondooz,  Khooloom, 
and  other  districts  which  have  now  become 
separate  governments.  It  formed  part  of  Ca-  j 
bool,  and  after  the  fall  of  the  Durrani  dynasty  j 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  ruler  of  Bokhara. 
In  1850  it  was  conquered  by  Dost  Mohammed, 
and  the  widow  of  Feis  Mohammed  of  Balkh 
furnished  in  1867  funds  to  Shere  All  for  gath- 
ering a  considerable  army.  In  1871  a  treaty 
was  concluded  which  fixed  the  upper  Oxus  as 
a  boundary  line  between  Afghanistan  and  Bo- 
khara, Balkh  belonging  again  to  the  former  gov- 
ernment, though  in  an  unsettled  condition  and 
virtually  ruled  by  Russian  influence.  II.  A 
city  (anc.  Bactra),  capital  of  the  preceding 
country,  in  lat.  36°  48'  N.,  Ion.  67°  18'  E.,  on 
the  Balkh  or  Dehaz  river,  a  tributary  of  the 
Oxus,  250  m.  S.  E.  of  Bokhara  and  180  m.  N. 
W.  of  Oabool ;  pop.  about  2,000.  Its  origin  is 
associated  with  Kaimurs,  the  mythical  founder 
of  a  Persian  dynasty,  and  it  flourished  as  the 
capital  of  a  Greek  kingdom  under  the  succes- 
sors of  Alexander  the  Great.  (See  BAOTBIA.) 
Devastated  by  Genghis  Khan,  Tamerlane,  Na- 
dir Shah,  and  others,  and  deprived  of  most  of 
its  former  commerce  since  the  discovery  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  it  has  lost  its  splendor, 
traces  of  which,  however,  linger  in  ruins  ex- 
tending over  20  m.,  and  it  is  still  called  by  the 
natives  the  mother  of  cities. 

BALL,  Game  of.     See  BASE  BALL. 

BALL,  John,  an  English  fanatical  preacher  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  executed  at  Coventry 
in  1381.  He  was  a  priest  who  had  been  re- 
peatedly excommunicated  for  preaching  "er- 
rors and  schisms,  and  scandals  against  the  pope, 
the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  clergy;"  and 
when  Wycliffe  began  to  preach  he  adopted 
some  of  that  reformer's  doctrines  and  engrafted 
them  on  his  own.  He  joined  Wat  Tyler's  re- 
bellion in  1381,  and  at  Blackheath  preached  to 
a  hundred  thousand  of  the  insurgents  a  violent 
democratic  sermon  on  the  text, 

When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman  1 

His  sermons  and  letters  contributed  greatly  to 
spread  the  insurrection.  After  the  death  of 
Wat  he  was  seized  with  others  of  the  leaders 
and  either  beheaded  or  hanged. 

BALL,  Thomas,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  June  3,  1819.  He  was 
originally  a  portrait  painter  in  Boston,  but 
about  1852  began  to  devote  himself  exclusively 
to  modelling.  His  first  production  in  the  plas- 
tic art  was  a  miniature  bust  of  Jenny  Lind, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  a  life-size  bust  of 


Daniel  Webster,  esteemed  an  excellent  likeness. 
After  executing  a  life-size  statue  of  the  same 
statesman  he  passed  several  years  in  Europe, 
and  upon  his  return  to  Boston  received  a  com- 
mission for  an  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
which  was  cast  in  bronze  by  the  Ames  manu- 
facturing company  at  Chicopee,  Mass,,  and 
placed  in  the  public  garden  of  Boston  in  1868. 
He  revisited  Europe  in  1865,  passing  some  time 
in  Rome  and  Florence.  His  remaining  works 
include  a  bust  of  Rufus  Choate,  statuettes  of 
Webster,  Lincoln,  and  Clay,  a  life-size  statue  of 
Edward  Everett  (in  the  Boston  public  library), 
a  statue  of  Edwin  Forrest  in  the  character  of 
Coriolanus,  one  of  Eve,  and  a  number  of  ideal 
busts  and  statues.  In  1871  his  statue  of  Gov. 
Andrew  of  Massachusetts  was  placed  in  the 
state  house  at  Boston. 

BALLANCHE,  Pierre  Simon,  a  French  writer 
and  philosopher,  born  in  Lyons  in  1776,  died 
in  Paris,  June  12,  1847.  He  first  followed 
the  trade  of  his  father,  who  was  a  bookseller 
and  a  printer.  In  1801  he  published  Du  senti- 
ment considers  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  litte- 
rature  et  les  arts.  In  1814  appeared  his  histor- 
ical novel  Antigone,  and  subsequently  an  Etsai 
sur  les  institutions  saddles  dans  leurs  rapports 
a/vec  les  idees  nouvelles,  in  which  he  sought  to 
reconcile  national  tradition  with  the  progres- 
sive law  of  modern  society.  These  works 
made  little  impression  upon  the  general  public; 
but  Ms  L'homme  sans  nom  (1820),  a  novel 
which  bitterly  denounced  some  old  revolution- 
ary leaders,  was  more  successful.  After  this 
publication  Ballanche,  who  had  previously  re- 
moved to  Paris,  devoted  himself  to  purely 
speculative  studies.  In  spite  of  their  abstruse- 
ness,  his  subsequent  works  were  eagerly  sought 
for.  In  Orphee  he  symbolically  expounded  the 
way  in  which  every  great  social  evolution  must 
be  accomplished.  The  Prolegomenes,  which 
serve  as  an  introduction  to  Orphee,  and  his 
great  work  Palingenesie  sociale,  contain  a  full 
exposition  of  his  prophetic  and  mystical  theo- 
ries. These  theories  are  summed  up,  though 
not  made  more  intelligible,  in  La  vision  d'He- 
bal,  chef  d'un  clan  ecossais,  which  was  his  last 
publication.  He  was  much  respected  by  Cha- 
teaubriand and  Mme.  K6camier. 

BALLANTVJIE.  I.  James,  a  Scottish  printer, 
born  at  Kelso  in  1772,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Jan. 
17, 1833.  He  was  a  schoolfellow  of  Walter  Scott 
at  Kelso  grammar  school.  In  1795  he  began 
practice  as  a  solicitor  in  his  native  town,  and 
the  next  year  started  a  weekly  journal  called 
the  "Kelso  Mail,"  to  which  Scott  contributed. 
By  the  advice  of  the  novelist  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh,  to  carry  on  the  printing  business. 
The  first  volumes  issued  from  what  he  called 
the  "  Border  Press  "  were  the  first  and  second 
of  Scott's  "  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border," 
brought  out  in  a  manner  greatly  superior  to 
any  Scotch  printing  of  that  time.  The  third 
volume  followed  in  1803.  From  that  time  he 
printed  all  of  Scott's  works,  and  the  Ballan- 
tyne  press  attained  a  high  reputation.  From 


BALL A RAT 


BALLET 


243 


1805,  when  the  "Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel" 
was  published,  to  his  failure  in  1826,  Scott  was 
a  secret  partner  with  Ballantyne,  not  only  in 
the  printing  business,  but  in  the  proprietorship 
of  the  "Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal,"  which 
Ballantyne  conducted  with  spirit  and  success. 
Ballantyne  was  in  the  secret  of  the  authorship 
of  "  Waverley,"  and  was  almost  the  only  per- 
son to  whose  criticism  and  suggestions  Scott 
paid  any  attention.  For  many  years  he  printed 
"Blackwood's  Magazine;" and  in  1822  145,000 
volumes  of  Scott's  works  were  issued  from  Bal- 
lantyne's  press.  Unfortunately,  Scott  also  be- 
came principal  in  a  publishing  house  of  which 
John  Ballantyne  was  the  ostensible  head.  After 
struggling  for  some  years,  with  heavy  losses, 
this  concern  was  broken  up,  and  the  Ballan- 
tynes  shared  in  Scott's  misfortunes.  Wilson 
described  James  Ballantyne  as  "  the  best  de- 
claimer  extant,"  and  Lockhart  said  he  was  one 
of  the  best  readers  he  ever  heard.  He  was  con- 
sidered for  25  years  the  best  theatrical  orator  in 
Scotland.  II.  John,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Kelso  about  1774,  died  June  16,  1821. 
After  having  filled  the  office  of  clerk  in  a  Lon- 
don bank  for  some  time,  he  returned  to  his 
native  place,  where  he  kept  a  clothier's  shop ; 
but  he  was  unfortunate  in  business,  and  in 
1806  went  to  Edinburgh  as  clerk  to  his  brother 
James.  In  1808  he  became  nominal  head  of 
the  publishing  house  of  John  Ballantyne  and 
company.  After  the  failure  of  this  concern  he 
became  a  literary  auctioneer  in  Edinburgh. 
His  liveliness,  humor,  eccentricity,  and  con- 
vivial habits  greatly  endeared  him  to  Scott, 
and  he  was  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Wilson, 
in  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  for  his  social 
qualities.  He  wrote  an  unsuccessful  novel, 
"  The  Widow's  Lodgings,"  and  for  a  short  time 
conducted  a  weekly  periodical  called  "The 
Sale  Room,"  to  which  Scott  contributed  some 
minor  poems,  including  the  humorous  piece 
entitled  "The  Sultan  of  Serendib,  or  the 
Search  after  Happiness." 

BiLLiRAT,  a  city  of  Victoria,  New  South 
Wales,  next  to  Melbourne  and  Sydney  the 
largest  town  of  Australia,  situated  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,437  ft.  above  the  sea,  66  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Melbourne.  It  is  divided  into  Ballarat  West 
and  Ballarat  East,  separated  by  the  Yarowee 
creek.  Ballarat  West  was  erected  into  a  city 
in  September,  1870;  pop.  in  1871,  40,651  (of 
whom  1,500  were  Chinese),  and  with  the  sur- 
rounding district,  74,260.  The  town  owes  its 
rapid  growth  to  being  the  centre  of  perhaps 
the  richest  gold-bearing  district  of  the  world. 
The  public  buildings  in  1871  comprised  a  spa- 
cious hospital  erected  on  high  ground,  an  or- 
phan asylum,  a  benevolent  asylum,  a  public 
bath,  a  free  public  library,  a  theatre,  eight 
banks,  three  town  halls,  and  56  churches.  In 
the  same  year  Ballarat  had  four  daily  newspa- 
pers. Gold  was  first  discovered  in  Ballarat  in 
June,  1851 ;  in  December,  1855,  it  was  pro- 
claimed a  municipality.  Some  of  the  gold 
mines  were  in  1871  as  deep  as  some  of  the  coal 


pits  in  England,  with  horses  employed  in  them, 
and  worked  by  expensive  steam  machinery. 
In  all  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  on  the 
Ballarat  gold  fields  215  engines  of  6,461  horse 
power  engaged  in  surface  mining,  and  140  en- 
gines of  3,390  horse  power  used  in  quartz  min- 
ing. The  district  around  Ballarat  is  also  well 
suited  for  farming  purposes. 

BALLARD,  a  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  sepa- 
j  rated  from  Missouri  by  the  Mississippi  river, 
i  and  from  Illinois  by  the  Ohio;  area,  500  sq. 
I  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,576,  of  whom  1,477  were 
I  colored.     It  has  a  moderately  uneven  surface, 
with  plenty  of  good  timber  land.     The  soil  of 
the  southern  portions  of  the  county  is  quite 
fertile,  but  in  the  north  it  is  poor.     The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  70,794  bushels  of 
wheat,  577,759  of  corn,  28,223  of  oats,  18,198 
of  Irish   and  17,220   of  sweet  potatoes,   and 
2,863,455  Ibs.  of  tobacco.     Capital,  Blandville. 
BALLENSTEDT,  a  town  of  the  duchy  of  An- 
halt,  Germany,  at  the  foot  of  the  Lower  Hartz, 
on  the  Getel,  15  m.  S.  E.  of  Halbertstadt ;  pop. 
in  1867,  4,500.     Count  Esico  IV.  of  Ballen- 
stedt  founded   about  the  middle  of  the  10th 
century  a  collegiate  church,  which  was  soon 
afterward  changed  into  a  Benedictine  convent. 
After  1525  a  castle  took  the  place  of  the  con- 
j  vent,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  peas- 
ants.    In  1765  it  became  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Anhalt-Bernburg. 

BALLET  (Gr.  paZM&tv,  It.  ballare,  to  dance), 
a  dramatic  representation  composed  of  dancing 
and  pantomime  with  music.  Many  passages 
in  the  Greek  writers  show  that  the  ballet  of 
action  was  in  great  credit  among  them.  The 
!  Romans  reached  in  it,  under  the  reign  of  Augus- 
|  tus,  a  rare  edgree  of  perfection.  Three  dancers 
j  above  all,  Bathyllus,  Pylades,  and  Hyllus,  ac- 
|  complished  wonders  by  their  varied  perform- 
I  ances,  in  which  artistic  skill  and  truthfulness 
of  pantomime  were  admirably  blended.  Py- 
lades personified  tragic  subjects,  while  Bathyl- 
lus excelled  in  the  representation  of  the  comic. 
These  entertainments  continued  popular  down 
to  the  fall  of  the  empire;  but  it  was  only 
in  the  later  period  that  women  appeared  on 
the  stage ;  and  among  the  most  favorite  per- 
formers at  Constantinople  was  Theodora,  who 
became  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Justinian. 
The  middle  ages  present  no  records  of  the  bal- 
let ;  but  in  1489,  on  occasion  of  the  marriage 
of  the  duke  of  Milan,  a  spectacle  of  the  kind 
excited  such  admiration  that  it  was  introduced 
in  several  countries.  France  was  foremost  in 
encouraging  this  entertainment;  in  1581  Cath- 
arine de'  Medici  had  a  great  ballet  performed, 
"  Circe  and  her  Nymphs,"  the  expenses  of 
which  amounted  to  3,600,000  livres.  The  pop- 
ularity of  the  ballet  all  over  Europe  was  in- 
creased in  the  18th  century  by  Noverre,  whom 
Garrick  called  the  Shakespeare  of  the  dance. 
He  elevated  the  character  of  the  ballet,  im- 
proving it  as  a  whole  and  in  its  details,  and 
propagated  its  principles  through  the  principal 
European  cities,  where  he  was  either  the  foun- 


244 


BALLINA 


BALLIOL 


der  or  the  reformer  of  the  ballet ;  finally,  he 
returned  to  France,  and  became  chief  ballet 
master  of  the  royal  academy  of  music.  "A 
ballet  perfect  in  all  its  parts,"  according  to 
Noverre,  "is  a  picture  drawn  from  life  of 
the  manners,  dresses,  ceremonies,  and  customs 
of  all  nations ;  it  must  be  therefore  a  complete 
pantomime,  and  through  the  eyes  speak  to  the 
very  soul  of  the  spectator,  and,  being  a  regular 
representation,  ought  as  far  as  possible  to  be 
under  the  general  rules  of  the  drama.  If  it 
does  not  point  out,  with  perspicuity  and  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  programme,  the  passions  and 
incidents  it  is  intended  to  describe,  it  is  a  di- 
vertisement,  a  succession  of  dances,  and  noth- 
ing better."  Appropriate  music  is  also  a  con- 
stituent part  of  a  good  ballet.  The  Vestris 
family  shone  on  all  the  European  stages  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  and  early 
in  the  19th.  Besides  the  ballet  d1  action  or  bal- 
let pantomime,  which  is  the  only  genuine  bal- 
let, there  are  divertissements,  consisting  of  little 
else  than  steps,  leaps,  pirouettes,  and  entrechats. 
These  are  sometimes  introduced  in  operas,  as  in 
Robert  le  Diable. 

BALLINA,  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland,  county 
Mayo,  separated  from  county  Sligo  by  the  river 
Moy,  7  m.  from  its  mouth  in  Killala  bay,  and 
57  m.  N.  of  Galway ;  pop.  about  5,500,  including 
the  suburb  of  Ardnaree,  on  the  right  or  Sligo 
side  of  the  Moy,  and  1,300  inmates  of  the  union 
workhouse.  Ballina  is  well  built,  in  a  fine  sit- 
uation. It  contains  a  parish  church  and  sev- 
eral Protestant  chapels,  and  has  considerable 
agricultural  industry  and  important  salmon 
fisheries.  Its  trade  lias  of  late  years  largely 
increased.  The  town  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  1798. 

li.U.l.l  Y\SLOK.  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  Con- 
naught,  34  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Galway;  pop.  in 
1871,  3,200.  The  river  Suck  divides  the  town 
into  two  parts,  the  larger  of  which  is  in  county 
Galway  and  the  other  in  Roscommon;  they 
are  connected  by  bridges  and  causeways,  over 
which  passes  the  road  from  Athlone  to  Galway. 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  and  has  enormous  horse 
fairs  and  an  active  trade  in  grain. 

BALLING,  Karl  Joseph  Napoleon,  a  Bohemian 
chemist,  born  April  21,  1805,  died  in  Prague, 
March  17,  1868.  He  studied  in  Prague  and 
became  professor  of  chemistry  in  that  city. 
He  introduced  the  use  of  the  saccharometer  in 
breweries,  distilleries,  and  the  manufacture  of 
beet-root  sugar.  His  principal  work  is  Die 
Gahrungschemie  wissenschaftlieli  begriindet  und 
in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf  Weinbereitung,  Bier- 
brauerei,  Sranntweinbrennerei  und  Hefener- 
zeugung  praktisch  dargestellt  (4  vols.,  Prague, 
1845-'7  ;  3d  and  enlarged  ed.,  1864). 

BALLIOL,  or  Baliol.  I.  John,  king  of  Scot- 
land, born  about  1259,  died  in  Normandy  in 
1314.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  eldest 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  of 
King  William  the  Lion,  nnd,  after  the  death  of 
the  princess  Margaret  of  Norway,  granddaugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Alexander  III.,  the  nearest 


heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  opposed  by  Robert 
Bruce  and  John  Hastings,  descendants  of  young- 
er daughters  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  by 
several  others.  (See  BEUOE.)  The  claims  of 
the  rivals  being  submitted  by  agreement  to 
Edward  I.  of  England,  he  decided  in  favor  of 
Balliol,  but  on  condition  that  he  should  do  hom- 
age to  him  for  the  crown  of  Scotland.  He 
was  accordingly  crowned  at  Scone  in  Novem- 
ber, 1292,  and  in  December,  with  the  principal 
nobles  of  his  party,  swore  allegiance  to  Edward 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Shortly  afterward,  be- 
ing called  upon  to  aid  Edward  against  France, 
he  renounced  his  allegiance,  made  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  declared  war.  Utterly  de- 
feated after  a  short  and  violent  struggle,  he 
was  obliged  to  cede  the  crown  of  Scotland  to 
the  English  king  in  1296,  who  held  him  and 
his  son  prisoners  in  London  till  1299.  On  his 
release,  finding  himself  ostracized  by  public 
opinion  in  Scotland,  he  retired  to  his  chateau 
of  Bailleul  in  Normandy.  His  father  and  moth- 
er were  the  founders  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford. 
II.  Edward,  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, died  at  Doncaster  in  1363.  The  king  of 
England  invited  him  over  from  Normandy  in 
1324  and  1327,  merely  to  threaten  Robert 
Bruce.  In  1332  he  was  called  upon  by  the 
dispossessed  Anglo-Norman  barons  to  lead 
them  into  Scotland  to  recover  their  estates 
there.  He  entered  the  frith  of  Forth,  landed 
at  Kinghorn,  defeated  the  earl  of  Fife,  and 
with  3,000  men  marched  across  the  country  to 
meet  the  earl  of  Mar  encamped  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river  Earn  with  a  force  of  30,000. 
A  second  Scottish  army  lay  within  a  few  miles 
of  Balliol's  flank.  During  the  night  the  invad- 
ing force  crossed  the  Earn,  and  with  slight 
loss  achieved  an  astonishing  victory  at  Dupplin 
Moor,  above  12,000  Scots,  including  the  earls  of 
Mar  and  Moray,  and  hundreds  of  knights  and 
barons,  falling  in  the  battle.  At  Perth  Balliol 
defeated  the  second  army,  commanded  by  the 
earl  of  March.  The  disaffected  flocked  to 
Balliol's  standard,  and  he  was  crowned  king 
of  Scotland  at  Scone,  Sept.  24,  only  seven 
weeks  after  his  landing  at  Kinghorn.  Balliol, 
having  privately  rendered  homage  to  Edward 
III.,  lay  carelessly  at  Annan,  where  he  was  in 
turn  surprised  by  the  earl  of  Moray,  brother 
of  the  one  slain  at  Dupplin,  and  barely  escaped 
to  England,  after  a  reign  of  three  months. 
Edward  III.  now  took  up  the  cause  of  Balliol, 
whom  the  battle  of  Halidon  Hill,  July  19, 1333, 
again  placed  on  the  Scottish  throne.  The 
Scots  were  so  weakened  by  this  defeat,  that 
he  might  have  retained  his  power  had  he  not 
been  too  obsequious  to  the  English  monarch. 
By  a  treaty  he  gave  up  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
and  surrendered  Berwickshire,  Roxburghshire, 
Peeblesshire,  Dumfriesshire,  and  the  Lothians. 
The  Scottish  nation  now  became  disgusted, 
and  turned  to  the  young  king  David  Bruce; 
and  after  1338  Balliol  maintained  only  a  nomi- 
nal footing  in  Scotland,  being  most  of  the  time 
a  refugee  in  England.  In  1355  Edward  III.  pur- 


BALLISTA 


BALLOT 


245 


chased  his  claims  on  the  Scottish  throne  for 
5,000  marks,  and  an  annuity  of  £2,000,  and 
Balliol  retired  to  Yorkshire.  He  left  no  issue. 

BALLISTA,  a  military  engine  of  the  Romans, 
used  in  the  siege  and  defence  of  fortified  places. 
Neither  from  the  description  of  authors  nor  j 
from  any  carved  or  painted  representation  ex-  ! 
tant — although  Trajan's  column  presents  seve- 
ral specimens  of  these  machines — can  any  dis-  I 
tinct  understanding  he  had  of  the  principle  or 
process  of  working  these  primitive  substitutes 
for  artillery.  They  were  all  included  under 
one  general  term  of  tormentum,  which,  as  is 
shown  hy  its  root  torgitere,  to  twist,  would 
imply  that  the  propulsion  was  given  by  means 
of  the  torsion  of  ropes  or  fibres.  Yet  the 
use  of  the  term  is  not  decisive,  since  torquere 
came  in  time  to  signify  simply  to  hurl  a  mis- 
sile by  any  means.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  method  of  its  operation,  the  ballista  was 
originally  an  engine  for  hurling  stones  with 
a  parabolic  ascent,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
battlements  of  walls  and  the  roofs  of  build- 
ings in  their  fall.  The  ordinary  ballista  threw 
stones  of  three  various  weights,  according  to 
which  standard  the  power  of  the  engines  was 
rated,  as  our  cannon  are  by  their  calibre ; 
these  were,  half  a  hundredweight,  a  hundred- 
weight, and  three  hundredweight — which  last 
appears  to  have  been  the  maximum.  Josephus 
mentions  ballistae,  the  destructive  power  of 
which  he  records  as  very  formidable,  capable 
of  throwing  their  missiles  with  execution  to 
the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Vitruvius 
also  mentions  smaller  ballistse,  which  threw 
stones  not  exceeding  two  pounds  in  weight, 
and  which  seem  to  have  been  used  as  field  ar-  j 
tillery,  and  to  have  been  plied  from  the  rear, 
over  the  heads  of  the  front  ranks,  into  the 
enemy's  lines. — In  the  middle  ages,  ballista 
was  the  term  applied  to  the  crossbow,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  of  England  there  was  an  • 
officer  named  ballistarius,  the  keeper  of  the  i 
crossbows,  whose  pay  was  a  shilling  a  day,  and 
an  attiliator  ballistarum,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  provide  the  harness  and  accoutrements  of 
the  crossbowmen.  In  the  classics,  however, 
the  catapulta,  not  the  ballista,  is  the  large 
wall-crossbow,  used  in  the  place  of  cannon. 

BALLOON.     See  AERONAUTICS. 

BALLOT  (Gr.  fi&JOeiv,  to  throw),  originally  a 
little  ball  cast  into  a  box  as  a  mode  of  deciding 
anything;  now  more  usually  applied  to  suf- 
frage by  written  or  printed  ticket,  in  distinc- 
tion from  mta  voce  announcement,  or  by  hold- 
iiifr  up  the  hand,  or  other  visible  demonstration. 
In  Athens  it  was  the  common  mode  of  voting 
in  the  assemblies  of  the  people,  and  in  the  courts, 
at  first  by  casting  pebbles  into  boxes,  and  after- 
\v;ird  beans,  white  for  the  affirmative  and  black 
for  the  negative.  If  this  mode  of  voting  had 
secrecy  specially  in  view,  it  accomplished  it 
but  imperfectly.  The  assemblies  and  courts 
were  held  in  the  daytime  in  public  places,  and 
the  voters  were  separated  from  the  popular 
audience  only  by  a  cordon  of  ropes.  When, 


therefore,  the  voters  went  up  to  the  boxes  and 
deposited  their  ballots,  it  was  possible  to  know 
how  they  voted.  Complete  secrecy  might 
have  been  designed  in  the  court  of  the  Areop- 
agus, which  made  its  decisions  at  night,  and 
without  the  presence  of  an  audience.  Ostra- 
cism, which  was  a  vote  of  the  people  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  a  citizen  for  a  fixed  number  of  years, 
was  done  by  writing  the  name  of  the  obnox- 
ious party  on  a  shell.  It  appears  that  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people  at  Athens  in  a  legislative 
capacity  passed  or  rejected  a  law  precisely  as  it 
was  proposed,  without  amendment,  as  in  mod- 
ern times  in  France  and  in  some  of  our  own 
states  a  proposed  measure  has  sometimes  been 
submitted  to  the  people  for  their  approval 
or  rejection. — At  Kome  secret  voting  by  bal- 
lots or  tickets  was  employed,  the  value  of 
which  was  sometimes  demonstrated  by  a  re- 
sult different  from  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  popular  opinion  as  'openly  ex- 
pressed. Cicero,  who  did  not  favor  the  ballot, 
because  of  its  tendency  to  diminish  the  power 
of  the  patricians,  nevertheless  admits  that  not- 
withstanding the  laws  had  been  prostrated, 
yet  sometimes  they  would  reappear  in  the 
silent  suffrages  of  the  people  ("judiciis  tacitis 
aut  oeenltis  de  honore  ntffragiis").  Pliny  ob- 
jected to  the  ballot  (taeita  grtjfragiii),  as  afford- 
ing a  screen  to  corruption ;  but  Gibbon  attests 
its  value. — In  modern  times  the  ballot  has  been 
sometimes  demanded  for  legislative  bodies,  but 
not  often  conceded,  the  prevailing  view  being 
that  the  action  of  such  bodies  ought  as  far  as 
possible  to  be  open  to  the  observation  and  crit- 
icism of  their  constituents.  It  was  in  use  in 
the  Venetian  senate,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  was  once  adopted  in  Scotland  for  a 
short  time.  In  many  English  corporate  bodies, 
municipal  as  well  as  private,  the  ballot  has  long 
been  in  use ;  and  perhaps  it  was  in  imitation 
of  their  elections,  rather  than  from  any  settled 
conviction  of  its  importance  to  a  free  election 
by  the  people,  that  it  came  to  be  employed 
in  the  New  England  colonies.  Once  planted 
there,  it  has  never  been  abandoned,  but  on  the 
contrary  the  system  of  open  voting  which  was 
established  in  some  of  the  more  southern  colo- 
nies has  gradually  given  way  to  it.  The  ballot 
in  the  United  States  is  a  written  or  printed 
ticket  having  upon  it  the  names  of  the  persons 
for  whom  the  elector  desires  to  vote  for  the 
several  offices  to  be  filled  at  that  election,  with 
the  proper  designation  of  the  office  for  which 
each  is  named.  This  in  some  states  is  so  folded 
as  to  conceal  the  written  or  printed  matter, 
and  delivered  to  an  inspector,  who  immedi- 
ately deposits  it  in  a  sealed  box,  where  it  re- 
mains until  the  polls  are  closed,  when  a  public 
cavassing  of  the  ballots  by  the  inspectors  be- 
gins. In  this  mode  complete  secrecy  is  sought 
to  be  attained,  and  the  courts  have  ruled  that 
the  elector  cannot  be  compelled  afterward  in 
judicial  proceedings  to  disclose  how  he  voted. 
It  being  found  that  political  managers  some- 
times resorted  to  tickets  of  a  peculiar  color,  or 


246 


BALLOD 


BALLYMENA 


with  marks  on  the  back,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  able  to  determine  and  mark  those 
who  voted  against  them,  the  law  in  some  states 
has  forbidden  the  use  of  any  other  than  ballots 
on  plain  white  paper.  The  secret  ballot  has 
also  been  in  use  in  France,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  Greece.  It  is  also  now  employed  in  the 
Australian  colonies.  The  methods  in  use  there 
are  not  uniform :  in  some  the  voter  receives  a 
ticket  with  the  names  of  all  the  candidates 
upon  it,  from  which  he  strikes  off  those  he 
does  not  desire  to  vote  for,  and  then  deposits  it 
in  a  box ;  in  others,  he  designates  his  preference 
by  making  a  mark  opposite  the  names  of  his 
chosen  candidates.  A  system  somewhat  re- 
sembling ballot  voting  prevails  in  other  coun- 
tries, but  lacking  the  distinctive  element  of 
secrecy,  and  therefore  not  classed  under  this 
head.  In  German  states  the  voting  is  by  writ- 
ten or  printed  ticket  delivered  publicly  to  the 
officer,  who  reads  off  and  records  the  vote  im- 
mediately, and  with  as  much  publicity  as  if  it 
had  been  given  viva  voce. — In  England  the  bal- 
lot was  proposed  and  received  considerable 
support  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
but  it  was  not  till  1830  that  it  became  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion.  In  that  year  O'Con- 
nell  proposed  it  in  the  house  of  commons,  and 
it  received  21  votes.  Mr.  Grote  for  several 
years  afterward  was  its  most  conspicuous  sup- 
porter, but  it  had  the  approval  of  Macaulay, 
Oobden,  and  at  length  Brougham,  among  others 
less  noted.  It  was  finally  adopted  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Gladstone  ministry  in  1872, 
with  elaborate  regulations  to  secure  secrecy. 

BALLOU.  I.  Hosea,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Kichmond,  N.  H.,  April  30,  1771, 
died  in  Boston,  June  7,  1852.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Baptist  clergyman,  who  was  conscientiously 
opposed  to  receiving  any  remuneration  for  his 
professional  services ;  and  consequently  he  had 
so  few  advantages  of  education,  that  in  learn- 
ing to  write  he  was  obliged  to  use  birch  bark 
instead  of  paper,  and  charcoal  instead  of  pen 
and  ink.  At  the  age  of  19  he  joined  the  Bap- 
tist church  under  his  father's  care ;  but  having 
declared  his  belief  in  the  final  salvation  of  all 
men,  he  was  excommunicated.  He  began  to 
preach  at  the  age  of  21,  and  in  1794  was  settled 
at  Dana,  Mass.  In  1801  he  removed  to  Bar- 
nard, Vt,  where  in  1804  he  wrote  his  "Notes 
on  the  Parables  "  and  "  Treatise  on  the  Atone- 
ment." In  1807  he  became  pastor  of  the  Uni- 
versalist  church  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1815 
removed  to  Salem,  Mass.,  and  in  1817  to  Bos- 
ton, where  he  became  pastor  of  the  second 
Universalist  church,  in  which  relation  he  con- 
tinued for  35  years.  In  1819  he  commenced 
the  "  Universalist  Magazine,"  which  he  con- 
ducted alone  for  several  years,  and  afterward 
in  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  Thomas  Whit- 
temore.  In  1831,  aided  by  his  grand-nephew, 
Hosea  Ballou,  he  commenced  the  "  Universalist 
Expositor,"  a  quarterly  publication,  to  which 
he  continued  to  contribute  until  his  death. 
Among  his  published  works,  besides  those 


mentioned,  are  26  "Lecture  Sermons,"  20  "Se- 
lect Sermons,"  an  "Examination  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  Future  Retribution  "  (1846),  and  a  vol- 
ume of  poems,  mostly  hymns,  many  of  which 
are  embodied  in  the  "  Universalist  Collection," 
edited  by  Adams  and  Chapin.  He  preached 
more  than  10,000  sermons,  none  of  which  were 
written  till  after  their  delivery.  Two  of  his  bro- 
thers, Benjamin  and  David,  also  became  Uni- 
versalist preachers.  Two  memoirs  of  him  have 
been  published,  one  by  his  son,  M.  M.  Ballou, 
j  the  other  by  Thomas  Whittemore  (1854).  II. 
llosca.  a  Universalist  clergyman,  grand-nephew 
!  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Oct.  18, 
|  1796,  died  at  Somerville,  Mass.,  May  27,  1861. 
j  In  1815  he  became  pastor  at  Stafford,  Conn., 
i  and  subsequently  at  Roxbury  and  Medford, 
I  Mass.  In  1853  he  was  elected  president  of 
Tufts  college,  Somerville,  Mass.,  and  after  vis- 
iting Europe  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the 
systems  of  collegiate  education,  he  entered  upon 
the  duties  of  the  college  in  1855.  In  1822  he 
had  become  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Univer- 
salist Magazine,"  now  published  under  the 
name  of  "The  Trumpet,"  and  in  1832,  in  con- 
junction with  his  uncle,  he  established  the 
"Universalist  Expositor,"  the  title  of  which 
was  subsequently  changed  to  the  "  Universalist 
Quarterly."  He  wrote  "The  Ancient  History 
of  Universalism  "  (1829 ;  2d  ed.,  1842) ;  edited 
Sismondi's  "History  of  the  Crusades"  (1833); 
and  published  a  "Collection  of  Psalms  and 
Hymns  for  the  Use  of  Universalist  Societies 
and  Families  "  (1837).  III.  Maturin  Murray,  son 
of  Hosea  Ballou,  of  Boston,  born  in  Boston 
in  1822.  He  has  edited  literary  journals  en- 
titled "Ballou's  Pictorial"  and  "The  Flag  of 
Our  Union,"  and  written  a  "  History  of  Cuba  " 
(1854),  "Biography  of  the  Rev.  Hosea  Ballou," 
"Life  Story  of  Hosea  Ballou,"  and  "A  Treas- 
ury of  Thought ;  an  Encyclopaedia  of  Quota- 
tions "  (1872).  In  1872  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  and  chief  editor  of  the  "  Boston 
Globe,"  a  quarto  daily  journal.  IV.  Moses, 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Monroe,  Mass., 
in  1811.  He  is  author  of  a  "Memorial  of  San- 
ford"  and  the  "Divine  Character  Vindicated," 
and  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "  Univer- 
salist Quarterly." 

BALLSTON  SPA,  a  post  village,  the  capital  of 
Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  situated  in  a  valley  on 
a  branch  of  the  Kayaderosseras  creek,  7  m.  S. 
W.  of  Saratoga  Springs ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,970. 
Its  mineral  springs  were  once  extensively  fre- 
quented, but  have  declined  in  popular  estima- 
tion. It  has  a  court  house,  bank,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  several  churches.  The  Sara- 
toga and  Schenectady  and  Rensselaer  and  Sara- 
toga railroads  pass  through  the  place. 

BALLYMENA,  a  market  town  of  Ulster,  Ire- 
land, in  county  Antrim,  on  the  river  Braid,  23 
m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Belfast;  pop.  in  1871,  6,739. 
It  is  largely  engaged  in  the  linen  manufacture, 
and  has  weekly  markets  for  the  sale  of  linens, 
grain,  and  provisions.  The  Belfast  and  North- 
ern Counties  railway  passes  through  it. 


BALM  OF  GILEAD 


BALSAM 


247 


BALM  OF  GILEAD,  a  plant  of  the  genus  amy- 
ris,  the  balsamodendron  Gileadense  of  De  Can- 
dolle.  Its  leaves  yield  when  bruised  a  strong 
aromatic  scent.  From  this  plant  is  obtained 
the  balm  of  Gilead  of  the  shops,  also  called  bul- 
sam  of  Mecca  or  of  Syria.  This  has  a  yellowish 
or  greenish  color,  a  warm  and  somewhat  bit- 
ter aromatic  taste,  and  a  fragrant  smell.  It  is 
valued  as  an  odoriferous  ointment  or  cosmetic 
by  the  Turks,  who  often  adulterate  it  for  the 
market.  The  amyris  is  a  low  tree  or  shrub, 
growing  in  several  parts  of  Abyssinia  and  Syria. 
It  has  spreading,  crooked  branches,  small  bright 
green  leaves  growing  in  threes,  and  small  white 
flowers  on  separate  footstalks.  The  petals  are 
four  in  number,  and  the  fruit  is  a  small  egg- 
shaped  berry,,  containing  a  smooth  nut.  To 
obtain  the  juice,  the  bark  of  the  tree  is  cut  at 
the  time  when  its  sap  is  in  its  strongest  period 
of  circulation.  As  the  juices  ooze  through  the 
wound  they  are  received  into  small  earthen 
bottles,  every  day's  produce  being  poured 
into  larger  bottles 
and  corked.  When 
fresh,  the  smell  of 
the  balsam  is  ex- 
quisitely fragrant, 
but  if  left  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere 
it  loses  this  quality. 
The  quantity  of  bal- 
sam yielded  by  one 
tree  is  said  never  to 
exceed  60  drops  in 
a  day.  It  is  there- 
fore very  scarce, 
and  can  with  diffi- 
culty be  procured 
in  a  pure  and  un- 
adulterated state, 
even  at  Constanti- 
nople. Its  stimula- 
ting properties  upon 
the  skin  are  such 
that  the  face  of  a  person  unaccustomed  to  use 
it  becomes  red  and  swollen  after  its  application, 
and  continues  so  for  several  days.  The  Turks 
use  it  as  a  cosmetic,  and  also  take  it  internally, 
in  minute  doses,  in  water,  to  stimulate  the 
stomach.  It  seems  to  have  been  as  highly 
esteemed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Syria 
as  it  is  by  the  modern  Turks  and  Arabs.  Jo- 
sephus  states  that  the  balm  of  Gilead  was  one 
of  the  trees  given  by  the  queen  of  Sheba  to 
King  Solomon. — The  abies  baleamea,  which 
furnishes  Canada  balsam,  and  the  populus  bal- 
samifera,  var.  candicaw,  the  buds  of  which 
are  covered  with  a  resinous  varnish,  are  both 
sometimes  known  as  balm  of  Gilead  trees. 

lill.MKs.  Jaime  Lueio,  a  Spanish  theologian 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Vich,  Catalonia,  Aug. 
28,  1810,  died  there,  July  9,  1848.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1832,  and  was  for  a  time  professor  at 
the  university  of  Cervera.  He  resisted  the 
movements  of  the  revolutionary  party  in  Spain, 
though  he  sympathized  with  liberal  institu- 


Balin  of  Gilead. 


tions.  In  his  opinion,  the  hope  of  the  future 
lay  in  the  union  between  Catholicity  and  po- 
litical liberty.  His  principal  works  are:  El 
Protestantismo  comparado  con  el  Catolicismo 
en  sus  relaciones  con  la  civilization  europea  (4 
vols.,  Barcelona,  1842-'4),  which  passed  through 
several  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into 
English  and  other  languages ;  El  criteria 
(Madrid,  1845;  French  and  German  transla- 
tions, 1850-'52);  and  Filosofia  fundamental 
(4  vols.,  Barcelona,  1846 ;  French  translation, 
3  vols.,  1852 ;  English  version  by  Henry  F. 
Brownson,  2  vols..  New  York,  1857).  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  political  writings  appeared 
in  1847,  and  biographies  of  Balmes  have  been 
published  in  Spanish,  French,  and  German. 

BALMORAL,  a  summer  residence  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  the  Scottish  highlands,  parish  of 
Crathie,  Aberdeenshire,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Dee,  44  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Aberdeen.  The 
castle  stands  on  a  natural  platform,  at  the  foot 
of  Craig-an-gowan,  about  900  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  estate  was  leased  in  1848  and  purchased  in 
1852  by  Prince  Albert.  It  comprises  an  area 
of  over  100,000  acres,  including  1,000  acres  of 
woodland,  and  a  deer  park  of  30,000  acres. 
The  scenery  is  highly  romantic,  and  the  neigh- 
boring country  is  famous  for  its  deer  stalking, 
grouse  shooting,  and  lake  and  river  fishing. 
Near  the  Ben-a-bourd,  one  of  the  most  pictu- 
resque mountains,  is  the  monument  to  Prince 
Albert  erected  by  the  queen  in  1863. 

BALNAVES,  Henry,  a  Scotch  Protestant  re- 
former, born  at  Kirkcaldy,  Fifeshire,  in  1520, 
died  in  Edinburgh  in  1579.  He  studied  in 
Scotland  and  Germany.  His  open  profession 
in  1542  of  the  Protestant  faith  caused  his  dis- 
missal from  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  after 
which  he  joined  the  English  and  was  imprisoned 
in  Blackness  castle  till  1544.  He  was  implica- 
ted in  the  conspiracy  resulting  in  the  murder 
of  Cardinal  Beaton,  declared  a  traitor,  and  ex- 
communicated. At  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews  he  was  captured,  and  confined  with 
Knox  and  others  in  the  castle  of  Rouen,  France, 
where  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  justification,  which 
was  annotated  by  Knox  and  published  in  Ed- 
inburgh in  1584,  under  the  title  of  "Confes- 
sion of  Faith."  On  his  release  in  1559,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  contest  against  Mary,  became 
one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  of  Berwick, 
was  reappointed  to  the  bench  in  1563,  and  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  revision  of  the 
Book  of  Discipline.  Subsequently  he,  Buchan- 
an, and  others  were  counsellors  of  Murray  in 
the  case  of  Mary  Stuart. 

BALSAM,  in  botany,  a  class  of  plants  forming 
the  genus  impatiens,  of  the  natural  order  ge- 
raniacea.  It  has  135  species,  most  of  which 
are  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  China,  but 
some  have  long  been  known  in  European  gar- 
dens. The  generic  characteristics  of  the  balsams 
are  a  succulent  stem  filled  with  a  watery  juice, 
simple  leaves  growing  without  stipules,  irregu- 
lar flowers  with  one  of  the  petals  spurred,  five 
stamens,  distinct  stigmas,  and  a  capsule  with 


BALSAMS 


five  valves,  and  remarkable  for  the  elastic  force 
with  which  it   bursts  and   expels  the   seeds. 


Garden  Balsam. 

The  I.  hortensis,  balsamine,  or  garden  balsam, 
a  beautiful  and  popular  annual,  sometimes 
improperly  called  lady's  slipper,  with  finely 
variegated  white,  pink,  red,  purple,  and  lilac 
flowers,  is  the  best  known  member  of  this 
genus.  This  loves  a  moist  rich  soil,  and  is 
raised  best  from  the  seed  in  a  moderate  hot- 
bed. The  juice  of  some  of  the  species  of  impa- 
tient, mixed  with  alum,  is  used  by  the  Japa- 
nese to  dye  their  finger  nails  red. 

BALSAMS.  By  the  French  chemists  this  word 
js  applied  only  to  those  resinous  vegetable 
juices  which  contain  benzoic  acid ;  and  of  these 
there  are  but  six,  namely,  the  balsam  of  Peru, 
the  balsam  of  Tolu,  dragon's  blood,  benzoin, 
storax,  and  liquidambar.  But  by  the  Germans 
and  English  the  term  is  not  thus  limited  in  its 
signification,  being  applied  to  all  resins  obtained 
from  trees  and  shrubs,  as  also  to  some  pharma- 
ceutical preparations,  dividing  them  into  two 
classes — one  containing  benzoic  acid,  and  the 
other  not.  The  former  class,  consisting  of  the 
six  named,  are  aromatic,  resinous  substances, 
composed  of  resin,  benzoic  acid,  and  a  volatile 
oil,  the  last,  according  to  the  quantity  pres- 
ent, tending  to  give  liquidity  to  the  substance. 
They  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  water  being 
added  resin  is  precipitated,  making  the  fluid 
milky.  In  ether  they  are  only  partially  soluble, 
and  not  at  all  in  water.  The  peculiar  smell  of 
the  balsams  is  lost  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Their 
taste  is  described  as  hot  and  acrid.  The  plants 
which  furnish  them  belong  to  the  orders  styra- 
cea,  leguminoice,  and  balsamacece.  The  second 
class  of  balsams  are  the  semi-liquid  and  resinous 
juices  composed  only  of  resin  and  a  volatile 
oil,  and  obtained  mostly  from  plants  of  the 
orders  coniferx,  terebinthacece,  and  leguminosce. 
The  turpentines,  and  Canada,  copaiba,  and 
Mecca  balsams  belong  to  this  class.  They  do 
not  differ  essentially  in  their  properties  from 


the  other  balsams.  The  use  of  balsams  is  prin- 
cipally in  medicine,  but  they  also  enter  into 
the  composition  of  varnishes,  and  are  employed 
for  some  other  purposes,  which  will  be  men- 
tioned in  the  description  of  each  one.  Ben- 
zoin and  turpentine  will  be  treated  of  under 
their  own  titles. — A  full  history  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  balsam  of  Peru,  by  Dr.  Pereira,  may 
be  found  in  the  "  Pharmaceutical  Journal " 
(English) ;  and  an  able  paper,  made  up  from 
this,  is  published  by  Dr.  Muspratt  in  his  work 
on  chemistry,  with  which  will  be  found  draw- 
ings and  botanical  descriptions  of  the  plants 
producing  the  balsams.  So  much  error  and 
uncertainty  has  prevailed  in  the  accounts  of 
this  substance,  that  very  elaborate  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  by  Dr.  Pereira  and  others 
to  define  its  true  character,  and  that  of  the 
plants  producing  it.  There  appear  to  be  two 
balsams  in  Peru,  one  called  the  white  balsam, 
and  the  other  the  black,  which  is  the  real  bal- 
sam of  Peru  of  commerce.  Both  are  obtained 
from  the  myrospermum  pubescem  of  De  Oan- 
dolle,  the  one  from  the  fruit  by  pressure,  and 
the  other  by  incision  from  the  stem  ;  and  both 
are  procured  exclusively  "from  the  so-called 
Balsam  Coast  in  Central  America,"  the  Pacific 


Balsam  of  Peru  (Myrospermum  pubescens). 

coast  of  San  Salvador,  between  lat.  13°  and  14° 
N.  Sonsonate  appears  to  be  the  most  impor- 
tant district  for  the  production  of  the  balsam ; 
and  the  tree  which  there  yields  it  is  possibly  a 
different  species  from  the  myrospermum  pubes- 
cens, and  has  been  temporarily  called  by  Dr. 
Pereira  the  myrospermum  of  Sonsonate.  Black 
balsam  exudes  from  incisions  in  the  trunk  of 
this  tree,  and  is  said  to  be  an  admirable  remedy 
for  effecting  the  speedy  cure  of  wounds.  Spirit 
of  balsam  is  made  from  the  flowers,  oil  of 
balsam,  an  excellent  anodyne,  from  the  seeds 
and  nuts,  and  white  balsam  from  the  capsules. 
The  tincture  or  essence  of  balsam,  called  bal- 
samito,  is  extracted  from  these.  The  methods 
practised  by  the  Indians  of  preparing  the  white 


BALSAMS 


249 


and  black  balsams  are  very  differently  described 
by  different  authorities,  and  these  descriptions 
are  given  in  the  paper  referred  to.  The  black 
balsam  is  a  sirup  of  the  consistency  of  honey, 
of  a  deep  red-brown  color,  translucent,  of  a 
strong  smell,  and  an  intolerably  acrid  bitter 
taste.  Owing  to  its  high  price  it  is  found  profit- 
able to  adulterate  it,  and  this  is  done  with 
olive  oil,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  copaiba.  It  is 
tested  by  mixing  a  few  drops  of  it  with  twice  as 
many  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
adding  water ;  if  pure,  a  little  resin  is  obtained. 
Copaiba  may  be  detected  by  the  smell.  When 
pure,  1,000  parts  of  balsam  will,  by  the  benzoic 
acid  it  contains,  saturate  75  parts  of  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda.  The  composition  of  the 
balsam,  according  to  Stolze,  is  as  follows : 

Brown,  slightly  soluble  resin 2-40  per  cent. 

Brown  resin 20'70        " 

Oil— cinnameine 69-00       " 

Benzoic  and  cinnamio  acids 6'40        " 

Kxtract 0-60        " 

Loss  and  moisture 0-90       " 


100-00       " 

This  balsam  is  used  in  perfumery,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  sealing  wax,  lozenges,  tinctures, 
pomatums,  and  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla  in 
liqueurs,  chocolate,  &c. — Balsam  of  Tolu  is 
obtained  in  New  Granada,  South  America,  in 
the  region  of  Tolu  and  Turbaco,  a  few  miles 
S.  of  Cartagena,  and  also  along  the  Magdalena 
river.  The  tree  which  produces  it  is  the 
myrospermum  toluiferum.  The  balsam  differs 
very  little  from  that  of  Peru,  only  it  becomes 
resinified  more  easily.  Their  chemical  compo- 
sition is  the  same.  When  fresh  it  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  soft  like  turpentine,  but  gradually 
becomes  harder.  It  has  an  agreeable  odor  like 
benzoin,  and  a  sweetish  taste.  It  is  often 


the  mixture  heated.  If  no  resin  is  present, 
the  odor  of  benzoic  and  cinnamic  acid  is  per- 
ceived.— Dragon's  blood  is  the  product  of  an 
East  India  tree,  called  the  calarmts  draco,  and 
is  also  obtained  in  Africa  and  South  America 
from  a  number  of  other  trees.  It  is  prepared 
in  the  form  of  drops  and  small  balls  of  a  dark 
red  color,  and  is  also  put  up  in  sticks  and  ir- 
regular-shaped cakes.  Its  use  is  for  coloring 
varnishes,  staining  marble,  preparing  gold  lac- 
quer, and  for  tooth  powders  and  washes.  It 
was  formerly  used  in  medicine  as  an  astringent, 
but  is  now  regarded  as  inert. — Storax  is  rarely 
met  with  unadulterated  with  foreign  matters ; 
and  the  various  mixtures  sold  by  this  name 
have  caused  uncertainty  as  to  its  real  charac- 
ter. It  is  often  confounded  with  liquidambar, 
but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  peculiar 
vanilla-like  odor,  which,  as  well  as  the  styrax 
family  of  plants,  from  which  it  is  procured, 
connect  it  more  closely  with  benzoin.  The 
species  of  the  tree  is  the  officinalis ;  it  grows 


Balsam   of  Tolu    (Myrospermum   toluiferum). 

adulterated  with  resin,  which  may  be  detected 
by  the  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  are  set 
free  when  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  upon  it  and 


Styrax  officinalis. 

in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  shipments  of  this 
balsam  are  from  Trieste.  It  is  of  liquid  con- 
sistency, and  of  gray,  brown,  or  black  color, 
according  to  its  purity.  Its  uses  are  in  medi- 
cine as  an  expectorant,  and  as  an  ingredient  in 
ointment. — Liquidambar  is  the  resinous  pro- 
duct of  the  common  sweet  gum  tree  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  only,  however,  in  the 
warm  latitudes  of  Mexico  and  Louisiana  that 
this  tree  yields  its  balsam.  This  is  of  thin  con- 
sistence, yellowish  color,  agreeable  smell,  and 
acrid  taste.  It  becomes  thicker,  of  darker  col- 
or, and  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  benzoic 
acid,  as  it  increases  in  age.  It  may  be  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  storax,  but  is  more 
highly  esteemed  and  better  known  in  Europe 
than  in  this  country. — The  Chinese  lac,  or 
varnish,  is  described  by  Dr.  Ure  as  a  balsam 
of  the  benzoic  acid  class,  and  derived  from  the 
bark  of  the  augia  sinensis. — The  Canada  bal- 
sam is  the  gum  that  exudes  from  the  balsam 


250 


BALSAMS 


BALTARD 


fir,  abiet  bakamea,  of  the  northern  states.  It 
is  collected  by  breaking  the  vesicles  which  form 
on  the  trunk  and  branches,  and  receiving  their 
contents  in  a  bottle.  Its  color  is  whitish,  slight- 
ly yellow,  and  its  odor  like  that  of  the  turpen- 
tines. Its  analysis  is  thus  given  by  Bonastre : 

Essential  oil 18-6  per  cent. 

Resin  soluble  in  alcohol 40-0        •» 

Resin  soluble  with  difficulty 88-4 

Elastic  resin 4-0 

Bitter  extract  and  salts 4-0       '• 


100-0 


It  is  used  in  the  preparation  and  preservation 
of  objects  for  the  microscope,  and  in  a  few  un- 
important medicinal  compounds. — The  copaiba 
balsam  is  obtained  from  the  copaifera  offici- 
nalis,  a  tree  of  Brazil  and  Guiana.  It  is  of 


Balsam  Copaiba  (Copaifera  offictnalis). 

yellowish  color,  semi-liquid  consistency,  a  bit- 
ter sharp  taste,  and  a  disagreeable  suffocating 
smell.  It  will  dissolve  one  fourth  its  weight  of 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  continue  translucent. 
With  alkalis  it  gives  crystalline  compounds. 
It  contains  an  oil  that  dissolves  caoutchouc. 
Its  composition,  according  to  Durand,  is : 

Volatile  oil 85-00  percent. 

Copaiba  acid 52-75        " 

Brown  soft  resin 1-66        " 

Water  and  loss 7'59         " 


100-00         " 

Its  use  is  principally  in  medicine,  for  altering 
the  secretions  of  the  mucous  membranes  by 
which  it  is  excreted,  namely,  those  lining  the  re- 
spiratory and  urinary  organs.  The  resin  is  said 
to  be  more  active  therapeutically  than  the  oil. 
It  is  also  used  for  liqueurs,  and  for  making  pa- 
per transparent.  It  is  often  largely  adulterated 
with  castor  oil  and  with  turpentine. — Mecca 
balsam,  called  also  opobalsam,  is  the  product 
of  the  balsamodendron  Oileadense  of  the  East. 
Its  properties  are  similar  to  those  of  balsam  of 
copaiba  and  liquid  turpentines.  (See  BALM  OF 
GILEAD.) 


BALTA  (formerly  Jnzefogrod),  a  town  of  Rus- 
sia, capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
government  of  Podolia,  on  the  Kodyma,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  southern  Bug,  1 60  in.  S.  E.  of  Kame- 
netz;  pop.  in  1867,  14,528.  Its  suburb  on  the 
S.  side  of  the  river,  now  in  the  government  of 
Kherson,  formerly  belonged  to  Turkey,  while 
the  chief  part  of  the  town  was  in  Poland.  It 
has  three  Greek  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic 
church,  a  synagogue,  two  schools,  and  facto- 
ries of  candles,  soap,  and  tallow.  It  carries 
on  a  brisk  trade,  principally  in  manufactured 
articles,  horned  cattle,  horses,  hides,  wool,  and 
cereals.  Two  fairs  are  annually  held  here. 
In  1780  the  greater  part  of  the  place  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians. 

I!  li.l  \«  HIM.  I.  Saverio,  an  Italian  poet, 
horn  at  Barletta,  April  27,  1800.  He  was  for 
some  time  a  journalist,  and  has  published 
La  giojetta,  Claudia  Vannini  (Naples,  1836), 
Ugone  di  Cortona  (1838),  and  other  poetry,  and 
made  translations  from  Byron  and  Shelley. 
In  1848  he  was  one  of  the  chief  editors  of  a 
scientific  and  literary  periodical  and  of  a  polit- 
ical journal,  and  afterward  he  was  for  a  time 
prominent  in  politics  at  Naples,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  committee  of  public  instruction. 
II.  Mil  liclc,  an  Italian  historian  and  novelist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Naples,  Feb. 
11,  1803.  His  Novelette  morali  (1829)  and 
Istoria  di  Masaniello  (1831)  have  passed 
through  many  editions.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  a  historical  romance  and  of  disquisitions  on 
the  life  and  writings  of  Oampanella  (1840-'43), 
and  on  the  philosophy  of  Kant  (1854). 

BALTA  \.\M\\  (anc.  Phidalia,  or  Portus  Mu- 
lierum),  a  bay  and  port  on  the  European  side 
of  the  Bosporus,  in  lat.  41°  10'  N.  and  Ion.  29° 
8'  E.,  between  Rumili  Hissar  and  Therapia. 
It  was  formerly  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  the 
Turkish  fleets.  A  convention  was  concluded 
here  May  1,  1849,  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  Russia  should 
have  for  seven  years  an  equal  right  with  Tur- 
key to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  Danubian 
principalities,  and  keep  there  10,000  men  as  an 
army  of  occupation. 

BALTARD.  I.  Louis  Pierre,  a  French  architect 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris,  July  9,  1765,  died 
Jan.  22,  1846.  He  was  architect  of  the  Pan- 
theon and  of  the  Paris  prisons,  and  executed 
the  chapels  of  the  houses  of  detention  of  St. 
Lazare  and  Ste.  Pelagie,  the  greater  part  of  the 
hall  of  justice  in  Lyons,  and  other  remarkable 
buildings ;  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  pub- 
lic works,  and  in  1818  became  professor  at  the 
academy  of  fine  arts.  He  left  many  superb 
works  descriptive  of  monuments  and  illustra- 
ted by  his  own  plates ;  published  the  "  Athe- 
nfflurn,"  a  journal  of  art ;  and  excelled  in  the 
engraving  of  historical  and  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects. II.  Victor,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Paris,  June  19,  1805.  He  studied  under 
his  father  and  in  Italy,  became  architect  of 
the  government  and  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and 
chief  superintendent  in  the  academy  of  fine 


BALTIC  SEA 


251 


arts.  He  directed  many  court  festivals,  re-  ' 
stored  some  of  the  principal  churches  of  Paris, 
built  the  church  of  St.  Augustine,  which  was  ' 
opened  in  1868,  and  was  the  architect  of  the  i 
central  halls  in  Paris.  He  has  continued  the 
publication  of  the  Grands  prix  d' architecture,  I 
which  had  been  begun  by  his  father ;  prepared 
under  the  patronage  of  the  duke  de  Luynes 
the  plates  for  a  work  on  Norman  and  Swabian 
monuments  in  Italy ;  and  published  the  text 
and  designs  of  the  Villa  Medicis  (1847-'8), 
and  other  works.  One  of  his  earlier  produc- 
tions, Le  theatre  de  Pompei,  executed  in  Italy  in 
1837,  gained  him  a  medal  at  the  Paris  exposi- 
tion of  1855 ;  and  his  Projet  de  restauration 
de  Saint  Eustache  was  greatly  admired  at  that 
of  1859.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  fine  arts  in  1863.  III.  Prosper, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Nov. 
1,  1796,  is  also  an  excellent  architect,  and  be- 
came in  1850  inspector  of  the  new  Louvre 
buildings.  IV.  Jules,  a  third  brother,  born  in 
Paris,  June  3,  1807,  is  a  portrait  painter. 

BALTIC  SEA  (anc.  Pelagus  Seythicum  or  Mare 
Suevicvm  ;  Ger.  Ostsee,  eastern  sea),  an  inland 
sea  of  N.  Europe,  nearly  enclosed  by  Sweden, 
Russia,  Germany,  and  Denmark,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  Oattegat  and  the  North  sea  by 
the  Sound  and  the  Great  and  Little  Belt.  Its 
extremes  of  latitude  are  Wismar,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, 53°  53'  N.,  and  Tornea,  on  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia,  65°  51'  N.  Its  greatest  length  be- 
tween these  points  is  900  m.  Its  width  varies 
from  200  to  75  m.  Its  area,  including  the  gulfs 
of  Bothnia,  Riga,  and  Finland,  is  estimated  at 
about  150,000  sq.  m.  This  is  exclusive  of  the 
Cattegat  and  the  Skager  Rack,  for  which  a 
further  addition  of  18,000  to  19,000  sq.  m.  must 
be  made. — The  direction  in  which  the  Baltic 
penetrates  inland  is  extremely  tortuous.  From 
its  straits  it  runs  first  E.  to  Memel,  about  300 
m.,  then  N.  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Stockholm, 
59°  21',  a  further  distance  of  260  m.  It  is  to 
these  portions  that  the  term  Baltic  sea  is  in  its 
limited  sense  restricted ;  for  at  this  point  it 
separates  into  two  great  gulfs.  Of  these  the 
gulf  of  Finland  runs  nearly  due  E.  between 
Finland  and  Esthonia,  while  the  gulf  of  Both- 
nia runs  a  little  E.  of  N.  between  Finland  and 
Sweden.  The  gulf  of  Finland  is  250  m.  long, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  60  to  70  m.  That  of 
Bothnia  is  about  400  m.  long,  with  120  m. 
of  average  width,  although  at  its  narrowest 
part  it  is  not  above  40  m.  wide.  Another  im- 
portant inlet  is  the  gulf  of  Riga  or  Livonia, 
S.  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  extending  be- 
tween Livonia  and  Oourland,  70  m.  from  E. 
to  W.,  and  about  90  m.  from  N.  to  S.— The 
Baltic  is  shallow.  The  greatest  depth,  be- 
tween Gothland  and  Windau,  was  found  in 
1871  to  be  720  ft.  At  a  depth  of  600  to  700 
ft.,  at  the  latter  end  of  July,  the  tempera- 
ture was  33°  to  36-5°  F.  No  marine  plants 
were  found  in  this  cold  area,  and  only  a  few  an- 
nelida.  Life  was  very  abundant  to  the  depth 
of  about  300  ft.,  while  plants  were  seldom 


found  at  a  depth  of  more  than  30  ft.  The  en- 
trance to  the  sea  is  crowded  with  islands  and 
shoals,  and  as  the  Baltic  itself  has  no  regular 
tides,  the  varying  currents,  depending  upon 
prevailing  winds  and  changing  temperature, 
add  to  the  difficulties  of  the  navigator.  The 
western  portions  of  the  sea  have  a  depth  of 
not  more  than  16  fathoms.  Toward  the  east 
it  deepens,  and  midway  between  Memel  and 
Oeland  there  is  found  from  60  to  100  fathoms 
water.  The  gulf  of  Finland  suddenly  shoals 
from  50  to  from  4  to  16  fathoms.  The  gulf 
of  Bothnia  has  no  greater  average  depth,  but 
its  navigation  is  less  obstructed  by  shoals  and 
sand  banks. — The  basin  of  the  Baltic  is  difficult 
to  determine  accurately,  as,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  mountains  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
on  the  north  and  northwest,  all  its  other  bor- 
ders stretch  away  in  vast  plains,  occupying  a 
large  part  of  Europe.  This  great  district  is 
exceedingly  well  watered ;  upward  of  200 
rivers  flow  into  the  Baltic ;  the  lakes  in  its 
neighborhood,  with  many  of  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  rivers,  are  almost  innumerable ;  and 
altogether  this  sea  receives  the  drainage  of 
nearly  one  fifth  of  Europe.  The  most  peculiar 
part  of  this  basin  is  in  its  S.  W.  corner.  Here, 
although  the  nearest  mountains  are  those  of 
the  Hartz,  yet  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  is  not 
above  20  or  25  m.  wide.  The  Elbe,  which 
runs  within  50  m.  of  the  Baltic,  flows  into  the 
North  sea ;  so  also  the  Eider,  which  rises 
close  to  its  shores.  These  and  their  tributaries 
belong  to  another  system ;  yet  so  flat  is  the 
country  that  the  different  waters  continually 
unite,  and  a  canal  3  m.  long  has  served  to 
connect  the  Baltic  with  the  Elbe,  by  joining 
a  small  affluent  of  the  latter  with  the  Steck- 
nitz  and  Trave,  between  Llibeck  and  Lauen- 
burg.  The  Baltic  receives,  among  others,  the 
waters  of  the  lakes  of  Ladoga,  Onega,  and 
Maelar,  and  of  the  rivers  Duna,  Niemen,  Vis- 
tula, and  Oder.  The  rivers  which  flow  from 
the  south  and  southeast  are  the  longest. 
The  great  amount  of  mud  and  sand  carried 
down  into  the  sea  has  considerably  changed  its 
soundings  in  various  parts,  filling  up  the  mouths 
of  many  of  the  rivers  and  harbors,  and  gener- 
ally raising  the  bed  of  the  entire  sea,  creating 
many  small  islets  and  shoals,  and  rendering 
navigation,  particularly  along  the  Danish  shores, 
difficult  and  dangerous. — Being  a  close  sea,  with 
its  entrance  protected  from  the  approach  of 
the  tidal  wave,  the  Baltic  has  no  tides.  There 
is,  however,  observed  at  irregular  periods  a 
rise  in  the  water,  equal  sometimes  to  3£  ft. 
This  occurs  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but 
chiefly  in  autumn  or  winter,  or  at  a  time  ol 
heavy  rain,  or  during  lowering  weather.  The 
water  maintains  its  height  for  days,  and  some- 
times weeks,  and  often  overflows  its  usual 
limits.  Dr.  Sen ul ten,  a  Swede,  in  1804,  by  a 
series  of  close  observations,  ascertained  that 
this  rise  was  occasioned,  not  by  heavy  rains, 
winds,  melting  snow,  or  ice,  to  all  of  which  it 
had  been  ascribed,  but  by  the  unequal  pressure 


252 


BALTIMORE 


of  the  atmosphere  upon  different  portions  of 
the  surface  of  the  sea ;  the  greatest  height  of 
the  water  corresponding  to  the  greatest  de- 
pression of  the  barometrical  column,  and  the 
greatest  variation  of  the  barometer  in  that  re- 
gion, 2^  inches,  corresponding  to  a  rise  and 
fall  of  34  inches  in  the  water.  The  waters 
of  the  Baltic  are  much  less  salt  than  those  of 
the  North  sea  or  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  the  rela- 
tive proportion  may  be  stated  as  about  ^j-  to 
jig-  in  the  North  sea.  The  entire  sea  is  every 
year  more  or  less  encumbered  with  ice,  and  its 
straits  are  usually  impassable  from  December  to 
April.  Severe  frosts  have  made  the  sea  several 
times  passable  on  the  ice  in  its  widest  parts,  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Prussia,  especially  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries.  In  1809  a  Russian 
army  crossed  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  on  the  ice. — 
There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Baltic  is  de- 
creasing. The  innumerable  lakes  which  lie  be- 
tween it  and  the  White  sea  are  but  the  remnants 
of  what  was  once  a  continuous  sea.  This  is 
proven  by  the  existence  of  similar  animals  in 
those  lakes,  although  these  are  no  longer  salt.  A 
gradual  drainage  is  no  doubt  lessening  the  vol- 
ume of  all  the  bodies  of  water  still  left  in  the 
basin  of  the  Baltic.  It  is  in  the  south  that 
such  changes  have  been  most  remarked  in 
modern  times.  Lubeck,  which  when  originally 
built  was  a  seaport  town,  is  now  12  m.  from 
the  shore.  The  isle  of  Rugen  is  nearly  joined 
to  the  German  shore,  and  annually  extends  its 
bounds,  while  the  names  of  its  various  parts 
show  that  not  long  since  that  which  is  now  one 
large  island  was  a  cluster  of  small  islets.  Olof 
Dalin,  a  Swedish  mathematician,  calculated  the 
rise  of  the  shore  at  one  inch  per  annum,  and 
this  is  probably  not  too  high. — The  Baltic  is 
extremely  rich  in  fish  of  various  kinds.  Seals 
are  found  in  considerable  numbers,  and  are  chas- 
ed for  their  oil  and  skins.  Whales  are  sometimes 
seen.  Along  the  shores  of  East  Prussia  and 
the  isle  of  Rugen  quantities  of  amber  are  col- 
lected. The  countries  surrounding  the  Baltic 
are  all  rich  in  useful  natural  products,  and  its 
waters  are  therefore  crowded  with  the  ships 
of  all  nations. — The  ancients  were  hut  slightly 
acquainted  with  the  Baltic.  The  origin  of  the 
name  Baltic  is  not  certainly  known,  some  ety- 
mologists deriving  it  from  the  Danish  belt,  a 
girdle ;  some  from  the  Lithuanian  balta,  white, 
in  allusion  to  the  great  quantity  of  snow  which 
annually  falls  in  its  neighborhood.  Others 
have  referred  it  to  the  Balti,  the  family  name 
of  the  kings  of  the  Visigoths.  The  name, 
however,  is  old,  and  appears  to  have  been  first 
used  by  Adam  of  Bremen,  who  described  the 
sea  in  the  llth  century.  The  most  important 
ports  on  the  Baltic  and  its  various  arms  are  St. 
Petersburg,  Riga,  Memel,  Konigsberg,  Dantzic, 
Stralsund,  Lubeck,  Copenhagen,  Carlscrona,  and 
Stockholm. 

BALTIMORE,  a  northern  county  of  Maryland, 
bounded  N.  by  Pennsylvania  and  S.  by  the 
Patapsco ;  area,  718  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
330,741,  of  whom  47,921  were  colored.  The 


larger  portion  of  the  surface  is  undulating, 
with  wooded  ridges  enclosing  fertile  valleys, 
and  with  hold  hills  often  rising  to  a  height  of 
800  ft.  above  tide  water.  The  principal  varie- 
ties of  rock  are  granite,  gneiss,  hornblende, 
limestone,  and  a  ledge  of  primitive  rock  run- 
ning through  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
county.  On  the  Great  and  Little  Gunpowder, 
the  Patapsco,  Gwynn's  and  Jones's  fulls  are 
large  cotton,  woollen,  and  carpet  factories, 
furnaces,  founderies,  paper  and  flour  mills. 
Copper  and  iron  are  found  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  in  this  and  Harford  counties 
are  the  most  productive  mines  of  chrome  in 
the  United  States.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Texas  and  Cockeysville  are  extensive  quarries 
of  marble,  from  which  came  the  large  mono- 
liths of  the  capital  at  Washington,  and  the 
fine-grained  alum  marble  used  in  building  the 
patent  office.  The  soil  is  moderately  rich. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  264,568 
bushels  of  wheat,  31,182  of  rye,  856,754  of 
Indian  corn,  375,063  of  oats,  201,754  of  pota- 
toes, 35,791  tons  of  hay,  and  544,888  Ibs.  of 
butter.  The  value  of  the  principal  manufac- 
tures in  1866  was  :  flour  and  meal,  $2,425,887 ; 
cotton,  $2,113,414;  machinery,  $1,100,000; 
woollens,  $435,250;  iron,  $612,594;  paper, 
$297,400;  hides  and  leather,  $294,981 ;  liquors, 
$162,277.  The  county  seat  was  transferred  in 
1854  from  Baltimore  to  Towsontown. 

BALTIMORE,  a  city  of  Baltimore  county,  Md., 
ranking  sixth  in  the  United  States  for  size  and 
population,  situated  in  lat.  39°  17'  N.,  Ion.  76° 
37'  W.,  on  an  arm  of  the  Patapsco  river,  14  m. 
from  Chesapeake  hay,  178  m.  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, 38  m.  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Washington,  97  m. 
S.W.  of  Philadelphia,  and  185  m.  S.W.  of  New 
York.  The  population  in  1790  was  13,503; 
1800,  26,514;  1810,  35,538;  1820,  62,738;  1830, 
80,625;  1840,  102,313;  1850,  169,054;  1860, 
212,418;  1870,  267,354.  In  1870,  227,794 
were  whites  and  39,558  colored;  210,870  were 
natives  of  the  United  States,  and  56,484  of 
foreign  countries.  The  arm  of  the  Patapsco 
on  which  the  city  is  situated  is  about  3  m. 
long,  varying  in  width  from  |  to  If  m.,  having 
its  extreme  breadth  opposite  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city,  a  suburb  called  Canton.  This  in- 
let gives  an  easy  access  to  the  city,  and  a  har- 
bor sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  2,000  ves- 
sels. The  harbor  is  divided  into  an  outer  and 
inner  bay ;  the  inner  bay  is  styled  the  basin, 
and  has  but  12  feet  of  water.  The  outer  bay 
consists  of  a  harbor  between  Fell's  Point  and 
Canton  on  the  north  and  east,  and  Whetstone 
Point  opposite,  on  the  south,  and  is  capable  of 
floating  the  largest  merchant  ships.  Owing  to 
the  accumulation  of  deposit  for  many  years, 
the  harbor  had  at  one  time  become  shoal  in 
numerous  parts,  but  by  proper  dredging  it  has 
been  made  available  for  steamers  of  the  largest 
class.  The  entrance  to  the  port  is  defended  by 
Fort  McIIenry,  situated  on  a  point  of  land 
between  the  harbor  and  the  Patapsco.  This 
was  successfully  defended  against  the  British 


BALTIMORE 


253 


fleet  in  1814  by  Ool.  George  Armistead  and 
the  force  under  his  command.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  the  famous  song  of  the  ''  Star- 
Spangled  Banner "  was  composed  by  Francis 
8.  Key,  while  a  prisoner  on  board  one  of  the 
British  vessels.  Fort  Carroll,  an  immense  for- 
tification on  Seller's  Point  flats,  about  8  m.  be- 
low the  city,  after  involving  the  government  in 
a  heavy  expenditure,  has  been  roofed  over  and 
abandoned. — The  general  appearance  of  Balti- 
more is  striking  and  picturesque.  It  is  reg- 
ularly laid  out,  its  surface  is  undulating,  its 
streets  are  of  good  width,  and  there  is  ample 
sewerage.  An  aspect  of  cheerful  elegance  pre- 
vails ;  the  larger  mansions  are  generally  in 
good  taste,  and  not  crowded  together,  and  the 
dwellings  of  the  poor  are  generally  neat  and 
thrifty.  There  are  very  few  of  the  large  ten- 
ement houses  common  in  other  cities.  The 


light  and  cheerful  appearance  of  the  city  is 
greatly  owing  to  the  quality  of  the  brick  used 
in  building.  The  clay  is  of  fine  texture  and 
agreeable  color,  and  when  taken  from  the 
kilns  is  neither  a  very  dull  nor  a  glaring  red. 
The  Baltimore  county  marble,  a  fine,  hard, 
and  beautifully  white  species  of  limestone,  ex- 
tensively employed  in  building  churches,  pub- 
lic buildings,  and  in  some  private  residences, 
adds  also  materially  to  this  effect.  The  chief 
points  of  view  are  known  as  Federal  hill  and 
Patterson  park.  The  former  stands  on  the  south 
side  of  the  inner  basin,  crowned  by  a  signal 
station,  and  commands  an  extensive  prospect 
of  the  shipping,  the  city  to  the  north  and  west, 
and  the  river  and  bay.  The  park,  comprising 
about  56  acres,  lies  to  the  east  of  Fell's  Point, 
and  overlooks  the  principal  docks  and  ship 
yards,  Canton,  and  the  surrounding  country. 


Baltimore,  from  Federal  Hill. 


On  the  N.  side  of  the  city  is  Druid  park,  a  fine 
pleasure  ground  of  600  acres,  with  an  undulat- 
ing surface,  partly  in  wood  and  partly  in  open 
meadow.  It  has  recently  been  purchased  at  a 
oost  of  about  $800,000,  and  its  architectural 
decorations  are  as  yet  but  few.  Its  chief  charm 
is  in  its  secluded  walks,  rides,  and  bridle  paths. 
The  annual  revenue  of  the  park  is  derived 
from  a  tax  of  one  fifth  of  the  gross  receipts  of 
the  city  passenger  railways.  Within  the  bor- 
ders of  Druid  park  is  Druid  lake,  the  last  of 
the  chain  of  costly  lakes  and  reservoirs  recent- 
ly constructed  to  supply  the  city  with  pure 
water.  From  main  elevations  in  Druid  park, 
and  especially  from  the  head  of  Druid  lake, 
fine  views  of  the  city  and  river  can  be  ob- 
tained.— Besides  the  main  streets,  three  great 
avenues  on  the  east,  north,  and  west  have 
been  surveyed,  and  are  partly  graded,  paved, 
and  built  upon.  These  are  at  least  150  feet 


wide,  planted  with  trees,  and  form  an  elevated 
drive  around  the  city.  There  are  12  public 
squares.  The  largest  of  the  public  buildings  is 
the  exchange,  which  contains  the  custom  house, 
post  office,  Merchants'  bank,  exchange,  reading 
rooms,  a  vast  rotunda  for  public  sales,  &c. 
The  Athenreum  is  of  the  Italian  style  of  archi- 
tecture ;  it  contains  the  rooms  of  the  historical 
society  and  the  mercantile  library  association, 
a  very  flourishing  institution,  with  a  large 
number  of  members,  and  26,000  volumes  on 
its  shelves.  The  Maryland  institute  "  for  the 
promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts "  is  a  large 
structure,  355  ft.  long  by  60  wide ;  it  is  built 
upon  piles,  and  over  the  centre  or  Marsh  mar- 
ket. An  annual  exhibition  of  the  products  of 
American  mechanical  industry  is  held  in  the 
main  hall,  which  is  260  ft.  long.  It  also  con- 
tains a  library,  lecture  rooms,  school  of  design, 
chemical  school,  &c.  The  new  city  hall,  now 


254 


BALTIMORE 


nearly  finished  (1873),  is  one  of  the  finest  mu- 
nicipal structures  in  the  country.  It  occupies 
an  entire  square,  on  Ilolliday,  North,  Lexing- 
ton, and  Fayette  streets,  and  is  125  ft.  in 
height  to  the  top  of  the  centre  building  and 
222  to  the  top  of  the  dome.  The  renaissance 
style  predominates.  The  material  used  for  the 
outer  walla  is  Maryland  marble,  with  an  inner 
casing  of  brick,  and  the  building  is  fire-proof. 
Its  entire  cost  will  be  $3,000.000.  The  court 
house,  on  Monument  square  and  Lexington 
street,  has  ample  accommodations  for  three 
courts  besides  various  offices.  Near  it  is  the 
record  office,  a  fire-proof  building  of  solid 
granite.  The  jail,  built  in  1864,  and  containing 
all  the  modern  improvements  in  prison  disci- 
pline, is  a  substantial  structure  of  hammered 
stone,  flanked  by  square  towers,  with  a  high 
wall  on  the  sides  and  rear.  The  penitentiary, 
a  large  brick  building,  adjoins  it  on  the  south- 
east. The  city  contains  189  churches,  viz. :  21 
Protestant  Episcopal,  18  Presbyterian,  23  Ro- 
man Catholic,  55  Methodist  Episcopal  (of 
which  6  are  colored),  8  Methodist  Protestant, 

2  Independent  Methodist,  6  African  Method- 
ist,   6  Reformed,   1   Christian,    9   Baptist,    12 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  2  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion, 2  Independent,  1  Seamen's  Union  Bethel, 

3  Friends',  1  Universalist,  1  Unitarian,  3  Swe- 
denborgian,  9  Jewish  synagogues,  and  6  United 
Brethren.     Many  of  the  churches  are  very  fine. 
The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  the  most  im- 
posing, is  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  surmount- 
ed by  a  lofty  dome  and  two  bell  towers.     The 
church  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  St.  Alphonsus, 
and  many  others,  are  rich  in  architecture  and 
decorations.     Many  of  the  Protestant  churches 
are  elegant.     Of  other  public   buildings,   the 
vast  state  tobacco  warehouses  well  repay  in- 
spection.— The  total  number  of  charitable  in- 
stitutions is  22.     The  more  prominent  of  these 
are  the  new  state  insane  asylum  ;  the  Mt.  Hope 
retreat ;   the  Maryland  institution  for  the  in- 
struction  of  the  blind,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  city;   St.  Mary's  industrial  school  for 
boys ;    the  orphan   asylums   of  St.   Anthony 
of  Padua  and   of  St.  Vincent  de   Paul;  and 
the   Baltimore    infirmary,   under    the  super- 
vision of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.     The  church 
home,   on   Broadway  near   Baltimore   street, 
belonging  to  the  Episcopal  church,  and  the 
Union    Protestant  infirmary,   are    under  the 
management  of  ladies.     In  the  W.  part  of  the 
city  is  an  elegant  edifice  called  the  aged  wid- 
ows' home,  and  near  it  is  a  similar  structure 
for  aged  men.     The  house  of  refuge  and  city 
almshouse    are  situated    near   the  Frederick 
turnpike,  about  two  miles  from  the  city.     Dur- 
ing the  year  1871  over  $600,000  was  bequeathed 
by  wealthy  citizens  to  charitable  purposes. — St. 
Mary's  college,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
under  the   charge   of  the   Sulpitians,  with   a 
theological  seminary,  was  founded  in  1791,  and 
maintained  itself  with  vigor  for  many  years, 
possessing  very  extensive  grounds  and  build- 
ings, a  Gothic  chapel,  and  a  library  of  16,000 


]  volumes.  The  seminary  had  70  pupils  in  1871. 
The  college  was  suppressed  in  1851.  Loyola 
j  college,  in  another  part  of  the  city,  supplies  its 
.  place  for  Roman  Catholics ;  this  is  under  the 
charge  of  Jesuits,  and  was  opened  in  1855; 
in  1871  it  had  158  students  and  a  library  of 
!  21,000  volumes.  The  Roman  Catholic  female 
i  seminary  of  Notre  Dame  was  chartered  in 
1864,  and  in  1871  had  170  pupils.  Baltimore 
college  was  chartered  in  1803,  and  subsequent- 
ly united  to  the  medical  school  under  the  title 
;  of  the  "University  of  Maryland,"  but  the  aca- 
j  demical  department,  independent  of  the  school 
of  medicine,  alone  went  into  operation.  This 
academy  was  not  generally  flourishing,  and  in 
1854  was  finally  given  up,  and  a  scientific 
school  established  in  the  building.  The  medi- 
cal school,  on  the  contrary,  has  always  been 
active;  at  one  time  it  stood  highest  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  now  in  excellent  condi- 
tion; in  1871  it  had  10  instructors  and  172 
students.  It  has  a  massive  building  on  Lom- 
i  bard  street,  completed  in  1812.  The  Washing- 
i  ton  university  was  established  in  1828,  but  has 
'  never  been  very  flourishing,  and  its  medical 
school,  which  in  1871  had  9  instructors  and  170 
students,  is  the  only  department  ever  organized. 
The  Baltimore  female  college  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal) was  chartered  by  the  state  in  1849,  and 
in  its  course  of  study  and  power  of  conferring 
degrees  is  similar  to  the  colleges  for  male  stu- 
dents; it  had  175  pupils  in  1871.  The  con- 
vent of  the  Visitation  has  a  very  large  female 
school  under  charge  of  the  sisterhood.  The  first 
public  school  was  opened  in  1829.  By  one  of 
the  sections  of  the  act  providing  for  public  edu- 
cation throughout  the  state,  passed  by  the  legis- 
lature in  1870,  the  control  of  the  public  school 
system  of  Baltimore  is  vested  in  the  mayor 
and  city  council.  The  entire  management  of 
the  schools  is  intrusted  by  the  mayor  and 
council  to  a  board  of  20  commissioners,  one 
from  each  ward,  elected  annually.  On  Jan. 
1,  1872,  there  were  under  the  authority  of  this 
board  the  city  college,  2  female  high  schools, 
18  male  and  19  female  grammar  schools,  28 
male  and  31  female  primary  schools,  10  day 
and  3  evening  colored  schools,  and  2  schools 
unclassified ;  total  number  of  schools,  113. 
Male  teachers,  70 ;  female  teachers,  508 ;  total 
number  of  teachers,  578.  Number  of  pay 
pupils,  11,627;  free,  13,730;  total  on  roll  Jan. 
1,  1872,  25,357.  Number  in  all  the  schools 
during  1871,  34,872 ;  number  in  colored  schools, 
2,048;  increased  attendance  over  1870,  7,316. 
The  total  amount  expended  for  school  pur- 
poses in  1871  was  $583,108.  To  those  who 
can  afford  it,  a  charge  of  $1  a  term  of  12  weeks 
is  made  for  each  pupil ;  all  others  are  admitted 
free  on  application  to  the  board  of  education. 
The  Bible  is  daily  read  in  all  the  schools,  the 
version  of  King  James  to  the  Protestants,  and 
the  Douay  version  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  in 
separate  apartments.  The  principal  libraries 
are  the  state  law  library,  containing  8,000 
vols. ;  Odd  Fellows',  21,136;  and  mercantile, 


BALTIMORE 


255 


26,000.  There  are  published  in  the  city  9  daily- 
newspapers,  of  which  3  are  in  German;  1  tri- 
weekly; 16  weekly,  of  which  3  are  in  German; 
9  monthly;  and  1  quarterly,  the  "Southern  Re- 
view." The  Peabody  institute  was  founded  by 
the  munificence  of  Mr.  George  Peabody.  His 
first  gift  of  $300,000,  subsequently  increased  to 
$1,000,000,  is  to  establish  a  gallery  of  the  finest 
works  of  art,  a  library  of  the  first  class,  and, 
during  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  concerts 
and  lectures.  The  institute,  a  marble  building 
facing  the  Washington  monument,  contains  the 
concert  hall  on  the  first  floor  and  the  library 
on  the  second  floor.  The  library  numbers 
nearly  20,000  volumes  of  standard  works,  and 
is  increasing  at  the  rate  of  from  4,000  to  5,000 
volumes  annually.  It  is  a  library  of  reference, 
and  its  books  are  free  to  all  for  use  within  the 
rooms.  To  the  east  of  the  present  building  a 
lot  has  been  purchased  upon  which  an  acad- 
emy of  art  will  be  erected.  Johns  Hopkins,  a 
wealthy  citizen,  has  deeded  his  residence  and 
grounds  near  the  city  limits,  on  the  Harford 
road,  to  trustees,  to  be  held  in  trust  after  his 
death 'for  a  university,  and  has  further  pro- 
vided for  its  liberal  endowment. — From  her 
several  monuments,  Baltimore  is  frequently 
designated  as  the  "monumental  city."  In 
1809  the  legislature  granted  permission  to  erect 
a  monument  to  George  Washington.  This  was 
erected  at  the  intersection  of  Charles  and  Mon- 
ument streets,  on  a  lot  of  ground  given  for  the 
purpose  by  Col.  John  Eager  Howard.  It  is  a 
Doric  column  of  white  marble,  rising  from  a 
base  50  ft.  square  and  35  ft.  high.  The  shaft 
of  the  column  is  160  ft.  high,  and  is  surmount- 
ed by  a  colossal  statue  of  Washington  15  ft. 
high.  The  Battle  monument  is  in  the  centre 
of  Monument  square,  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  Calvert  and  Fayette  streets.  This  is  also 


Washington  Monument. 

of  white  marble,  and  is  53  ft.  high.     It  was 
erected  to  the  memory  of  the  citizens  who  fell 
in  the  defence  of  Baltimore,  Sept.  12  and  13, 
69  VOL.  n.— 17 


1814.  It  consists  of  a  square  base  with  a  ped- 
estal ornamented  at  each  comer  with  a  sculp- 
tured griffin.  A  fasciated  column  rises  from 
the  base,  with  bands,  upon  which  are  inscribed 
the  names  of  those  who  perished.  A  statue 
representing  the  genius  of  Baltimore  surmounts 
the  column.  On  North  Broadway  a  plain  mar- 
ble pediment  and  shaft,  surmounted  by  a  statue 
of  Thomas  Wildey,  commemorates  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Odd  Fellows  in  the  United 
States. — The  bank  of  Maryland  was  established 
in  1790.  The  failure  of  this  institution  in  1834 
caused  riots  in  the  succeeding  year,  when  the 
mob  sacked  several  houses  belonging  to  promi- 
nent directors  of  the  bank.  In  1792  a  branch 
of  the  United  States  bank  was  established  in 
Baltimore,  the  charter  of  which  expired  in 
1835.  In  1795  the  bank  of  Baltimore  was 
chartered;  in  1804  the  Union  bank  of  Mary- 
land; in  1806  the  Mechanics'  bank;  and  in 
1810  the  Franklin,  Marine,  Farmers'  and  Mer- 
chants', and  the  Commercial  and  Farmers'. 
Other  banking  institutions  were  chartered  sub- 
sequently, and  there  are  now  14  national  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $11,241,985 ;  8 
state  banks,  with  $2,563,013;  and  7  savings 
banks.  There  are  23  insurance  companies, 
chiefly  fire,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $3,501,- 
585,  besides  numerous  agencies.  The  city  has 
52  hotels,  9  markets,  and  8  lines  of  city  pas- 
senger railways. — Baltimore  is  divided  into  20 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  city 
council,  consisting  of  20  members  in  the  first 
branch  and  10  in  the  second.  In  1769  the 
"Mechanical"  fire  company  was  organized, 
and  purchased  their  first  engine  for  $250. 
The  paid  fire  department  now  comprises  9 
engines  and  3  hook  and  ladder  companies. 
The  expenses  of  the  department  for  1871  to 
Nov.  1  were  $125,197  39.  The  fire  inspector 
reports  156  fires  within  the  city  limits  in  the 
same  period;  loss,  $475,394  87;  loss  by  fire  in 
1870,  $432,717  07.  In  connection  with  the 
fire  department  there  is  a  fire  alarm  telegraph 
with  94  stations,  ramifying  to  every  portion 
of  the  city;  its  cost  for  1871  was  $15,249  84. 
The  police  force  is  governed  by  a  board  of  three 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  legislature. 
Under  this  board  are  a  marshal,  deputy  mar- 
shal, 4  captains,  8  lieutenants,  and  489  uni- 
formed patrolmen.  The  city  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  waterfrom  Roland  lake,  about  7  m.  distant, 
and  225  ft.  above  tide.  Mount  Royal  reservoir 
is  near  the  N.  limits  of  the  city,  150  ft.  above 
tide. — On  July  4,  1828,  the  corner  stone  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  was  laid  by  Charles 
Carroll  of  Carrollton.  This  road  now  extends 
to  Columbus,  Ohio,  a  distance  of  518  m.,  and 
is  one  of  the  grandest  works  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  The  other  railroads  centring  here  are  the 
Baltimore  and  Susquehanna,  usually  called  the 
Northern  Central ;  the  Philadelphia,  Wilming- 
ton, and  Baltimore;  the  Washington  branch  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio ;  the  Western  Mary- 
land; and  the  Baltimore  and  Potomac.  The 
last-named  road  was  opened  for  travel  in  1872. 


256 


BALTIMORE 


For  the  use  of  several  of  these  railroads  an  im- 
mense tunnel  traverses  the  city,  with  open  cuts 
at  intervals,  from  the  western  limits  to  tide 
water  at  Canton.  There  is  also  a  railroad 
from  Annapolis,  the  state  capital,  which  joins 
the  Washington  branch  road.  The  "  Tide-wa- 
ter canal  "  has  never  proved  productive ;  but 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  has  of  late 
years  been  prosperous. — Baltimore  suffered 
severely  during  the  civil  war,  but  since  that 
time  has  rapidly  increased  both  in  population 
and  commercial  activity.  Two  lines  of  Euro- 
pean steamers  now  start  from  her  harbor; 
and  through  her  two  great  arteries  of  traffic, 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Northern  Cen- 
tral railroads,  this  city  is  successfully  compet- 
ing for  the  trade  of  the  west  and  northwest. 
The  coasting  trade  is  also  extending.  In  1871 
there  were  inspected  at  Baltimore  137  steam- 
ers, with  a  tonnage  of  40,752.  Of  the  vessels 
trading  to  her  port  398  were  American,  358 
British,  and  53  North  German.  The  total  ex- 
ports for  1871  were  $18,000,000,  an  increase  of 
nearly  50  per  cent,  over  1870.  The  principal 
articles  exported  were  flour  and  meal,  grain, 
tobacco,  cotton,  rosin,  oil  cake,  petroleum,  ba- 
con, butter,  cheese,  and  lard.  The  principal 
articles  imported  were  coffee,  sugar,  guano, 
hides,  iron,  tin  plates,  cotton,  flour,  grain,  and 
naval  stores.  The  receipts  of  Cumberland  coal 
for  1871  were  1,458,920  tons;  of  grain,  11,- 
774,303  bushels;  of  cotton,  112,989  bales;  of 
naval  stores— spirits  turpentine  22,852  bbls.,  ros- 
in 79,352  bbls.,  tar  11,302  bbls.,  pitch  1,941  bbls. 
The  inspections  of  flour  were  1,123,028  bbls. ; 
of  tobacco,  49,571  hhds. ;  of  leather,  352,646 
sides.  Importations  of  sugar,  126,619  hhds., 
49,129  bags,  55,044  boxes;  of  coffee,  556,995 
bags.  The  canning  of  oysters,  fruits,  and  veg- 
etables is  estimated  to  reach  the  annual  value 
of  $5,000,000.  The  boot  and  shoe  trade  is  also 
becoming  one  of  importance.  New  cotton  fac- 
tories are  building  and  old  ones  adding  to  their 
capacity;  number  of  spindles  in  1872,  137,000; 
number  of  bales  of  cotton  used,  from  40,000  to 
50,000.  The  productive  industry  of  Baltimore 
comprises  2,261  establishments,  employing  28,- 
178  hands,  with  a  value  in  products  of  $51,- 
106,278.  The  assessed  value  of  property  with- 
in the  city  limits,  which  is  much  below  its  real 
value,  is  $207,181,550.  The  debt  of  the  city  is 
$27,809,025  47.  From  this  are  to  be  deducted 
$12,023,006  25,  on  which  the  interest  is  pro- 
vided for  by  various  works  of  public  improve- 
ment, and  $10,786,888  16  invested  in  other 
productive  investments;  actual  debt,  $4,999,- 
071  06;  unproductive  investments,  $4,477,364 
79.— It  was  not  till  1729  that  the  assembly  of 
Maryland  passed  an  act  entitled  "  An  act  for 
erecting  a  town  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pa- 
tapsco  in  Baltimore  county,"  although  settle- 
ments had  been  made  at  an  earlier  date,  the 
first  of  which  was  by  Charles  Gorsuch,  a  Qua- 
ker, who  in  1662  patented  50  acres  of  land  on 
Whetstone  Point,  opposite  the  eastern  section 
of  the  present  city.  In  1682  David  Jones,  the 


|  first  settler  on  the  N.  side  of  the  harbor,  gave 
his  name  to  the  small  stream  which  now  di- 
vides Baltimore  into  "old  town"  and  "new 
town."  On  Jan.  12,  1730,  a  town  of  60  acres 
was  laid  out  W.  of  Jones's  falls,  and  called 
Baltimore  in  honor  of  Cecilius  Calvert,  Lord 
Baltimore.  In  the  same  year  William  Fell,  a 
ship  carpenter,  having  purchased  a  tract  E.  of 
the  falls,  called  it  Fell's  Point.  In  1732  a  new 
town  of  10  acres,  in  20  lots,  was  laid  out  on 
the  east  of  the  falls,  and  called  Jonestown,  in 
honor  of  David  Jones,  the  first  settler.  This 
name  has  long  been  forgotten,  and  as  a  settle- 
ment existed  there  before  that  of  Baltimore,  it 
was  called  "  old  town."  Jonestown  was  united 
to  Baltimore  in  1745,  dropping  its  own  name, 
and  two  years  afterward  Baltimore,  which 
properly  lay  up  about  the  head  of  the  "  basin," 
near  the  foot  of  the  present  South  Charles 
street,  was  extended  as  far  eastwardly  as  Jones's 
falls,  under  an  express  provision  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  act  recognizing  a  right  to  "  elect 
delegates  to  the  assembly  as  representatives 
from  the  town."  This  was  the  earliest  mani- 
festation of  that  singular  jealousy  which  has 
ever  since  been  shown  in  the  legislature  by  the 
Maryland  county  members  against  the  city  of 
Baltimore.  In  1752  Baltimore  contained  but 
25  houses  and  200  inhabitants.  In  1750  sev- 
eral of  the  unfortunate  Acadians  took  refuge 
in  Baltimore,  and  were  hospitably  received. 
The  county  town  was  removed  from  Joppa  to 
Baltimore  in  1767,  and  the  courts  and  records 
were  established  there ;  during  the  next  year 
provision  was  made  for  the  erection  of  a  court 
house  and  prison.  The  court  house  stood 
upon  the  site  of  the  present  Battle  monument 
in  Calvert  street,  but  much  higher,  and  the 
whippingpost  was  to  be  seen  adjoining  till  1808, 
when  the  old  court  house  was  pulled  down. 
In  1773  William  Goddard  began  the  first  news- 

Saper  in  Baltimore,  entitled  the  "Maryland 
ournal  and  Baltimore  Advertiser."  In  the 
same  year  communication  was  opened  with 
Philadelphia  by  means  of  stage  coaches  and 
sailing  packets,  and  a  theatre  was  also  erected 
onAlbemarlo  street.  In  1775  Baltimore  con- 
tained 564  houses  and  5,934  inhabitants.  In 
1776,  Philadelphia  having  been  menaced  by  the 
British,  congress  established  itself  in  Baltimore, 
in  Jacob  File's  building,  on  the  S.  E.  corner  of 
Baltimore  and  Liberty  streets.  John  Adams 
says  of  this  building  in  his  journal :  "  The  con- 
gress sits  in  the  last  house  at  the  west  end  of 
Market  street  (as  Baltimore  street  was  former- 
ly called),  on  the  south  side  of  the  street;  a 
long  chamber  with  two  fireplaces,  two  large 
closets,  and  two  doors.  The  house  belongs  to 
a  Quaker,  who  built  it  for  a  tavern."  The 
place  where  this  "  last  house  at  the  west  end  " 
once  stood  is  now  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
city.  In  1780  the  first  custom  house  in  Balti- 
more was  established ;  before  that  time  all 
registers  and  clearances  were  obtained  at  An- 
napolis. In  1784  the  first  market  house,  which 
stood  near  the  intersection  of  Market  with  Gay 


BALTIMORE 


BALTIMORE   BIRD 


257 


street,  having  been  found  inadequate  to  supply 
the  wants  of  an  increasing  population,  was  su- 
perseded by  three  new  ones:  the  centre  or 
Marsh  market,  the  Hanover,  and  the  Fell's 
Point  market.  At  the  same  time,  1784,  the 
streets  were  lighted  with  oil  lamps,  and  three 
constables  and  14  watchmen  were  appointed 
for  the  security  of  the  town.  At  the  close  of 
the  revolutionary  war  the  commerce  and  trade 
of  the  city  rapidly  increased,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  intelligent  merchants  settled  here.  Some 
of  the  most  enterprising  of  these  were  from  the 
north  of  Ireland,  of  Scotch  descent,  and  by  their 
exertions  and  wealth  Baltimore  became  famed 
as  a  commercial  port.  Lines  of  packets  and 
stage  coaches  were  established  for  communica- 
tion with  points  on  the  shores  of  Chesapeake 
bay,  as  well  as  in  the  interior  of  the  state ;  in 
1787  turnpikes  were  authorized  to  Washington, 
Frederick,  and  Reistertown,  but  were  not  fully 
completed  till  1809.  In  1789  the  course  of 
Jones's  falls  within  the  city,  which  ran  along 
by  the  site  of  the  present  court  house,  was 
altered  by  cutting  a  new  channel  from  Bath 
street  to  Gay  street  bridge,  and  the  old  bed  of 
the  stream  was  filled  up.  In  1792  a  large  num- 
ber of  refugees  from  Santo  Domingo  came  to 
the  city,  where  many  of  their  descendants  still 
reside.  In  1796,  the  population  being  about 
20,000,  and  the  town  having  attained  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity,  it  was  erected  into  a  city, 
the  corporation  being  styled  "  the  mayor  and 
city  council  of  Baltimore,"  and  James  Calhoon 
was  elected  as  the  first  mayor.  Since  that 
date  the  city  has  rapidly  increased  in  popula- 
tion. On  April  19,  1861,  a  body  of  federal 
troops,  comprising  a  portion  of  the  Cth  Massa- 
chusetts regiment  .and  the  7th  Pennsylvania, 
while  passing  through  Baltimore  on  their  way 
to  Washington,  were  attacked  by  a  mob  with 
missiles  and  firearms.  In  the  conflict  which 
ensued  9  citizens  were  killed  and  3  wounded, 
and  2  soldiers  were  killed  and  23  wounded. 
For  several  days  great  excitement  prevailed  in 
the  city,  which  caused  President  Lincoln,  at 
the  instance  of  the  mayor  of  Baltimore  and  the 
governor  of  Maryland,  to  issue  an  order  that 
no  more  troops  destined  for  Washington  should 
be  brought  through  Baltimore.  Communica- 
tion with  the  city  and  the  removal  of  stores 
therefrom  were  suspended  by  order  of  the 
mayor  and  board  of  police.  On  May  13  Gen. 
Butler,  who  had  taken  possession  of  the  Relay 
House  on  the  oth,  with  a  body  of  federal  troops, 
took  military  possession  of  Baltimore.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Gen.  Banks,  and  on  July  19  Gen. 
Dix  assumed  command  of  the  troops  stationed 
at  Baltimore,  and  the  city  thenceforth  remained 
peaceful  and  tranquil. 

BALTIMORE,  Lord.     See  CALVERT. 

BALTIMORE  BIRD,  or  Baltimore  Oriole  (ypkan- 
tes  Baltimore,  Vieill.),  a  bird  belonging  to  the 
family  of  sturnidcn  (starlings),  and  peculiar  to 
the  American  continent,  which  it  inhabits  from 
Canada  to  Brazil.  It  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  our  summer  visitors,  and  is  universally  ad- 


mired, both  for  the  richness  of  its  plumage 
and  the  sweetness  of  its  song.  It  is  also 
called  "golden  robin,"  "hang  bird,"  and  "fire 
bird."  The  adult  male  has  the  head,  neck  all 
round,  fore  part  of  the  back,  wings,  and  tail, 
black ;  quills,  excepting  the  first,  margined 
with  white  ;  the  whole  under  parts,  the  lesser 
wing  coverts,  and  the  posterior  part  of  the 
back,  bright  orange,  tinged  with  vermilion  on 
the  neck  and  breast ;  the  tips  of  the  two  mid- 
dle tail  feathers,  and  the  ends  of  the  others,  of 
a  dull  orange ;  bill  and  feet,  light  blue ;  iris, 
orange ;  length,  7f  inches ;  extent  of  wings, 
12  inches.  This  is  the  plumage  of  the  third 
year,  before  which  the  colors  are  less  bright, 
and  more  or  less  mixed  with  olive,  brown,  and 
white.  The  female  is  half  an  inch  shorter, 
with  the  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  back 
brownish  black,  mixed  with  dull  yellow  ;  hind 
part  of  the  back  light  brownish  yellow,  bright- 
est on  the  rump ;  lower  parts  duller  than  in 


Baltimore  Oriole. 

the  male.  The  orioles  enter  Louisiana,  proba- 
bly from  Mexico,  in  early  spring,  and  gradually 
make  their  way  north,  to  return  in  autumn. 
Their  motions  are  very  lively  and  graceful. 
They  are  often  seen  clinging  by  the  feet  in 
search  of  insects,  which  form  their  principal 
food  in  the  spring.  Their  song  consists  of  from 
four  to  ten  loud,  full,  and  mellow  notes,  very 
agreeable  to  the  ear.  The  nest  is  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  a  very  skilfully  constructed  net- 
work of  strings  and  fibres,  suspended,  like  a 
pouch,  from  the  end  of  a  branch,  and  shaded 
by  overhanging  loaves.  The  eggs  are  from 
four  to  six  in  number,  about  an  inch  long,  of  a 
pale  brown  color,  spotted,  dotted,  and  lined 
with  dark  brown.  The  period  of  incubation 
is  14  days.  In  Louisiana  two  broods  are  reared 
in  a  season.  During  migration  their  flight  is 
high  and  straight,  and  mostly  during  the  day. 
(See  ORIOLE.) 


258 


BALTZER 


BALZAC 


BALTZER,  Joliann  Baptist,  a  German  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  born  at  Andernach,  July 
16,  1803,  died  in  Bonn,  Oct.  1,  1871.  He  left 
the  university  of  Bonn  in  1827,  was  ordained 
in  Cologne  in  1829,  received  his  diploma  as 
doctor  of  divinity  at  Munich  in  1830,  and  sub- 
sequently became  professor  at  Breslau.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Hermes,  but  afterward  inclined 
to  the  philosophical  school  of  Anthon  Gun- 
ther.  The  holy  see  requested  him  to  relin- 
quish his  professorship,  but  he  would  not  re- 
sign, though  he  discontinued  his  lectures.  His 
course  was  approved  by  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities of  Berlin,  but  his  subsequent  protest 
against  the  Vatican  resulted  in  his  suspension. 
In  1853  he  went  to  Rome  at  the  request  of 
Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  proposed  condemnation  by  the 
pope  of  Gilnther's  writings.  One  of  his  early 
works  is  Hinweivungen  auf  den  Grundcharalc- 
ter  des  Hermesischen  Systems  (Bonn,  1832) ;  and 
among  his  subsequent  writings,  indicating  his 
partial  conversion  to  Gunther's  teachings,  is 
Beitrage  zur  Vermittelung  eines  richtigen  Ur- 
theils  uber  Katholicumus  und  Protestantismus 
(2  vols.,  Breslau,  1839-'40). 

BALTZER,  Wilhelm  Ednard,  a  German  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  at  Hohenleine,  Prussia, 
Oct.  24, 1814.  He  studied  in  Leipsic  and  Halle, 
became  a  tutor,  and  was  chaplain  of  the  hos- 
pital of  Delitzsch  from  1841  till  the  beginning 
of  1847,  when  he  founded  at  Nordhausen  a 
free. religious  community,  after  having  failed  to 
have  his  nomination  to  various  dioceses  con- 
firmed by  the  authorities.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  to  the  Frankfort  preliminary  parlia- 
ment, and  afterward  to  the  Prussian  national 
assembly.  He  continues  to  preside  over  the 
community  at  Nordhausen  (1873),  and  has 
acquired  great  influence  by  his  sermons  and 
publications.  In  1868  he  founded  a  society 
and  a  journal  for  the  promotion  of  vegeta- 
rianism ;  and  he  published  in  1870  on  the 
same  subject  Die  sittliche  Seite  der  naturge- 
mdssen  Lebensweise.  His  writings  include  Das 
sogenannte  ApostoliscJie  Glaubensbekenntnws 
(Leipsic,  1847) ;  Allgemeine  Religionsgescnich- 
te  (Nordhausen,  1854);  Alte  und  neve  Weltan- 
schauung (1852-'9) ;  Das  Leben  Jem  (2d  ed., 
1861) ;  Von  der  Arbeit  (1864) ;  Das  preus- 
sisclie  Verfassungsbuchlein  (4th  ed.,  1864)  ; 
Gott,  Welt  und  Afensch  (1869) ;  and  Religions- 
lehrbuch  fur  Schule  und  Haus  freier  Gemein- 
den  (1st  part,  containing  LehrbucJi  fur  den 
ersten  Unterricht,  2d  ed.,  1870). 

BALIE,  Jean  de  la,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  at  Verdun  about  1422,  died  in 
Ancona  in  October,  1491.  Having  become  a 
priest,  he  ingratiated  himself  with  the  bishop 
of  Poitiers,  became  his  executor,  defrauded  his 
heirs,  trafficked  in  preferments,  and  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  confidence  of  Louis  XL,  who 
made  him  secretary,  almoner,  bishop  of  Evreux, 
and  eventually  prime  minister.  About  1466 
his  efforts  for  the  abolition  of  the  "  Pragmatic 
Sanction"  gained  for  him  from  Pope  Paul 


II.  a  cardinal's  hat.  Having  been  detected  in 
a  treasonable  correspondence  in  1469,  the  king 
confined  him  at  the  castle  of  Locle  in  an  iron 
cage,  from  which  he  was  released  after  11 
years  at  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV., 
who  showered  wealth  and  honors  upon  him 
and  sent  him  as  legate  to  Paris.  Upon  the 
death  of  Sixtus  (1484)  he  fied  from  France,  and 
Pope  Innocent  VIII.  made  him  bishop  succes- 
sively of  Albano  and  of  Preneste,  and  protec- 
tor of  the  order  of  Malta. 

BALl'FFI,  Gaetano,  an  Italian  prelate,  born  in 
Ancona,  March  29,  1788,  died  in  Imola,  Nov. 
11,  1866.  He  spent  a  considerable  time  as 
nuncio  in  South  America,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  accompanied  by  the  abb6  Mastai  Ferretti, 
afterward  Pius  IX.,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
bishop  of  Imola,  and  was  appointed  cardinal 
Dec.  21,  1846,  and  archbishop  in  1860.  His 
"Religious  History  of  America"  (Rome,  1848) 
contains  new  and  interesting  documents,  which 
he  found  chiefly  at  Bogota.  A  French  trans- 
lation of  his  "  Divinity  of  the  Church  mani- 
fested by  its  Charity,  or  Universal  Outline  of 
Roman  Catholic  Charity,"  was  published  in 
1858  by  the, abbe  Postel  (2  vols.,  Paris). 

BALl'ZE,  Etienne,  a  French  historian,  born  at 
Tulle,  Dec.  24,  1630,  died  in  Paris,  July  28, 
1718.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Toulouse, 
where  he  became  secretary  of  the  archbishop. 
In  1667  Colbert  made  him  his  librarian,  and 
in  1670  he  was  appointed  professor  of  canon 
law  in  Paris,  retaining  these  offices  till  1700. 
Louis  XIV.  placed  him  in  1707  at  the  head 
of  the  royal  college,  but,  displeased  with  his 
Histoire  generale  de  la  maison  d1  Amergne  (2 
vols.,  1708-'9),  caused  his  work  to  be  sup- 
pressed, threw  him  into  prison,  and  confiscated 
his  property.  He  was  set  at  liberty  in  1713, 
but  did  not  recover  his  position.  Besides  1,500 
MSS.  in  the  national  library  of  Paris,  he  left 
45  printed  works,  including  Regum  Francorum 
Capitularia  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1780),  and 
Miscellanea  (7  vols.,  1678-1715 ;  new  ed.,  4 
vols.,  Lucca,  1761).  He  was  a  prominent  cham- 
pion of  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean  church,  and 
his  Vies  des  papes  d1  Avignon  (2  vols.,  1693) 
was  placed  on  the  Index  by  the  Roman  see. 
He  rendered  great  services  to  literature  by 
collecting  authentic  MSS.,  comparing  them 
with  printed  editions,  and  publishing  annota- 
tions full  of  erudition.  His  house  was  a  favor- 
ite resort  of  scientific  and  literary  men,  whom 
he  assisted  in  every  way.  He  introduced  the 
custom  of  long  banquets  for  the  promotion  of 
intellectual  intercourse,  which  became  so  fash- 
ionable during  the  18th  century. 

BALZAC.  I.  Honore  de,  a  French  novelist, 
born  at  Tours,  May  16, 1799,  died  in  Paris,  Aug. 
20, 1850.  On  leaving  school  he  was  placed  in  a 
notary's  office.  He  soon  became  discontented 
with  this  position,  and  left  it  against  the  will 
of  his  father,  to  devote  himself  to  literature. 
He  had  no  facility  in  the  art  of  composition, 
and  his  style  was  unformed.  Before  the  age 
of  23,  however,  he  had  published  half*  dozen 


BALZAC 


259 


novels  and  romances.  These  and  many  more 
in  the  next  seven  years,  including  attempts  in 
almost  all  varieties  of  prose  fiction,  appeared 
under  different  assumed  names,  as  Horace  de 
St.  Aubin,  Lord  K'hoone  (anagram  of  Honor6), 
and  Veillergre  (pseudonyme  of  his  collaborator 
Lepoiterin  Saint-Alme).  Abounding  in  defects 
of  plot,  incident,  and  style,  they  only  give  here 
and  there  a  rare  gleam  of  the  excellent  quali- 
ties that  shine  in  his  later  writings.  Some  of 
them  were  writtten  under  the  pressure  of  pov- 
erty, and  merely  to  sell.  Of  their  inferiority 
Balzac  was  always  as  conscious  as  his  critics; 
nor  would  he  consent  that  they  should  bear 
his  name.  The  larger  part  of  them  have  been 
reprinted  since  his  death  under  the  title  of 
(Euvres  de  jeunesse.  In  1826  he  associated 
with  himself  a  printer  of  the  name  of  Barbier, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  an  enterprise  in 
which  printing,  publishing,  and  writing  were 
combined,  and  paper-making  was  to  have  been 
added.  It  soon  proved  a  lamentable  failure, 
after  having  been  long  enough  in  operation  to 
involve  Balzac  in  debts  that  harassed  him  for 
years  afterward,  and  from  which  in  the  end  he 
relieved  himself  by  the  products  of  his  pen. 
The  first  volume  to  which  he  signed  his  name 
was  Le  dernier  Ghouan,  published  in  1829,  a 
historical  novel,  written  in  La  Vend6e,  amid 
the  scenes  so  faithfully  described  in  its  pages. 
His  next  work,  Phyriologie  du  manage,  drew 
public  attention  to  the  originality  and  subtlety 
of  the  author's  genius ;  La  peau  de  chagrin,  in 
1831  (included  in  his  Contes  philosophiquef), 
increased  the  general  admiration.  From  this 
time  to  the  close  of  his  life  he  continued  to 
produce  in  rapid  succession  that  remarkable 
series  of  romances,  novels,  and  tales  to  which 
he  gave  the  general  title  of  Comedie  humaine, 
including  his  celebrated  Scenes  de  la  vie  privee, 
Scenes  de  la  vie  de  province,  Scenes  de  la  vie 
parisienne,  &c.  ;  Etudes  pnilosophiques,  and 
Etudes  analytiques.  He  proposed  to  himself 
nothing  less  than  the  complete  delineation  of 
every  phase  of  modern  French  society.  This 
great  work,  with  all  its  natural  limitations  and 
manifold  defects  of  execution,  yet  remains  a 
marvellous  monument  of  genius  and  industry. 
Portions  of  it  considered  as  independent  works, 
such  as  Eugenie  Grandet,  Cesar  Birotteau,  Le 
pere  Goriot,  and  Les  illusions  perdues,  are 
masterpieces  in  themselves.  Among  his  other 
works  are:  La  Jille  aux  yeuxifor;  Memoires 
de  deux  jeunes  mariees  ;  Les  parents  pauvres  ; 
Le  contrat  de  manage;  Vautrin ;  and  Contes 
drolatiques.  According  to  his  sister,  between 
1827  and  1848  he  wrote  97  works,  containing 
nearly  11,000  pages,  and  thrice  as  large  as  ordi- 
nary octavo  volumes.  Most  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  the  principal  foreign  lan- 
guages. Among  the  many  biographies  of  him, 
the  most  interesting  are  those  by  his  sister 
Laure  and  Theophile  Gautier  (Paris,  1859).  His 
best  works  are  distinguished  for  depth,  acute- 
ness,  and  boldness  of  observation,  but  his  mi- 
nute accuracy  of  external  description  and  ful- 


ness of  detail  often  become  wearisome,  clog  the 
movement  of  the  story,  and  detract  from  the 
interest  that  should  centre  round  the  main 
figures.  He  is  sometimes  gross  even  to  cyni- 
cism, which  he  mingles  with  traits  of  exquisite 
purity  and  delicacy;  but  both  the  grossness 
and  delicacy  generally  reside  in  his  subjects. 
He  rarely  projects  his  own  personality.  It  has 
been  regretted  that  he  had  no  high  ideal ;  but 
that  did  not  enter  into  his  system  of  art.  He 
aimed  only  to  present  the  realities  of  life.  He 
advances  no  theory,  pretends  to  no  moral 
teaching.  Treating  largely  of  female  emotions, 
he  found  among  women  his  warmest  admirers. 
On  occasion  of  the  publication  of  his  Medecin 
de  campagne'm  1835,  he  received  a  complimen- 
tary letter  from  the  countess  Evelina  Han- 
ska,  a  Polish  lady,  which  was  the  commence- 
ment of  a  long  and  intimate  correspondence. 
After  her  husband's  death,  Balzac  went  to 
Poland  and  married  her  (1848).  His  health 
was  already  seriously  impaired  by  excessive 
work  and  by  drinking  coffee  in  large  quantities 
as  an  habitual  stimulus.  A  few  months  after 
his  return  from  Poland,  and  after  having  fitted 
up  his  house  in  the  rue  Fortunee  (Champs 
£lys6es)  with  exquisite  works  of  art  for  a  per- 
manent residence,  he  died  of  hypertrophy  of 
the  heart,  and  was  buried  at  Pore  Lachaise, 
amid  an  immense  concourse  of  people,  Victor 
Hugo  pronouncing  the  funeral  oration.  II. 
Lanre  de,  sister  and  biographer  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  1800.  She  married  M.  Allain,  sur- 
named  Surville,  an  engineer.  She  wrote  fairy 
tales  and  other  stories  for  her  children,  which 
have  acquired  great  popularity.  Her  brother's 
novel,  Un  debut  dans  la  me  (1842),  was  founded 
upon  one  of  her  tales  entitled  Le  voyage  en 
Coucou.  She  published  in  1858  Balzac,  sa  vie 
et  ses  centres,  containing  his  correspondence  and 
many  interesting  details  of  his  life. 

BALZAC,  Jean  Louis  Gnez,  seigneur  de,  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Angoulemo  in  1594,  died  at 
Balzac,  Feb.  18,  1654.  His  father,  a  nobleman 
of  Languedoc,  and  a  favorite  of  Henry  IV.,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  De  Balzac  after  a  small  estate 
on  the  Charente.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Malherbe. 
accompanied  Cardinal  de  la  Valette  to  Italy,  and 
became  his  agent  in  Rome ;  and  on  his  return 
to  Paris,  when  his  correspondence  had  estab- 
lished for  him  a  high  literary  reputation,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  admired  visitors  of  the 
h6tel  Rambouillet,  a  favorite  of  the  bishop 
of  Lucon,  afterward  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  a 
member  of  the  newly  established  French  acad- 
emy. His  rapid  success  excited  much  jealousy, 
especially  among  the  old  school  of  prose  writers 
and  the  order  of  the  Feuillants,  whose  general, 
Father  Goulu,  published  a  most  virulent  attack 
upon  him.  Balzac,  weary  of  these  assaults,  left 
Paris  for  his  country  seat,  and  was  hence  called 
the  hermit  of  the  Charente.  Toward  the  end  of 
his  life  he  often  retired  for  religions  meditation 
to  the  Capuchin  convent  of  Angouleme,  where 
he  had  two  rooms  built  for  his  own  use.  He  dis- 
tributed large  amounts  among  the  poor,  and  be- 


260 


BAMBAREA 


qucathed  funds  to  the  academy  for  an  annual  ' 
prize  in  rhetoric,  which  is  still  distributed.  lie 
was  greatly  admired  by  Christina  of  Sweden, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  Aristippe.  His 
Prince,  a  fulsome  eulogy  of  Louis  XIII.,  and 
written  in  the  pompous  style  characteristic  of 
Le  Socrate  chrctisn  and  of  most  of  his  works, 
was  censured  by  the  Sorbonne.  He  contribu- 
ted much,  however,  to  improve  prose  writing, 
especially  by  bis  Lettres  (new  ed.,  3  vols.,  Paris, 
1800).  A  complete  edition  of  his  writings  by 
Cassaigne  in  2  vols.  folio  appeared  in  Paris  in 
1665,  and  a  select  edition  by  A.  Malitourne  in 
2  vols.  8vo  in  1822.  D.  F.  Moreau  de  Mersan 
published  Pensees  de  Balzac  in  1807.  About 
200  of  his  MS.  letters  to  Chapelain  have  lately 
been  published  by  the  committee  of  historical 
monuments,  and  included  in  a  volume  entitled 
Melanges. 

BAMBARRA,  a  district  in  the  N.  W.  central 
part  of  Africa,  between  lat.  10°  and  15°  N.  and 
Ion.  6°  and  9°  W.  The  eastern  part  is  a  nearly 
level  plain,  subject  to  overflow  by  the  rivers, 
which  turn  a  considerable  portion  of  it  into 
marsh.  The  western  portion  is  hilly,  and  in- 
cludes the  eastern  sides  of  the  Kong  moun- 
tains. The  climate  is  sultry  except  in  the  hilly 
portions.  The  rainy  season  begins  in  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  and  continues  with  violent  winds 
and  thunder  until  November.  The  principal 
river  is  the  Joliba  or  Niger,  which  descends 
from  the  mountains  near  the  western  boundary. 
Numerous  villages  lie  upon  the  banks  of  this 
stream.  Bambarra  produces  a  great  variety 
of  garden  vegetables ;  the  indigo  plant,  which 
grows  spontaneously;  the  butter  tree,  which 
yields  an  ash-gray  butter,  an  article  of  trade ; 
and  some  singular  fruits,  one  of  which,  the 
rJiamnw  lotus,  is  acid  in  taste  and  resembles 
gingerbread  in  color.  Many  districts  have  ex- 
tensive forests  and  fine  pastures.  Horned  cat- 
tle, sheep,  goats,  and  horses  of  a  fine  breed  are 
numerous.  Poultry  abounds.  The  rivers  sup- 
ply an  abundance  of  fish,  which,  when  dried, 
is  an  article  of  considerable  trade.  The  abo- 
rigines, who  are  the  peasantry  of  the  country, 
are  barbarous.  The  Moors,  who  have  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  towns  along  the  Joliba, 
exercise  a  great  degree  of  authority  with  the 
petty  sovereigns  of  the  country,  and  with  the 
Mandingoes  and  Foolahs,  two  large  negro  tribes 
from  the  Kong  mountains,  who  are  Moslems. 
They  compose  the  great  part  of  the  population 
of  the  towns,  and  are  mechanics  and  merchants. 
The  towns  inhabited  by  these  tribes  and  the 
Moors  are  independent  of  the  rule  of  the  petty 
independent  chiefs.  Bambarra  has  a  very  ac- 
tive trade.  The  Mandingoes  export  ivory.  The 
Moors  carry  on  extensive  commerce  through 
the  Sahara  with  the  countries  along  the  Medi- 
terranean. Besides  gold,  the  principal  articles 
of  commerce  are  slaves,  ivory,  and  coarse  cot- 
ton cloth,  which  are  exchanged  for  salt  from 
the  desert,  tobacco,  hardware,  &c.  Chief  town, 
Sego ;  other  important  towns,  Bainmakoo,  Nya- 
inina,  and  Sansanding. 


BAMBOCCIO 

BAMBERC,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  circle 
of  Upper  Franconia,  on  the  Ludwig's  canal 
and  the  river  Kegnitz,  about  4  in.  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Main,  33  m.  N.  X.  W.  of 
Nuremberg;  pop.  in  1871,  25,748,  including 
3,000  in  the  garrison.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Roman  Catholics.  The  town  is  well 
built  on  eminences  in  a  delightful  and  fertile 
region,  and  is  divided  by  the  Regnitz,  which 
is  crossed  by  five  bridges.  The  ditches  of 
the  old  ramparts  have  been  converted  into 
gardens  and  promenades,  the  finest  of  the  lat- 
ter being  the  parks  of  the  Theresienhain  on 
the  Ludwig's  canal.  The  most  remarkable 
public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  one  of  the 
finest  in  Germany,  rebuilt  in  Byzantine  style, 
with  monuments  of  the  emperor  Henry  II. 
and  his  consort  Cunigunda  and  of  Pope  Clem- 
ent II.,  and  with  paintings  by  Tintoretto  and 
Vandyke ;  and  the  former  university  and  pres- 
ent parish  church  of  St.  Martin,  built  by  the 
Jesuits  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  noted 
for  its  internal  beauty,  with  a  college  and  li- 
brary. The  collegiate  church  of  St.  Stephen 
is  Protestant.  The  town  contains  an  infirma- 
ry founded  by  Bishop  Erthal,  several  medical 
schools,  and  a  botanical  garden ;  a  lyceum,  once 
a  university  and  afterward  an  academical  gym- 
nasium, with  complete  courses  of  theology,  phi- 
losophy, and  medical  science ;  a  normal  school, 
and  many  other  schools.  The  royal  library 
contains  nearly  60,000  volumes,  and  there 
are  many  learned,  artistic,  and  philanthrop- 
ical  institutions  and  associations.  The  prin- 
cipal corporation  is  that  of  the  gardeners,  with 
over  700  members  and  a  triennial  prize  for 
officinal  plants.  The  export  of  plants,  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  seeds,  and  especially  of  licor- 
ice, is  considerable.  There  are  over  60  brew- 
eries. Cotton  weaving  employs  over  1,500  per- 
sons. The  transit  trade  has  been  much  in- 
creased by  railways  as  well  as  by  the  Ludwig's 
canal,  which,  extending  from  the  Regnitz  to 
the  Altmuhl,  unites  the  Main,  and  through  it 
the  Rhine,  with  the  Danube.  The  view  from 
the  ruined  castle  of  Altenberg  is  among  the 
finest  in  Franconia.  The  town  is  supposed  to 
have  derived  its  name  and  origin  in  the  9th 
century  from  this  castle  of  the  counts  of  Baben- 
berg,  where  Philip  of  Swabia,  the  competitor 
of  Otho  IV.  for  the  crown  of  Germany,  was 
murdered  in  1208  by  Otto  of  Wittelsbach. 
Bamberg  was  formerly  an  independent  bish- 
opric; the  61st  and  last  prince-bishop,  Buseck, 
who  died  in  1805,  retired  with  a  pension  of 
40,000  florins  after  the  secularization  of  the  see 
in  1801.  The  bishopric  then  included  an  area 
of  1,400  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  200,000. 
It  is  now  an  archbishopric,  with  jurisdiction 
over  the  bishoprics  of  Wurzburg,  Eichstadt, 
and  Spire.  The  Bamberg  conferences  of  1854 
related  to  the  addition  of  the  middle  German 
states  to  the  Austro-Prussian  union. 

BA9IBOCCIO  (little  child,  or  simpleton),  the 
Italian  nickname  of  PIETEB  VAN  LAEK  or  LAAR, 
a  Dutch  painter,  so  called  either  from  his  funny 


BAMBOO 


appearance  (according  to  some  accounts  he  was 
a  cripple),  or  because  he  chose  his  subjects  from 
low  life  (bambocciate),  born  at  Laaren,  near 
Naarden  in  1613,  died  in  Haarlem  in  1673.  He 
spent  16  years  in  Rome,  living  and  working 
with  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorraine,  and  acquir- 
ing celebrity  by  his  pictures  of  the  wild  haunts 
of  robbers,  of  mobs  at  public  gatherings  and 
festivals,  and  other  delineations  of  low  life  in 
Rome  and  its  vicinity.  In  such  subjects  he 
was  the  best  artist  of  his  day,  but  Woiwer- 
man's  superior  finish  was  said  to  have  affected 
him  to  such  a  degree  that  he  killed  himself. 
Many  of  his  pictures  are  in  Vienna,  Augsburg, 
and  Florence.  He  etched  plates  from  his  own 
designs,  and  excelled  as  a  violinist. 

BAMBOO  (bambusa  arundinacea),  a  genus 
of  arborescent  grasses  found  in  Asia,  and  in  the 
West  Indies,  but  more  extensively  used  in  China 
than  any  other  country.  It  has  a  hard  woody 
texture  where  the  plant  has  attained  any  con- 
siderable growth,  with  hollow  jointed  stems. 
These  are  externally  coated  with  silex,  and  the 
plant  sometimes  secretes  the  same  substance 
between  the  joints  in  lumps,  when  it  is  called 
tabasheer.  The  Chinese  reckon  an  endless  va- 
riety of  it,  one  Chinese  botanist  observing  that 
he  could  not  name  all  the  kinds,  but  would 
enumerate  63  of  the  principal  varieties.  The 
bamboo  occupies  an  intermediate  place  be- 
tween grasses  proper  and  trees,  from  its  size 
frequently  appearing  like  a  tree,  but  displaying 
gramineous  affinities  in  its  internal  structure. 
Like  all  grasses,  it  is  nourished  from  the  pith, 
and  starts  from  the  ground  at  nearly  the  same 


tances  between  the  joints  from  4  to  6  inches  in 
some  varieties,  and  in  others,  highly  prized, 
from  4  to  5  feet.  The  leaves  are  small  and 
oval,  without  much  diversity  of  form,  but  some- 


BambcM. 


diameter  it  bears  in  maturity.  It  usually  grows 
to  a  height  of  40  or  50  feet,,  and  beyond  that 
siee  is  regarded  as  extraordinary.  In  diameter 
it  varies  from  1  to  8  inches,  and  in  the  dis- 


Bamboo  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Fruit. 

times  of  a  reddish  and  bluish  hue.  The  color 
of  the  stems  is  generally  yellow,  but  the  Chi- 
nese possess  secret  arts  of  changing  this  to 
chestnut,  black,  &c. ;  the  black  bamboos  are 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  the  rich  like  any 
other  rare  plants,  and  the  emperor  is  said  to 
have  an  officer  connected  with  his  palace  whose 
sole  duty  is  to  attend  to  the  bamboos  in  the 
imperial  gardens.  The  culture  varies  greatly 
according  to  the  soil,  the  exposure,  and  the 
variety  of  the  plant.  It  generally  requires  a 
sandy  soil,  where  the  roots  will  easily  pene- 
trate, and  it  is  extensively  grown  along  the 
shores  of  rivers,  partly  to  give  support  to  the 
banks,  although  the  plant  dies  if  its  roots  touch 
the  water.  It  is  always  propagated  by  suckers, 
for  it  requires  30  years  or  more  to  reach  the 
blossoming  period,  when  the  plant  produces  a 
profuse  quantity  of  seed  and  dies.  Often  all 
the  mature  bamboos  in  a  large  district  flower 
at  once  and  then  die,  only  the  rootstocks  re- 
maining to  send  up  new  shoots.  The  seeds  are 
edible,  and  in  1812  a  famine  was  averted  in 
Orissa  by  the  general  flowering  of  this  grass. 
In  1864  the  bamboo  flowered  in  the  Soopa 
jungles,  and  about  50,000  people  gathered  the 
seed,  camping  in  the  jungle  for  several  weeks. 
Planting  generally  takes  place  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,  and  requires  very  slight  care; 
four  or  five  years  elapse  before  a  plantation  is 
considered  ready  to  cut,  and  for  this  the  win- 
ter season  is  deemed  the  best,  as  the  wood  is 
then  the  hardest. — The  bamboo  may  indeed  he 
styled  the  national  plant  of  China,  and  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  put  by  the  natives  are 
almost  innumerable.  The  young  and  tender 
shoots  are  boiled  and  eaten,  or  preserved  by 
the  confectioners,  and  as  sweetmeats  are  deli- 
cious. The  roots  serve  many  curious  purposes. 


262 


BAMBOOK 


BAN 


The  tubes  are  in  constant  use  in  many  depart- 
ments of  human  industry ;  not  only  are  entire 
houses  and  boats  made  of  them  in  some  cases, 
but  various  kinds  of  ornamental  screenwork  for 
interior  decoration ;  also  the  yards  of  vessels 
and  the  tacking  poles  by  which  boats  are  im- 
pelled in  calm  and  shallow  waters.  The  straight- 
est  of  the  tubes  have  been  used  for  astronomi- 
cal purposes,  and  cheap  aqueducts  are  in  com- 
mon use,  formed  by  fitting  the  ends  together. 
Sheds  are  made  from  the  bamboo  by  softening 
it  in  water  and  flattening  the  sections,  and 
these  when  split  finer  are  made  into  rain  cloaks. 
Floats  to  tie  on  the  backs  of  little  children  who 
live  in  the  boats  on  rivers,  as  well  as  the  poles 
by  which  strong  coolies  carry  burdens,  come 
alike  from  the  plant.  Water  wheels,  fences, 
rope,  chairs,  tables,  bookcases,  boxes,  hats,  um- 
brellas, pipe  sticks,  fans,  fan  cases,  cups,  meas- 
ures for  grain,  shields,  pike  and  spear  handles, 
and  paper,  all  are  formed  from  bamboo.  The 
pith  is  used  for  lamp  wicks,  and  exquisite  carv- 
ings inlaid  with  gold  and  silver,  and  far  more 
elegant  than  ivory  work,  are  produced  from  the 
hard  stems.  From  the  large  quantity  of  silex 
in  the  wood,  thin  slices  make  good  knives.  In 
the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean,  the  bamboo, 
like  the  breadfruit  tree  and  the  cocoanut,  en- 
ters largely  into  the  industrial  arts  of  all  the 
various  races.  The  Battaks  and  the  Redjangs 
of  Sumatra  write  on  small  polished  joints  of 
bamboo,  about  one  inch  in  diameter,  begin- 
ning at  the  top  and  descending  spirally  to  the 
bottom.  In  Burmah  the  bamboo  is  so  exten- 
sively used  in  the  construction  of  houses,  that 
large  cities,  such  as  Rangoon  and  Prome,  are 
composed  almost  entirely  of  bamboos.  These 
houses  are  lashed  together,  not  nailed,  and  eas- 
ily struck  and  removed  like  tents. — The  family 
Ixiiribwacea  comprises  20  genera  and  170  spe- 
cies already  described.  Of  these  only  one  is 
found  in  America  north  of  Mexico,  none  in 
Europe,  and  but  one  is  native  to  Africa ;  and 
only  one  is  common  to  both  hemispheres,  dif- 
fering in  this  respect  from  all  other  grasses. 

B  U1BOOK,  a  country  in  the  interior  of  Af- 
rica, between  lat.  12°  30'  and  14°  30'  N.  and 
Ion.  10°  30'  and  12°  15'  W.  It  is  about  140  m. 
in  length,  and  90  in  breadth.  It  is  rugged, 
though  the  greatest  elevation  nowhere  exceeds 
600  ft.,  and  is  watered  by  the  head  streams  of 
the  Senegal.  The  higher  region  is  barren  and 
naked,  but  the  lower  supports  an  exuberant 
vegetation.  The  baobab,  tamarind,  and  palm 
trees  reach  the  greatest  dimensions.  The  soil 
produces  almost  without  culture  maize,  millet, 
cotton,  melons,  and  a  great  variety  of  legumi- 
nous plants.  Rice  is  yielded  by  the  low  lands, 
which  are  subject  to  overflow.  Large  herds 
of  cattle  roam  over  the  plains.  Lions  and  ele- 
phants are  numerous.  Bambook  has  rich  gold 
mines,  whose  product  is  exchanged  for  salt. 
The  inhabitants  are  Mandingoes  of  a  very  low 
type,  and  extremely  numerous.  Bambook  was 
once  invaded  by  the  Portuguese,  the  ruins  of 
whose  forts  and  houses  are  still  to  be  seen. 


B  AMI  AN,  Itiiinjan,  or  Banmian,  a  valley,  pass, 
and  ancient  town  of  Afghanistan,  about  60  m.  W. 
N.  W.  of  Oabool.  The  valley  lies  between  the 
Hindoo  Koosh  and  the  mountains  of  Herat,  and 
is  important  as  the  only  route  practicable  for 
artillery  across  the  Himalaya  into  Independent 
Turkistan.  It  is  about  1  m.  wide,  12  m.  long, 
bounded  on  each  side  by  almost  perpendicular 
steeps,  and  crowded  with  remains  of  antiquity. 
The  town  occupies  the  sides  of  the  detached 
Ghoblghoola  hill,  in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  the 
site  of  the  old  city  of  Ghoolghoola,  destroyed 
by  the  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan  in  1221. 
Among  the  relics  are  gigantic  figures  cut  in  the 
rock  on  the  hill,  and  supposed  to  be  idols,  two 
of  which  are  over  130  ft.  high.  There  are  vast 
caverns  excavated  in  the  rocks,  extending  in  a 
series  for  upwards  of  8  m.  The  highest  eleva- 
tion of  the  Bamian  pass  is  about  8,500  ft.,  and 
further  south  are  passes  as  high  as  13,000  ft. 
About  8  m.  W.  of  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the 
castle  of  Zohak,  believed  to  have  originated 
from  that  mythical  conqueror,  and  where  coins 
and  other  relies  were  lately  found. 

BAJMPTON  LECTURES,  a  series  of  lectures  or 
sermons  preached  before  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford since  1780,  according  to  the  will  and  en- 
dowment of  the  Rev.  John  Bampton,  resident 
canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury.  The  income 
of  the  endowment  is  £120  per  annum.  The 
Bampton  lectures  consist  of  eight  annual  dis- 
courses, for  ever,  on  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing themes:  1.  The  divine  authority  of  the 
Scriptures.  2.  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  3.  The  articles  of  the  Christian 
faith  as  comprehended  in  the  Apostles'  and  the 
Nicene  creeds.  4.  The  authority  of  the  writings 
of  the  primitive  fathers  as  to  the  faith  and 
practice  of  the  primitive  church.  5.  An  essay 
to  confirm  the  Christian  faith,  and  confute  all 
heretics  and  schismatics.  One  person  is  to  be 
chosen  annually,  who  is  to  deliver  the  annual 
course  between  the  commencement  of  the  last 
jnonth  in  Lent  term  and  the  end  of  the  third 
week  in  Act  term.  The  lecturer  is  to  be  chosen 
by  the  heads  of  the  colleges;  he  must  have 
taken  the  degree  of  M.  A.  either  from  Oxford 
or  Cambridge ;  is  never  to  be  chosen  a  second 
time ;  and  the  lectures  are  to  be  delivered  in 
St.  Mary's  church.  Within  two  months  after 
the  delivery  of  the  lectures,  30  copies  are  to  be 
printed  for  distribution  to  the  universities,  the 
mayor  of  Oxford,  and  the  Bodleian  library. 
They  are,  however,  generally  published. 

BAN  (Hun.  bdn.  a  corruption  of  the  Slavic 
pan,  lord),  the  title  of  the  governor  of  Croatia 
and  Slavonia;  formerly  also  of  the  governors 
of  various  other  provinces  belonging  to  the 
Hungarian  crown. 

BAN,  a  proclamation;  in  old  English  and 
civil  law,  applied  most  commonly  to  an  excom- 
munication or  curse  publicly  pronounced  against 
those  who  had  been  or  should  be  guilty  of  cer- 
tain specified  offences.  In  Germany  sometimes 
persons,  cities,  or  districts  were  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire  by  some  public  act  or 


BANANA 


263 


proclamation,  and  thereby  political  rights  and 
capacities  were  taken  away,  and  in  case  of  in- 
dividuals they  were  cut  off  from  society  and 
deprived  of  rank,  title,  privileges,  and  proper- 
ty.— The  ban  and  arriere  ban  of  France  was  the 
entire  feudal  levy  of  the  realm,  raised  by  pub- 
lic proclamation  (ban)  of  the  king,  denouncing 
penalties  against  all  who  should  fail  to  appear. 
The  ban  comprised  all  the  great  vassals,  hold- 
ing of  the  king  for  homage ;  the  arriere  ban  in- 
cluded all  the  vassals  or  tenants  of  the  second 
class.  The  whole  ban  and  arriere  ban,  there- 
fore, constituted  the  entire  military  force  of 
the  crown  of  France  during  the  feudal  ages, 
and  prior  to  the  establishment  of  standing  ar- 
mies. It  could  only  be  called  out  by  the  king 
in  person,  and  usually  only  when  he  was  him- 
self in  the  field,  although  the  leading  of  it  often 
was  given  to  the  constable,  or  some  other  high 
officer  of  France.  The  calling  out  of  the  ban 
and  arriere  ban  usually  implied  the  invasion  of 
the  soil  of  France ;  the  revolt  of  some  great 
feudatories;  or,  in  some  serious  way,  the  su- 
preme peril  of  the  crown  and  state.  It  was 
attended  with  solemn  ceremonies,  and  on  the 
assemblage  of  the  powers  by  the  displaying  of 
the  orijlamme,  or  sacred  banner  of  the  monar- 
chy, green,  langued  with  tongues  of  gold,  em- 
blematical of  the  fiery  tongues  of  the  Pente- 
cost, by  the  count  d'Harcourt,  who  was  the 
hereditary  holder  of  that  office. 

BANANA  (musa),  the  most  important  of  tropi- 
cal fruits,  now  common  in  the  tropics  of  both 
hemispheres.  When  the  cutting  or  shoot  is 
planted  (and  it  requires  deep  rich  earth  and 


- 


JJillKMl 


much  moisture  to  grow  in  perfection),  it  soon 
sends  up  two  leaves,  tightly  rolled  together  un- 
til the  green  roll  has  grown  two  or  three  feet, 
when  the  blades  unfold.  These  leaves  are  fol- 
lowed by  others,  until  the  stems  of  the  leaves 
have  formed  a  smooth  trunk  some  eight  or  ten 
inches  thick,  composed  wholly  of  the  concentric 


leaf  stems  or  petioles.  At  the  end  of  nine 
months  a  deep  purple  bud  appears  in  the  centre 
of  the  leaves ;  its  constantly  lengthening  stem 
soon  pushes  it  beyond  the  leaves,  and  it  hangs 
down  like  a  huge  heart.  As  the  purple  en- 
velopes of  the  bud  fall  off  rows  of  buds  are  dis- 
closed, extending  two  thirds  around  the  stem. 
Each  miniature  fruit  has  a  waxen  yellow  blos- 
som with  a  large  projecting  stigma  at  the  end. 
The  female  flowers  come  first  on  the  stem,  and 
nearer  the  end  are  the  smaller  male  flowers ; 
both  are  full  of  good  honey.  Three  or  four 
months  are  required  to  ripen  the  fruit,  and 
during  the  process  the  rows  of  male  flowers 
have  withered  and  dropped  away,  the  ovaries 
of  the  female  blossoms  have  swollen  into  ba- 
nanas 6  to  14  inches  long,  and  the  huge  bunch, 
containing  several  hundred  fruits,  hangs  from 
the  now  withering  plant,  which  soon  dries  up 
if  left  to  itself.  From  its  base  spring  up  off- 
shoots which  may  be  transplanted,  and  if  the 
stem  is  cut  down  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  gather- 
ed, the  round  bulbous  rootstock  sends  up  new 
leaves,  and  a  second  plant  matures  much  soon- 
er than  do  the  offshoots.  Although  most  ba- 
nana bunches  hang  down  in  maturity,  a  variety 
is  found  on  the  Society  Islands  whose  very- 
large  bunches  of  deep  orange-colored  fruit 
stand  up  erect,  forming  ornamental  rather 
than  useful  objects ;  for  their  taste  even  when 
cooked  is  acrid  and  disagreeable.  The  Brazil- 
ian banana  is  tall,  rising  to  a  height  of  15  or  even 
20  feet,  and  the  fruit  is  yellow  and  excellent, 
rather  vinous  in  flavor.  The  Chinese  banana 
seldom  exceeds  five  feet  in  height,  the  leaves 
of  a  silver  hue,  and  the  fruit  aromatic.  The/ei 
or  Tahitian  banana  is  similar  to  the  Brazilian, 
but  not  so  tall,  and  the  fruit  is  angular,  yellow, 
turning  black  when  fully  ripe,  and  the  flesh  is 
salmon-colored  or  buff,  and  slightly  acid.  A 
variety  with  a  red  skin  is  brought  from  the 
West  Indies,  and  a  very  small  banana  is  found 
in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  The  botanical 
distinction  of  species  is  probably  not  well 
founded,  as  at  present  two,  M.  sapientum  and 
M.  paraduiaca,  are  supposed  to  comprise  all 
the  edible  varieties;  and  the  popular  names 
banana  and  plantain  are  often  confounded,  the 
latter  being  applied  to  the  cooking  varieties. 
Usually  no  seeds  are  found  in  the  pulp,  but  at 
Akyab  and  along  the  coast  of  Arracan  a  kind 
is  common  full  of  seeds.  These  seeds  are  black, 
rough,  as  large  as  cotton  seeds,  and  like  these 
enveloped  in  a  fibrous  coat.  The  Spaniards, 
from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  trans- 
verse section  to  a  cross,  supposed  the  banana 
to  have  been  the  forbidden  fruit,  and  that 
Adam  saw  in  eating  it  the  mystery  of  re- 
demption by  the  cross.  Bananas  are  eaten 
raw,  either  alone  or  cut  in  slices  and  with 
sugar  and  cream  or  wine  and  orange  juice. 
Cooked  when  green  or  ripe,  they  are  fried  alone 
or  in  butter,  baked  with  the  skins  on,  or  made 
into  puddings  or  pies.  They  may  be  cut  into 
strips  and  dried,  or  pounded  into  a  paste ;  in 
the  latter  form  they  are  the  staple  food  of  many 


204 


BANANA  ISLANDS 


BAXCA 


Mexican  tribes.  The  amount  of  nourishment 
is  very  great,  and  Humboldt  states  that  the 
same  land  which  produces  1,000  Ibs.  of  pota- 
toes will  yield  44,000  Ibs.  of  bananas ;  a  surface 
bearing  wheat  enough  to  feed  one  man  will, 
when  planted  with  bananas,  feed  25.  The 
young  shoots  are  cooked  as  greens,  but  the  old 
leaves  (from  6  to  10  ft.  long  and  12  to  14  in. 
wide)  and  stem  are  full  of  a  watery,  acrid  juice, 
which  stains  white  cloth  an  indelible  black  or 
dark  brown.  The  fibres  of  the  leaves  make  a 
textile  fabric  of  great  beauty,  known  as  a  fine 
kind  of  grass  cloth.  The  plants  are  set  closely 
in  cultivation,  and  the  bunches  are  gathered 
before  they  are  quite  ripe  and  hung  up  in  a  cold 
place,  or  better  still,  buried  in  the  earth.  A 
plantation  will  yield  all  the  year  round  by  tim- 
ing the  planting,  but  the  crop  is  much  more 
abundant  at  one  season.  The  bunches  may 
weigh  80  or  even  100  Ibs.  when  ripe. 

BANANA  ISLANDS,  three  small  islands  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Sierra  Leone, 
near  Cape  Shilling,  named  after  the  largest,  4 
m.  long  and  1  m.  broad ;  lat.  8°  8'  N.,  Ion.  13° 
12'  W.  They  are  high,  fertile,  inhabited,  and 
visited  from  Sierra  Leone  on  account  of  the  sa- 
lubrity of  the  climate.  The  Rev.  John  New- 
ton, the  friend  of  Cowper,  spent  some  time 
here  in  the  service  of  a  slave-dealer. 

BAXANAL,  an  island  in  the  river  Araguay, 
province  of  Goyaz,  Brazil,  also  known  as 
Santa  Anna.  It  is  200  m.  long  by  35  broad, 
covered  with  a  dense  forest,  and  said  to  have 
in  its  centre  a  navigable  lake,  90  m.  long  by  30 
wide.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  increase  of  the  banana  plants  intro- 
duced by  its  discoverer  in  1773.  There  are 
several  Brazilian  villages  of  the  same  name. 

BANAT  (Hun.  Bdnsdg,  a  district  governed  by 
a  ban),  a  part  of  S.  Hungary,  comprising  the 
counties  of  Torontal,  Temes,  and  Krass6,  and, 
in  a  wider  sense,  the  divisions  of  the  Military 
Frontier  adjoining  these  counties,  thus  bounded 
W.  by  the  Theiss,  S.  by  the  Danube,  N.  by  the 
Maros,  and  E.  by  the  mountain  ranges  which 
separate  Hungary  from  Wallachia  and  Tran- 
sylvania ;  area,  in  the  wider  sense,  about 
12,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  about  1,300,000,  includ- 
ing Magyars,  Germans,  Wallachs,  Eascians  or 
Serbs,  Jews,  Bulgarians,  and  gypsies.  About 
one  third  of  the  Banat  is  very  hilly,  the  rest 
level,  and  in  parts  swampy.  The  interior  is 
well  watered  by  the  Temes,  Karas,  and  Bega. 
The  Bega  canal,  nearly  90  m.  long,  is  within 
the  district.  The  Banat,  though  not  unfre- 
quently  visited  by  both  droughts  and  inunda- 
tions, is  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Eu- 
rope, especially  in  wheat,  maize,  millet,  tobac- 
co, sumach,  and  fruit.  Excellent  wine  is  pro- 
duced in  moderate  quantities ;  game  and  fish 
are  plentiful.  The  minerals  include  iron,  cop- 
per, and  also  some  gold,  silver,  and  zinc  ;  coal, 
however,  is  the  principal  mineral  production. 
The  Romans  formed  several  settlements  in  the 
Banat,  on  account  of  the  mild  climate.  Devas- 
tated by  the  Turks,  it  was  wrested  from  them 


in  1716  by  the  Austrians,  who  governed  it  for 
some  time  as  a  military  district,  Temesvar  be- 
ing its  capital.  The  Banat  proper  was  sepa- 
rated from  Hungary  in  1849  to  form  with  the 
county  of  Bacs  a  new  Austrian  crownland  un- 
der the  name  of  Voivodina  or  Serb  waywode- 
ship  of  Banat  of  Temes ;  but  it  was  reunited 
to  the  kingdom  in  1860.  In  the  summer  of 
1872  the  Banat  was  desolated  by  inundations 
of  uncommon  magnitude. 

BANBl'RY,  a  market  and  borough  town  in 
Oxfordshire,  England,  on  the  river  Cherwell, 
65  m.  N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  4,106. 
It  has  a  considerable  trade.  The  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements  has  become  impor- 
tant, and  the  town  has  much  improved  within 
20  years.  The  large  church  is  an  imitation  of 
St.  Paul's  cathedral.  Banbury  tarts  and  Ban- 
bury  cheese  are  famous  all  over  England. 

BAM'A,  an  island  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
between  lat.  1°  30'  and  3°  8'  S.,  and  Ion.  105° 
9'  and  106°  51'  E.,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the 
China  sea,  8.  by  the  Java  sea,  and  on  the  W. 
separated  from  Sumatra  by  the  strait  of  Banca, 
135  m.  long,  one  of  the  chief  highways  of 
European  commerce  in  the  eastern  seas ;  area, 
about  5,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869,  59,000,  in- 
cluding about  22,000  Chinese  and  150  Euro- 
peans. Banca  is  chiefly  known  by  its  inex- 
haustible tin  mines,  the  annual  product  of 
which  was  estimated  in  1872  at  about  9,000,000 
pounds,  chiefly  exported  from  Batavia.  The 
digging,  washing,  and  smelting  of  the  alluvial 
tin  ore  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese 
population,  who  receive  advances  from  the 
Dutch  government,  which  exercises  a  monop- 
oly of  the  produce.  Of  the  indigenous  popu- 
lation, about  one  third  are  the  orang  gununy, 
mountain  men,  savages  whom  the  Dutch  have 
not  been  able  to  civilize  to  any  extent.  They 
are  scattered  about  in  separate  families,  and 
subsist  chiefly  upon  the  spontaneous  products 
of  the  forest  and  the  meat  of  wild  hogs.  On  the 
coast  are  the  Sikas  tribes,  similar  to  the  Bajans 
or  sea  gypsies  in  habits,  though  differing  from 
them  in  language.  They  dwell  in  boats  and  live 
by  fishing  and  piracy.  The  Chinese  are  sub- 
jected to  severe  restrictions  by  the  government, 
and  none  are  allowed  to  remain  beyond  a  certain 
period.  The  Chinese  fleet  arrives  with  the  N. 
W.  monsoon,  with  sometimes  2,000  and  3,000 
coolies.  They  are  directly  governed  by  their 
kapallaa,  or  captains,  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
archipelago,  who  are  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment. "  The  island  is  crossed  by  a  chain  of 
mountains,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  about 
2,800  ft.  high.  This  chain  has  the  same  di- 
rection as  that  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  and 
of  the  plutonic  part  of  Sumatra,  running 
from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  and  the  same  geological 
formation.  The  main  component  of  the  moun- 
tains is  granite,  containing  tin,  gold,  and  iron. 
Next  to  the  granite,  and  in  situations  of  less 
elevation,  there  occurs  an  extensive  forma- 
tion of  red  ironstone,  the  laterite  of  geologists, 
and  in  the  lowest  lands  an  alluvial  formation, 


BANCROFT 


265 


intermixed  with  sandstone  and  breccias,  among 
which  occur  the  washings  of  tin  and  gold  The 
soil  of  Bunca  is  decidedly  sterile.  Besides  tin 
mining,  the  only  industry  consists  in  the  lim- 
ited cultivation  of  rice  and  of  a  few  fruits  and 
vegetables.  The  whole  island  is  covered  with 
forests,  the  marshy  parts  being  impenetrable. 
The  most  valuable  products  of  the  forest  for 
trade  are  eaglewood,  ebony,  and  chiefly  bees- 
wax. Of  animals,  there  are  two  species  of 
wild  hog,  the  same  as  those  of  Java,  which 
are  very  numerous,  a  stag,  the  pigmy  deer  or 
kanchil,  and  the  Malayan  bear.  The  princi- 
pal port  is  Minto  or  Muntok,  formerly  the 
seat  of  the  Dutch  governor  (who  now  resides 
at  Banca  Kota),  and  of  a  small  garrison ;  it  is 
situated  on  the  shore  of  the  safest  roadstead 
on  the  straits  of  Banca,  in  lat.  2°  S.,  Ion.  105° 
5'  E.,  and  contains  about  3,000  inhabitants, 
chiefly  Chinese. — This  island  attracted  no  at- 
tention till  the  discovery  of  its  tin  in  1709. 
The  sultan  of  Palembang  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish a  monopoly  of  it ;  but  the  Dutch  sent  an 
expedition  to  force  a  treaty  upon  him,  securing 
to  themselves  the  right  of  preemption  at  a  very 
small  price.  The  island  was  occupied  by  the 
English  during  the  Napoleonic  reign  in  Hol- 
land, but  restored  to  the  Dutch  after  the  res- 
toration of  the  house  of  Orange.  The  Dutch 
in  1818  restored  the  old  sultan  Badr-Oodin, 
whose  treachery  brought  on  a  bloody  war  of 
two  years,  ending  in  1821  with  the  triumph  of 
the  Dutch,  who  have  since  held  the  island. 

BANCROFT,  Aaron,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Reading,  Mass.,  Nov.  10,  1755,  died 
in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1839.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Calvinistic  system,  but  was  sub- 
sequently led  to  a  belief  more  nearly  resem- 
bling that  of  Arminius,  Grotius,  and  Locke. 
When  the  American  revolution  broke  out,  he 
often  took  a  place  in  a  company  of  "  minute 
men,"  and,  though  then  a  collegian,  was  a 
volunteer  at  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college,  studied  theology, 
and  began  at  once  to  preach.  Of  the  next  five 
years  of  his  life,  three  were  passed  in  Nova 
Scotia.  In  1785  he  was  settled  permanently  in 
Worcester.  Besides  occasional  sermons,  chiefly 
in  defence  of  religious  liberty,  he  printed  in 
1800  a  eulogy  on  Washington,  and  in  1807  a 
life  of  Washington,  which  was  reprinted  in 
England  in  1808,  and  has  been  very  widely  cir- 
culated in  the  United  States.  In  1822  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  doctrinal  sermons,  directed 
chiefly  against  the  dogma  of  unconditional 
election.  His  protest  against  Calvinism  long 
preceded  the  rise  of  the  Unitarians,  and  though 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Unitarian  association,  he 
would  never  discard  the  name  or  the  system 
of  Congregationalism.  He  was  a  doctor  of  di- 
vinity of  Harvard  college. 

BANCROFT,  Edward,  an  English  naturalist  and 
physician,  died  in  1821.  lie  resided  long  in 
America,  where  he  was  intimately  associated 
with  Franklin  and  Priestley.  He  wrote  an 


' '  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  Guiana  "  (Lon- 
don, 1769),  which  contained  much  information 
at  that  time  new,  particularly  an  account  of  the 
woorali,  or  vegetable  substance  employed  by 
the  Indians  to  poison  their  arrows.  He  also 
published  "  Experimental  Researches  concern- 
ing Permanent  Colors,  and  the  Best  Means  of 
Procuring  them"  (2  vols.  8vo,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1813),  which  was  translated  into  German. 

BANCROFT,  George,  an  American  historian 
and  statesman,  son  of  the  Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft, 
born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1800.  He 
pursued  his  preparatory  studies  at  Exeter,  N. 
II.,  and  in  1813  entered  Harvard  college,  where 
he  gave  special  attention  to  metaphysics  and 
morals,  and  acquired  a  strong  predilection  for 
the  writings  of  Plato.  He  graduated  in  1817, 
and  almost  immediately  started  for  the  univer- 
sities of  Germany.  In  Gottingen,  where  he 
remained  for  two  years,  he  studied  under  the 
most  learned  professors  of  'the  time,  includ- 
ing Eichhorn,  Heeren,  and  Blumenbach,  with 
nearly  all  of  whom  he  had  close  personal  ac- 
quaintan'ce.  He  applied  himself  to  German, 
French,  and  Italian  literature,  the  oriental  lan- 
guages and  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
ecclesiastical  and  other  ancient  history,  natural 
history,  the  antiquities  and  literature  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  besides  pursuing  a  thorough  course 
of  Greek  philosophy.  He  selected  history  as 
his  special  branch  of  study.  Having  received 
at  Gottingen  in  1820  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy,  he  repaired  to  Berlin,  where  he 
continued  his  studies,  and  became  intimate  with 
Schleiermacher,  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Savi- 
gny,  Lappenberg,  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  and 
other  distinguished  literary  persons.  He  also 
carefully  observed  the  administration  of  the 
Prussian  government  in  many  of  its  departments. 
In  the  spring  of  1821  he  began  a  journey  through 
Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  He  had 
already  in  a  Gottingen  vacation  seen  Dresden, 
and  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Goethe  at 
Jena.  At  Heidelberg  he  spent  some  time  in 
study  with  the  historian  Schlosser.  In  Paris 
he  became  acquainted  with  Cousin,  Alexander 
von  Humboldt,  and  Benjamin  Constant.  He 
passed  a  month  in  England,  travelled  on  foot 
through  Switzerland,  and  spent  eight  months 
in  Italy,  forming  an  acquaintance  with  Manzoni 
at  Milan,  and  a  friendship  witli  Chevalier  Bun- 
sen  at  Rome,  where  he  also  knew  Niebuhr. 
In  1822  he  returned  to  America,  and  accepted 
for  one  year  the  office  of  tutor  of  Greek  in  Har- 
vard university.  During  this  year  he  preached 
several  sermons,  yet  he  seems  not  long  to  have 
entertained  the  thought  of  entering  the  cler- 
ical profession.  In  1823,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Joseph  G.  Cogswell,  he  established  the 
Round  Hill  school  at  Northampton.  He  pub- 
lished at  this  time  his  translation  of  Heeren's 
"Politics  of  Ancient  Greece,"  and  a  small  vol- 
ume of  poems,  and  ho  was  also  busily  meditat- 
ing and  collecting  materials  for  a  history  of 
the  United  States.  In  1826  he  delivered  at 
Northampton  an  oration,  in  which  he  avowed 


26G 


BANCROFT 


his  principles  to  bo  for  universal  suffrage  and 
uncompromising  democracy.  He  was  elected 
in  1830,  without  his  knowledge,  to  the  legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts,  but  refused  to  take  his 
seat,  and  the  year  after  he  declined  a  nomina- 
tion, though  certain  to  have  been  elected,  for 
the  senate  of  his  state.  In  1834  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  "History  of  the  United 
States."  In  1835  ho  drafted  an  address  to  the 
people  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  request  of  the 
young  men's  democratic  convention,  and  was 
for  a  time  actively  engaged  in  political  speak- 
ing, and  in  drawing  up  resolutions  and  ad- 
dresses. He  removed  in  this  year  to  Spring- 
field, where  he  resided  three  years,  and  com- 
pleted the  second  volume  of  his  history.  In 
1838  he  was  appointed  by  President  Van  Buren 
collector  of  Boston.  Duties  were  at  that  time 
paid  by  bonds,  and  unpaid  bonds  had  accumu- 
lated to  a  large  amount  as  debts  to  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  not  a  single  bond  taken  during  the 
term  of  Mr.  Bancroft  was  unpaid  at  the  time 
when  he  resigned  the  office,  and  his  collections 
amounted  to  several  millions.  He  wa's  at  this 
period  a  frequent  orator  in  political  assemblies, 
was  pursuing  his  studies  zealously,  and  was 
particularly  interested  in  the  philosophical 
movement  subsequently  known  as  transcenden- 
talism. In  1840  the  third  volume  of  his  history 
was  published.  In  1844  he  was  nominated  by 
the  democratic  party  for  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and,  though  not  elected,  received 
more  votes  than -any  candidate  has  received 
either  before  or  since  on  the  purely  democratic 
ticket.  During  the  canvass  he  was  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  studying  manuscripts  and  docu- 
ments illustrative  of  our  early  history.  After 
the  accession  of  Mr.  Polk  to  the  presidency  in 
1845,  Mr.  Bancroft  entered  the  cabinet  as  sec- 
retary of  the  navy.  He  signalized  his  adminis- 
tration of  this  office  by  the  establishment  of 
the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis.  The  im- 
provement of  education  in  the  navy  had  been 
desired  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  but  little 
had  been  done  to  promote  it,  and  Mr.  Bancroft 
was  the  first  to  design  a  school  for  the  naval 
service,  corresponding  to  the  military  school  at 
West  Point.  At  his  request  the  secretary  of 
war,  with  the  approval  of  the  president,  made 
over  to  the  navy  department  the  military  fort 
and  grounds  at  Annapolis,  and  the  school  was 
at  once  set  at  work  by  Mr.  Bancroft,  who  re- 
ceived for  the  purpose  all  the  appropriations 
for  which  he  asked.  He  was  also  influential 
in  obtaining  additional  appropriations  for  the 
Washington  observatory,  and  in  introducing 
some  new  professors  of  great  merit  into  the 
corps  of  instructors.  A  reform  in  the  system 
of  promotion  in  the  naval  service  being  re- 
quired by  many,  he  planned  a  method  by  which 
promotion  should  depend  not  on  age  alone, 
but  also  on  experience  and  capacity ;  but  bis 
scheme  was  never  fully  developed  or  applied. 
While  secretary  of  the  navy  Mr.  Bancroft  gave 
the  order  to  take  possession  of  California,  and 
it  was  carried  into  effect  before  he  left  the 


naval  department.  During  his  term  of  office 
he  also  acted  as  secretary  of  war  pro  tern,  for 
a  month,  and  gave  the  order  to  Gen.  Taylor  to 
march  into  Texas,  which  caused  the  first  occu- 
pation of  Texas  by  the  United  States.  In  1846 
Mr.  Bancroft  exchanged  his  position  in  the 
cabinet  for  the  office  of  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Great  Britain.  Ho  successfully  urged 
upon  the  British  ministry  the  adoption  of  more 
liberal  laws  of  navigation.  The  arrest  of  some 
Irish  Americans  gave  him  an  opportunity  also 
to  vindicate  the  rights  of  naturalized  American 
citizens;  and  at  his  demand  they  were  set 
free.  During  his  residence  in  England  he  made 
many  friends  among  the  men  of  letters  of  that 
country.  In  1849  the  university  of  Oxford 
made  him  a  doctor  of  civil  law,  and  he  had 
before  been  chosen  correspondent  of  the  royal 
academy  of  Berlin,  and  also  of  the  French  in- 
stitute. He  used  the  opportunity  of  his  resi- 
dence in  Europe  to  perfect  his  collections  on 
American  history.  He  made  several  visits  to 
Paris,  to  study  the  archives  and  libraries  of 
that  city,  being  aided  in  his  researches  by  Gui- 
zot,  Mignet,  Lamartine,  and  De  Tocqueville. 
In  England  the  ministry  opened  to  him  the 
records  of  the  state  paper  office,  embracing  a 
vast  array  of  military  and  civil  correspondence, 
and  also  the  records  of  the  treasury.  In  the 
British  museum,  also,  and  in  private  collections, 
he  found  valuable  manuscripts.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1849,  took  up  his  residence 
in  New  York,  and  began  to  prepare  for  the 
press  the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  of  his  his- 
tory, which  were  published  in  1852.  The  sixth 
volume  was  issued  in  1854,  the  seventh  in  1858, 
and  the  eighth  soon  after.  Up  to  1866  he  de- 
clined any  public  office,  though  several  were 
tendered  him,  and  resided  in  New  York,  en- 
gaged in  literary  labor.  In  February  of  that 
year,  at  the  request  of  Congress,  he  delivered  an 
address  in  memory  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  The 
ninth  volume  of  his  history  also  appeared  dur- 
ing that  year.  On  May  14,  1867,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Prussia,  and  accepted  the 
office ;  in  1868  he  was  accredited  to  the  North 
German  confederation,  and  in  1871  to  the  Ger- 
man empire.  Under  his  auspices,  important 
treaties  concerning  the  naturalization  of  Ger- 
mans in  America  were  concluded  with  the  va- 
rious states  of  the  confederation  in  February. 
1868.  In  August  of  the  same  year  Mr.  Bancroft 
received  from  the  university  of  Bonn  the  hon- 
orary degree  of  Doctor  Juris,  and  in  September, 
1870,  he  celebrated  the  50th  anniversary  of 
receiving  his  first  degree  at  Gottingen.  On 
this  occasion  he  was  congratulated  by  many 
German  societies  and  faculties,  as  well  as  by 
prominent  men  of  several  nations.  He  still 
gives  much  of  his  time  to  labor  on  his  unfin- 
ished "History  of  the  United  States,"  and  has 
the  tenth  and  last  volume  nearly  ready  for 
the  press  (1873).  Mr.  Bancroft  is  a  member 
of  many  American  and  foreign  learned  socie- 
ties. Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  he 
has  published  numerous  essays  in  the  "  North 


BANCROFT 


BANDEL 


267 


American  Review "  and  other  periodicals,  a 
collection  of  which  has  been  made  under  the 
title  of  "Miscellanies"  (New  York,  1855).  Mr. 
Bancroft's  "  History  of  the  United  States  "  oc- 
cupies a  very  prominent  place  not  only  in  the 
historical  literature  of  his  own  country,  but  in 
that  of  the  world,  since  it  is  everywhere  a  rec- 
ognized authority  concerning  the  period  which 
it  covers.  It  is  not  merely  a  narrative,  but  a 
philosophic  treatise,  dealing  with  causes  and 
principles  as  well  as  events,  and  tracing  with 
remarkable  skill  the  progress  of  enlightenment 
and  liberal  ideas.  It  has  been  translated  into 
various  languages,  and  is  especially  popular  in 
Germany. 

BANCROFT,  Richard,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Farnworth  in  September,  1544,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  2, 1610.  He  was  chaplain  to  Sir  Chris- 
topher Hatton,  and  afterward  to  Archbishop 
Whitgift,  through  whose  and  Lord  Burleigh's 
influence  Elizabeth  nominated  him  in  1597 
bishop  of  London.  The  queen  employed  him  in 
1600  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Germany,  and 
he  attended  on  her  deathbed.  James  I.  pro- 
moted him  in  lf>04  to  the  archbishopric  of  Can- 
terbury. For  nearly  a  generation  he  preached 
against  popery ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
disputation  before  James  at  Hampton  Court 
between  the  church  of  England  and  the  Pres- 
byterian or  Puritan  party,  the  measures  of  the 
government  being  afterward  formed  according 
to  his  views ;  became  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  regulating  the  affairs  of  the  established 
church  and  repressing  the  publication  of  ob- 
noxious works ;  and  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  shortly  before  his  death  chancel- 
lor of  Oxford.  He  published  in  1593  "Dan- 
gerous Positions  and  Proceedings,  published 
and  practised  within  this  Island  of  Brytaine, 
under  Pretence  of  Reformation,  and  for  the 
Presbyteriall  Discipline,"  and  "A  Survey  of 
the  pretended  Holy  Discipline." 

BANDA  ISLANDS,  a  cluster  of  ten  small  islands 
belonging  to  Holland,  in  the  Molucca  group 
of  the  Eastern  archipelago,  in  the  Banda  sea, 
about  50  m.  S.  of  Ceram,  between  lat.  3°  50' 
and  4°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  128°  30'  and  130°  E. ;  area, 
about  130  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  6,000,  including 
Papua  negroes,  Chinese,  and  Dutch.  About 
800  of  the  natives  are  Christians.  Lontoar,  or 
Great  Banda,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  about 
12m.  long  and  2|  m.  wide.  It  is  almost  unin- 
habitable on  account  of  unhealthiness.  Neira, 
or  Banda  Neira,  120  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Amboyna, 
is  the  seat  of  the  Dutch  authorities,  and  con- 
tains the  forts  Nassau  and  Voorzigtigheid,  and 
the  old  castle  Belgica,  a  good  harbor,  and  ex- 
tensive stores.  The  Gonong  Api  or  Fire  moun- 
tains, N.  of  Banda  Neira,  derive  their  name 
from  the  volcanic  cone  Api  (fire),  about  2,000 
ft,  high,  which  constantly  emits  smoke  and 
sometimes  cinders  and  ashes.  There  have  been 
many  disastrous  eruptions,  and  in  1852  an 
earthquake  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, and  obliged  the  inhabitants  to  seek  refuge 
in  Amboyna.  The  chief  value  of  the  islands  is 


for  the  production  of  nutmegs.  The  planta- 
tions, which  cannot  be  divided  or  sold,  were 
worked  by  slaves  until  the  proclamation  of 
emancipation,  Jan.  1,  1860,  since  which  time 
they  have  been  cultivated  partly  by  Java  con- 
victs. The  number  of  persons  employed  ex- 
ceeds 2,500,  and  the  trade  is  virtually  monop- 
olized by  the  Dutch  East  India  company.  The 
annual  average  production  is  estimated  at 
700,000  Ibs.  of  nutmegs  and  180,000  Ibs.  of 
mace.  Sago  and  cacao  are  also  produced. — The 
islands  were  discovered  in  1512  by  Antonio 
Abreu,  a  Portuguese,  whose  countrymen  seized 
them  in  1524,  hut  were  expelled  in  1600  by  the 
Dutch.  Shortly  afterward  the  Dutch  ordered 
the  wholesale  execution  of  the  indigenous  Malay 
settlers  for  the  murder  of  Admiral  Verhoeven 
and  45  naval  officers.  The  English  conquered 
them  March  8, 1796,  restored  them  to  the  Neth- 
erlands after  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1801,  and 
reoccupied  them  from  1810  to  1814;  but  the 
final  restoration  to  the  Dutch  authorities  was 
delayed  till  1817,  owing  to  a  difference  respect- 
ing the  partition  of  the  expenditures  which 
had  accrued  in  the  interval. 

BANDA  ORIENTAL.     See  URUGUAY. 

BANDARRA,  Gonzalo  Annes,  surnamed  the  Por- 
tuguese Nostradamus,  born  at  Trancoso,  prov- 
ince of  Beira,  died  in  Lisbon  in  1556.  He  was 
a  cobbler,  addicted  to  improvising  religious 
verses  and  prophecies,  and  was  in  1541  perse- 
cuted by  the  inquisition,  but  allowed  to  return 
to  his  trade.  A  clandestine  edition  of  what 
purported  to  he  his  improvisations  (7Vo«a«  re- 
rfo«a!«VAas)  was  printed  in  1581 ;  this  has  been 
regarded  as  spurious,  and  a  rival  edition  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1603.  A  Portuguese  missionary  in 
Brazil,  Antonio  Vieyra,  was  visited  with  severe 
punishment  by  the  inquisition  for  predicting 
the  resurrection  and  triumphant  reign  of  John 
IV.,  in  accordance  with  Bandarra's  prophecies 
of  a  fifth  empire  of  the  world.  This  led  to 
new  editions  of  the  predictions,  especially  one 
issued  in  Nantes,  and  they  have  been  asso- 
ciated with  the  sect  of  the  Sebastianists,  who 
had  many  followers  at  the  time  of  the  French 
invasion,  and  who  from  a  mystical  interpreta- 
tion of  these  prophecies  predicted  the  return 
of  King  Sebastian  to  the  throne  for  1808. 
Bandarra  having  been  altogether  illiterate,  the 
work  ascribed  to  him  must  have  been  penned 
by  another  hand.  Writers  of  the  17th  century 
called  him  the  holy  cobbler  (p  mpateiro  «a«to). 

BANDEL,  Joseph  Ernst  TOD,  a  German  sculptor, 
born  at  Anspach,  May  17,  1800.  He  studied 
at  Nuremberg,  Munich,  and  Rome,  and  is  best 
known  for  his  colossal  national  monument  of 
the  German  hero  Arminius,  on  the  summit  of 
the  Grotenberg,  near  Detmold.  The  statue  is  of 
copper,  95  feet  high.  The  work  was  begun  in 
1838,  and  suspended  for  want  of  funds,  after  a 
Gothic  temple  had  been  erected  for  the  pedes- 
tal, and  the  statue  itself  had  been  made  in  de- 
tached pieces.  An  association  was  formed  in 
1862  for  the  collection  of  subscriptions.  The 
king  of  Prussia  in  1869  contributed  2,000  tha- 


208 


BANDELLO 


DANDIER  A 


lers,  but  more  money  is  required  for  the  com- 
pletion of  tlio  work.  In  the  delicacy  and  ele- 
gance of  his  works  in  marble,  Bandel  is  hardly 
inferior  to  Oanova.  Among  his  best  works 
are  statues  of  Shakespeare  and  Goldorii  for  the 
Hanover  theatre. 

BANDELLO,  Slatteo,  an  Italian  novelist,  born 
at  Castelnuovo  Scrivia,  near  Alessandria,  in 
1480,  died  in  Agen,  France,  about  1562.  He  was 
a  Dominican,  accompanied  his  uncle,  general 
of  this  order,  on  his  travels  in  Italy,  and  was 
teacher  in  Milan  of  Lucrezia  Gonzaga,  whom 
he  celebrated  in  his  Canti  della  lode  della  S. 
Lucrezia  Gonzaga  (Agen,  1545).  In  1525, 
having  sided  with  the  French,  he  had  to  fly 
from  Milan,  and  found  an  asylum  with  Cesare 
Fregoso,  an  Italian  general  in  the  French  ser- 
vice, after  whose  death  he  remained  an  inmate 
of  his  family  at  Agen.  Appointed  in  1550  by 
the  king  of  France  bishop  of  Agen,  he  accepted 
part  of  the  emolument  of  this  office,  its  duties 
being  discharged  by  the  bishop  of  Grasse,  while 
he  prepared  for  publication  his  Novelle,  or  tales, 
the  MSS.  of  which  had  been  recovered  by  his 
friends  from  the  incendiaries  of  his  Milanese 
residence.  They  were  used  by  Shakespeare  in 
"Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "Twelfth  Night,"  and 
"Much  Ado  about  Nothing;  "  by  Massinger  in 
his  "Picture;  "  and  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
in  "  The  Maid  of  the  Mill "  and  "  The  Triumph 
of  Death."  He  translated  the  Hecuba  of  Eurip- 
ides, and  wrote  poetry  (fiime,  Turin,  1816); 
but  his  fame  rests  on  his  Novelle,  published 
at  Lucca  in  3  vols.,  1554  (4th  vol.,  Lyons,  1573) ; 
more  complete  editions  are  those  of  London  (4 
vols.,  1740 ;  9  vols.,  1791-'3)  and  Milan  (9  vols., 
1813-'14).  The  most  recent  Italian  edition  is 
that  of  Turin  (4  vols.,  1853). 

BANDERA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  watered 
by  the  Rio  Medina;  area,  938  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  649,  of  whom  18  were  colored.  Stock 
raising  is  the  principal  industry.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  easily  raised,  and  hogs  thrive  on  the 
mast,  which  is  abundant.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  15,673  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  5,530  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  9,095  of  butter. 
There  were  281  horses,  898  milch  cows,  5,103 
other  cattle,  3,208  sheep,  and  856  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Bandera  City. 

BANDETTINI,  Teresa,  an  Italian  poetess,  born 
in  Lucca,  Aug.  12,  1763,  died  April  5,  1837. 
She  was  at  first  a  ballet  dancer,  but  soon  left 
the  stage  and  acquired  celebrity  as  an  im- 
provisatrice.  In  1789  she  married  Signor  Pie- 
tro  Landucci,  a  gentleman  of  Lucca.  Great 
honors  were  showered  upon  her  in  Rome  and 
other  cities  by  the  people  as  well  as  by  poets 
and  academies;  and  she  was  equally  admired 
for  accomplishments  and  virtues.  Her  works 
include  Rime  diverse  (1788) ;  La  Horte  di 
Adone,  a  poem  in  four  cantos ;  and  II  Polidoro. 
She  was  versed  in  several  languages,  and  trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  and  Greek  with  ease. 

BANDICOOT  (perameles),  a  marsupial  animal 
of  small  size,  inhabiting  the  stony  regions  of 
the  interior  of  S.  E.  Australia.  Its  appearance 


is  somewhat  rat-like,  and  in  its  long  snout 
shrew-like.  The  teetli  are  sharp  and  numer- 
ous, the  incisors  being  5  above  and  3  below, 
the  canines  1,  the  premolars  3,  and  the  molars 

4,  on   each   side   in  each  jaw.      The  head  is 
elongated,  the  back  arched,  and  the  mode  of 
progression,  from  the  union  of  the  2d  and  3d 
toes  of  the  hind  feet,  the  smallness  of  the  hind 
thumb  and  outer  fore  toe,  and  separation  from 
the  others,  consists  of  a  gait  between  a  jump 
and  a  run ;    the  marsupial  pouch  opens  back- 
ward.    The  most  common  species,  the  band- 
ed bandicoot  (P.  fasciata),  is  about  18  inch- 
es long,  of  a  blackish  yellow  color,  banded  on 
the  hinder  parts ;   it  runs  with   great  speed, 
lives  upon  roots,  seeds,  insects,  and  grubs,  and 
its  flesh  is  esteemed  by  the  natives.     The  long- 
nosed  bandicoot  has,  as  its  name  imports,  a 
longer  and  sharper  snout,  and  a  harsh  fur  of  a 
brownish  and  blackish  color  above  and  white 
below  ;  the  body  is  16  inches  long  and  the  tail 

5.  It  prefers  vegetable  food,  and  is  sometimes 


Banded  Bandicoot  (Perameles  fesciata). 

destructive  in  the  gardens  of  the  colonists,  its 
long  and  powerful  claws  enabling  it  to  dig  up 
roots  with  great  facility.  The  bandicoots 
make  a  nest  of  dried  grass  and  leaves,  care- 
fully concealed  at  the  foot  of  a  dense  bush. — 
The  chceropu»,  an  allied  animal  of  New  South 
Wales,  has  two  toes  of  equal  length  on  the 
fore  feet,  with  sharp  hoof-like  claws  resembling 
those  of  a  pig ;  the  tail  is  long  and  rat-like. 
It  is  a  slender,  graceful  animal,  with  very  large 
ears ;  it  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit,  and  its 
fur  is  very  soft ;  its  speed  is  considerable,  and 
it  eats  both  vegetable  substances  and  insects. 

BAJVDIERA,  Attilio  and  Emilio,  Italian  patriots, 
born  respectively  in  1817  and  1819,  executed 
at  Cosenza,  July  25,  1844.  They  were  lieu- 
tenants in  the  Austrian  navy,  and  were  the 
sons  of  an  Austrian  vice  admiral  of  a  noblo 
Venetian  family.  Joining  the  conspiracy  for 
Italian  freedom,  they  took  refuge  in  Corfu  in 
March,  1844,  whence  with  20  others  they  ef- 
fected a  landing  in  Calabria  June  16 ;  but  being 
betrayed  by  one  of  their  number,  they  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Neapolitan  forces  near  San 
Giovanni  in  Fiore.  The  two  brothers  were 
summarily  executed.  Their  patriotism  and  he- 
roic spirit  created  a  strong  sympathy  in  their 
favor  in  England,  where  Sir  James  Graham, 


BANDINELLI 


BANGALORE 


2G9 


then  postmaster  general,  was  severely  censured 
for  his  supposed  share  in  their  fate  by  opening 
anil  disclosing  their  correspondence  with  Maz- 
zinl.  In  France,  Descliamps  and  Louise  Collet 
wrote  poetry  in  their  honor,  and  in  Italy,  Maz- 
zini's  work  on  their  martyrdom  had  a  wide 
circulation,  as  well  as  Ricciardi's  Storia  del 
fratelli  B.  e  consorti  (Florence,  1863). 

IMMHMXl.l,  Baffin,  an  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  Florence  in  1487,  died  there  in  1559.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  eminent  goldsmith,  studied 
sculpture  and  painting,  and  eventually  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  the  former  art.  Among 
his  best  works  are  a  statue  of  Orpheus,  copied 
from  the  Apollo  Belvedere  ;  a  group  of  Adam 
and  Eve ;  a  copy  of  the  famous  group  of  the 
Laocoon,  in  regard  of  which  he  boasted  of  hav- 
ing surpassed  the  original,  which  gave  rise  to 
Michel  Angelo's  remark,  Chi  na  dietro  ad  al- 
cuno,  non  puo  mai  passare  inanzi,  "He  who 
follows  another,  can  never  pass  before  him;" 
the  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  the  "Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Lawrence,"  the  "  Massacre  of  the  In- 
nocents," and  the  colossal  Hercules  and  Cacus, 
besides  many  fine  bass-reliefs.  His  works  dis- 
play a  great  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  much 
fertility  of  imagination,  but  are  deficient  in 
grace  and  elasticity.  He  was  of  an  envious 
nature,  and  was  charged  with  having  destroyed 
one  of  Michel  Angelo's  celebrated  cartoons.  He 
was  patronized  by  the  popes  and  by  Charles  V., 
and  left  a  large  fortune. 

BAlfDON.  I.  A  river  in  the  county  Cork,  Ire- 
land, rises  in  the  Carberry  mountains,  near  Dun- 
manway,  and  after  an  E.,  N.  E.,  and  S.  E.  course 
of  40  m.  enters  the  Atlantic,  forming  Kinsale 
harbor.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons 
to  Innishannon,  10  m.  inland.  II.  Or  Bandon- 
bridge,  a  town  of  Ireland,  county  Cork,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Bandon,  15  m.  S.  W.  of 
Cork ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,074.  It  is  well  built  of 
stone,  has  several  schools,  and  was  once  a  pros- 
perous manufacturing  town. 

I!  I  Mil  K  K,  or  Bandtkie.  I.  Jerzy  Samnel,  a  Po- 
lish historian,  born  in  Lublin,  Nov.  24,  1768, 
died  in  Cracow,  June  11,  1835.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Germany,  was  a  private  tutor  in  St. 
Petersburg,  teacher  and  rector  at  Breslau,  and 
librarian  and  professor  in  the  university  of  Cra- 
cow. He  wrote  a  Polish-German  dictionary 
and  grammar,  a  history  of  printing  in  Cracow 
and  in  Poland,  and  other  works,  the  principal 
of  which  is  his  Dzieje  naro/lu  polskieyo  ("  His- 
tory of  the  Polish  Nation,"  3d  ed.,  2  vols., 
Breslau,  1835).  II.  Jan  Wineenty,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Lublin  in  1783,  died  in 
Warsaw  in  1861.  He  was  for  over  20  years 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  university  of 
Warsaw,  and  published  editions  of  the  Jus  Cul- 
mense  (Warsaw,  1814),  and  the  Jw>  Polonieum 
(Breslau,  1831),  and  a  history  of  Polish  law 
(Higtorya  prawa  pohkiego,  Warsaw,  1850). 

BASER,  Julian,  a  Swedish  general,  born  near 
Stockholm,  June  23,  1595,  died  in  Halberstadt, 
May  10,  1641.  His  father,  one  of  the  council- 
lors of  Charles  IX.,  gave  that  king  some  of- 


fence, and  was  executed  at  Linkoping  in  1600. 
Under  Gustavus  Adolphus  the  son  took  an 
active  part  in  the  conflicts  with  Russia  and  Po- 
land, and  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  distinguished 
himself  at  Leipsic  (1631),  where  he  defeated 
the  right  wing  of  the  imperialists  under  Pappen- 
heim,  contributed  toward  the  conquest  of  Augs- 
burg and  Munich,  became  commander  of  an  im- 
portant section  of  the  Swedish  army,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  conjunction  with  Horn  in  expelling 
Aldringer  from  Bavaria.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  he  was  invested  by  Oxen- 
stierna  with  the  supreme  command  of  the  army. 
He  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Wittstock,  Sept. 
24,  1636,  and  a  still  more  decisive  triumph  at 
Chemnitz  in  1639,  after  which  he  overran  and 
devastated  the  whole  of  Germany,  his  harsh 
and  overbearing  nature  intensifying  the  calami- 
ties of  the  war.  His  attempt  in  1641  to  seize  the 
emperor  and  diet  at  Ratisbon  was  frustrated  by 
the  difficulty  of  crossing  the  Danube.  He  was 
overtaken  by  illness  on  his  return  from  the  ex- 
pedition, and  his  death  was  attributed  by  some 
to  poison  and  by  others  to  his  licentious  and 
intemperate  habits.  He  had  few  superiors  in 
reckless  daring  and  gallantry  in  the  field.  The 
king  of  France  called  him  his  cousin,  and  the 
emperor  endeavored  in  vain  to  secure  his  ser- 
vices by  offering  him  a  princely  title  with  Wal- 
lenstein's  estates  as  a  fief. 

BANFF,  or  Bamn",  a  parliamentary  borough, 
seaport,  and  the  chief  town  of  BanfFshire,  Scot- 
land, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Deveron  (crossed 
by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches),  near  the 
entrance  of  that  river  into  the  Moray  frith, 
117  m.  N.  of  Edinburgh,  and  38  m.  N.  W.  of 
Aberdeen ;  pop.  in  1871,  7,439.  It  is  a  fine 
town,  and  has  been  a  royal  burgh  since  the 
end  of  the  14th  century;  thread,  linen,  hosiery, 
soap,  and  leather  are  manufactured.  Herring, 
cod,  and  salmon  fisheries  are  active,  the  salmon 
being  sent  to  London,  packed  in  ice.  Corn 
and  cattle  are  likewise  exported.  There  are 
about  100  registered  vessels. 

BANFFSHIRE,  or  Banff,  a  county  in  the  N.  of 
Scotland,  bordering  on  Moray  frith  ;  area,  686 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  62,010.  The  surface, 
more  than  half  of  which  is  uncultivated,  is 
mountainous  except  near  the  coast ;  Ben  Mac 
Dhui  (4,296  ft.  high)  and  Cairngorm  (4,090  ft.) 
lie  partly  within  the  county.  The  rivers  Avon 
and  Spey  form  portions  of  the  western  boun- 
dary, and  the  Deveron  part  of  the  eastern. 
The  lowlands  are  fertile;  cattle-breeding  is  the 
principal  industry.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  fishing,  weaving,  bleaching, 
flax-dressing,  tanning,  and  distilling.  Cairns 
or  tumuli  are  found  in  the  county. 

BANG,  or  Banj,  a  narcotic  made  of  the  leaf 
of  a  kind  of  hemp  (cannabis  Indian),  used  by 
the  orientals  as  a  means  of  intoxication.  It 
is  generally  chewed.  It  is  also  sometimes  given 
with  tobacco,  or  in  coffee  or  other  drinks,  and 
is  used  to  drug  persons  with. 

BANGALORE,  a  fortified  city  of  southern  In- 
dia, in  the  state  of  Mysore,  175  in.  W.  of  Ma- 


270 


BANGKOK 


BANGOR 


dras;  pop.  in  1867  estimated  140,000,  mostly 
Hindoos.  It  was  founded  by  Hyder  Ali,  under 
whom  it  rose  rapidly.  Lord  Cornwallis  took 
it  by  assault  in  1791,  and  after  the  English 
withdrew  Tippoo  Saib  partially  dismantled  the 
fortress  and  drove  away  the  wealthy  merchants 
by  his  heavy  exactions.  On  the  death  of  Tip- 
poo  the  territory,  though  ruled  by  a  native 
sovereign,  came  under  British  protection,  and 
revived  rapidly.  The  town  has  considerable 
trade  with  all  parts  of  S.  India  in  salt,  sugar, 
spices,  metals,  dyestuffs,  silk,  cotton,  and  wool. 
Silk  and  cotton  tissues  are  woven  for  home 
consumption.  The  town  is  on  an  elevated  site, 
and  is  a  place  of  resort  for  invalids. 

BANGKOK,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Siam,  situated  on  the  river  Menam,  about  20 
m.  from  its  mouth,  in  lat.  13°  58'  N.,  Ion.  100° 
34'  E. ;  pop.  about  500,000,  more  than  one 
third  of  whom  are  Chinese,  120,000  Siamese, 
and  the  rest  Malays,  Burmans,  Arabs,  and  Hin- 
doos. The  Menam  is  here  about  1,300  ft.  wide, 
and  sufficiently  deep  for  vessels  of  large  size. 
When  the  capital  was  first  established  at  Bang- 
kok the  houses  were  built  on  the  banks  of  the 
river;  but  so  frequent  were  the  invasions  of 
the  cholera  that  one  of  the  kings  commanded 
the  people  to  build  on  the  river  itself  for  the 
purposes  of  better  ventilation  and  drainage. 
The  privilege  of  building  on  the  banks  now  is 
reserved  to  the  members  of  the  royal  family, 
the  nobility,  and  persons  of  political  influence. 
A  double  and  sometimes  a  triple  row  of  float- 
ing houses  extends  for  miles  on  the  river. 
These  are  wooden  structures  built  on  rafts  of 
bamboo  linked  together  with  chains,  which  are 
made  fast  to  piles  planted  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream.  The  stores  are  situated  together  with 
the  houses  or  form  parts  of  them,  and  every 
house  has  a  canoe  attached  to  it.  Some  of  the 
prisons  are  grated  and  hung  like  bird  cages 
over  the  water,  and  in  those  on  land  the  pris- 
oners are  chained  together  in  gangs.  In  Bang- 
kok there  are  20,000  priests  supported  by  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  the  public.  There 
are  also  American  and  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions here.  On  the  land  the  pagodas  and  the 
phra-cha-dees  or  minarets  that  crown  some  of 
the  temples  are  elaborately  ornamented  with 
mosaics  of  fine  porcelain  inlaid  with  ivory,  gold, 
and  silver,  while  the  doors  and  windows  are 
overlaid  with  sculptures  of  grotesque  figures 
from  the  Buddhist  and  Brahminical  mytholo- 
gies. Near  the  grand  palace  are  three  high 
columns  of  elegant  design  inlaid  all  over  with 
variegated  stones,  and  very  richly  gilt.  These 
monuments  mark  the  graves  of  several  kings 
of  Siam.  The  royal  palace  is  a  citadel  sur- 
rounded by  triple  walls  and  fortified  with  bas- 
tions. Each  of  the  separate  buildings  is  cruci- 
form, and  the  new  palace  forms  with  the  old 
one  the  arms  of  a  cross.  On  one  side  of  the 
palace  are  the  temples  and  monasteries  dedi- 
cated to  the  sleeping  idol,  and  on  the  other  the 
palace  and  harem  of  the  second  king.  The 
sleeping  idol  is  a  reclining  figure  150  ft.  long 


and  40  ft.  high,  entirely  overlaid  with  plate 
gold,  and  the  soles  of  its  feet  covered  with  bass- 
reliefs  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl  and  chased 
with  gold,  each  separate  design  representing 
one  of  the  many  transmigrations  of  Buddha. 
Near  this  temple  is  the  palace  of  the  white 
elephant,  and  further  on  the  temple  of  the 
emerald  idol.  The  latter  is  a  remarkable  and 
beautiful  structure,  with  Gothic  doors  and  win- 
dows richly  ornamented  with  gold,  and  the  roof 
supported  by  lofty  octagonal  columns,  the  ceil- 
ing covered  with  mythological  symbols  and 
figures;  the  altar  is  a  pyramid  100  ft.  high, 
terminating  in  a  fine  spire  of  gold.  The  eme- 
rald idol  is  about  12  inches  high  and  8  in  width. 
The  gold  of  which  its  hair  and  collar  are  com- 
posed is  mixed  with  crystals,  topazes,  sapphires, 
diamonds,  and  other  precious  stones.  Three 
miles  below  the  capital  are  the  royal  dockyards, 
under  the  supervision  of  English  shipwrights. 
The  heat  in  the  summer  months  is  intense. 
Trade  is  mostly  carried  on  by  water.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  commerce  are  lac,  ivory,  rice, 
cotton,  opium,  silk  and  silk  stuffs,  sago,  sugar, 
guava,  birds'  nests,  mungo,  dauries,  coffee,  co- 
coanuts,  black  pepper,  hides,  horses,  tobacco, 
gums,  teak,  tin,  sandal,  rosewood,  and  eagle- 
wood.  There  are  numerous  factories  of  tin, 
iron,  and  leather.  The  foreign  trade  is  nearly 
monopolized  by  the  government.  The  value  of 
the  exports  in  1869  was  $5,905,880,  of  which 
$2,278,860  was  carried  in  Siamese  and  the  rest 
in  foreign  vessels.  The  invoice  value  of  cargoes 
imported  was  $8,759,350,  of  which  $2,722,715 
was  carried  in  Siamese  vessels.  The  country 
surrounding  Bangkok  contains  rich  iron  mines 
and  extensive  forests  of  teak. 

BANGOR,  a  city,  seat  of  justice  of  Penobscot 
county,  Maine,  and  a  port  of  entry,  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Penobscot  river,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Kenduskeag,  about  55  m.  from  the 
ocean  and  60  m.  N.  E.  of  Augusta;  pop.  in 
1860,  16,407 ;  in  1870,  18,289.  It  has  a  safe 
and  capacious  harbor,  accessible  at  the  highest 
tides,  which  rise  17  feet,  to  the  largest  vessels. 
The  city  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Kenduskeag,  and  several  convenient  bridges 
across  that  river  connect  the  two  divisions. 
There  is  also  a  bridge  1,320  ft.  long  across  the 
Penobscot,  connecting  Bangor  with  Brewer. 
Many  of  the  streets  are  broad  and  well  shaded 
with  elm  trees.  The  chief  public  building  is 
the  custom  house,  a  handsome  granite  structure, 
which  cost  $100,000.  Bangor  is,  next  to  Chi- 
cago, the  greatest  depot  of  lumber  on  the  conti- 
nent, 200,000,000  feet  being  frequently  received 
in  a  year.  The  head  waters  of  the  Penob- 
scot traverse  immense  forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
and  hemlock.  The  cutting  and  hauling  of 
this  timber  to  the  river  in  the  winter,  driving, 
booming,  sawing,  and  rafting  it,  and  loading 
it  on  vessels  in  the  harbor,  give  employment 
to  a  large  number  of  men.  About  2,000  ves- 
sels are  annually  engaged  in  this  trade,  during 
the  eight  or  nine  months  in  which  the  river  is 
free  from  ice.  The  city  is  also  the  centre  of  a 


BANGOR 


BANIAN 


271 


fine  agricultural  district.  The  Bangor  theo- 
logical seminary  (Trinitarian  Congregational), 
originally  established  in  1816  at  Hampden,  6 
m.  below  the  city,  occupies  an  elevated  posi- 
tion, overlooking  the  city  and  the  Penobscot 
river.  In  1870  it  had  4  professors,  24  students, 
a  library  of  13,000  volumes,  and  an  endowment 
of  $120,000.  There  are  14  churches  (3  Con- 
gregational, 2  Baptist,  2  Methodist,  1  Free-will 
Baptist,  1  Universalist,  1  Unitarian,  1  Episco- 
pal, 2  Catholic,  and  1  Second  Advent),  53  pub- 
lic schools,  6  national  banks,  3  state  banks,  2 
savings  banks,  and  1  daily  and  1  weekly  news- 
paper. The  Bangor  library  association,  found- 
ed in  1843,  has  11,000  volumes.  The  value  of 
real  and  personal  estate  in  1860  was  $6,015,601, 
and  in  1870,  $9,851,561.  The  city  is  connected 
with  Portland,  Boston,  and  other  points  on  tho 
coast  by  two  lines  of  steamers.  By  means 
of  the  Maine  Central  railroad  it  has  railroad 
connection  with  Waterville,  Belfast,  Augusta, 
Bath,  Portland,  &c.  The  European  and  North 
American  railway  affords  the  only  all-rail  route 
between  Bangor  (where  it  connects  with  the 
Maine  Central  railroad)  and  St.  John,  New 
Brunswick,  a  distance  of  206  m.  The  imports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1871,  amounted 
to  $51,094,  and  the  exports  to  $163,385.  The 
clearances  for  foreign  ports  were  29  American 
vessels,  of  5,777  tons,  and  56  foreign,  of  6,232 
tons;  entrances,  4  American  vessels,  of  1,039 
tons,  and  47  foreign,  of  4,414  tons.  In  the 
coast  trade  284  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  190,237  and  6,216  men,  entered,  and 
22  vessels  of  3,618  tons  cleared.  The  number 
of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and  licensed  was 
192,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  26,659 ;  and 
there  were  9  vessels,  of  526  tons,  engaged  in 
the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery. — Bangor  was  in- 
corporated as  a  town  in  1791,  and  as  a  city  in 
1834.  It  was  named  by  the  Rev.  Seth  Noble 
from  the  tune  "  Bangor." 

B A.VGOR.  I.  A  city  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  situated  at  the 
head  of  Beaumaris  bay  on  the  Menai  strait, 
2|-  m.  from  the  Britannia  bridge,  and  9  m.  N. 
E.  of  Carnarvon;  pop.  of  the  city  in  1871, 
6,738.  It  exports  slates,  and  is  ranch  resorted 
to  for  sea  bathing.  A  cathedral  of  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  occupying  the  site  of  a 
church  supposed  to  have  been  built  in  the  6th 
century,  a  free  school  founded  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  and  an  episcopal  palace,  are  its  most 
interesting  buildings.  II.  A  seaport  town  of 
Ireland,  county  Down,  on  Belfast  Lough,  12 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Belfast;  pop.  in  1871,  2,525. 
It  has  fisheries,  and  is  a  place  of  resort  for  bath- 
ing. It  was  the  seat  of  a  famous  monastery 
supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  the  9th  century. 

BANGS,  Nathan,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  May  2,  1778, 
died  May  3,  1862.  He  entered  the  itinerant 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in 
1801.  After  seven  years  of  labor  in  the  Cana- 
dian provinces,  and  a  term  of  ministerial  ser- 
70  VOL.  n. — 18 


vice  in  the  Albany  district,  he  was  appointed  to 
tho  city  of  New  York  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
in  1820  agent  of  the  Methodist  book  concern, 
and  editor  of  the  books  published  by  this  house. 
After  an  official  term  of  eight  years,  he  was 
chosen  editor  of  the  "  Christian  Advocate  and 
Journal."  In  1829  he  was  elected  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  Canada,  but 
declined  the  appointment.  From  1832  to  1836 
he  was  editor  of  the  "Methodist  Magazine  "  and 
"Quarterly  Review,"  having  also  been  con- 
tinued in  the  editorial  supervision  of  the  books 
published  by  the  book  concern  since  1820. 
From  1836  to  1841  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Methodist  missionary  society,  and  then  became 
president  of  the  Wesleyan  university,  at  Mid- 
dletown,  Conn.  Resigning  this  office,  he  re- 
turned to  the  regular  pastoral  work,  and  re- 
mained a  member  of  the  New  York  conference 
to  the  time  of  his  death.  Dr.  Bangs  was  the 
author  of  numerous  controversial  works,  among 
which  are  "  The  Errors  of  Hopkinsianism," 
"Predestination  Examined,"  "Reformer  Re- 
formed," "Life  of  Arminius,"  &c.  He  also 
wrote  the  "  Life  of  the  Rev.  Freeborn  Garrett- 
son,"  "  History  of  Missions,"  "  Original  Church 
of  Christ,"  "Letters  on  Sanctification,"  and  a 
"  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  " 
(4  vols.  12mo),  a  standard  work. 

i:\MlLI KA,  a  fortified  town  of  Turkey  in 
Europe,  in  the  province  of  Bosnia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Verbas,  90  m.  N.  W.  of  Bosna-Serai ; 
pop.  about  15,000.  It  contains  40  mosques,  sev- 
eral colleges,  public  baths,  a  cathedral,  and  a 
powder  mill. 

BANIAN,  or  Banyan  (ficus  religiosa  or  Indiea), 
a  fig  tree  of  the  East  Indies,  remarkable  for  its 
manner  of  growth  and  longevity.  The  fruit  ia 
red  and  not  much  larger  than  a  pea,  and  the 
seeds  are  minute,  but  covered  with  a  hard 
testa  which  protects  them  from  the  digestive 
organs  of  the  birds  who  seek  the  fig  as  food. 
The  birds  plant  the  seeds  in  crevices  of  stones 
or  buildings,  or  on  trees,  and  with  the  neces- 
sary moisture  they  germinate  in  these  places, 
sending  their  roots  into  and  widening  the 
chinks,  or  down  the  moist  bark  of  the  tree  on 
which  the  seed  has  been  dropped,  and  the  plant 
grows  rapidly  into  a  broad,  spreading,  although 
not  very  lofty  tree,  whose  horizontal  branches 
send  down  roots  as  slender  fibres  until  they 
reach  the  earth,  when  the  growth  is  reversed 
and  the  depending  rootlet  becomes  an  ascend- 
ing trunk  equalling  or  even  surpassing  the 
parent  stem.  A  famous  banian  stood  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nerbudda  which  could  shelter 
7,000  men,  and  others  cover  more  than  13 
acres.  They  are  frequently  found  near  temples 
and  on  the  mounds  where  the  Hindoo  widows 
have  performed  suttee,  as  the  birds  are  at- 
tracted to  these  places.  The  figs,  although 
small,  are  abundant,  insipid  in  taste,  and  of 
mild  medicinal  properties.  The  leaves  are  of  a 
bright  green  and  form  a  dense  shade,  effect- 
ually preventing  the  growth  of  underbrush. 
They  are  about  five  inches  in  length  and  four 


272 


BANIM 


BANJO 


in  width,  and  are  downy  on  both  sides  when 
young,  becoming  smooth  and  brilliant  as  they 
grow.  The  Brahmins  use  the  leaves  as  plates 
and  dishes.  The  bark  is  supposed  by  the  Hin- 
doos to  be  a  powerful  tonic ;  and  they  use  the 
white  gum  of  the  tree  as  a  cure  for  the  tooth- 
ache, or  apply  it  as  a  healing  plaster  to  the 
feet  when  chafed  or  bruised.  Bird-lime  is  also 
made  from  this  gum.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
ia  porous  and  almost  useless. 

i:\Mll.  I.  John,  an  Irish  novelist,  born  in 
Kilkenny,  April  3,  1798,  died  near  Kilkenny, 
Aug.  1,  1842.  In  his  youth  he  went  to  Dub- 
lin and  afterward  to  London  to  seek  literary 
employment,  was  befriended  by  Shiel,  and  in 
his  24th  year  won  a  brilliant  success  by  his 
'tragedy  of  "  Damon  and  Pythias,"  played  by 
Macready  and  Kemble  at  Covent  Garden. 
Soon  afterward  he  began  with  his  brother 
Michael  a  series  of  novels  illustrative  of  Irish 
life,  which  appeared  in  1825  under  the 
title  of  "Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family,"  and 
were  followed  in  1826  by  a  second  series. 
"  The  Bit  o' Writin',"  "Boyne  Water,"  "The 
Denounced,"  "The  Nowlans,"  "The  Smug- 
gler," and  other  stories  appeared  at  short  in- 
tervals, and  nearly  all  became  very  popular. 
Banim  died  in  poverty,  and  in  his  latter  years 
was  supported  chiefly  by  a  pension  from  the 
government.  II.  Michael,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  August,  1796.  He  assisted  his 
brother  in  the  "Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family," 
and  is  the  author  of  "The  Croppy,"  "Father 
Connell,"  "Crohoore  of  Bill-hook,"  "TheGhost- 
hunter,"  "  The  Mayor  of  Wind  Gap,"  &c. 

BANISTER,  or  Halifax  Court  House,  a  post  vil- 
lage of  Halifax  co.,  Virginia,  on  the  Banister 
river,  10  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Dan, 
and  120  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Richmond ;  pop.  in 


1870,  3,731.  The  Richmond  and  Danville  rail- 
road passes  through  it,  and  the  river  is  navi- 
gable for  bateaux  from  its  mouth  to  Meadville, 
10m.  above  Banister.  Six  miles  from  the  vil- 
lage there  is  a  plumbago  mine. 

BANJERDIASSIN,  or  Banjarmassin.    I.  A  large 
state  of  S.  E.  Borneo,  governed  by  a  sultan 
subordinate  to  the  Dutch  government;   pop. 
vaguely  estimated  at  about  300,000,  nearly  all 
Mohammedans.      It  borders  on  the  strait  of 
Macassar,  and  is  bounded  W.  by  the  Ban.KT 
river.  A  range  of  mountains,  some  of  them  over 
3,000  ft.  high,  runs  through  the  district.     Iron, 
diamonds,  and  excellent  coal  are  found,  and 
the  natives  are  noted  for  their  skill  in  making 
all  kinds  of  arms.     Pepper  is  the  most  im- 
portant product  of  the  soil.     The  trade  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Chinese.      The  Dutch  settled 
here  in  1747,  and  in  1787  made  a  treaty  with 
the   sultan    by  which    their  supremacy   was 
recognized  in  consideration  of  their  aid  in  re- 
pelling an  invasion  from  Celebes.     The  British 
East  India  company  seized   Banjermassin  in 
1811,  but  restored  it  in  1817.     II.  The  chief 
town  of  the  preceding  state,  and  capital  of  the 
Dutch  residency  of  the  S.  and  E.  consts,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Banjer,  about 
15  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  Java  sea ;    lat.  3 
23'  S.,  Ion.  114°  37'  E. ;  pop.  about  15,000.    The 
houses  are  raised  on  piles,  the  site  being  fre- 
quently inundated,  and  most  of  the  traffic  is 
carried  on  in  boats.     There  is  a  fort,  winch 
encloses  the  Dutch  resident's  house,  barracks, 
&c.     Pepper,  benzoin,  bezoar,  rattans,  iron,  and 
birds'  nests  are  exported.     The  imports  include 
rice,  salt,  sugar,  opium,  gunpowder,  silk,  <fcc. 

BANJO  (corrupted  from  bandore,  a  species  of 
guitar),  a  musical  stringed  instrument  much 
esteemed  by  the  negroes  of  the  southern 


BANK 


273 


United  State3.  Its  capacity  is  limited  to  the 
performance  of  simple  tunes,  and  it  is  purely  an 
instrument  of  accompaniment.  Its  head  and 
neck  are  shaped  like  the  guitar,  while  the  hody 
is  a  circular  frame  like  the  head  of  a  drum, 
over  which  parchment  is  stretched  in  place  of 
a  sounding  hoard.  Five  strings,  of  which  the 
fifth  is  shorter  than  the  others,  pass  over  this 
parchment,  and  are  played  with  the  fingers. 

BANK,  in  trade  and  business,  a  place  of 
deposit  for  money.  In  nearly  all  languages 
the  words  for  bank  and  banker  are  derived 
from  those  meaning  table,  bench,  or  coun- 
ter: TpairetfriK  among  the  Greeks,  mensarius 
among  the  Romans,  and  banchiero  among  the 
Italians  of  the  middle  ages.  The  banker  was 
originally  a  changer,  and  he  stood  in  the 
market  place  and  furnished  such  different  kinds 
of  money  as  were  demanded.  By  degrees  he 
took  funds  on  deposit,  made  advances  upon 
securities,  merchandise,  pledges,  titles  to  prop- 
erty, family  papers,  &c.,  and  became  finally 
what  we  now  know  as  a  banker.  The  lending 
of  money  with  the  taking  of  interest  for  its 
use  is  a  custom  which  dates  from  the  earliest 
antiquity  of  which  there  are  records.  Con- 
stant reference  is  made  to  it  in  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament.  In  ancient  Greece 
the  business  of  receiving  money  on  deposit  and 
lending  it  out  was  an  important  one,  and  the 
money  changer  stood  high  in  credit  and  in  the 
confidence  of  both  the  government  and  the 
people  of  Athens.  The  state  bank  of  New  Ilium, 
of  the  precise  nature  of  which  we  are  not  in- 
formed, in  the  second  century  before  Christ, 
borrowed  money  for  the  state,  and  paid  for  its 
use  10  per  cent. — Banks  are  designed  to  afford 
safe  places  of  deposit  for  the  money  of  indi- 
viduals, corporations,  or  governments ;  for  fa- 
cilitating the  exchange  of  money  from  the 
hands  of  parties  who  have  payments  to  make 
to  those  of  snch  persons  as  are  to  receive  them, 
thus  becoming  clearing  houses  for  the  com- 
munities in  the  midst  of  which  they  are  situ- 
ated ;  and  for  extending  aid  to  business  by 
granting  loans  or  discounts  on  notes,  bonds, 
stocks,  or  other  securities.  These  institutions 
are  of  three  kinds,  and  may  be  classed  as  fol- 
lows :  Banks  of  deposit  receive  on  deposit  the 
money  of  individuals,  corporations,  or  govern- 
ments, and  hold  it  subject  to  the  draft  of  its 
owner  or  owners,  or  under  such  other  agree- 
ment as  may  be  entered  into.  Banks  of  dis- 
count furnish  loans  upon  drafts,  promissory 
notes,  bonds,  or  other  securities.  Banks  of 
circulation  payout  their  own  notes,  which  may 
or  may  not,  according  to  circumstances,  be 
payable  in  coin  on  demand.  Banks  which 
exercise  the  last  of  these  functions  generally 
unite  the  first  and  second. — The  bank  of 
Venice,  the  first  establishment  of  the  kind 
in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1171,  and  owed 
its  existence  to  wars  and  the  necessity  for 
the  government  obtaining  the  means  for  con- 
ducting them.  Having  exhausted  every  other 
resource,  the  state  was  obliged  to  resort  to  a 


forced  loan  from  its  most  opulent  citizens. 
Then  was  organized  the  chamber  of  loans, 
which  by  degrees  assumed  the  form  under 
which,  as  the  bank  of  Venice,  "  it  was  for 
many  ages  the  admiration  of  Europe,  the  chief 
instrument  of  Venetian  finance,  and  the  chief 
facility  of  a  commerce  not  surpassed  by  that 
of  any  European  nation."  Funds  once  de- 
posited in  the  bank  could  not  be  withdrawn, 
but  were  transferable  at  the  pleasure  of  their 
owners  upon  its  books.  So  thoroughly  did  the 
bank  credits  become  the  means  through  and 
by  which  the  financial  operations  of  the  people 
were  conducted,  that  during  its  entire  exist- 
ence, with  but  slight  exceptions,  these  credits 
were  at  a  premium  over  coins,  which  latter 
were  clipped  and  worn,  as  well  as  of  various . 
countries  and  uncertain  values.  That  the 
people  were  well  satisfied  with  this  institution 
and  its  workings  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  "  no  book,  speech,  nor  pamphlet  have 
we  found,"  says  an  eminent  economical  writer, 
"  in  which  any  merchant  or  dweller  in  Venice 
ever  put  forth  any  condemnation  of  its  theory 
or  its  practice."  The  bank  of  Venice  con- 
tinued in  existence  without  interruption  until 
the  overthrow  of  the  republic  in  1797,  by  the 
revolutionary  army  of  France. — The  bank  of 
Genoa  was  projected  in  the  year  1345,  but  did 
not  go  into  full  operation  till  1407.  It  was  for 
centuries  one  of  the  principal  institutions  of  its 
class  in  Europe.  Within  a  space  of  less  than 
60  years — first  in  1746,  and  again  in  1800 — it 
was  twice  pillaged  by  a  foreign  foe,  in  the 
latter  instance  by  the  French  army  under  Mas- 
sena.  From  the  effects  of  this  disaster  it  has 
never  recovered,  and  it  has  ceased  to  perform 
the  functions  of  a  bank. — The  bank  of  Bar- 
celona was  established  in  the  year  1401,  that 
city  having  been  during  the  middle  ages  one 
of  the  most  enterprising  and  flourishing  of  the 
trading  cities  of  Europe.  Here  it  was  that  the 
system  of  negotiation  of  bills  of  exchange  was 
first  instituted. — The  bank  of  Amsterdam  was 
founded  in  the  year  1609,  Holland  being  then 
possessed  of  an  important  foreign  trade.  It  was 
a  bank  of  deposit  only,  and  the  money  in  its 
possession  was  transferred  on  the  books  of  the 
institution  at  the  pleasure  of  its  owner  or 
owners.  The  primary  object  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  bank  was  to  give  a  standard  or 
certain  value  to  bills  which  might  be  drawn 
upon  Amsterdam — rendered  necessary  by  the 
depreciation  of  the  coins,  owing  to  their  having 
been  worn  or  clipped.  Here  these  coins  were 
received  on  deposit,  and  had  their  value  estab- 
lished by  weight  and  fineness.  It  was  not  the 
design  on  founding  the  institution  that  the 
funds  should  at  any  time  be  lent  out,  but  should 
remain  in  its  vaults.  However,  the  directors 
having  lent  to  the  governments  of  Holland 
and  Friesland  and  to  the  East  India  company 
10,500,000  florins,  the  fact  became  known  on 
the  invasion  of  the  French  army  in  1794,  and 
produced  the  ruin  of  the  institution.  The 
amount  of  treasure  in  the  vaults  of  the  bank  in 


271 


BANK 


1778  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Hope  at  33,000,000 
florins. — The  bank  of  Hamburg  was  established 
in  the  year  1619.  This  institution  is  a  bank 
of  deposit  and  circulation,  which  circulation  is 
based  upon  fine  silver  in  bars.  The  stock  of 
the  bank  arises  out  of  the  deposits,  which  are 
confined  solely  to  silver.  The  bank  of  Ham- 
burg differs  essentially  from  any  other  banking 
institution  in  the  world.  The  difference  at 
which  it  receives  and  pays  out  the  silver  de- 
posits, about  one  half  of  1  per  cent.,  constitutes 
the  charge  of  the  bank  for  custody  of  the  funds 
intrusted  to  it.  Although  in  some  respects  it 
has  undergone  changes  in  its  management  since 
it  was  instituted,  still  the  plan  is  essentially  the 
same  as  it  was  in  1710.  It  has  been  felt,  as 
•  well  by  the  mercantile  community  of  Hamburg 
as  by  those  directly  interested  in  the  bank, 
that  changes  are  necessary  to  conform  to  the 
present  state  of  business.  It  is  deemed  de- 
sirable that  the  bank  should  be  enabled  to 
make  better  use  of  its  surplus  capital,  which 
owing  to  restrictions  is  almost  valueless.  Its 
deposits,  Oct.  10, 1872,  were  30,766,666  thalers. 
The  bank  of  Rotterdam  was  established  in 
1635  ;  the  bank  of  Stockholm  in  1G88.— British 
Bankt.  The  bank  of  England  was  established 
in  1694,  William  and  Mary  then  being  on  the 
throne.  To  the  war  with  France,  and  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  experienced  by  the  government 
in  raising  funds  for  conducting  that  war,  is 
the  institution  of  this  monopoly  due.  The 
idea  originated  with  William  Paterson,  a  mer- 
chant of  London,  who  readily  saw  that  the 
government,  which  had  been  paying  interest 
at  the  rate  of  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  per  an- 
num, would  without  much  hesitation  grant  ex- 
clusive and  almost  unlimited  privileges  to  such 
parties  as  would  in  turn  furnish  it  with  a  fixed 
and  permanent  loan,  at  a  reasonable  rate  of  in- 
terest. The  plan,  being  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  king,  was  submitted  to  the  privy 
council,  when  the  details  were  completed,  and 
it  was  laid  before  parliament.  There,  how- 
ever, it  met  with  the  violent  opposition  of  a 
formidable  party.  Nevertheless,  the  bill  was 
carried  by  the  government,  and  on  April  25, 

1694,  became  a  law.     It  was  provided  that  the 
capital,  £1,200,000,  should  be  permanently  lent 
to  the  government  at  8  per  cent,  per  annum, 
and  that  in  addition  to  the  interest  an  allow- 
ance of  £4,000  per  annum  should  be  made  by 
the  government  for  the   management  of  the 
debt.    So  popular  was  the  scheme,  and  so  great 
was  the  desire  of  the  public  to  become  proprie- 
tors of  the  bank,  that  within  ten  days  after  the 
books  were  opened  the  entire  capital  was  sub- 
scribed.    The    corporate   title    under   which 
this   institution    commenced   operations,   and 
has  continued  to  the  present  day,  is  "The  Gov- 
ernor and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  England." 
The  bank  was  opened  for  business  on  Jan.  1, 

1695,  the  stockholders  having  previously  elect- 
ed a  governor,  a  deputy  governor,  and  a  board 
of  24  directors.     Those  several  parties  were 
required  by  law  to  hold  stock  as  follows :  gov- 


ernor £4,000,  deputy  governor  £3,000,  and  di- 
rector £2,000.  The  charter  was  granted  for 
eleven  years,  and  the  officers  were  required  to 
be  elected  annually  between  March  25  and 
April  25,  after  the  year  1696.  The  bank  im- 
mediately issued  notes,  none  of  which  were, 
however,  of  a  smaller  denomination  than  £20 
sterling,  and  commenced  discounting  bills  of 
exchange  at  rates  varying  from  3  to  6  per  cent., 
distinction  being  made  in  favor  of  persons  who 
used  the  bank  as  a  place  of  deposit.  Within 
two  years  the  institution  experienced  consider- 
able trouble,  under  the  influence  of  which  its 
notes  fell  as  low  as  20  per  cent,  below  par. 
Although  notes  to  the  amount  of  £480,000 
were  redeemed,  it  was  found  necessary  in  1C97 
to  increase  the  capital  £1,000,000  sterling. 
This  increase  had  the  effect  within  a  few 
months  of  causing  the  stock  not  only  to  re- 
cover a  discount  of  from  40  to  50  per  cent., 
but  to  sell  at  a  premium  of  12  per  cent.  Since 
first  this  institution  was  founded,  its  capital 
and  the  loan  to  the  government  have  been 
nearly  identical  in  amount.  In  1833,  how- 
ever, the  debt  to  the  bank  was  reduced  about 
£3,500,000.  The  following  table  gives  the 
capital  of  the  bank  at  various  periods,  and  also 
the  dates  of  the  several  renewals  of  the  charter, 
with  the  amount  of  government  debt  at  each 
period : 


Dates. 


Capital. 


1694 £1,200.000 

1697 2,201,171 

1708 4,402,843 

1709 5,058,547 

1710 5.559,996 

1722 8,959,996 

1742 9,800,000 

1746 10,780,000 

1782... 11,642,400 

1816 14,558,000 


Dates  of  Government 

renewal.  debt. 

1694 £1.800,000 

1697 1.200,000 

1708 8.875.02T 

1718 8,875,027 

1742 10,700,000 

1764 11,6S6.SOO 

1781 11,666.800 

1800 11,686,800 

1888 11,015,100 

1844 11,015,100 


The  management  of  the  entire  public  debt  of 
Great  Britain  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  bank 
of  England,  for  which  service  it  has  received 
compensation,  which  has  from  time  to  time 
varied  in  amount  according  to  circumstances. 
During  the  year  1845  this  compensation  was 
£93,111  19s.  lOd.  In  addition  to  the  perma- 
nent debt  of  the  government  to  the  bank,  the 
latter  contracted  with  the  former  on  March  20, 
1823,  to  pay  at  stated  intervals  between  1823 
and  1828  certain  pensions  and  annuities  arising 
out  of  the  then  recent  wars,  amounting  to  £13,- 
089,419.  This  is  termed  the  "  dead  weight." 
In  consideration  of  this  the  bank  was  to  re- 
ceive from  the  government  an  annuity  of 
£585,740  for  44  years.  On  Feb.  26,  1797,  an 
order  was  issued  by  the  privy  council  to  the 
bank  restraining  it  from  the  further  payment  of 
specie.  On  the  following  day  the  officers  of  the 
bank  issued  a  notice,  in  which  they  stated  that 
in  consequence  of  the  foregoing  order  they 
"  think  it  is  their  duty  to  inform  the  proprie- 
tors of  the  bank  stock  as  well  as  the  public  at 
large,  that  the  general  concerns  of  the  bank 
are  in  the  most  affluent  and  flourishing  situa- 
tion, and  such  as  to  preclude  every  doubt  as  to 


BANK 


275 


the  security  of  its  notes."  At  the  same  time 
they  announced  their  determination  to  con- 
tinue their  usual  discounts.  The  fact  was,  the 
order  in  council  simply  prohibited  the  bank 
from  doing  that  which  it  was  entirely  out  of 
the  question  for  it  to  do.  On  Feb.  27,  the 
same  day  on  which  the  bank  suspended  specie 
payments,  parliament  approved  the  order  in 
council.  Notes  of  the  denomination  of  £1 
sterling  were  immediately  prepared  and  issued, 
and  all  fractional  parts  of  a  pound  were  refused 
payment  by  the  bank.  This  suspension,  while 
it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  the  ruin 
of  the  bank,  was  of  equal  importance  to  every 
business  interest  throughout  the  kingdom.  The 
government,  while  it  interposed  for  these  im- 
portant ends,  was  equally  interested  in  the  wel- 
fare of  the  institution  with  which  it  was  so  inti- 
mately connected  in  all  its  financial  concerns. 
It  was  then  struggling  through  its  tremendous 
efforts  against  the  power  of  France  and  Napo- 
leon, and  the  bank  was  to  it  what  the  heart  is  to 
the  animal  organism,  its  circulating  notes  what 
the  blood  is  to  that  organism — the  very  source 
of  vitality  and  power.  Although  every  assur- 
ance was  given  that  this  measure  was  intended 
to  be  merely  temporary,  it  was  continued  from 
time  to  time  until  May  1,  1823,  when  the  re- 
sumption of  specie  payments  took  place,  for 
which  preparation  had  gradually  been  made 
within  the  previous  four  years.  This  was  not, 
however,  accomplished  without  widespread  dis- 
aster, the  details  of  which  are  painful  to  read 
even  at  this  distant  day.  This  was  the  case, 
too,  with  gold  at  the  following  rates  of  pre- 
mium in  the  under-mentioned  years:  1816,  2£ 
per  cent. ;  1816,  October  to  December,  under 
1  per  cent. ;  1817,  2£;  1818,  5;  1819,  6J-;  1820 
and  1821,  par.  On  the  renewal  of  the  charter 
in  1844,  Sir  Eobert  Peel,  then  prime  minister, 
having  become  satisfied  of  the  dangerous  in- 
fluence exerted  in  its  ever  varying  and  never 
stable  system,  first  of  expansion  and  then  of 
contraction,  in  its  loans,  thought  to  provide  a 
remedy.  The  principal  feature  of  this  measure 
was  to  limit  the  circulation  so  that  it  would  be 
regulated  by  the  amount  of  coin  and  bullion  in 
the  vaults  of  the  institution.  Accordingly,  ho 
brought  in  a  bill  which  became  a  law  on  July 
19,  1844,  entitled  "  An  act  to  regulate  the  issue 
of  bank  notes,  and  for  giving  to  the  governor 
and  company  of  the  bank  of  England  certain 
privileges  for  a  limited  period."  The  follow- 
ing abstract  of  parts  of  that  law  will  give  an 
idea  of  such  provisions  as  refer  to  the  bank  of 
England:  §  1.  Provides  for  "the  issue  depart- 
ment of  the  bank  of  England,"  which  shall  pro- 
vide the  notes  payable  on  demand,  and  shall, 
from  Aug.  81,  1844,  he  kept  wholly  separate 
and  distinct.  §  2.  That  on  Aug.  81,  1844,  the 
hank  shall  transfer  to  the  issue  department 
securities  to  the  value  of  14  millions,  the  debt 
due  by  the  public  to  be  deemed  part ;  that  the 
banking  department  shall  transfer  to  the  issue 
department  all  the  gold  coin  and  gold  and  silver 
bullion  not  required;  that  the  issue  department 


shall  deliver  to  the  banking  department  such 
an  amount  of  notes  as  with  those  in  circulation 
shall  equal  the  securities,  coin,  and  bullion  trans- 
ferred to  the  issue  department ;  that  the  bank 
may  not  increase,  but  may  diminish  the  amount, 
and  again  increase  it  to  any  sum  not  exceeding 
14  millions.  §  3.  That  the  bank  shall  not 
retain  in  its  issue  department  at  one  time 
silver  to  any  amount  greater  than  one  fourth 
the  gold  held  at  the  same  time.  §  4.  That 
notes  may  be  demanded  for  gold  bullion  at  the 
rate  of  £3  17s.  9<Z.  per  oz.  of  standard  gold. 
§  6.  Provides  for  a  weekly  statement  of  the 
affairs  of  the  bank.  §  7.  That  the  bank  shall 
he  exempt  from  stamp  duty  on  its  notes.  §  8. 
That  the  bank  allow  £180,000  per  annum  out 
of  the  amounts  payable  by  government  for  the  . 
exclusive  privileges  of  banking.  §  9.  That  the 
public  shall  receive  such  profit  as  may  be  ob- 
tained by  an  increase  of  circulation  beyond  the 
amount  provided  by  section  2.  §  10.  That  no 
other  banks  of  issue  be  allowed  but  such  as 
were  in  existence  May  6,  1844.  §  11.  That  no 
banker  in  England  or  Wales  shall  issue  any  hill 
of  exchange  or  promissory  note  payable  on  de- 
mand, excepting  such  bankers  as  were  in  ex- 
istence May  6,  1844.  That  no  company  now 
consisting  of  six  or  less  than  six  partners  shall, 
if  they  exceed  that  number,  be  allowed  to 
issue  notes.  The  important  provisions  of  this 
act  were  that  the  bank  might  issue  £11,000,- 
000,  for  which  the  public  debt  due  the  hank 
should  be  security,  and  £3,000,000  on  exche- 
quer bills  and  such  other  government  securities 
as  it  might  hold,  but  that  for  every  pound  ster- 
ling issued  beyond  the  £14,000,000  the  bank 
should  hold  an  equal  amount  in  gold  and  silver. 
An  examination  of  the  operations  of  the  bank 
will,  we  think,  demonstrate  the  fact  that  Sir 
Eobert  Peel  entirely  misapprehended  the  causes 
at  work  in  producing  the  fluctuations  com- 
plained of,  and  that  he  applied  the  restrictions 
to  that  particular  branch  which  varied  but  little 
in  a  series  of  years.  The  real  cause  of  trouble 
was  to  be  found  in  the  loans,  which  have  been 
irregular  in  the  extreme  and  at  times  produc- 
tive of  great  injury.  This  injury  has  not  alone 
been  confined  to  Great  Britain,  but  has  extend- 
ed in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  every  country 
with  which  intimate  business  relations  existed. 
That  this  act  has  had  no  effect  in  mitigating 
this  crying  evil,  will  be  clearly  seen  in  the  fact 
that  these  fluctuations  have  never  been  more 
violent  than  since  its  passage.  The  British 
public  had  long  shown  entire  confidence  in 
the  circulating  medium,  and  no  legislation  to 
effect  this  object  was  necessary.  Within  the 
28  years  which  have  elapsed  since  its  passage, 
the  operation  of  this  law  has  three  times  been 
suspended,  as  doubtless  it  will  be  again  when- 
ever it  is  rendered  necessary  so  to  do.  The 
first  of  these  was  on  Oct.  25,  1847,  the  second 
on  Nov.  12,  1857,  and  the  third  on  May  11, 
1866,  on  which  latter  day  the  bank  raised  the 
rate  of  discount  to  10  per  cent,  it  having  been  6 
per  cent,  nine  days  before.  In  its  efforts  to  save 


276 


BANK 


itself  and  comply  with  the  absurd  provisions 
of  the  bank  act,  it  spread  ruin  and  desolation 
around  it,  and  years  have  been  necessary  to 
enable  the  country  to  recover  from  the  effects 


of  the  panic  thus  created.  While  the  notes  of 
the  bank  are  legal  tender  elsewhere,  they  are 
not  such  in  payments  by  the  bank  itself.  Its 
condition  on  Oct.  16,  1872,  was  as  follows: 


ISSUE     DEPARTMENT. 


Notes  issued.. 


Government  debt £11,015.100 

Other  securities 8.984900 

Gold  coiu  and  bullion 19,828,780 


£84,828,780 


BANKING     DEPARTMENT. 


Proprietors'  capital £14.553.000 

Best 8,145,478 

Public  deposits,  including  exchequer,  savings 
banks,  commissioners  of  national  debt,  and 

dividend  accounts 5,510,196 

Other  deposits 19,405,772 

Seven-day  and  other  bills 463,852 


£43,187,798 

— Prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  bank  of  Eng- 
land, banking  in  London  was  conducted  first  by 
the  Jews,  who  were  succeeded  by  the  Lombards, 
who  were  in  turn  supplanted  by  the  goldsmiths. 
The  latter  lent  money  at  rates  much  below  those 
charged  by  their  predecessors,  and  they  issued 
promissory  notes  payable  on  demand,  or  at  a 
certain  period  after  date.  These  bankers  de- 
posited their  funds  at  the  royal  mint  in  the 
tower  of  London.  This  practice  was  discon- 
tinued when  Charles  I.,  being  in  want  of  money, 
seized  the  amount  thus  deposited,  £200,000,  by 
which  means  the  bankers  were  utterly  ruined. 
During  the  civil  war  the  business  of  the  gold- 
smiths largely  increased,  and  during  the  com- 
monwealth, as  well  as  subsequently,  various 
plans  were  devised  by  different  individuals  for 
the  establishment  of  public  banks.  No  action 
was,  however,  taken  to  mature  and  carry  out 
these  plans  until  the  establishment  of  the  bank 
of  England.  After  the  seizure  of  the  funds  by 
Charles  I.,  it  was  the  practice  of  the  goldsmiths 
to  deposit  their  surplus  means  in  the  exchequer, 
which  funds  were  drawn  once  a  week,  to  meet 
such  demands  as  might  be  made  upon  their 
owners.  Charles  II.  in  1672,  being  in  want  of 
money,  closed  the  exchequer,  and  seized  the 
funds  belonging  to  the  goldsmiths,  amounting  to 
£1,328,562,  on  which  there  accrued  25  years' 
interest,  making  thereby  a  sum  total  of  £3,321,- 
313.  No  consideration  was  given  for  any  part 
of  this  large  sum,  except  £664,263,  for  which 
government  loan  was  issued,  forming  the  basis 
of  the  present  national  debt  of  Great  Britain. 
As  may  readily  be  imagined,  the  goldsmiths 
were  ruined  irretrievably  by  this  infamous  pro- 
ceeding. —The  earliest  country  bank  established 
in  England,  of  which  there  exists  any  record, 
was  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  in  1755.  This  was 
a  bank  of  issue.  From  that  period  the  number 
of  these  institutions  increased.  On  the  renewal 
of  the  charter  of  the  bank  of  England  in  1708, 
the  bank  obtained  the  privilege  of  banking  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  copartnerships  of  more  than 
six  persons.  In  consequence  of  this  law,  the 
various  joint-stock  banks  in  existence  at  the 
time  were  compelled  to  wind  up  their  affairs. 
In  1825,  however,  an  act  was  passed  allowing 


Government  securities £18.256,546 

Other  securities 21,830,271 

Notes 7,889,125 

Gold  and  silver  coin 661,856 


£48,187,798 

copartnerships  of  more  than  six  persons  to  carry 
on  business  in  England  as  bankers  65  miles 
from  London,  with  the  provision  that  each 
stockholder  should  be  liable  for  the  entire  debts 
of  the  bank.  Notwithstanding  the  provisions 
of  this  law,  which  would  seem  to  prevent  any 
joint-stock  bank  being  estab.ished  within  65 
miles  of  London,  in  1834  the  London  and  West- 
minster bank  was  founded,  and  hns  been  in 
operation  ever  since,  although  not  without  hav- 
ing troubles  to  encounter.*  Litigation  with  the 
bank  of  England,  and  other  difficulties,  at  first 
beset  it,  but  through  all  of  these  it  passed,  and 
has  met  with  high  success.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  thisinstitution,  various  others  of  the  kind 
have  been  founded  in  and  about  London.  By  the 
issue  act  of  1844,  no  bank  in  any  part  of  the 
United  Kingdom  which  did  not  on  May  6,  1844, 
issue  notes,  was  allowed  thereafter  to  exercise 
that  privilege.  By  an  act  passed  during  the 
same  year,  with  reference  to  joint-stock  banks 
in  England,  so  many  restrictive  clauses  were 
introduced  as  practically  to  prevent  any  new 
institutions  of  the  kind  from  being  established. 
Within  a  recent  period,  however,  the  passage 
of  a  new  act  more  liberal  in  its  provisions  has 
recognized  limited  liability,  and  under  it  30  insti- 
tutions are  in  operation  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom  at  the  present  time  (December,  1872). 
Perhaps  nowhere  in  the  world  does  the  his- 
tory of  banking  show  greater  instability  than 
in  England,  where  during  this  century  joint- 
stock  banks  have  failed  by  scores.  Their  prof- 
its have  in  many  instances  been  very  large,  but 
their  risks  being  correspondingly  great,  their 
failures  have  been  most  disastrous. — Greater 
freedom  has  always  existed  in  Scotch  bank- 
ing than  in  that  of  England,  and  consequently 
there  has  been  greater  security — those  institu- 
tions, unlike  the  great  monopoly,  trading  upon 
their  own  capital.  The  earliest  bank  estab- 
lished was  the  bank  of  Scotland,  founded  in 
1695  ;  followed  in  1727  by  the  royal  bank  of 
Scotland,  in  1746  by  the  British  Linen  com- 
pany, in  1810  by  the  Commercial  bank,  and  in 
1825  by  the  National  bank.  In  addition  to 
these,  joint-stock  banks  with  limited  liability 
have  been  allowed  freely  to  be  established. 


BANK 


277 


These  banks  have  passed  readily  through  com- 
mercial crises  which  have  destroyed  large  num- 
bers of  such  institutions  in  England. — Various 
attempts  to  establish  a  public  bank  in  Ireland 
were  from  time  to  time  made,  and,  meeting 
with  opposition  in  the  Irish  parliament,  were 
defeated.  It  was  not  till  1782  that  a  bill  was 
passed  incorporating  the  "Governor  and  Com- 
pany of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,"  which  institution 
commenced  business  in  Dublin,  June  1,  1783, 
and  is  still  in  successful  operation.  This  was 
succeeded  by  the  Belfast  bank  in  1808,  the  Hi- 
bernian bank  of  Ireland  in  1825,  the  Provincial 
bank  of  Ireland  in  1834,  the  National  bank,  and 
others,  all  of  which  are  joint-stock  banks. — 
The  notes  in  circulation  in  the  United  King- 
dom, other  than  those  of  the  bank  of  England, 
in  September,  1872,  were  as  follows :  England, 
£5,057,910;  Scotland,  £5,313,560;  Ireland, 
£7,242,081 ;  total,  £17,613,551.— The  Bank  of 
France.  In  1716  a  bank  was  founded  in  Paris 
under  this  name,  which  was  two  years  subse- 
quently changed  to  the  Royal  bank.  Under 
this  organization  it  remained  till  1803,  when, 
having  been  unsuccessful,  it  was  placed  upon 
its  present  organization  as  the  bank  of  France, 
with  a  capital  of  45,000,000  fr.,  which  was  in 
1806  increased  to  90,000,000  fr.  At  present 
the  capital  is  182,500,000  fr.,  and  the  charter 
of  the  bank  extends  to  Dec.  31,  1897.  It  is  a 
bank  of  deposit,  discount,  and  circulation,  issu- 
ing its  own  notes,  and  having  an  exclusive 
monopoly  of  this  privilege  for  the  entire  coun- 
try. It  is  a  public  institution,  the  government 
appointing  a  governor  and  two  deputy  gover- 
nors, all  of  whom  must  be  stockholders  in  the 
bank.  The  affairs  of  the  institution  are  man- 
aged by  a  council  general  of  20  members,  who 
are  elected  by  200  of  the  principal  stockholders. 
No  bills  are  discounted  having  more  than  three 
months  to  run  before  maturity,  and  as  a  general 
thing  must  be  guaranteed  by  three  approved 
signatures,  though  in  some  instances  two  are 
accepted.  The  governor  annually  makes  a  re- 
port of  the  condition  of  the  affairs  of  the  bank, 
with  statements  in  detail  of  its  issues,  assets, 
loans,  and  other  particulars.  The  annual  divi- 
dends are  limited  to  5  per  cent. ;  all  profits 
over  that  amount  being  invested  in  5  per  cent, 
consolidated  stock,  to  be  divided  among  the 
stockholders  at  the  expiration  of  the  charter. 
In  1848  banks  existed  at  Rouen,  Lyons,  Havre, 
Lille,  Toulouse,  Orleans,  Marseilles,  Nantes, 
and  Bordeaux  ;  but  by  the  provisional  govern- 
ment these  were  united  to  the  bank  of  France. 
The  bank  has  now  62  branches  in  various  parts 
of  France.  In  August,  1870,  specie  payments 
were  suspended,  and  have  so  continued  to  the 
present  time  (December,  1872) ;  but  the  pre- 
mium on  gold  has  never  been  over  1  per  cent. 
In  October,  1872,  the  bank  had  of  notes  in  circu- 
lation 2,524,140,010  fr.,  held  cash  in  hand  786,- 
534,812  fr.,  treasury  bonds  and  rentes  immobi- 
lisees  1,450,367,500  ft.— Belgian  Banlcs.  The 
oldest  of  these  is  the  societe  generals,  founded 
Aug.  28,  1822,  capital  50,000,000  florins.  It 


was  a  bank  of  discount,  and  managed  the  finan- 
ces of  the  government  till  after  the  separation 
of  Belgium  from  Holland,  when  it  resigned  that 
function  to  the  bank  of  Belgium. .  This  latter 
institution,  organized  originally  with  a  capital 
of  20,000,000  francs,  was  in  1838  compelled  to 
suspend  payment,  a  difficulty  out  of  which  it 
was  extricated  by  the  government.  However, 
in  1839  it  suspended  again.  In  1841  its  capital 
was  increased  by  10, 000, 000  fr.,  the  subscribers 
to  the  new  stock  receiving  5  per  cent.,  while 
the  old  stockholders  were  to  have  but  4.  In 
addition  to  this  rate  of  interest,  the  bank  has 
paid  a  semi-annual  dividend.  Up  to  1850  it 
had  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  government, 
when  it  resigned  them  to  the  National  bank  of 
Belgium,  founded  May  5,  1850.  This  institu- 
tion, which  is  a  joint-stock  bank,  has  a  capital 
of  25,000,000  fr.  It  is  a  bank  of  deposit  and 
exchange,  and  is  allowed  to  issue  notes  to  three 
times  the  amount  of  the  coin  in  its  coffers,  and 
issues  them  of  the  denominations  of  20,  50, 100, 
500,  and  1,000  fr.  In  this  bank  the  societe 
generate  took  10,000,000  of  the  capital,  and  the 
bank  of  Belgium  15,000,000,  both  agreeing  to 
cease  their  issues  of  notes  and  abandon  their 
discount  business,  although  retaining  their  or- 
ganization and  receiving  deposits.  Oct.  9, 
1872,  the  National  bank  of  Belgium  held  of 
specie  123,625,000  fr.,  had  made  discounts  and 
advances  284,400,000  fr.,  and  had  a  circulation 
of  253,550,000  fr.  It  pays  large  dividends  to  its 
stockholders. — Netherlands.  The  bank  of  the 
Netherlands  was  first  chartered  in  1814,  with 
a  capital  of  5,000,000  florins,  which  was  in- 
creased to  10,000, 000  in  1819  and  15,000,000  in 
1838.  Subsequent  changes  have  been  made, 
the  last  in  1863,  when  it  was  rechartered.  On 
Oct.  14,  1872,  the  condition  of  the  bank  was 
as  follows:  coin  and  bullion,  117,768,000  fl. ; 
discounts  and  advances,  106,056,000  fl. ;  notes 
in  circulation,  163,332,000  fl. ;  deposits,  36,- 
456,000  fl.— Austria.  The  National  bank  of 
Austria  was  founded  in  Vienna  in  1816, 
for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  finances  and 
credit  of  the  government,  which  were  greatly 
impaired.  It  has  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
issuing  circulating  notes.  Its  capital  is  110,- 
250,000  florins,  and  its  condition,  Oct.  9,  1872, 
was  as  follows  :  coin  and  bullion,  138,760,000 
fl. ;  discounts  and  advances,  186,480,000  fl. ; 
circulation,  319,190,000  fl.  Its  charter  extends 
to  1876,  and  it  loans  to  the  state,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  privileges  granted  it,  80,000,000  fl. 
without  interest.  The  rate  of  discount  varies 
between  4  and  5  per  cent,  per  annum  ;  it  issues 
bills  of  5,  10,  100,  and  1,000  fl. ;  and  it  has  22 
branches  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. — 
German  Empire.  The  Royal  bank  of  Prussia 
was  established  at  Berlin,  June  17,  1765,  as  an 
exchange  and  loan  bank,  with  a  capital  of 
400,000  thalers.  Dec.  31,  1871,  its  capital  was: 
bank  shares,  20,000,000  thalers;  state  active 
capital,  1,906,800 ;  and  it  had  a  reserve  fund  of 
6,000,000  thalers,  giving  an  actual  working 
capital  of  27,906,800.  It  held  deposits  of  20,- 


278 


BANK 


577,088  thalers ;  notes  either  in  circulation  or 
in  the  hands  of  the  bank  or  its  branches,  360,- 
723,312;  bills  of  exchange,  114,856,512;  Lom- 
bard loans,  23,617,365;  gold  and  silver  coin 
and  bullion,  277,528,846.  Its  total  transac- 
tions, receipts,  and  disbursements  for  1871 
amounted  to  6,365,839,600  thalers.  At  the 
close  of  1871,  the  Prussian  branch  comprised 
the  chief  bank  at  Berlin  and  163  branches  in 
the  several  provinces  of  the  state,  including 
Alsace  and  Lorraine.  For  the  year  the  average 
rate  of  discount  was  4'16  per  cent.,  Lombard 
rate  5-16  per  cent.  Although  this  institution 
is  a  government  one,  it  does  not  possess  mono- 
poly privileges,  but  other  banks  are  permitted 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Indeed,  much  free- 
dom in  banking,  under  certain  restraints,  has 
been  for  years  past  permitted  in  northern 
Germany.  The  popular  or  cooperative  banks 
established  under  the  initiative  of  Schultze- 
Delitzch  have  proved  a  highly  important  and 
most  beneficent  class  of  institutions  in  enabling 
workmen  to  combine  their  means  for  mutual 
financial  assistance  in  business  in  a  small  way. 
Their  study  is  a  subject  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  the  workmen  of  this  country.  They  are  es- 
tablished without  the  assistance  of  capitalists, 
and  make  advances  only  to  their  members. — 
The  Royal  bank  of  Nuremberg,  Bavaria,  is  an 
old  institution,  which  does  a  business  of  ex- 
change, discount,  loan,  and  deposit.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  state,  and  its  affairs  are  man- 
aged by  finance  ministers.  It  has  several 
branches.  No  publication  of  its  affairs  is  made. 
The  Loan  and  Exchange  bank  of  Bavaria  began 
operations  in  1835,  and  was  chartered  for  99 
years  from  1834.  It  lends  on  goods,  and  dis- 
counts bills  of  exchange,  Bavarian  securities, 
and  specie,  and  effects  fire  and  life  insurance. 
Its  issue  is  limited  to  8,000,000  florins,  2,000,- 
000  being  based  on  specie. — The  bank  of  Leip- 
sic,  Saxony,  was  founded  in  1839,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  1,500,000  thalers,  which  has  since  been 
increased,  provision  also  being  made  for  a  large 
reserve.  The  Saxon  bank  in  Dresden  was 
founded  in  1865,  and  on  Dec.  81, 1871,  held  of 
coin  and  bullion  9,215,000  thalers,  treasury  and 
other  notes  1,400,000  thalers,  bills  of  exchange 
11,678,000  thalers,  Lombards  4,282,000  thalers, 
and  had  notes  in  circulation  20,988, 000  thalers. 
— There  are  four  banks  at  Stuttgart,  Wurtem- 
berg.  There  are  also  banks  at  KOnigsberg, 
Frankfort,  Cologne,  Darmstadt,  Weimar,  Bruns- 
wick, Bremen,  Dessau,  and  other  points  in  the 
German  empire,  issuing  circulating  notes. — 
Switzerland.  Basel  and  Geneva  have  long 
been  famous  for  the  character  and  wealth  of 
their  banks,  but  the  earliest  Swiss  bank  of  issue, 
that  of  St.  Gall,  only  dates  from  1836.  At  the 
end  of  1869  there  were  19  such  banks  in  that 
country — those  of  St.  Gall,  Zurich,  Vaud,  Basel, 
Geneva  (bank  of  Commerce  and  bank  of  Gene- 
va), Thurgau,  Glarus,  Neufchatel,  Fribourg, 
Aargau,  Valais,  Lucerne,  Soleure,  Bern,  Ticino, 
Grisons,  and  Schaffhausen.  They  make  divi- 
dends of  from  4J  to  7£  per  cent.  Their  condi- 


tion, Dec.  31,  1869,  was  as  follows:  circulation, 
18,468,122  fr.;  deposits,  49,166,405;  specie, 
19,380,922 ;  capital,  73,357,784 ;  loans  (exclu- 
sive of  those  of  the  bank  of  St.  Gall,  capital 
5,358,613  fr.),  71,667,700.— Italy.  The  oldest 
existing  bank  in  Italy  is  that  of  the  Monte  di 
Paschi  of  Siena,  founded  in  1622.  The  Na- 
tional bank  of  Italy,  created  by  royal  decree 
Nov.  14,  1849,  was  the  result  of  a  union  be- 
tween the  two  banks  at  Genoa  and  Turin,  the 
former  founded  in  1844,  the  latter  in  1847. 
Its  charter  lasts  till  Dec.  81,  1889,  and 
its  capital,  originally  40,000,000  lire,  is  now 
100,000,000.  By  act  of  Sept.  3,  1868,  the 
circulation  of  bank  notes  was  limited  to 
700,000,000  lire.  They  are  a  legal  tender  by 
act  of  May,  1860.  The  bank  has  gradually 
extended  its  action  over  Italy,  and  besides 
seats  in  Genoa,  Turin,  Milan,  Naples,  Pa- 
lermo, Florence,  and  Venice,  had  in  1870  55 
branches  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  a 
bank  of  discount,  deposit,  and  circulation.  Its 
condition  in  1870  was  as  follows :  Discounts, 
828,666,172  lire ;  average  circulation,  775,879,- 
712.  On  Oct.  81,  1868,  it  had  specie  and 
bullion  178,000,000  lire.  The  state  is  a  large 
debtor  to  this  institution,  and  its  financial  oper- 
ations are  mainly  conducted  by  the  aid  of  it. 
There  are  also  the  following :  Bank  of  Naples, 
bank  of  Palermo,  National  bank  of  Tuscany, 
Credit  bank  of  Tuscany,  Mercantile  Establish- 
ment of  Venetia,  Anglo-Italian  hank  (founded 
in  London  in  1864),  Farmers'  Credit  bank  of 
Pisa,  National  Discount  bank  of  Tuscany,  Gen- 
eral bank  of  Genoa,  Italian  Credit  bank  of 
Turin,  Discount  and  Silk  bank  of  Turin,  &c.  In 
August,  1871,  there  were  in  Italy  39  credit  in- 
stitutions and  banks  (the  National  bank  and 
branches  counting  as  1),  and  57  people's  banks. 
Of  the  former  31  publish  reports  showing  a 
paid-up  capital  of  86,141,268  lire;  and  of  the 
latter  51  give  reports  showing  a  paid-up  capi- 
tal of  17,501,855  lire. — Spain,  Portugal,  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Norway,  JKussia,  and  Greece, 
all  have  their  banking  systems,  more  or  less  in- 
timately connected  with  the  fiscal  operations 
of  their  respective  governments. — BANKING 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  Sank  of  North 
America.  During  the  war  of  the  revolution, 
the  country  being  extremely  poor,  with  few 
industries  but  agriculture,  and  quite  denuded 
of  the  precious  metals,  from  a  heavy  and  long 
continued  adverse  foreign  trade,  the  congress 
of  the  United  States  experienced  great  diffi- 
culty in  providing  the  requisite  means  for  car- 
rying on  hostilities.  On  May  10,  1775,  soon 
after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  congress  made  pre- 
paration to  issue  continental  paper,  $2,000,000 
of  which  were  put  in  circulation  on  June  22 
following.  From  month  to  month  these  issues, 
which  in  the  aggregate  reached  $300,000,000, 
depreciated,  until  eventually  they  became  en- 
tirely valueless,  notwithstanding  the  passage 
of  laws  making  them  a  legal  tender  for  the 
payment  of  debts.  On  May  17,  1781,  a  plan 
of  a  national  bank  was  submitted  to  congress 


BANK 


279 


by  Robert  Morris  qf  Pennsylvania,  the  prin- 
cipal provisions  of  which  were  as  follows: 
The  capital  to  be  $400,000,  in  shares  of  $400 
each ;  that  each  share  be  entitled  to  a  vote  for 
directors;  that  there  be  12  directors  chosen 
from  those  entitled  to  vote,  who  at  their 
first  meeting  shall  choose  one  as  president ; 
that  the  directors  meet  quarterly;  that  the 
board  be  empowered  from  time  to  time  to  opan 
new  subscriptions  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
the  capital  of  the  bank ;  statements  to  be  made 
to  the  superintendent  of  the  finances  of  Ame- 
rica ;  that  the  bank  notes  payable  on  demand 
shall  by  law  be  made  receivable  for  duties  and 
taxes  in  every  state,  and  from  the  respective 
states  by  the  treasury  of  the  United  States ; 
that  the  superintendent  of  the  finances  of 
America  shall  have  a  right  at  all  times  to  ex- 
amine into  the  affairs  of  the  bank.  On  May 
26  congress  passed  the  following:  "  Resolved, 
that  congress  do  approve  of  the  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  a  national  bank  in  these 
United  States,  submitted  for  their  consider- 
ation by  Mr.  R.  Morris,  May  17,  1781,  and 
that  they  will  promote  and  support  the  same 
by  such  ways  and  means,  from  time  to  time, 
as  may  appear  necessary  for  the  institution  and 
consistent  with  the  public  good ;  that  the  sub- 
scribers to  the  said  bank  shall  be  incorporated 
agreeably  to  the  principles  and  terms  of  the 
plan,  under  the  name  of  'The  President,  Di- 
rectors, and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  North 
America,'  so  soon  as  the  subscription  shall  be 
filled,  the  directors  and  president  chosen,  and 
application  for  that  purpose  made  to  congress 
by  the  president  and  directors  elected."  On 
Dec.  31  following  congress  passed  "  an  ordi- 
nance to  incorporate  the  subscribers  to  the 
bank  of  North  America."  The  first  president 
was  Thomas  Willing,  and  the  bank  became  at 
once  a  most  important  auxiliary  in  aid  of  the 
finances  of  the  government,  and  so  continued 
to  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  This  institution 
was  also  incorporated  by  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  April  18,  1782.  The  bank  com- 
menced business  in  January,  1782,  with  a  cap- 
ital of  $400,000,  of  which  $254,000  had  been 
subscribed  by  the  government.  In  the  year 
1785,  when  an  ill  feeling  had  arisen  between 
the  government  of  the  state  of  Pennsylvania 
and  the  bank,  the  former  repealed  the  charter 
which  it  had  granted  in  1782.  The  bank,  how- 
ever, continued  its  operations  under  the  charter 
granted  by  the  general  government  till  1787, 
when  it  was  rechartered  by  the  state  of  Penn- 
sylvania. It  has  from  time  to  time  been  re- 
chartered,  and  now  exists  under  the  national 
system  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  and  a 
surplus  of  $1,000,000. — The  First  Sank  of  the 
United  States.  On  the  organization  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  under  the  con- 
stitution, Alexander  Hamilton,  in  his  masterly 
report  on  the  finances  in  1790,  urged  upon 
congress  the  importance  of  establishing  a  bank 
of  the  United  States.  This  measure,  although 
it  met  with  vigorous  opposition  in  the  house 


of  representatives,  passed  that  body  Feb.  8, 
1791,  having  on  Jan.  20  passed  the  senate 
with  but  slight  resistance.  The  following 
abstract  of  the  12  clauses  of  the  charter 
will  give  an  idea  of  the  act:  1.  The  capital 
shall  be  $10,000,000,  to  be  divided  into  25,000 
shares  of  $400  each.  2.  Any  person,  copart- 
nership, or  body  politic  may  subscribe  for  such 
number  of  shares  as  he,  she,  or  they  may  think 
proper,  not  exceeding  1,000,  except  as  regards 
the  subscription  of  the  United  States.  The  sub- 
scriptions, except  those  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  payable  one  fourth  in  gold  and  silver, 
and  the  remaining  three  fourths  in  certain  6  per 
cent,  stocks  of  the  United  States.  3.  The  sub- 
scribers are  incorporated  under  the  name  and 
style  of  "  The  President,  Directors,  and  Com- 
pany of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,"  and 
to  continue  till  March  4,  1811.  The  bank  is 
authorized  to  hold  property  of  all  kinds,  in- 
clusive of  its  capital,  to  the  amount  of  $15,- 
000,000.  4.  Twenty-five  directors  are  to  be 
elected  by  a  plurality  of  the  votes  cast,  on  the 
first  Monday  in  January  of  each  and  every 
year,  for  one  year  only,  and  the  directors  are 
empowered  to  choose  one  of  their  number  for 
president.  5.  As  soon  as  the  sum  of  $400,000 
is  received  on  account  of  the  subscriptions,  in 
gold  and  silver,  on  proper  notice  being  given, 
the  bank  may  be  organized.  6.  The  directors 
are  authorized  to  choose  such  other  officers, 
clerks,  and  servants  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  bank,  and  shall  otherwise  manage  tho 
affairs  of  the  bank.  7.  This  clause  prescribes 
the  "rules,  restrictions,  limitations,  and  pro- 
visions which  shall  form  and  be  fundamental 
articles  of  the  constitution  of  said  corporation." 
8.  If  the  corporation,  or  any  person  or  persons 
for  or  to  the  use  of  the  same,  shall  buy  or  sell 
any  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  whatsoever, 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  such  per- 
son or  persdns  shall  forfeit  and  lose  treble  the 
value  of  said  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise, 
one  half  to  the  United  States,  and  the  re- 
mainder to  the  informer.  9.  If  the  corporation 
shall  lend  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States  any  sum  of  money  to  an  amount  ex- 
ceeding $100,000,  or  to  any  state  to  an  amount 
exceeding  $50,000,  or  to  any  foreign  prince  or 
state  (unless  previously  authorized  by  law),  all 
and  every  person  concerned  in  any  way  in 
causing  the  same  to  be  lent  shall  for  each 
and  every  offence,  on  conviction,  forfeit  and 
pay  a  sum  treble  the  value  of  said  loan  or  loans 
— one  fifth  to  the  informer,  and  four  fifths  to 
the  United  States.  10.  Bills  or  notes  of  the 
bank  payable  in  coin  shall  bo  taken  in  payments 
to  the  United  States.  11.  The  president  of 
the  United  States  may  within  18  months  from 
April  1,  1791,  cause  a  subscription  to  be  made 
to  the  stock  on  behalf  of  the  United  States  for 
an  amount  not  exceeding  $2,000,000,  to  be  paid 
out  of  the  moneys  which  shall  be  borrowed  by 
virtue  of  either  of  two  certain  acts  providing 
for  the  payment  of  the  debt  of  the  United 
States,  "borrowing  from  the  bank  an  equal 


280 


BANK 


sum  to  be  applied  to  the  purposes  for  which 
the  said  moneys  shall  have  been  procured; 
reimbursable  in  10  years  in  equal  annual  in- 
stalments, or  at  any  time  sooner,  or  in  any 
greater  proportions  that  the  government  may 
think  fit.  12.  That  no  other  bank  shall  be 
established  by  any  future  law  of  the  United 
States  during  the  continuance  of  the  corpora- 
tion hereby  created,  for  which  the  faith  of  the 
United  States  is  hereby  pledged."  The  bank 
was  established  in  Philadelphia,  with  branches 
at  different  points.  The  dividends  of  the  bank 
averaged  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  per  annum, 
being  much  below  those  of  the  bank  of  North 
America  in  previous  years;  which,  in  the 
words  of  a  distinguished  writer,  now  "  grad- 
ually declined  as  other  banks  sprang  into  ex- 
istence." In  1808,  three  years  prior  to  the  ex- 
piration of  the  charter,  application  was  made 
to  congress  for  a  renewal  of  the  charter,  and  Mr. 
Gallatin,  the  then  able  head  of  the  treasury  de- 
partment, in  obedience  to  a  resolution  of  the 
senate,  reported  to  congress  upon  the  memorial. 
Mr.  Gallatin  proposed  some  changes  in  the  new 
act  of  incorporation,  and  highly  recommended 
the  reincorporation  of  the  bank,  for  which  he 
gave  his  reasons  in  a  clear  and  conclusive  man- 
ner. Nothing,  however,  was  done.  From  time 
to  time  the  matter  was  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  congress,  until  Feb.  5,  1811,  when  a  bill 
was  brought  forward,  but  was  on  Feb.  20  de- 
feated by  the  casting  vote  of  Vice  President 
Clinton.  The  bank  was  now  obliged  to  wind 
up  its  affairs,  which  was  done  without  at  all  con- 
vulsing the  country.  Within  about  18  months 
the  stockholders  had  received  88  per  cent,  on 
their  stock.  On  finally  closing  its  business,  the 
assets  yielded  to  the  stockholders  a  premium 
over  the  par  value  of  8$  per  cent.  An  appli- 
cation had  previously  been  unsuccessfully  made 
to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  re- 
charter  of  this  institution,  with  a  capital  of 
$5,000,000.— Second  Bank  of  the  United  States. 
During  the  war  of  1812-'15  the  government, 
which  was  embarrassed  for  the  want  of  means, 
had  received  important  aid  from  the  banks. 
By  this  means  the  banks,  with  the  exception 
of  those  in  New  England,  were,  in  August  and 
September,  1814,  driven  to  a  suspension  of  spe- 
cie payments.  The  finances  of  the  government 
were  now  in  a  terrible  condition,  when,  on  Oct. 
6,  Alexander  J.  Dallas  was  called  to  the  head 
of  the  treasury  department.  Never  before  had 
there  been  greater  need  of  a  master  mind  in 
that  important  office.  "Within  less  than  a  fort- 
night the  new  secretary  communicated  to  con- 
gress a  report  of  extraordinary  ability,  in  which 
he  strongly  recommended  the  establishment  of 
a  national  bank,  as  the  remedy  required  again 
to  bring  the  finances  into  order.  Various  plans 
for  a  bank  were  brought  forward  in  congress, 
which  resulted  in  nothing,  until,  on  Jan.  20, 
1815,  a  bill  was  passed.  This  bill  was  vetoed 
by  President  Madison,  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  not  accomplish  the  objects  rendered 
necessary  by  the  state  of  the  revenue  and  the 


condition  of  the  country.  On  April  3,  1816, 
however,  a  bill  for  a  bank  of  the  United  States, 
which  had  previously  passed  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives, was  adopted  by  the  senate,  and, 
receiving  the  signature  of  the  president,  became 
a  law.  The  corporate  title  of  this  institution 
was  "  The  President,  Directors,  and  Company 
of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States."  Its  capital 
was  to  be  $35,000,000,  composed  of  350,000 
shares  of  $100  each  ;  $7,000,000  of  the  stock 
was  to  be  subscribed  by  the  United  States, 
and  the  remaining  $28,000,000  by  individuals, 
companies,  or  corporations.  The  charter  was 
to  extend  to  March,  3,  1836,  and  the  bank  was 
authorized  to  organize  and  commence  busi- 
ness so  soon  as  $8,400,000,  exclusive  of  the 
subscription  of  the  United  States,  was  paid  in. 
It  was  prohibited  from  lending  on  account  of 
the  United  States  more  than  $500,000,  or  to 
any  state  more  than  $50,000,  or  to  any  foreign 
prince  or  power  any  sum  whatever,  without 
the  sanction  of  law  previously  being  obtained. 
The  bank  went  into  operation  Jan.  7,  1817,  and 
through  its  agency  the  other  banks  throughout 
the  country  were  enabled  and  induced  to  re- 
sume specie  payments.  An  unsuccessful  effort 
was  made  in  1818  to  repeal  the  charter,  on  the 
ground  of  alleged  mismanagement.  President 
Jackson  in  his  message  of  December,  1829,  in- 
timated that  "  constitutional  difficulties  "  might  • 
interfere  to  prevent  its  recharter,  and  expressed 
the  desire  that  congress  might  take  the  matter 
into  early  consideration.  Committees  of  both 
houses  reported  favorably  to  a  recharter,  but 
no  application  was  made  by  the  hank  until  the 
session  of  1881-'2.  On  July  4,  1832,  a  bill  re- 
chartering  the  bank  was  sent  to  the  president, 
who  on  the  10th  of  the  same  month  returned 
it  with  a  message  stating  his  objections  to  it. 
An  effort  now  being  made  to  pass  the  bill  over 
the  veto  of  the  president,  but  without  success, 
the  bank  on  March  3,  1836,  ceased  to  act  under 
the  charter  granted  by  the  United  States,  but 
was  in  the  same  year  rechartered  by  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  with  the  same  capital.  On 
Oct.  9,  1839,  the  United  States  bank  suspended 
specie  payments  for  a  second  time,  having  pre- 
viously suspended  in  1837,  a  measure  which 
was  adopted  immediately  by  all  the  hanks 
throughout  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  and  even- 
tually, with  comparatively  limited  exceptions, 
throughout  the  country.  On  Jan.  15,  1840,  in 
compliance  with  an  act  of  the  legislature,  it 
resumed  specie  payments — to  suspend  finally  on 
Feb.  4.  On  winding  up  its  affairs,  after  pay- 
ment of  its  debts,  there  remained  nothing  to  its 
stockholders,  the  entire  capital  having  been 
sunk. — State  BanTcs.  Prior  to  the  passage  of 
the  act  "to  provide  a  national  currency,"  &c., 
by  congress,  in  1864,  the  charter  of  all  banks 
of  issue  and  deposit  was  by  the  several  states. 
No  fewer  than  1,400  of  these  state  institutions 
existed  in  1856-'7.  In  the  New  England  states 
at  that  date  there  were  507  banks  and  branches, 
with  a  capital  of  $114,611,752.  An  important 
feature  in  New  England  banking  at  that  tune 


BANK 


281 


was  the  ".Suffolk  bank  system,"  through  which 
the  notes  of  all  New  England  hanks  were  col- 
lected and  redeemed  at  the  Suffolk  bank  in 
Boston,  each  bank  making  a  stipulated  deposit 
for  that  purpose,  amounting  in  the  aggregate 
to  $300,000. — National  Banks.  The  exigen- 
cies of  the  civil  war,  1861-'o,  requiring  that  the 
government  of  the  United  States  should  have 
other  than  the  ordinary  demand  among  the 
people  for  the  absorption  of  the  bonds  which 
it  was  from  time  to  time  issuing,  led  to  the  law 
of  1864  entitled  "An  act  to  provide  a  national 
currency,  secured  by  a  pledge  of  United  States 
bonds,  and  to  provide  for  the  circulation  and 
redemption  thereof."  This  act  was  approved 
June  3,  1864,  and  provides  among  other  things 
for  a  separate  bureau  in  the  treasury  depart- 
ment, the  chief  officer  of  which  shall  be  de- 
nominated the  comptroller  of  the  currency, 
and  it  shall  be  under  the  general  direction  of 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury ;  that  associations 
for  carrying  on  the  business  of  banking  may  be 
formed,  consisting  of  not  less  than  five  persons ; 
that  no  association  shall  be  organized  under 
this  act  with  a  less  capital  than  $100,000,  nor 
in  a  city  whose  population  exceeds  50,000  with 
a  less  capital  than  $200,000,  but  that  hanks 
with  a  capital  of  not  less  than  $50,000  may, 
with  the  approval  of  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  be  established  in  any  place  the  popu- 
lation of  which  does  not  exceed  6,000 ;  that 
such  associations  shall  have  existence  for  20 
years,  and  may  exercise  the  general  powers  of 
banking  companies ;  the  capital  shall  be  divided 
into  shares  of  $100  each ;  that  stockholders 
shall  be  equally  and  ratably  liable  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  stock  for  the  debts  and  contracts 
of  the  bank;  that  every  association,  prelimi- 
nary to  the  commencement  of  banking  business, 
shall  transfer  United  States  bonds  to  an  amount 
not  less  than  $30,000,  and  not  less  than  one 
third  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in  ;  that  upon 
the  proper  examination  being  made  into  the  af- 
fairs of  the  proposed  institution,  it  shall  be  en- 
titled to  receive  from  the  comptroller  of  the 
currency  circulating  notes  equal  in  amount  to 
90  per  cent,  of  the  current  market  value  of  the 
bonds  transferred,  but  not  exceeding  90  per 
cent,  of  the  par  value  of  said  bonds ;  that  notes 
to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $300,000,000  may 
be  issued  under  this  act ;  that  these  notes  shall 
be  received  at  par  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  in  payment  of  taxes,  excises,  public  lands, 
and  all  other  dues  to  the  United  States,  except 
for  duties  on  imports,  and  also  for  all  sala- 
ries and  other  debts  and  demands  owing  by  the 
United  States  to  individuals,  corporations,  and 
associations  within  the  United  States,  except 
interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  in  redemption 
of  the  national  currency  ;  that  the  rate  of  in- 
terest to  be  charged  shall  be  that  allowed  by 
the  laws  of  the  state  or  territory  where  the 
bank  is  located,  or  in  the  absence  of  any  such 
rate,  not  exceeding  7  per  cent. ;  that  each  of 
the  banks  in  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  Chicago,  De- 
troit, Milwaukee,  New  Orleans,  Cincinnati, 


Cleveland,  Pittsburgh,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  New  York,  Albany,  Leavenworth,  San 
Francisco,  and  Washington  city  shall  at  all 
times  have  on  hand  in  lawful  money  of  the 
United  States  an  amount  equal  to  at  least  25 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  its  notes  in  circula- 
tion and  its  deposits,  and  that  all  others  shall 
keep  a  reserve  of  not  less  than  15  per  cent. ; 
that  every  association  shall  pay  to  the  treasurer 
of  the  United  States  in  the  months  of  January 
and  July  |  per  cent,  each  half  year  on  the 
average  amount  of  its  notes  in  circulation,  and 
a  duty  of  J  per  cent,  each  half  year  upon  the 
average  amount  of  its  deposits,  and  a  duty  of  J 
per  cent,  each  half  year  on  the  average  amount 
of  its  capital  stock  beyond  the  amount  invested 
in  United  States  bonds ;  that  any  state  bank 
may  become  a  national  bank  under  this  act. 
By  an  act  amending  the  foregoing  act,  approv- 
ed March  3,  1865,  it  was  provided  that  notes 
shall  be  issued  to  associations  according  to  cap- 
ital as  follows :  to  each  not  exceeding  $500,- 
000,  90  per  cent. ;  to  each  whose  capital  ex- 
ceeds $500,000,  but  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000, 
80  per  cent. ;  to  each  whose  capital  exceeds 
$1,000,000,  but  does  not  exceed  $3,000,000,  75 
per  cent. ;  to  each  whose  capital  exceeds  $3,- 
000,000,  60  per  cent. ;  and  that  $150,000,000 
of  the  entire  amount  of  circulating  notes  au- 
thorized to  be  issued  shall  be  appropriated  to 
associations  in  the  states,  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  in  the  territories,  according  to 
representative  population,  and  the  remainder 
shall  be  apportioned  by  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  among  associations  formed  in  the  sev- 
eral states,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  in 
the  territories,  having  due  regard  to  the  exist- 
ing banking  capital,  resources,  and  business  of 
such  state,  district,  or  territory.  By  an  act  to 
provide  ways  and  means  for  the  payment  of 
compound-interest  notes,  approved  March  2, 
1867,  it  was  provided  that  temporary  loan  cer- 
tificates, bearing  3  per  cent,  per  annum  inter- 
est, may  be  issued  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
$50,000,000,  and  used  for  this  purpose;  and 
further,  that  said  certificates  may  constitute 
for  any  national  bank  a  part  of  the  reserve 
provided  for  by  law,  provided  that  not  less  than 
three  fifths  of  the  reserve  of  such  bank  shall 
consist  of  lawful  money  of  the  United  States. 
By  a  further  act  approved  July  25,  1868,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  issue  of  an  additional 
amount  of  $25,000,000  of  temporary  loan  cer- 
tificates. By  an  act  approved  July  12,  1870,  it 
was  provided  that  $54,000,000  additional  cir- 
culation may  be  issued  to  national  banks ;  that 
the  circulation  of  no  bank  thereafter  organized 
shall  exceed  $500,000  ;  that  at  the  end  of  each 
month  an  amount  of  certificates  of  indebtedness 
equal  to  the  amount  of  notes  issued  during  that 
month  shall  be  called  in,  paid,  and  cancelled. 
This  act  also  provides  for  the  issue  of  circula- 
ting notes  redeemable  in  coin  to  such  banks  as 
may  be  instituted,  the  circulation  of  no  such 
bank  under  said  act  to  exceed  $1,000,000, 
these  notes  to  be  secured  by  pledge  of  United 


282 


BANK 


States  bonds.  This  act  farther  provided  for 
the  redistribution  of  $25,000,000  of  bank  cir- 
culation to  banka  in  states  not  having  their 
proper  proportion,  to  be  taken  from  banks  in 
states  having  circulation  in  excess.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  to  be  done  until  the  full  amount 
of  $54,000,000  of  new  circulation  provided  for 
in  this  act  had  been  applied  for  and  issued. 
Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  four  gold  banks 
have  been  authorized :  one  in  Massachusetts, 
with  a  capital  of  $200,000 — circulation  issued, 
$120,000;  and  three  in  California,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $2,800,000 — circulation 
issued,  $1,481,100.  By  means  of  a  provision  in 
"An  act  to  amend  an  act  entitled  'An  act 
to  provide  internal  revenue,'"  &c.,  approved 
March  3,  1865,  congress  effectually  drove  from 
circulation  the  notes  of  all  banks  chartered 
under  state  laws  by  taxing  all  such  circulation 
paid  out  by  them  10  per  cent,  per  annum.  On 
Oct.  3,  1872,  there  were  in  operation  in  the 
United  States  1,919  national  banks,  and  their 
condition  was  as  follows : 

RESOURCES. 

Loans  and  discounts $372,520,104  85 

Overdrafts 4,677,819  12 

United  States  bonds  to  secure  circulation '. . .  882,046,400  00 

United  States  bonds  to  secure  deposits 15,479,750  00 

United  States  bonds  and  securities  on  hand.  12,242,550  00 

Other  stocks,  bonds  and  mortgages 28,533,151  73 

Due  from  redeeming  and  reserve  agents 80,717,071  80 

Due  from  other  national  banks  84,486,598  87 

Due  from  stole  banks  and  bankers 12,976,878  01 

Eoal  estate,  furniture,  and  fixtures 82,276,498  17 

Current  expenses 6,810,428  79 

Premiums 6.546,848  54 

Checks  and  other  cash  items 14.916,784  84 

Exchanges  for  clearing  house 110,086,815  87 

Bills  of  other  national  banka 15,784.098  00 

Bills  of  state  banks 53,198  00 

Fractional  currency 2,151,747  88 

Specie 10,229,756  79 

Legal  tender  notes 102,074,104  00 

Clearing-house  certificates 8,632,000  00 

United  States  certittcates  of  deposit 6,710,000  00 

Three  per  cent,  certificates 1,555.000  00 

$1,755,857,098  24 

LIABILITIES. 

Capital  stock ...                                     ....  $479,629.1 74  00 

Surplus  fund 110,257,516  45 

Undivided  profits 46,628.784  60 

National  bank  notes  outstanding 888,495,027  00 

State  bank  notes  outstanding 1,667,148  00 

Dividends  unpaid 8,149,749  61 

Individual  deposits 618.290,671  45 

United  States  deposits 7,858,77241 

Deposits  of  United  States  disbursing  officers.  4,568,883  79 

Due  to  national  banks 110,047,847  67 

Due  to  state  banks  and  bankers 83,789,068  82 

Notes  and  bills  rediscounted 6.649,481  t8 

Bills  payable 6,040,562  66 

$1,756,857,098  24 

The  distribution  of  national  banking  capital 
throughout  the  country  is  very  unequal,  and 
based  upon  no  sound  or  equitable  principles. 
This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Boston,  with  a 
population  of  250,000  and  a  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  $111,000,000  per  annum,  has  48  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $48,600,000  and  circulation 
of  $26,059,468;  while  Philadelphia,  with  a 
population  of  674,000  and  a  manufacturing 
industry  of  $325,000,000  per  annum,  has  but 
29  banks  with  a  capital  of  $16,235,000  and  a 


circulation  of  $11,383,620.— In  several  of  the 
states  banks  exist  under  state  charters,  but 
without  circulation.  In  the  state  of  New  York 
there  are  70  state  banks,  having  on  Sept.  21, 
1872,  a  combined  capital  of  $24,845,040 ;  cir- 
culation (not  yet  sent  in  for  redemption), 
$126,927;  deposits,  $78,305,491;  loans,  $66,- 
076,361  ;  and  specie,  $1,261,772.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  especially  in  Philadelphia,  the  effort 
has  been  made,  and  to  some  extent  with  suc- 
cess, to  supply  the  great  deficiency  of  national 
banks  with  state  banks — the  former  being  quite 
inadequate  to  the  present  large  and  rapidly  ex- 
tending manufacturing  business  and  trade  of 
that  city. — Banks  of  Canada.  The  condition 
of  the  Canada  banks,  Sept.  30,  1872,  was  as 
follows:  paid-np  capital,  $44,157,690;  cir- 
culation, $24,422,451;  deposits,  $57,581,646; 
specie,  $6,601,380 ;  loans  to  government, 
$557,238 — to  corporations  and  individuals, 
$109,521,798.—  Clearing  House.  The  clear- 
ing house  is  an  institution  founded,  not  mere- 
ly upon  the  idea  of  saving  time  and  trouble 
in  the  use  of  the  precious  metals,  but  also  of 
circulating  notes.  All  the  banks  and  bankers 
associated  as  members  of  a  clearing  house  are 
for  this  purpose,  as  it  were,  but  one  individual. 
The  clearing  house  of  London,  the  first  of  its 
kind,  originated  among  the  bankers  of  that 
city,  whose  transactions  in  the  checks,  billt, 
and  drafts  drawn  upon  each  other  became  so 
large  as  to  call  for  the  daily  and  even  hourly 
use  of  vast  sums  in  bank  notes  by  all  of  them. 
Appreciating  how  readily  the  debits  and  credits 
respectively  due  or  held  by  them  might  be  set 
off  the  one  against  the  other,  they  formed  the 
clearing  house,  where  up  to  4  o'clock  each 
day  all  drafts,  bills,  &c.,  drawn  upon  each  in- 
dividual member  were  taken.  The  system  of 
the  London  clearing  house  has  recently  been 
much  extended  and  improved,  and  all  balances 
are  settled  by  checks  drawn  upon  the  bank  of 
England — no  bank  notes  being  required  at  all. 
Clearing  houses  exist  in  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Boston,  and  other  cities  of  the  United 
States.  The  system  in  that  of  Philadelphia  is 
equal  and  in  some  respects  superior  to  that  of 
any  other  in  the  United  States.  The  clearings 
are  made  each  morning  at  8.30,  just  before 
which  hour  a  messenger  and  a  clerk  from  each 
bank  are  at  the  clearing  house.  The  clerks 
take  their  seats  inside  a  series  of  desks  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  hollow  oval.  Each  messenger 
brings  with  him  from  his  bank  a  sealed  package 
for  each  other  bank,  containing  all  the  checks 
or  drafts  on  such  bank.  The  name  of  the  bank 
sending  and  that  of  the  bank  to  which  it  is  sent 
are  printed  on  each  package,  and  the  amount 
sent  is  written  thereon.  The  messengers  take 
their  places  near  the  desks  of  their  respective 
banks,  and  they  have  with  them  tabular  state- 
ments of  the  amount  sent  to  each  bank  and  the 
aggregates.  These  are  exhibited  to  the  respec- 
tive clerks  and  noted  by  them  on  the  blank 
forms.  At  8.30  precisely  the  manager  calls  to 
order  and  gives  the  word,  when  all  the  mes- 


BANK  BAN 


BANKRUPT 


283 


sengers  move  forward  from  left  to  right  of  the 
clerks,  handing  in  to  those  clerks  the  packages 
addressed  to  their  respective  banks,  and  taking 
receipts  for  them  on  their  statements.  When 
the  circuit  is  completed  all  the  packages  have 
been  delivered  and  received,  and  the  amounts 
and  the  aggregates,  both  debtor  and  creditor, 
noted  by  the  clerks.  When  the  clerks  find  all 
correct  the  messengers  take  the  packages  re- 
ceived, and  return  to  bank.  The  several  clerks 
then  pass  round  a  memorandum  of  the  debits, 
credits,  and  balance,  each  of  his  respective 
bank.  When  these  memoranda  have  made 
the  circuit,  each  clerk  has  on  his  statement  the 
debits,  credits,  and  balance,  whether  debtor  or 
creditor,  of  each  bank.  If  these  debits  and 
credits  and  debtor  and  creditor  balances  are 
found  to  balance,  the  clerks  now  leave  the 
clearing  house.  If  not,  they  remain  until  the 
error  or  errors  are  discovered.  The  balances 
due  by  the  several  banks  are  paid  in  to  the 
clearinghouse  that  day  by  11.30  A.  M.,  and  are 
receivable  by  the  creditor  banks  by  12.30  P.  M. 
A  second  clearing  of  drafts,  &c.,  received  by 
the  morning's  mail,  is  made  at  the  clearing 
house  by  the  messengers  at  11.30  A.  M.  Each 
bank  is  obliged  daily  to  furnish  to  the  clear- 
ing house  a  statement  of  its  condition  at  the 
end  of  business  hours  on  that  day ;  and  tables 
are  daily  furnished  to  the  several  banks  of 
the  condition  of  all  the  banks  in  the  clearing 
house.  Complete  records  of  all  the  transac- 
tions, of  the  state  of  the  banks,  &c.,  are  pre- 
served in  the  books  of  the  clearing  house, 
precisely  as  are  the  business  transactions  of  any 
bank,  or  other  corporation  or  mercantile  firm. 
From  October,  1871,  to  October,  1872,  the 
operations  of  the  New  York  clearing  house 
were  as  follows:  exchanges,  $33,844,369,568; 
cash  balances,  $1,428,582,707;  average  daily 
exchanges,  $105,964.277;  average  daily  balan- 
ces, $3,939,265,  or  less  than  3f  per  cent. ;  so 
that  by  the  intervention  of  this  institution 
$3  75  are  made  to  do  the  work  which  would 
require  $100  without  it,  and  which  in  fact 
does  require  $100  in  the  country,  where  men 
are  isolated.  (See  also  SAVINGS  BANK.) 

BANK.  BAN,  or  Ban  Bank,  a  Hungarian  mili- 
tary governor,  executed  with  his  whole  fam- 
ily by  order  of  King  Andrew  II.  (1205-'35). 
Bank's  wife  having  been  seduced  by  the  queen's 
brother  Eckart,  with  the  queen's  connivance, 
he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  mob  who 
stormed  the  palace  in  the  king's  absence  and 
cut  the  queen  to  pieces,  Eckart  barely  escaping 
with  his  life  to  Styria  (1214).  Katona's  Bank- 
bdn,  a  celebrated  Hungarian  drama  (Klausen- 
burg,  1827),  has  been  translated  into  German 
(Leipsic,  1858).  Grillparzer  also  dramatized 
the  subject  in  Ein  treuer  Diener  seines  Herrn 
(Vienna,  1830). 

BANKRUPT  (low  Lat.  lancus,  a  bench,  and 
rvpttu,  broken),  an  insolvent  debtor.  In  its 
more  ordinary  acceptation,  bankruptcy  express- 
es inability  to  pay  one's  debts,  being  in  that  sense 
the  same  as  insolvency.  The  theory  of  bank- 


ruptcy in  England  until  recently  has  been,  that 
it  was  a  criminal  offence,  and  the  proceeding 
was  in  form  hostile  to  the  party  charged  with 
being  bankrupt.  The  first  bankrupt  law  was 
enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  which 
act  the  persons  amenable  to  its  provisions  are  de- 
scribed as  "  those  who  obtain  other  men's  goods 
on  credit,  and  then  suddenly  flee  to  parts  un- 
known, or  keep  house,  and  there  consume  their 
substance  without  paying  their  debts."  In 
subsequent  statutes  the  character  of  the  bank- 
rupt was  defined  with  more  precision,  and  by 
the  term  was  generally  understood  a  trader 
who  should  do  certain  acts  specified  in  the 
statutes  which  were  declared  to  constitute 
bankruptcy.  The  English  bankrupt  laws  were 
wholly  remodelled  by  act  32  and  37  Victoria, 
c.  71,  on  more  humane  principles.  Under  that 
act  all  persons  may  be  adjudged  bankrupt, 
whether  they  be  traders  or  not.  A  person 
becomes  a  bankrupt  when  adjudged  so  by  the 
court,  upon  the  petition  of  a  creditor  having  a 
liquidated  and  unsecured  debt  of  not  less  than 
£50,  or  of  several  creditors  having  like  debts 
to  that  amount.  But  before  such  petition  can 
be  presented,  the  debtor  must  have  committed 
some  one  of  the  acts  of  bankruptcy  specified  in 
the  statute,  which  are:  1,  making  a  general 
assignment  of  his  property  for  the  benefit  of 
creditors ;  2,  making  a  fraudulent  conveyance, 
gift,  delivery,  or  transfer  of  property ;  3,  doing, 
with  intent  to  defeat  or  delay  his  creditors,  any 
of  the  following  acts:  departing  from  or  re- 
maining out  of  England,  or  (being  a  trader) 
departing  from  his  dwelling  house  or  otherwise 
absenting  himself,  or  beginning  to  keep  house, 
or  suffering  himself  to  be  outlawed ;  4,  filing 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  rules  of  court 
a  declaration  that  he  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts ; 
5,  having  execution  for  a  debt  of  £50  or  upward 
levied  upon  his  goods ;  6,  having  neglected  to 
pay  or  secure  or  compound  the  prisoner's  debt 
after  having  had  a  debtor's  summons  served 
upon  him,  being  a  trader,  within  seven  days, 
and  being  a  non-trader,  three  weeks  after  ser- 
vice. An  adjudication  founded  upon  any  of 
these  acts  of  bankruptcy  will  not,  however,  be 
granted  unless  the  petition  be  presented  with- 
in six  months  after  the  act  was  committed. 
The  act  upon  which  the  petition  is  founded,  or 
the  earliest  act  of  bankruptcy  proved  to  have 
been  committed  within  the  twelve  months  next 
preceding  the  presentation  of  the  petition,  con- 
stitutes the  commencement  of  the  bankruptcy. 
No  creditor  is  allowed  to  commence  or  prose- 
cute any  proceeding  against  the  bankrupt  after 
the  adjudication  unless  by  leave  of  the  court, 
and  all  the  ordinary  remedies  are  taken  away 
except  those  of  the  secured  creditors  in  respecf 
to  their  securities.  Creditors  must  prove  theii 
demands  under  the  bankruptcy,  and  for  tht 
purposes  of  a  distribution  of  the  property  thej 
are  allowed  to  appoint  a  trustee,  and  also  from 
their  own  number  a  committee  of  inspection 
for  the  purpose  of  guiding,  and  in  some  measure 
controlling,  the  trustee  in  the  discharge  of  hia 


284 


BANKRUPT 


duties.  The  title  of  the  trustee  relates  back  to 
the  commencement  of  the  bankruptcy.  The 
creditors  at  any  meeting  have  the  right  to  give 
directions  to  the  trustee  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  property  shall  be  administered  by 
him.  Property  held  by  the  bankrupt  in  trust, 
the  tools  of  his  trade  if  any,  and  the  necessary 
wearing  apparel  and  bedding  of  himself  and 
his  family — such  tools,  apparel,  and  bedding 
not  exceeding  in  value  £50 — will  not  pass  to 
the  assignee ;  but  property  acquired  by  or  de- 
volving upon  the  bankrupt  pending  the  pro- 
ceedings will  pass,  and  also  the  capacity  to  ex- 
ercise or  take  proceedings  to  exercise  all  powers 
over  property  for  his  own  benefit.  If  he  is  a 
trader,  goods  and  chattels  in  his  hands  as  repu- 
ted owner,  with  the  permission  of  the  true 
owner,  will  also  pass  to  the  trustee.  Until  the 
appointment  of  a  trustee,  and  during  any  va- 
cancy which  may  occur,  the  registrar  of  the 
court  is  the  trustee.  When  the  property  has 
been  realized  the  court  declares  the  bankruptcy 
closed,  and  the  bankrupt  may  apply  for  his 
discharge.  This  is  only  granted  where  the  as- 
sets pay  10s.  in  the  pound,  or  where  the  credi- 
tors shall  have  passed  a  resolution  by  a  majority 
in  number  representing  three  fourths  in  value 
of  the  debts  to  the  effect  that  a  discharge 
should  be  granted.  A  discharge  releases  the 
bankrupt  from  all  debts  provable  under  the 
bankruptcy,  except  those  which  he  incurred  by 
means  of  any  fraud  or  breach  of  trust,  and 
those  of  which  he  obtained  forbearance  by 
means  of  fraud,  and  also  those  due  to  the  crown 
or  relating  to  the  revenue;  but  of  these  last  he 
may  be  discharged  if  the  commissioners  of  the 
treasury  consent  thereto.  If  the  bankrupt 
fails  to  obtain  his  discharge,  a  period  of  three 
years  is  given  him  during  which,  if  he  pays  to 
his  creditors  such  sum  as,  together  with  the 
dividends  already  received  by  them,  make  up 
10«.  in  the  pound,  he  is  to  obtain  his  discharge. 
In  the  mean  time  debts  provable  in  bankruptcy 
are  not  to  be  enforced  against  his  property; 
but  if  at  the  expiration  of  that  time  he  has  not 
thus  obtained  his  discharge,  debts  provable 
under  the  bankruptcy  stand  as  judgment  debts 
against  him,  but  without  interest. — In  the 
United  States,  power  is  conferred  upon  con- 
gress by  the  constitution  to  establish  a  uniform 
system  of  bankruptcy.  When  this  power  is 
exercised,  it  supersedes  the  state  insolvent 
laws,  which  are  in  their  nature  similar  to  the 
bankrupt  acts.  It  was  first  exercised  by  act 
of  April  4,  1800,  repealed  Dec.  19,  1803 ;  again 
by  act  of  Aug.  19,  1841,  repealed  in  1843; 
again  by  act  of  March  2,  1867,  now  in  force. 
This  act  embraces  in  its  provisions  any  person 
residing  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States  owing  debts  to  the  amount  of  more  than 
$300  provable  under  it.  It  contains  what  are 
called  voluntary  provisions,  under  which  an 
insolvent  debtor  may  himself  bo  the  petitioner 
for  his  discharge,  and  involuntary  provisions, 
under  which  the  creditors  become  petitioners 
when  they  believe  an  act  of  bankruptcy  has 


been  committed.  No  debt  created  by  the 
fraud  or  embezzlement  of  the  bankrupt,  or  by 
his  defalcation  as  a  public  officer,  or  while  act- 
ing in  any  fiduciary  capacity,  is  barred  by  a 
certificate  of  discharge  issued  under  the  act. 
Original  jurisdiction  of  the  proceedings  is  pos- 
sessed by  the  United  States  district  courts,  but 
registers  in  bankruptcy  are  appointed,  by  whom 
the  major  part  of  the  business  is  transacted. 
Contested  issues  are  adjourned  by  the  registers 
for  hearing  in  court,  and  the  debtor  who  dis- 
putes the  allegations  of  the  creditors  against 
him  may  demand  trial  by  jury.  The  acts  of 
bankruptcy  enumerated  are  as  follows:  1,  de- 
parting from  the  state,  territory,  or  district  of 
which  the  person  is  an  inhabitant,  with  intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors;  2,  remaining  absent 
with  the  like  intent ;  3,  concealing  himself  to 
avoid  the  service  of  legal  process  for  the  recov- 
ery of  any  debt  provable  under  the  act ;  4,  con- 
cealing or  removing  property  to  avoid  legal 
process ;  5,  making  an  assignment,  gift,  sale, 
conveyance,  or  transfer  of  his  estate,  property, 
rights,  or  credits,  witli  intent  to  delay,  hinder, 
or  defraud  creditors ;  6,  being  under  arrest  for 
a  period  of  seven  days  on  an  execution  upon  a 
debt  provable  under  the  act,  for  more  than 
$100;  7,  being  actually  imprisoned  for  more 
than  seven  days  in  a  civil  suit  founded  on  con- 
tract, for  $100  or  upward;  8,  making  any  pay- 
ment, gift,  grant,  sale,  conveyance,  or  transfer 
of  money  or  other  property,  estate,  rights,  or 
credits,  or  giving  any  warrant  to  confess  judg- 
ment, or  procuring  or  suffering  his  property  to 
be  taken  on  legal  process  while  bankrupt  or 
insolvent,  or  in  contemplation  of  bankruptcy  or 
insolvency,  with  intent  to  give  a  preference  to 
one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  or  to  persons 
liable  for  him  as  sureties  or  otherwise,  or  with 
intent  by  such  disposition  of  his  property  to 
defeat  or  delay  the  operation  of  the  act ;  9,  a 
banker,  broker,  merchant,  trader,  manufac- 
turer, or  miner,  fraudulently  stopping  payment, 
or  having  stopped  or  suspended,  and  not  re- 
sumed payment  of  his  commercial  paper  within 
14  days.  In  the  distribution  of  the  bankrupt's 
estate  the  following  demands  are  preferred: 
1,  the  cost  of  the  proceedings ;  2,  all  demands 
owing  to  the  United  States;  3,  all  demands 
owing  to  the  state  in  which  the  proceedings 
are  had ;  4,  wages  due  to  any  operative,  clerk, 
or  house  servant,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
$50  for  labor  performed  within  six  months 
next  preceding  the  first  publication  of  the  no- 
tice of  proceedings  in  bankruptcy ;  5,  all  other 
debts  which  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
are  or  may.  be  entitled  to  priority,  in  like  man- 
ner as  if  the  act  had  not  been  passed.  Other 
demands  are  paid  ratably,  except  that  specific 
liens  are  not  disturbed  or  devested,  unless 
where  created  in  contemplation  of  bankruptcy 
or  in  fraud  of  the  law.  There  are  saved  to  the 
bankrupt  his  necessary  household  furniture  and 
other  articles  designated  by  the  assignee,  not 
exceeding  in  value  $500 ;  the  wearing  apparel 
of  himself  and  family ;  the  uniform,  arms,  and 


BANKS 


285 


equipments  of  any  one  who  is  or  has  been  a 
soldier  in  the  militia  or  army ;  and  any  other 
property  that  is  or  may  be  exempt  from  levy 
and  sale  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  or  by 
those  of  the  state  in  force  in  1867.  With  the 
exception  of  the  exempt  property,  the  assign- 
ment under  the  act  carries  to  the  assignee  all 
the  estate  of  the  bankrupt,  and  dissolves  all 
attachments  of  any  of  the  property  made  on 
mesne  process  within  four  months  previous  to 
the  commencement  of  the  proceedings.  A  dis- 
charge is  granted  to  the  bankrupt  as  a  matter 
of  course  unless  he  has  been  guilty  of  some  act 
forbidden  by  the  statute,  or  of  some  fraud  upon 
creditors,  or  lost  property  by  gaming,  or  suffered 
voluntary  loss  or  destruction  to  his  estate ;  but 
in  cases  commenced  a  year  after  the  act  went 
into  operation,  no  discharge  is  granted  unless 
the  assets  pay  50  per  cent,  of  the  debts,  or  a 
majority  in  number  and  value  of  the  creditors 
assent ;  and  in  cases  of  second  bankruptcy  no 
discharge  is  granted  unless  the  assets  pay  70 
per  cent.,  or  unless  three  fourths  in  value  of  the 
creditors  assent,  or  unless  the  debts  owing  at 
the  time  of  the  previous  bankruptcy  have  been 
paid  or  released.  For  the  following  acts  the 
bankrupt  is  punishable,  criminally :  Secreting  or 
concealing  property  belonging  to  his  estate; 
concealing,  destroying,  altering,  &c.,  books, 
papers,  &c.,  with  fraudulent  intent;  making 
gifts,  payments,  &c.,  with  the  like  intent; 
spending  any  part  of  his  estate  in  gaming; 
fraudulent  omission  of  property  from  the  sche- 
dule ;  failing  to  disclose  knowledge  of  fraudu- 
lent claims  against  the  estate ;  attempting  to 
account  for  any  of  his  property  by  fictitious 
losses  or  expenses ;  obtaining  fraudulent  credit 
within  three  months  before  commencement 
of  the  proceedings,  and  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud creditors ;  making  disposition  of  property 
bought  on  credit  and  not  paid  for,  otherwise 
than  by  bona  fide  transactions  in  the  ordinary 
•way  of  his  trade,  within  three  months  before 
the  commencement  of  proceedings.  The  maxi- 
mum punishment  that  may  be  inflicted  is  three 
months'  imprisonment  with  or  without  hard 
labor. — In  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  bankruptcy 
laws  are  in  their  effect  substantially  the  same 
as  in  England.  In  France,  the  tribunal  of 
commerce  proceeds  summarily  to  sequester  the 
estate  of  a  bankrupt  merchant,  and  apply  the 
same  in  payment  of  his  debts.  From  the  day 
of  failure  the  bankrupt  is  divested  of  all  title  to 
or  control  over  his  property;  his  counting- 
house  is  closed,  and  his  effects  put  under  seal ; 
a  member  of  the  court  is  appointed  a  commis- 
sioner to  take  charge  of  the  effects,  with  the 
aid  of  certain  agents,  who  have  surveillance  of 
the  same  until  the  creditors  are  convened  for 
the  nomination  of  syndics  (trustees) ;  and  the 
debtor  himself  in  the  mean  time  may  be  impris- 
oned or  compelled  to  give  security  to  undergo 
examination  in  respect  to  his  property.  The 
family  of  the  bankrupt  are  entitled  to  retain 
their  apparel  and  household  furniture ;  the 
wife  also  retains  any  interest  belonging  to  her 


by  a  marriage  stipulation,  or  which  she  has 
herself  acquired  by  the  use  of  her  own  separate 
estate.  The  proceeds  of  the  bankrupt's  estate 
are  distributed  by  the  syndics  to  the  creditors ; 
the  bankrupt  is  subject  to  imprisonment,  or 
to  be  condemned  to  forced  labor,  in  case  of 
fraudulent  bankruptcy  or  of  insolvency  clearly 
traceable  to  imprudence  or  extravagance. — 
There  are  similar  proceedings  in  all  the  com- 
mercial countries  of  Europe,  some  more  and 
some  less  severe,  but  all  of  them  being  founded 
upon  the  presumption  of  fraud  having  been 
committed  by  the  bankrupt,  from  which  he  is 
to  purge  himself  upon  a  strict  investigation  of 
his  affairs.  In  Holland  he  is  discharged  from 
all  further  liability  for  his  debts  upon  getting 
a  certificate  from  one  half  of  his  creditors,  to 
whom  is  due  five  eighths  of  his  debts. 

BANKS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  watered 
by  Broad  river  and  its  affluents ;  area,  250  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,973,  of  whom  921  were 
colored.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
11,314  bushels  of  wheat,  114,167  of  Indian 
corn,  11,069  of  oats,  12,263  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  398  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Homer. 

BANKS,  .Inliii.  an  English  dramatist  of  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries;  the  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  are  unknown.  He  was  a  London  at- 
torney, and  left  his  profession  to  write  for  the 
stage.  He  published  seven  tragedies  between 
1677  and  1696.  Of  these,  "The  Unhappy  Fa- 
vorite," founded  on  the  fate  of  the  earl  of 
Essex  (beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth), 
was  a  stock  play  for  a  long  time,  and  was 
freely  used  by  later  playwrights.  His  dramas 
were  popular,  but  their  literary  merit  is  small. 

BANKS,  Sir  Joseph,  an  English  naturalist  and 
traveller,  born  in  London,  Jan.  4,  1743,  died 
June  19,  1820.  At  Eton  school  he  first  showed 
a  taste  for  botany,  which  he  cultivated  after- 
ward with  enthusiasm  at  Oxford.  In  1764,  at 
the  age  of  21,  he  came  into  his  paternal  prop- 
erty, which  was  considerable.  Two  years 
later  he  became  fellow  of  the  royal  society, 
after  which  he  made  a  voyage  to  Newfound- 
land and  Labrador,  with  Lieut.  Phipps  of  the 
royal  navy,  to  collect  plants.  On  his  return 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Dr.  Solander,  a 
Swede,  the  pupil  of  Linneeus.  The  four  years 
following  Mr.  Banks  devoted  to  the  study  of 
botany  and  natural  history,  and  through  the 
interest  of  the  earl  of  Sandwich,  who  was  then 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  was  appointed  with 
Dr.  Solander  naturalist  to  the  expedition  under 
the  command  of  Capt.  Cook,  which  sailed  from 
England  in  August,  1768,  to  visit  Tahiti  for 
the  purpose  of  observing  the  transit  of  Venus. 
In  this  voyage,  which  lasted  three  years,  he 
visited  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Tahiti,  New  Zealand, 
and  New  South  Wales.  In  1772  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Iceland  with  Dr.  Solander,  visiting 
the  Hebrides  on  his  return,  and  discovering 
the  columnar  formation  of  the  rocks  surround- 
ing the  caves  of  Staffa.  On  the  retirement  of 
Sir  John  Pringle  from  the  presidency  of  the 
royal  society  in  1777,  Mr.  Banks  was  chosen 


286 


BANKS 


BANKSIA 


to  that  office,  which  he  held  for  42  years.  In 
1781  he  was  created  a  baronet.  Soon  after,  on 
the  sudden  death  of  Dr.  Solander,  he  abandoned 
his  purpose  of  publishing  the  results  of  his  ob- 
servations and  discoveries  in  botany.  In  1795 
he  received  the  order  of  the  Bath,  in  1797  was 
made  a  privy  councillor,  and  in  1802  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  national  institute  of 
France.  With  the  exception  of  brief  memoirs 
or  occasional  communications  to  the  trans- 
actions of  societies,  he  published  no  account 
of  his  large  collections  on  natural  history,  or 
of  the  results  of  his  studies  and  observations. 
A  small  work  on  "Blight,  Mildew,  or  Rust  in 
Corn,"  and  another  on  "Merino  Sheep,"  are 
his  only  published  books.  He  dispensed  his 
large  fortune  with  liberality,  aiding  in  most  of 
the  scientific  enterprises  of  his  time,  and  re- 
lieving the  necessities  of  scholars  and  travel- 
lers. The  African  association  and  the  Botany 
Bay  colony  owed  their  origin  to  him.  His  im- 
mense library  and  scientific  collections  were 
bequeathed  to  the  British  museum. 

BANKS,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  an  American  states- 
man and  general,  born  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan. 
30,  1816.  While  a  boy  he  worked  in  a  cot- 
ton factory  in  his  native  village,  of  which  his 
father  was  overseer,  and  afterward  learned 
the  machinist's  trade.  He  devoted  his  leisure 
hours  to  study,  and  at  an  early  age  lectured 
before  political  meetings,  lyceums,  and  tem- 
perance societies ;  he  afterward  became  editor 
of  the  village  paper  of  Waltham,  and  received 
an  oifice  under  the  Polk  administration  in  the 
Boston  custom  house.  About  this  time  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1849  was  elected 
to  the  house  of  representatives  of  Massachu- 
setts. In  1851  he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
house  as  one  of  the  prominent  advocates  of  the 
"coalition"  between  the  democrats  and  the 
freesoilers,  by  which  the  ancient  rule  of  the 
whigs  was  overthrown  in  Massachusetts.  He 
was  again  elected  the  following  year  by  the 
same  combination,  also  representative  to  the 
ensuing  congress.  In  the  summer  of  1853  he 
was  president  of  the  convention  called  to  re- 
vise the  constitution  of  the  state.  During  his 
first  term  in  congress  he  withdrew  from  the 
democratic  party,  and  in  1854  was  reelected 
with  the  support  of  both  the  "  know-nothing  " 
or  American  and  republican  parties,  and  in 
December,  1855,  was  adopted  as  the  candidate 
of  the  latter  for  speaker.  After  a  contest  of 
more  than  two  months,  he  was  elected  on  the 
133d  ballot  by  a  small  plurality.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  next  congress,  and  was  nomi- 
nated in  separate  conventions  of  the  American 
and  republican  parties  for  the  office  of  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  to  which  he  was  elect- 
ed in  November,  1857,  and  reelected  in  1858 
and  1859.  In  1860  he  succeeded  Capt.  G.  B. 
McClellan  as  president  of  the  Illinois  Central 
railroad ;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war,  in  1861,  he  received  a  major  general's 
commission,  and  was  assigned  to  the  5th  corps 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  with  hia  command 


at  first  on  the  upper  Potomac,  and  afterwaroi 
in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah.  A  portion  of 
his  troops  fought  with  success  at  Winchester, 
March  23,  1862.  On  May  24  he  was  attacked 
by  the  confederate  Gen.  T.  J.  Jackson  at  Stras- 
burg,  and  forced  to  retreat  rapidly  to  the  Po- 
tomac. As  commander  of  a  corps  under  Gen. 
Pope  he  fought  the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain, 
Aug.  9 ;  and  after  participating  in  Gen.  Sigel's 
movements  in  the  valley  of  Virginia,  in  Sep- 
tember he  was  put  in  command  of  the  city  of 
Washington.  In  December  he  succeeded  Gen. 
Butler  as  commander  of  the  department  of  the 
gulf,  with  his  headquarters  at  New  Orleans. 
In  April,  1863,  he  captured  Opelousas,  and  in 
July  took  Port  Hudson,  completing  the  opening 
of  the  Mississippi  river.  In  the  spring  of  1864 
he  made  an  unsuccessful  expedition  up  the  Red 
river,  and  in  May  of  that  year  was  relieved  of 
his  command.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in 
his  old  district  in  November,  1864,  and  was 
reelected  in  1866,  1868,  and  1870,  serving  as 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations. 
In  the  canvass  of  1872  he  took  an  active  part 
in  favor  of  the  election  of  Horace  Greeley  as 
president  of  the  United  States. 

BANKS,  Thomas,  an  English  sculptor,  horn  at 
Lambeth,  Dec.  22, 1735,  died  in  London,  Feb.  2, 
1805.  His  father  gave  him  a  good  education, 
and  then  placed  him  under  the  instruction 
of  Kent,  the  architect.  In  1770  he  won  the 
gold  medal  of  the  royal  academy.  His  group 
of  "Mercury,  Argos,  and  lo"  fairly  established 
his  reputation.  In  1772  he  went  to  Rome  as 
the  academy's  foreign  student,  and  spent  three 
years  there  studying  the  antique  models  and 
exercising  his  own  talents.  He  produced  sev- 
eral groups,  among  them  "Caractacus  plead- 
ing before  Claudius,"  and  "Psyche  and  the 
Butterfly."  The  latter  was  purchased  by  the 
empress  Catharine  II.,  who  invited  him  to  visit 
St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was  cordially  received 
and  commissioned  to  execute  a  group  called 
"Armed  Neutrality."  His  masterpiece,  the 
"  Mourning  Achilles,"  was  placed  in  the  Brit- 
ish institution.  Elected  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy, he  presented  to  that  institution  a  fine  fig- 
ure of  a  fallen  Titan.  His  most  popular  work 
was  a  monument  representing  the  infant  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Brooke  Boothby. 

BANKSIA,  a  name  given  to  several  distinct 
genera  of  plants  in  honor  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
The  one  to  which  the  name  properly  applies 
belongs  to  the  family  of  proteacea,  and  was 
named  by  Linnasus  in  honor  of  its  discoverer, 
who  accompanied  Capt.  Cook  in  his  second 
voyage.  The  genus  comprises  several  species, 
nearly  all  natives  of  Australia  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands,  where  their  beautiful  forms  and 
foliage  are  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  landscape. 
The  colonists  consider  their  presence  a  mark 
of  bad  land.  The  leaves  are  hard,  often  broad, 
and  closely  cover  the  branches ;  the  flower  and 
fruit  are  in  compact  blunt  cones,  usually 
downy  or  woolly,  and  the  flowers  project  so  as 
to  form  a  spike.  As  ornamental  shrubs  the 


BANNACKS 


BANNOCKBURN 


287 


banksias  have  been  much  cultivated,  and  they 
will  bear  the  climate  of  the  southern  states 
or  of  England  with  slight  protection.  All  are 
easily  propagated  from  seeds.  The  banksia  of 


Banksia  apeclosa. 

Forster  is  to  be  referred  to  the  genus  pimelea; 
that  of  Konig  to  ca»tus,  a  genus  of  the  ginger 
family ;  and  that  of  Bruce  to  lirayera,  a  genus 
of  rosacea.  The  last,  under  the  name  of  cusso, 
was  found  by  the  distinguished  African  trav- 
eller in  the  high  country  of  Abyssinia,  where  a 
decoction  of  its  leaves  was  used  commonly  as 
an  anthelmintic. 

HAYYN  KS.  lionnarks,  or  Pannaqnes,  a  tribe  of 
Indians  of  the  Shoshonee  family  scattered  over 
several  of  the  territories  and  states  of  the  Union. 
They  were  first  found  in  the  almost  desert  lands 
between  the  Saptin  river  and  Salt  lake,  and  be- 
tween the  Blue  and  Rocky  mountains.  At  an 
early  period  they  obtained  horses  and  resorted 
to  the  bison  plains  and  more  fertile  spots,  and 
thus  became  a  more  closely  connected  tribe  than 
Indians  on  foot.  They  are  proud,  brave,  fine- 
looking  men,  though  their  women  are  repre- 
sented as  ugly.  Those  with  the  eastern  Sho- 
shonees,  long  under  a  friendly  chief,  Tahjee, 
have  always  been  friendly  to  the  whites.  With 
the  others  there  were  for  a  time  hostilities  in 
1866.  They  frequent  the  Yellowstone  country 
to  hunt,  and  range  through  northern  Utah,  Wy- 
oming, southern  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Idaho. 
The  two  chief  bands  number  apparently  about 
600  each,  though  in  the  ordinary  returns  some 
appear  to  be  enumerated  over  again  in  different 
agencies.  Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  the 
Shoshonee,  but  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  the  Shoshonees  proper.  They  have  recently 
been  placed  on  reservations  where  there  is  but 
little  fish  or  game,  and  where  they  have  been 
exposed  to  attacks  from  the  Dakotas. 

BANKEKER,  Benjamin,  a  negro  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  born  at  Ellicott's  Mills,  Md., 
Nov.  9,  1731,  died  in  October,  1806.  His  ma- 
ternal grandmother  was  a  white  woman,  who 
71  VOL.  H. — 19 


liberated  and  married  one  of  her  slaves,  and 
from  her  he  learned  to  read  and  write.  After 
his  50th  year  he  commenced  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  from  1792  till 
his  death  published  almanacs  prepared  from 
his  own  calculations.  Thomas  Jefferson  trans- 
mitted the  first  one  in  manuscript  to  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Paris  academy  of  sciences,  and  sent 
a  complimentary  letter  to  the  author.  Ban- 
neker  assisted  in  running  the  boundary  lines 
of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  laying  out 
the  city  of  Washington.  A  book  of  his  city 
calculations  is  preserved  in  the  Maryland  his- 
torical society  at  Baltimore,  which  association 
has  published  two  sketches  of  his  life. 

BAMERET,  a  feudal  title  of  military  dignity, 
now  extinct,  ranking  between  the  baron  and 
the  knight.  The  banneret  was  the  lowest  of 
the  feudal  dignitaries.  He  displayed  a  square 
banner  on  his  lance,  instead  of  the  swallow- 
tailed  pennon  of  the  simple  knight,  and  com- 
manded a  body  of  his  own  vassals,  who  should 
number  at  least  50.  The  title  was  usually  con- 
ferred on  the  field  by  the  king  in  person,  as  a 
reward  for  gallantry,  and  the  ceremony  con- 
sisted in  cutting  off  the  tails  of  the  candidate's 
pennon.  The  title  of  knight  banneret,  a  degree 
higher  than  the  bachelor,  appears  in  the  time 
of  Philip  Augustus,  and  lasted  until  the  crea- 
tion of  companies  of  ordnance  by  Charles  VII. 
The  first  banneret  in  England,  according  to 
Froissart,  was  created  by  Edward  I.  After 
the  institution  of  baronets  by  James  I.  the  or- 
der dwindled  away,  and  the  last  creation  in 
England  is  generally  accounted  to  have  been 
by  Charles  I.,  who  made  Capt.  John  Smith  a 
banneret  for  rescuing  the  royal  banner  at 
Edgehill ;  though  George  III.  attempted  to  re- 
vive the  dignity  in  1797,  when  he  conferred  it 
upon  Capt.  Sir  Henry  Trollope,  in  whose  ship 
he  reviewed  the  fleet  at  the  Nore. 

I'.mocklilKV  a  village  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  about  3  m.  S.  E.  of  Stirling  castle ; 
pop.  about  2,700.  The  large  brook  (burn)  which 
flows  through  the  town  and  gives  it  its  name 
falls  into  the  frith  of  Forth,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  named  from  the  oaten  cakes  (bannocks) 
so  common  in  that  region.  The  town  is  the 
seat  of  woollen  manufactures,  and  has  long 
supplied  the  tartans  worn  by  the  Highland  re- 
giments of  the  British  army.  A  battle  was 
fought  here,  June  24,  1314,  between  the  Scots 
under  Robert  Bruce  and  the  English  under  Ed- 
ward II.  Edward,  with  nearly  100,000  men, 
including  the  flower  of  the  English  nobility, 
was  met  at  Bannockburn  by  Bruce  with  about 
30,000  men,  and  after  a  fierce  contest  was 
routed  with  a  loss  of  30,000.  By  this  battle 
the  independence  of  Scotland  was  secured,  and 
Bruce  was  firmly  seated  upon  the  throne.  Near 
the  same  place,  at  Sauchieburn,  James  III.  was 
defeated  by  his  rebellious  subjects  in  1488,  and 
was  assassinated  in  a  mill  near  by,  where  he 
had  taken  refuge.  The  "bore  stone"  is  still 
pointed  out  as  the  spot  on  which  Bruce  fixed 
his  standard  on  the  day  of  the  battle. 


288 


BANNS  OF  MATRIMONY 


BANTING 


BANNS  OF  MATRIMONY,  a  public  proclama- 
tion of  the  intention  of  the  parties  named  to 
enter  into  the  state  of  matrimony,  being  a 
notice  to  any  one  to  make  objection  if  he  knows 
of  any  reason  why  the  marriage  should  not 
take  place.  The  term  seems  to  be  derived  from 
the  Teutonic  Jan,  an  interdict,  whence  to  put 
under  ban  in  the  German  empire  was  to  ex- 
communicate or  declare  outlawry.  The  custom 
is  traced  to  the  early  Christians,  who  inter- 
wove it  into  their  ecclesiastical  polity.  Its 
introduction  into  France  dates  from  the  5th 
century,  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe  it,  was 
probably  adopted  about  the  same  time,  or  was 
coeval  with  the  establishment  of  Christianity, 
as  the  laws  regulating  it  are  everywhere  very 
similar.  In  the  French  and  English  churches 
they  were  identical,  and  required  the  procla- 
mation to  be  made  on  three  successive  Sundays 
in  church,  during  the  celebration  of  public 
worship.  The  object  of  publication  was  to 
prevent  clandestine  marriages,  or  those  which 
for  various  reasons  are  unlawful,  as  also  the 
effect  of  precipitancy.  In  England  the  banns 
of  a  marriage  to  be  celebrated  according  to  the 
forms  of  the  established  church  are  required 
to  be  published  three  weeks  previous  to  the 
marriage,  a  modification  of  the  old  custom  of 
oral  proclamation;  but  the  parties  may  dis- 
pense with  this  by  procuring  a  license  from  a 
person  authorized  to  grant  it.  In  Scotland 
three  weeks'  publication  is  necessary  to  a 
regular,  as  distinguished  from  a  clandestine 
marriage ;  and  also  in  France,  by  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Code  Napoleon.  In  the  United 
States  the  tendency  of  legislation  has  been  to- 
ward the  repeal  of  all  statutes  requiring  pub- 
lication. In  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  of 
this  country,  however,  it  is  the  rule  to  publish 
the  banns  on  two  Sundays  previous  to  the 
wedding,  when  both  the  parties  to  the  mar- 
riage are  Catholics. 

BANQUO,  a  Scottish  thane  and  warrior  of  the 
llth  century,  celebrated  as  the  progenitor  of 
the  royal  house  of  Stuart,  through  his  grandson 
"Walter,  first  lord  high  steward  of  Scotland. 
He  was  assassinated  by  Macbeth  in  1066,  after 
having  joined  him  in  his  conspiracy  against 
King  Duncan;  but  Shakespeare,  instead  of 
making  him  Macbeth's  accomplice,  represents 
him  simply  as  his  victim. 

BANSHEE,  or  Benshee,  in  popular  superstition, 
an  invisible  being,  supposed  to  announce  by 
mournful  presence  and  voice  the  approaching 
death  of  some  members  of  certain  ancient  houses 
in  Ireland  and  Scotland.  It  was  said  that, 
on  the  decease  of  a  hero,  the  harps  of  his  bards 
voluntarily  emitted  mournful  sounds.  In  later 
times  it  was  popularly  supposed  that  each  fam- 
ily had  its  banshee,  which  gave  warning  of  mis- 
fortune or  haunted  the  scenes  of  past  troubles. 

BANTAJI.  !.  A  Dutch  province  forming  the 
•western  end  of  the  island  cf  Java,  separated 
from  Sumatra  by  the  strait  of  Sunda;  area, 
3,081  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1857,  577,107.  The  coasts 
are  level,  but  the  interior  districts  mountainous, 


and  there  are  two  active  volcanoes,  one  of 
which,  Karang,  is  6,069  feet  high.  The  chief 
productions  are  coft'ee,  rice,  sugar,  indigo,  tea, 
cinnamon,  and  bay  salt.  All  of  these,  except 
rice  and  salt,  are  exotics.  Pepper,  which  first 
attracted  European  adventurers,  and  made  this 
country  one  of  the  most  noted  commercial 
points  during  the  17th  century,  is  no  longer 
cultivated.  The  wild  animals  include  tigers, 
rhinoceroses,  apes,  and  pigs.  Cattle,  buffaloes, 
and  goats  are  extensively  reared,  and  there  are 
considerable  fisheries  on  the  coasts.  The  mass 
of  the  population  of  Bantam  are  of  the  Sunda 
nation,  and  speak  its  peculiar  language ;  but  on 
the  coast  they  are  mixed  with  Malays,  Java- 
nese, and  others  who  speak  Malay.  Bantam 
was  an  independent  state  under  a  sultan  prior 
to  the  Dutch  dominion.  It  was  first  visited  by 
the  Portuguese,  under  Henrique  Leme,  in  1511. 
The  Dutch,  under  the  two  brothers  Houtman, 
came  in  1596;  and  one  of  the  brothers  was 
captured  and  held  prisoner  for  some  time  by 
the  sultan.  The  English  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance here  in  1602,  and  were  engaged  in 
almost  constant  hostilities  with  their  European 
rivals,  but  the  English  and  Portuguese  were 
finally  driven  out  by  the  Dutch.  For  a  long 
time  the  district  was  held  as  a  sort  of  depen- 
dency by  the  Dutch  East  India  company  until 
1843,  when  the  last  of  its  rajahs  was  banished 
to  Surabaya,  at  the  further  end  of  Java,  and 
the  country  made  a  province.  There  are  41 
small  islands  and  islets,  chiefly  in  the  strait  of 
Sunda,  which  belong  to  the  government  of  this 
province.  II.  A  town,  formerly  capital  of  the 
above  described  province,  situated  at  the  head 
of  a  bay  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  15  m. 
from  the  strait  of  Sunda  and  61  m.  W.  of  Ba- 
tavia ;  lat.  6°  2'  S.,  Ion.  106°  9'  E.  Before  the 
arrival  of  Europeans  it  was  a  prosperous  city 
with  a  rich  trade  in  pepper.  The  Portuguese, 
English,  and  Dutch  each  had  a  factory  here. 
The  capital,  however,  was  in  1816  removed  to 
Sirang,  some  miles  inland.  The  trade  has  gone 
to  Batavia,  the  harbor  has  been  obstructed  by 
the  increase  of  coral  reefs  and  deposits  from 
the  rivers,  and  since  the  destruction  of  most 
of  the  houses  by  fire  in  1817  the  town  has  not 
been  rebuilt. 

BANTING,  William,  a  London  merchant,  bora 
in  1797,  died  in  1871.  Owing  to  the  wide  cir- 
culation of  his  "Letter  on  Corpulence,"  pub- 
lished at  first  in  1868  in  the  newspapers,  and 
subsequently  in  a  pamphlet  (Gth  ed.,  London, 
1868  ;  German  translation,  10th  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1867),  his  name  has  been  popularly  associ- 
ated with  a  dietetic  method  of  curing  corpu- 
lence. His  prescriptions,  however,  are  almost 
identical  with  those  of  Brillat-Savarin  in  his 
Phygioloyie  du  gotit  (1825).  By  the  applica- 
tion of  the  method  which  he  describes,  under 
the  guidance  of  William  Harvey,  a  London 
surgeon,  his  weight  was  reduced  from  202 
pounds  on  Aug.  26,  1862,  to  156  on  Sept.  12, 
1863,  and  to  150  in  April,  1864,  which  latter 
weight  he  regarded  as  appropriate  to  his  age 


BANTRY  BAY 


BAOBAB 


289 


and  stature,  5  feet  5  inches.     He  considers  the 

diet  as  the  principal  point  in  the  treatment  of 

corpulence,  though  the  quantity  of  food  may 

be  safely  left  to  the   natural  appetite.     The 

Banting  method  consists  in  the  use  of  a  large 

proportion   of  nitrogenous  food,    and  in   the 

rejection   of   all    substances  which    have   an 

excess  of  carbon.     His  main  principle  conse- 

quently is  abstinence  from  all  farinaceous,  sac- 

charine, or  oily  matter,  which  is  converted  into 

fat  in  the  human  system.     He  especially  pro- 

scribes the  use  of  bread,  pastry,  potatoes,  but- 

ter, milk,  beer,  port  wine,  champagne,  pork, 

herrings,  eels,  salmon,  and  the  like  ;  and  rec- 

ommends lean  meat,  poultry,  game,  fruit,  dry 

toast,  good  claret,  dry  sher- 

ry, madeira,  and  green  vege- 

tables, permitting  the  moder- 

ate use  of  soft-boiled  eggs  and 

of  cheese.     In  his  dietary  he 

first  allowed  the  use  of  all 

vegetables  excepting  the  po- 

tato,  but  afterward  rejected 

parsnips,  beets,  turnips,  and 

carrots.     He   had  for   many 

years  tried  bodily  exercise,  sea 

air,  and  bathing,  and  various 

other   expedients  and  reme- 

dies ;  but  only  after  the  adop- 

tion of  his  dietetic  system  was 

he    relieved  from  all   symp- 

toms of  acidity,  indigestion, 

and  heartburn,   and  difficul- 

ties of  locomotion,  and  ena- 

bled  to   dispense  with   knee 

bandages,  which  he  had  worn 

during  20  years.     He  rested 

well,  with  from  six  to  eight 

hours'  sound  sleep.     He  spent 

much  money  for  the  diffusion 

of  his  views,  and  is  said  to 

have  left  a  legacy  for  the  en- 

dowment of  an  institution  for 

the  cure  of  corpulence. 

BA.VTRY  BAY,  an  inlet  of 
the  Atlantic  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  Ireland,  county  Cork, 
about  24  in.  long  from  8.  W. 
to  N.  E.  and  from  3  to  5  m. 
wide.  Near  the  entrance, 
on  the  N.  W.  shore,  is  a  har- 
bor deep  enough  for  the  larg- 
est ships,  called  Bear  Ha- 
ven, sheltered  by  Bear  island. 
of  the  bay,  on 


around  the  bay  is  very  picturesque.  Near  the 
N.  shore,  about  6  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Bear  Haven, 
is  the  cataract  of  Hungry  Hill,  which  pours 
down  in  a  series  of  cascades  the  waters  of  three 
small  lakes  from  an  elevation  respectively  of 
1,011,  1,126,  and  1,360  feet. 

BANZ,  probably  the  finest  and  richest  abbey 
of  the  Benedictines  known  in  history,  situated 
in  the  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  Bavaria,  3  m. 
from  Lichtenfels,  on  the  Main.  It  was  founded 
about  the  middle  of  the  llth  century,  and  the 
monks  became  celebrated  for  their  scientific 
attainments,  their  collections  in  natural  history, 
and  their  library.  It  was  destroyed  during  the 
peasants'  war  in  the  16th  century,  but  was  soon 


Near  the  head 
the  opposite  shore,  is  the 
town  of  Bantry,  44  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Cork, 
with  a  roadstead  protected  by  Whiddy  island, 
which  has  three  circular  redoubts;  pop.  about 
3,000.  The  town  has  an  export  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce.  In  Bantry  bay,  in  1689,  the 
French  fleet  which  brought  James  II.  to  Ire- 
land was  victorious  in  an  engagement  with  an 
English  fleet  under  Admiral  Herbert.  It  was 
also  the  place  determined  on  as  a  rendezvous 
for  the  naval  forces  with  which  the  French  de- 
signed to  invade  England  in  1796.  The  scenery 


Baobab  Tree. 

after  rebuilt.  During  the  30  years'  war  it  was 
again  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  and  its  library  and 
museums  became  more  extensive  and  valuable 
than  ever.  The  monastery  was  broken  up  in 
1802,  and  the  library  and  cabinets  were  dis- 
persed among  several  institutions  of  Germany. 
The  building  was  sold  to  the  elector  (afterward 
king)  of  Bavaria,  and  is  now  a  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  royal  family. 

BAOBAB  (Adansonia  digitate),  a  tree  of  enor- 
mous size,  of  the  natural  order  bombacea,  found 
in  Africa,  and  especially  in  Senegal,  though  it 
has  been  met  with  on  the  banks  of  the  White 


290 


BAPAUME 


BAPTISM 


Nile  in  the  vicinity  of  the  southern  tropic.  It 
was  first  discovered  in  1748  by  Adanson,  in  his 
voyage  to  Senegal,  and  it  has  been  raised  in 
England  from  seeds.  It  was  carried  to  India 
many  centuries  ago,  and  one  of  great  size  is  at 
Alipore  near  Calcutta.  The  trunk  is  from  15 
to  60  ft.  high  and  from  70  to  75  ft.  in  circum- 
ference. Its  lower  branches  grow  horizontally, 
frequently  to  the  length  of  60  ft.,  and  hang  to 
the  ground,  concealing  the  trunk.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  abundant,  of  a  dark  green  color, 
and  divided  into  five  radiating  lanceolate  leaf- 
lets ;  they  are  used  by  the  natives  as  an  anti- 
sudorific.  The  flivver  is  large,  white,  with 
stamens  gathered  in  a  tube  below,  but  spread- 
ing like  an  umbrella  above,  surmounted  by  a 
long,  slender,  and  recurved  style,  terminated 
by  a  rayed  stigma ;  petals  reflexed  and  calyx 
deciduous.  The  fruit  is  a  soft,  pulpy,  but  dry 
substance,  about  the  size  of  a  quart  bottle,  en- 
closed in  a  long  dull  green  woody  pod ;  the  pulp 
between  the  seeds  tastes  like  cream  of  tartar, 
is  used  by  the  natives  to  give  a  flavor  to  por- 
ridge, and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  antifebrile. 
The  baobab  is  also  called  monkey  bread,  sour 
gourd,  and  lalo  plant.  The  natives  make  a 
strong  cord  from  the  fibres  obtained  from  its 
pounded  bark.  To  this  end  they  often  wholly 
strip  the  trunk  of  its  bark,  which  is  replaced 
by  a  new  one.  No  external  injury,  not  even 
fire,  can  destroy  it  from  without,  nor  can  it  be 
injured  from  within,  as  it  is  quite  common  to 
find  it  hollow.  Even  cutting  down  does  not 
exterminate  it,  for  it  continues  to  grow  in 
length  while  lying  on  the  ground,  and  its  roots, 
which  reach  40  or  50  yards  from  the  trunk, 
retain  their  vitality.  Livingstone  judged  that 
one  of  the  baobab  trees  which  he  examined 
was  at  least  1,400  years  old.  It  is  subject  to 
a  very  remarkable  disease,  a  softening  of  its 
woody  structure,  until  it  falls  by  its  own 
weight  a  mass  of  ruins.  The  natives  use  the 
trunk  hollowed  out  as  a  place  of  deposit  for 
executed  criminals  whom  the  law  denies  the 
rights  of  burial.  In  this  position  the  bodies 
soon  wither  and  dry  up,  having  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  mummies. 

BAPAUME,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Pas-de-Calais,  situated  in  a  wide  plain, 
13  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Arras;  pop.  in  1866,  3,174. 
It  has  several  oil  and  soap  manufactories.  On 
Jan.  3,  1871,  after  some  fighting  on  the  pre- 
ceding day  in  the  vicinity,  a  battle  took  place 
at  Bapaume  between  the  French  army  of  the 
north  under  Faidherbe,  advancing  for  the 
relief  of  Paris,  and  a  portion  of  the  first 
Prussian  army  under  Von  Goeben.  The 
French  were  repulsed,  and  on  the  next  day 
fell  back  on  Arras  and  Douai.  The  particu- 
lars of  the  battle  became  the  subject  of  an 
animated  controversy  between  Faidherbe  and 
Von  Goeben. 

BAPHOMET,  or  Baflomet,  a  mysterious  symbol 
used  among  the  knights  templar.  The  word 
was  believed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Mahomet, 
to  whose  faith  the  templars  were  accused  of 


inclining.  According  to  more  recent  views, 
it  had  reference  to  Gnostic  mysteries,  and 
was  connected  with  the  Gnostic  baptism,  or 
baptism  of  fire.  Some  of  these  curious  sym- 
bols were  found  in  1818  in  the  imperial  mu- 
seum of  Vienna,  and  described  by  Von  Ham- 
mer. They  are  of  stone,  and  represent  a  fe- 
male figure  with  two  male  faces,  inscribed  with 
a  serpent,  a  truncated  cross,  or  Egyptian  key 
of  life  and  death,  tlie  sun  and  moon,  a  chess- 
board, a  candlestick  with  seven  branches,  and 
numerous  Arabic  inscriptions. 

BAPTISM  (Gr.  {Sdnna/ia,  from  /5an-Tif«i>,  fre- 
quentative of  fiaTTTeiv,  to  dip),  the  application 
of  water  as  the  sign  of  reception  of  a  per- 
son into  the  visible  Christian  church.  As  to 
the  mode,  it  is  admitted  by  all  orders  of  Chris- 
tians that  immersion  is  a  valid  form,  while  the 
Baptist  denomination,  with  its  various  branch- 
es, maintain  that  this  is  the  only  valid  form. 
The  Latin  church  favors  affusion  three  times 
applied,  in  the  names  of  the  three  persons  of 
the  Trinity ;  it  however  admits  of  either  immer- 
sion or  sprinkling.  The  original  rubric  of  the 
Greek  church  requires  a  trine  immersion,  but 
in  the  Russian  branch  sprinkling  is  held  equal- 
ly valid.  The  rubric  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land requires  that  an  infant  be  dipped  three 
times  in  water,  unless  the  health  of  the  child 
renders  it  unadvisable.  Protestant  denomina- 
tions, other  than  Baptists,  recognize  either 
mode ;  among  them  immersion  is  rare,  affusion 
not  uncommon,  but  sprinkling  more  usual.  In 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  the  rite  is  admin- 
istered at  a  very  early  age,  practically  as  soon 
as  the  physical  condition  of  the  recipient  will 
permit.  The  proper  time  is  generally  held  to 
be  from  a  week  to  a  month  after  birth ;  but 
when  there  is  supposed  to  be  danger  of  death, 
it  may  be  administered  at  once.  By  many 
Protestant  denominations  who  recognize  the 
baptism  of  children,  only  those  are  to  be  bap- 
tized one  or  both  of  whose  parents  are  mem- 
bers of  the  church.  Baptists  maintain  that 
the  rite  can  only  be  administered  upon  pro- 
fession of  faith  by  the  recipient,  and  therefore 
only  to  those  who  have  reached  a  sufficient 
age  to  make  such  profession  intelligently.  In 
the  case  of  infants,  the  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Anglican  churches  require  sponsors,  who  prom- 
ise in  the  name  of  the  child  obedience  to  the' 
divine  law.  In  the  Latin  church  sponsorship 
is  held  to  constitute  a  kind  of  affinity,  so  that 
sponsors  are  not  allowed  to  intermarry.  In  the 
Lutheran  church  the  parents  may  be  sponsors. 
In  the  dissenting  bodies  in  England,  and  in 
most  of  the  non-episcopal  churches  in  the 
United  States,  sponsors  are  usually  dispensed 
with.  The  Latin  church  recognizes  as  valid 
baptism  performed  by  any  person,  even  by  a 
midwife,  upon  anew-born  child;  but  except  in 
peril  of  death,  the  minister  should  be  a  clergy- 
man. Baptism  is  only  to  be  administered  once. 
Baptists  immerse  all  new  postulants.  The  Ro- 
man church  recognizes  all  baptisms  as  valid, 
but  administers  to  converts  what  is  sometimes 


BAPTISM 


BAPTISTERY 


291 


styled  "conditional  baptism,"  in  cases  where 
there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  fact  of  the  person 
having  been  before  baptized. — The  Latin  church 
holds  baptism  to  be  a  sacrament  by  which  all 
previous  offences,  including  the  taint  of  original 
sin,  are  washed  out,  so  that  the  person  bap- 
tized stands  free  from  all  sin,  whether  actual 
or  original,  up  to  the  time  of  baptism.  Many 
Protestant  denominations  maintain  that  it  is 
merely  a  ceremony  of  initiation  into  church 
membership.  Between  these  two  extremes  lies 
every  possible  shade  of  sentiment.  The  gen- 
eral idea  of  different  churches  respecting  the 
ordinance  of  baptism  may  be  best  expressed  in 
the  words  of  their  own  formularies.  The  idea 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  is  clear :  bap- 
tism is  a  washing  out  of  all  previous  sin ;  the 
person  baptized  commences  thenceforth  a  new 
life.  Article  xxvii.  of  the  Anglican  and  of  the 
American  Episcopal  church  reads:  "Baptism 
is  not  only  a  sign  of  profession  and  mark  of  dif- 
ference whereby  Christian  men  are  discerned 
from  others,  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regenera- 
tion, or  new  birth,  whereby,  as  an  instrument, 
they  that  receive  baptism  rightly  are  grafted 
into  the  church :  the  promises  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  sin,  and  of  our  adoption  to  be  the  sons 
of  God  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed 
and  sealed;  faith  is  confirmed,  and  grace  in- 
creased by  virtue  of  prayer  unto  God.  The 
baptism  of  young  children  is  in  any  wise  to  be 
retained  in  the  church  as  most  agreeable  with 
the  institution  of  Christ."  The  Augsburg  Con- 
fession says  that  baptism  is  "  a  necessary  ordi- 
nance, a  means  of  grace,  and  ought  to  be  ad- 
ministered also  to  children,  who  are  thereby 
dedicated  to  God  and  received  into  his  favor." 
The  Westminster  Confession  affirms  that  it  is 
"  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Testament,  ordained 
by  Jesus  Christ,  not  only  for  the  solemn  admis- 
sion of  the  party  baptized  into  the  visible 
church,  but  also  to  be  unto  him  a  sign  and  seal 
of  the  covenant  of  grace,  of  his  ingrafting  into 
Christ,  of  regeneration,  of  remission  of  sins, 
and  of  his  giving  up  unto  God,  through  Jesus 
Christ,  to  walk  in  newness  of  life ;  which  sac- 
rament is,  by  Christ's  own  appointment,  to  be 
continued  in  his  church  until  the  end  of  the 
world.  Not  only  those  that  do  actually  pro- 
fess faith  in  and  obedience  to  Christ,  but  also 
the  infants  of  one  or  both  believing  parents, 
are  to  be  baptized.  Although  it  be  a  great  sin 
to  contemn  or  neglect  this  ordinance,  yet  grace 
and  salvation  are  not  so  inseparably  annexed 
nnto  it  as  that  no  person  can  be  regenerated 
or  saved  without  it,  or  that  all  that  are  bap- 
tized are  undoubtedly  regenerated."  In  article 
xvii.  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  it  is 
declared  that  "  baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of 
profession,  and  mark  of  difference  whereby 
Christians  are  distinguished  from  others  that 
are  not  baptized,  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regen- 
eration or  the  new  birth.  The  baptism  of 
young  children  is  also  to  be  retained  in  the 
church."  The  Baptist  churches  in  America, 
being  congregational  in  form,  have  no  abso- 


lutely fixed  formula.  Two  not  very  dissimilar 
ones  are  generally  accepted,  the  "  Now  Hamp- 
shire Confession  of  Faith"  in  the  north,  and 
the  "  Philadelphia  Confession "  in  the  south. 
The  article  on  baptism  in  these  two  confessions 
is  essentially  the  same,  varying  only  in  phrase- 
ology. In  the  Philadelphia  Confession  article 
xxii.  reads:  "Baptism  is  an  ordinance  of  the 
New  Testament,  ordained  by  Jesus  Christ  to 
be  unto  the  party  baptized  a  sign  of  his  fellow- 
ship with  him  in  his  death  and  resurrection ; 
of  his  being  ingrafted  unto  him ;  of  remission 
of  sins ;  and  of  his  giving  up  unto  God,  through 
Jesus  Christ,  to  live  and  walk  in  newness  of 
life.  Those  who  do  actually  profess  repent- 
ance toward  God,  and  obedience  to  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  are  the  only  proper  subjects  of 
this  ordinance.  The  outward  element  to  be 
used  in  this  ordinance  is  water,  wherein  the 
party  is  to  be  immersed  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther, and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

BAPTISTERY  (Gr.  [iaxTiorfpiov),  originally,  a 
bathing  place  or  swimming  bath  ;  later,  and  in 
ecclesiastical  usage,  a  place  set  apart  for  per- 


Baptistery  at  Novara. 

forming  the  rite  of  baptism.  At  first  the  bap- 
tistery was  an  exedra  or  structure  outside  of  the 
proper  church ;  later  the  porch,  and  still  later 
a  part  of  the  consecrated  edifice,  was  so  em- 
ployed. As  separate  edifices,  several  baptis- 
teries, notably  those  at  Rome,  Florence,  and 
Pisa,  are  fine  structures.  The  baptistery  at  No- 
vara  is  one  of  the  most  curious  buildings  of  this 
class,  being  largely  composed  of  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  Roman  temple,  with  an  antique  urn 
for  a  baptismal  font.  The  introduction  of  the 
baptistery  as  a  part  of  a  church  edifice  dates 
from  the  6th  century.  Ancient  baptisteries 
were  sometimes  styled  ^unariipia,  either  be- 
cause baptism  was  considered  as  a  $uTiafi6<;  or 
illumination,  or  because  they  were  places  where 
the  catechumens  were  enlightened  in  the  first 


292 


BAPTISTS 


principles  of  the  Christian  faith.  Occasionally 
also  we  find  KoZv/jfiijOpa,  bath,  and  piscina, 
fish  pond,  used  as  synonymes  for  baptistery. 
Baptistery  is  now  commonly  used  to  designate 
the  baptismal  font  in  Catholic  and  Episcopal 
churches,  and  the  tank  in  which  the  rite  of 
immersion  is  performed  in  Baptist  churches, 
where  convenient  access  cannot  be  had  to  a 
natural  body  of  water.  A  baptistery  in  the 
latter  sense  may  be  either  within  or  without 
the  church  edifice  to  which  it  pertains. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  evangelical 
Christians,  who  differ  from  others  in  respect 
to  the  proper  age  and  mode  of  administering 
baptism.  In  the  view  of  the  Baptists  age  is 
nothing,  but  spiritual  qualification  is  every- 
thing; hence  they  baptize  all  who  repent  and 
believe  the  gospel,  whether  in  childhood,  youth, 
or  manhood,  and  very  frequently  whole  house- 
holds at  once,  as  did  the  apostles.  The  Bap- 
tists reject  the  substitution  of  sprinkling  for 
the  entire  immersion  of  the  body,  which  they 
maintain  was  originally  practised  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  and  (except  in  the 
case  of  the  sick)  universally  observed  through- 
out Christendom  for  1,300  years.  For  the  uni- 
versal obligation  of  immersion  as  identical  with 
baptism  itself,  and  essential  to  its  specific  spir- 
itual purposes,  they  urge  the  admitted  signifi- 
cation of  the  word  /3a7rr<fo,  the  necessity  of 
adhering  to  the  ordinary  meaning  of  words  in 
the  interpretation  of  laws,  the  places  where 
the  rite  was  originally  performed,  the  phrase- 
ology employed  in  describing  it,  the  example 
of  Christ  himself,  and  the  metaphorical  allu- 
sions of  the  sacred  writers  when  explaining  the 
spiritual  import  of  the  rite.  They  maintain 
that,  so  far  as  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  con- 
cerned, they  have  the  concurrence  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  reformers  of  the  16th  century,  who 
were  withheld  from  restoring  immersion  among 
Protestants  generally,  not  by  critical  reasons, 
but  by  their  views  of  church  authority  and  ex- 
pediency. The  Mennonites,  or  Dutch  Baptists, 
restored  immersion ;  but  a  part  of  them,  though 
still  rejecting  infant  baptism,  have  since  adopt- 
ed pouring;  those  who  retain  immersion  are 
now  called  Tunkers,  i.  e.,  dippers.  All  the 
Greek  and  oriental  churches,  though  adopting 
the  baptism  of  children,  retain  immersion  as 
essential  to  the  validity  of  the  rite,  and  deny 
that  there  is  any  efficacy  in  the  western  form  of 
baptism. — On  the  subject  of  church  communion 
strict  Baptists  agree  generally  with  other  de- 
nominations that  it  is  not  proper  before  bap- 
tism. Open  communion,  so  eloquently  advo- 
cated by  Robert  Hall  in  England,  the  Baptists 
of  the  United  States  regard  as  an  anomaly. 
The  Baptists  believe  in  the  spiritual  unity  of 
the  whole  believing  church  under  Christ,  its 
head,  and  in  the  duty  of  making  this  unity  vis- 
ible by  subjection  to  him  in  all  things.  Local 
churches,  like  those  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch, 
composed  of  converted  members,  duly  baptized, 
embodied  under  the  law  of  Christ  by  free  mu- 
tual agreement,  and  maintaining  the  truth  in 


love,  they  hold  to  be,  according  to  the  New 
Testament,  the  appointed  means,  in  the  first 
place,  for  manifesting  this  unity.  The  govern- 
ment of  these  churches  is  congregational.  Each 
body,  being  immediately  dependent  on  Christ, 
is  therefore  independent  of  all  others,  and  ia 
complete  in  itself  for  the  management  of  its 
internal  affairs,  such  as  the  choice  of  officers, 
declaration  of  faith,  and  reception,  dismission, 
or  discipline  of  members.  Each  church  is  a 
tribunal,  where  Christ  himself  presides,  ratify- 
ing in  heaven  whatever  is  done  according  to 
his  will  on  earth.  This  principle  of  indepen- 
dence is,  however,  balanced  by  the  intercom- 
munion of  churches.  This  intercommunion  is 
the  highest  form  of  visible  unity,  and  is  never 
to  be  interrupted  without  necessity.  On  this 
principle  their  churches  associate,  invite  coun- 
cils for  advice,  and  organize  societies  for  mutual 
cooperation  in  any  benevolent,  educational,  or 
missionary  enterprise.  But  all  such  associa- 
tions among  Baptists  disclaim  the  slightest 
jurisdiction  over  the  churches. — Baptists  make 
no  distinction  but  that  of  office  between  clergy- 
men and  laymen.  The  voice  of  the  majority 
governs.  They  recognize  no  higher  church  offi- 
cers than  pastors  and  deacons.  Elders,  as  evan- 
gelists and  missionaries,  are  also  ordained  after 
due  trial,  and  sent  out  to  preach  the  gospel. 
Councils  are  usually  called  by  the  churches,  to 
advise  and  assist  in  the  ordination  of  ministers, 
the  formation  of  churches,  and  the  settlement 
of  serious  difficulties.  Such  councils  in  some 
localities  are  composed  exclusively  of  ministers, 
and  are  called  presbyteries ;  but  they  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  bodies  that  bear  that 
name  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  as  they  have 
neither  judicial  nor  appellate  powers.  What- 
ever be  their  differences  in  other  things,  Bap- 
tists all  agree  in  maintaining  the  congregational 
form  of  church  government.  With  Congrega- 
tionalists,  so  called,  they  differ  only  in  regard  to 
baptism  and  in  being  more  strictly  congrega- 
tional.— In  Great  Britain  the  Baptists,  next  to 
the  Congregationalists,  form  the  most  numerous 
body  of  Protestant  dissenters.  In  England  the 
body  is  divided  by  their  views  of  the  design  of 
Christ's  redemption  into  General  and  Particular 
Baptists,  the  former  taking  Arminian  and  the 
latter  Calvinistic  ground.  The  New  Connec- 
tion of  General  Baptists  seceded  from  the  old,  to 
exclude  TJnitarianism,  which  was  creeping  in. 
They  were  originally  strict  communionists,  but 
are  now  divided  on  that  question.  They  have 
a  theological  school  at  Leicester,  a  successful 
mission  at  Orissa  in  India,  and,  though  a  small, 
are  a  zealous  and  flourishing  body.  The  Par- 
ticular Baptists  are  altogether  the  most  numer- 
ous and  influential.  They  have  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  2,567  churches  and  243,395 
members.  They  have  six  theological  colleges — 
at  London,  Bristol,  Ilorton,  Haverford  West, 
Pontypool,  and  Edinburgh.  Their  periodical 
organs  are  the  "  Freeman,"  a  large  weekly 
sheet,  and  three  monthly  periodicals,  the  "  Bap- 
tist Magazine,"  "Baptist  Reporter,"  and' the 


BAPTISTS 


293 


"  Eclectic  Review."  This  body  holds  different 
views  on  the  question  of  communion ;  the  pre- 
vailing ones  are  those  of  Robert  Hall.  In  all 
other  respects  they  are  united.  Within  half  a 
century  they  have  advanced  rapidly  in  num- 
bers and  influence.  They  support  the  impor- 
tant mission  to  India  begun  by  Carey  in  1793, 
a  Baptist  home  mission,  and  missions  in  Ire- 
land, France,  Africa,  Honduras,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  Jamaica  mission  is  now  self-sup- 
porting, but  the  home  society  has  established 
and  sustains  at  Calabar,  in  Jamaica,  a  theolo- 
gical institution  for  native  candidates  for  the 
ministry,  which  is  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
and  promises  much  for  Africa  also.  Baptist 
principles  are  spreading  rapidly  in  all  the 
widely  extended  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  par- 
ticularly Australia,  New  Zealand,  St.  Helena, 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  Cana- 
das.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  within  35 
years,  nearly  30,000  converts  have  been  bap- 
tized, and  100  churches  planted  in  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  France,  Switzerland,  Germany, 
and  Denmark,  besides  220  churches  in  Sweden, 
with  8,807  members.  Many  of  these  converts 
have  suffered  severe  fines  and  imprisonments ; 
some  have  been  denied  the  liberty  of  marriage ; 
others  have  had  their  children  forcibly  bap- 
tized in  the  state  church;  others,  still,  have 
been  condemned  to  perpetual  banishment.  But 
in  the  face  of  all  this  intolerance  they  have 
advanced.  Hundreds,  driven  from  their  homes, 
emigrate  to  America.  Recent  information  from 
France  and  Switzerland  announces  the  gradual 
abandonment  of  infant  baptism  by  the  free 
evangelical  churches,  and  also  by  some  in  the 
Protestant  national  church.  —  In  the  United 
States  the  Baptist,  with  one  exception,  is  now 
the  largest  denomination  of  evangelical  Chris- 
tians. They  are  spread  through  every  state 
and  territory.  Owing  to  a  difference  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  in  1845  the  southern  Bap- 
tists, by  mutual  consent,  formed  separate  or- 
ganizations for  their  benevolent  enterprises. 
As  early  as  1764,  when  numbering  in  all  Amer- 
ica only  60  churches  and  about  5,000  members, 
the  Baptists  founded  their  first  college  in  Rhode 
Island.  Long  before,  they  had  fostered  Har- 
vard, and  helped  Franklin  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  They 
now  have  28  colleges  of  their  own,  over  100 
academies  and  female  seminaries  of  a  high 
grade,  and  9  theological  schools.  They  have 
publication  societies  at  Philadelphia,  Charles- 
ton, and  Nashville,  besides  many  flourishing 
private  publishing  houses  in  our  large  cities. 
They  maintain  45  periodical  organs,  including 
a  quarterly  review.  The  Baptists  of  the  United 
States  also  support  the  American  and  foreign 
Bible  society,  the  American  Baptist  missionary 
union,  the  southern  Baptist  board  of  foreign 
and  domestic  missions,  the  Baptist  home  mis- 
sion society,  and  in  part  the  "  American  Bible 
Union."  Their  missions  are  planted  in  Can- 
ada, Oregon,  California,  New  Mexico,  Hayti; 
in  France,  Spain,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden, 


Norway;  in  western  and  central  Africa;  in 
southern  India,  Assam,  Burmah,  Siam,  and 
China.  The  number  of  conversions  from  their 
colportages  and  missions  in  1871  exceeded 
5,000.  Total  number  in  the  mission  churches, 
over  50,000.  The  income  of  all  the  above  so- 
cieties in  1871  was  $800,000.  In  doctrine  the 
Baptists  of  this  country  are  Calvinistic,  but 
with  much  freedom  and  moderation.  The  New 
Hampshire  declaration  of  faith  in  1833  is  the 
most  popular. — Besides  the  general  body  of  Bap- 
tists, there  are  in  the  United  States  nine  smaller 
bodies,  distinguished  by  peculiarities  indicated 
by  their  respective  names.  The  Seventh-Day 
Baptists  differ  only  in  the  observance  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath ;  the  Free-will  and  the  Anti- 
mission  Baptists  are  seceders  from  the  general 
fellowship  on  account  of  Arminian  and  Anti- 
nomian  tendencies,  though  the  latter  are  grad- 
ually adopting  different  views  and  returning 
to  the  general  body.  The  General  (or  Six- 
Principle)  Baptists,  the  Tunkers,  and  the  Men- 
nonites  are  of  foreign  origin,  and  cling  to  their 
ancient  usages.  .The  Christian  connection,  the 
Campbellites  (or  Disciples),  and  the  Wine- 
brennarians  (or  Church  of  God)  are  new  organ- 
izations, drawn  from  various  sources,  though 
agreeing  with  the  Baptists  generally  as  to  the 
subjects  and  mode  of  baptism.  For  the  pecu- 
liarities of  each  see  the  respective  articles. — It 
is  asserted  by  some  Baptists  that  they  can  trace 
their  history  in  a  succession  of  pure  churches 
(cathari)  essentially  Baptist,  though  under  va- 
rious names,  from  the  3d  century  down  to  the 
reformation.  These  churches,  from  the  5th 
century  onward,  were  the  subjects  of  system- 
atic persecution  from  the  state  churches,  both 
in  the  East  and  in  the  West.  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria and  Innocent  I.  of  Rome,  according  to 
the  historian  Socrates,  began  this  persecution 
by  depriving  them  of  their  houses  of  worship, 
and  driving  them  into  secret  places,  under  the 
laws  of  Honorius  and  Theodosius  II.,  which 
forbid  rebaptism  (so  called)  under  penalty  of 
death.  Yet  their  principles  reappear  among 
the  Culdees  of  the  West  and  the  Paulians  of 
the  East,  the  Vallesii  and  the  Paterines,  the 
Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  and  emerge  on  all 
sides  at  the  first  dawn  of  the  reformation.  Mr. 
Bancroft  says  of  the  German  Baptists  of  that 
era:  "With  greater  consistency  than  Luther 
they  applied  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation 
to  the  social  positions  of  life,  and  threatened 
an  end  to  priestcraft  and  kingcraft,  spiritual 
domination,  titles,  and  vassalage.  They  were 
trodden  under  foot  with  foul  reproaches  and 
most  arrogant  scorn,  and  their  history  is  writ- 
ten in  the  blood  of  thousands  of  the  German 
peasantry ;  but  their  principles,  secure  in  their 
immortality,  escaped  with  Roger  Williams  to 
Providence,  and  his  colony  is  witness  that  nat- 
urally the  paths  of  the  Baptists  are  paths  of 
freedom,  pleasantness,  and  peace."  (See  ANA- 
BAPTISTS.)— In  England,  from  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  to  William  III.,  a  full  century  and  a  half, 
the  Baptists  struggled  to  gain  their  footing, 


294 


BAPTISTS 


BARACOA 


and  to  secure  liberty  of  conscience  for  all. 
From  1611  they  issued  appeal  after  appeal,  ad- 
dressed to  the  king,  the  parliament,  and  the 
people,  in  behalf  of  this  "soul  liberty,"  writ- 
ten with  a  breadth  of  view  and  force  of  argu- 
ment hardly  since  exceeded.  Yet,  until  the 
Quakers  arose  in  1600,  the  Baptists  stood  alone 
in  its  defence,  amid  universal  opposition.  In 
the  time  of  Cromwell  they  first  gained  a  fair 
hearing,  and,  under  the  lead  of  Milton  and' 
Vane,  would  have  changed  the  whole  system 
of  the  church  and  the  state  but  for  the  treason 
of  Monk.  In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  the  pris- 
ons were  filled  with  their  confessors  and  mar- 
tyrs, yet  their  principles  gradually  gained 
ground  in  the  public  mind  and  hastened  the 
revolution  of  1688.  "The  share  which  the 
Baptists  took,"  says  Dr.  Williams,  "  in  shoring 
np  the  fallen  liberties  of  England,  and  in  infus- 
ing new  vigor  and  liberality  into  the  constitu- 
tion of  that  country,  is  not  generally  known. 
Yet  to  this  body  English  liberty  owes  a  debt  it 
can  never  acknowledge.  Among  the  Baptists 
Christian  freedom  found  its  earliest,  its  staneh- 
est,  its  most  consistent,  and  its  most  disinterest- 
ed champions."  Not  less  powerful  has  been 
the  influence  of  the  Baptists  in  the  United 
States.  Introduced  into  Rhode  Island  with 
Roger  Williams  and  John  Clark  in  1638,  their 
history  for  more  than  a  century,  in  most  of  the 
colonies,  is  that  of  proscribed  and  banished 
men.  Yet,  persecuted  themselves,  they  never 
persecuted  others.  "  In  the  code  of  laws  estab- 
lished by  them  in  Rhode  Island,"  says  Judge 
Story,  "  we  read,  for  the  first  time  since  Chris- 
tianity ascended  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  the 
declaration  that  conscience  should  be  free,  and 
men  should  not  be  punished  for  worshipping 
God  in  the  way  they  were  persuaded  he  re- 
quires." The  article  on  religious  liberty  in  the 
amendments  to  the  American  constitution  was 
introduced  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  Baptists 
in  1789.  The  new  impulse  given  to  the  spirit 
of  liberty  by  the  revolutionary  war  was  follow- 
ed by  the  rapid  spread  of  Baptist  principles. 
Their  great  prosperity  dates  from  that  era.  In 
1762  there  were  56  Baptist  churches  in  Amer- 
ica; in  1792  there  were  1,000;  in  1812,  2,433; 
in  1832,  5,322;  in  1852  they  exceeded  9,500. 
At  the  present  time,  according  to  the  "  Baptist 
Year  Book"  for  1872,  without  including  any 
of  the  Baptist  minor  bodies,  there  are  18,397 
churches,  12,013  ministers,  and  1,489,181  church 
members,  of  whom  85,321  were  added  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Including  those  of  the  British 
provinces,  the  total  number  of  members  was 
1,557,449.  If  those  sects  be  included  which 
agree  with  the  Baptists  in  their  organic  prin- 
ciples, though  differing  in  other  points,  the 
number  would  rise  to  more  than  1,700,000. 
The  total  population  attached  to  Baptist  views 
is  estimated  at  nearly  8,000,000.  From  these 
statistics  it  appears  that  the  increase  of  the 
Baptists  far  outruns  that  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States.  The  rates  of  increase  have 
been  greatest  in  Massachusetts  and  Virginia, 


where  they  were  most  persecuted,  and  in  the 
new  states  where  their  zealous  ministers  were 
among  the  earliest  pioneers.  (See  Curtis's 
"Progress  of  Baptist  Principles  for  the  last 
One  Hundred  Years,"  Boston,  1856.) 

BAR.  See  BAR-LE-DUC,  BAR-SUB-AUBE,  and 
BAR-SUB-SEINE. 

BAR,  a  town  of  S.  W.  Russia,  government 
of  Podolia,  on  the  Rov,  53  m.  N.  E.  of  Kame- 
netz;  pop.  in  1867,  8,077.  It  is  famous  as  the 
place  where  a  confederation  of  Polish  patriots 
was  formed,  chiefly  under  the  lead  of  the  Pu- 
laskis,  with  a  view  to  combating  Russian  influ- 
ence and  the  adherents  of  Russia  in  Poland, 
Feb.  29,  1768.  The  Russians  took  Bar  by 
storm  on  the  following  May  28,  together  with 
1,400  men  and  20  pieces  of  cannon. 

BAR.  I.  An  enclosure  made  by  a  railing  or 
partition  for  the  use  of  counsel  in  courts,  and  to 
prevent  their  being  incommoded  by  spectators ; 
from  whence  is  sometimes  supposed  to  have 
come  the  term  barrister,  applied  to  those  called 
within  the  bar.  At  this  bar  prisoners  were 
placed  for  trial.  The  term  is  used  collectively 
to  designate  those  who  as  counsel  are  entitled 
to  address  the  court.  II.  A  low  partition  which 
in  the  houses  of  parliament  and  legislative  halls 
generally  separates  from  the  body  of  the  house 
a  space  near  the  door,  beyond  which  none  but 
members,  clerks,  and  messengers  are  admitted 
except  on  leave.  Persons  charged  with  con- 
tempt are  brought  to  the  bar  of  the  house ; 
and  at  the  opening  and  close  of  a  session  of 
parliament  the  commons  go  to  the  bar  of  the 
house  of  lords  to  hear  the  queen's  speech. 

BARABA,  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  300  m.  from  E. 
to  W.  and  450  from  N.  to  S.,  comprising  the 
S.  E.  part  of  the  province  of  Tobolsk,  and  the 
S.  W.  portions  of  Tomsk.  The  Altai  moun- 
tains enclose  it  on  the  south,  and  the  Irtish 
and  Obi  rivers  on  the  west  and  east.  Certain 
districts  are  fertile,  and  there  are  extensive  for- 
ests; but  the  whole  region  abounds  in  swamps 
and  salt  lakes,  the  waters  of  which  become 
poisonous  during  the  summer.  The  inhabit- 
ants consist  of  Russian  colonists  living  in  vil- 
lages, and  of  Barabintzi,  a  small  tribe  of  Tartar 
origin,  who  are  chiefly  nomadic  shepherds  or 
fishermen. 

BARACOA,  a  seaport  town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
Eastern  Department,  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  N.  E.  coast,  100  m.  E.  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba ;  pop.  about  5,500.  It  is  on 
the  E.  side  of  a  small  but  deep  harbor,  on  a 
rocky  bluff  of  coral  formation ;  and  back  of  the 
town  are  high,  craggy  mountains  of  curious 
shape,  the  highest  of  which  is  called  the  Anvil 
of  Baracoa.  The  houses  are  well  built  of  adobe 
and  surrounded  with  fine  gardens.  An  unusu- 
ally large  quantity  of  rain  falls  at  Baracoa,  and 
the  forests  and  large  orchards  of  cocoanut  palms 
in  the  vicinity  are  very  luxuriant.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  fruit  trade  with  the  United 
States ;  limes,  oranges,  lemons,  pineapples,  and 
cocoanuts  are  brought  in  from  the  surrounding 
country  on  mules  and  donkeys.  The  trade  in 


BAEADA 


BARANTE 


295 


cocoanuts  is  said  to  average  50,000  a  day.  Ci- 
gars only  are  manufactured.  Columbus  landed 
here,  and  the  first  settlement  on  the  island  was 
made  here  in  1512  by  Diego  Velazquez. 

BARADi,  a  river  of  Syria,  probably  the  Bib- 
lical Abana,  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Chrysor- 
rhoas  or  Bardines.  It  rises  in  the  Anti-Liba- 
nus,  flows  S.  E.,  and  falls  into  the  Bahret-el- 
Kibliyeh,  a  lake  or  swamp,  E.  of  Damascus. 
Issuing  from  a  cleft  in  the  mountains  as  a 
clear  rapid  stream,  it  divides  into  three  small- 
er courses.  The  central  or  main  stream  runs 
straight  to  the  city  of  Damascus,  supplying  the 
baths  and  fountains  of  that  city.  The  other 
branches  diverge  to  the  right  and  left,  and,  af- 
ter irrigating  the  plain,  reunite  with  the  main 
stream.  The  water  of  the  Barada,  like  that  of 
the  Jordan,  is  of  a  white  sulphurous  hue,  and 
has  an  unpleasant  taste. 

BARAGA,  Frederick,  D.  D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  and  missionary  among  the  North  Amer- 
ican Indians,  born  at  Trefien,  Carniola,  June  29, 
1797,  died  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Jan.  19,  1868. 
He  was  of  a  noble  family,  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Vienna,  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
September,  1823,  came  to  America  in  Decem- 
ber, 1830,  and  from  that  time  till  his  death 
was  connected  with  the  Chippewa  and  Ottawa 
missions  in  Michigan.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Marquette  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  in 
1853.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Chippewa 
grammar  and  dictionary  (Detroit,  1849  and 
1852),  of  several  religious  works  in  Chippewa, 
and  of  a  small  work  in  German  on  the  "  His- 
tory, Character,  and  Habits  of  the  North 
American  Indians  "  (1837). 

BARAGIEY  D'HILLIERS.  I.  I.miK  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  13,  1764,  died  in 
Berlin  in  December,  1812.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  French  revolution  he  was  lieutenant  in 
the  regiment  of  Alsace,  was  appointed  brigadier 
general  in  1793,  and  chosen  by  Custine  as  the 
head  of  his  staff.  His  fidelity  to  that  unfortu- 
nate chief  led  to  his  imprisonment,  but  he  was 
liberated  after  the  9th  Thermidor.  He  served 
under  Napoleon  during  his  first  two  campaigns 
in  Italy,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
division  general.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Stuttgart  and  Elchingen  and  on  the  frontiers 
of  Bohemia,  was  governor  of  Friuli  in  1806, 
of  Venice  in  1808,  and  participated  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Raab  won  by  Eugene  Beauharnais  over 
the  Austrians  in  June,  1809.  During  the  fol- 
lowing two  years  he  served  in  Spain.  In  1812 
he  was  put  in  command  of  a  division  of  the 
grand  army  against  Russia,  and  was  captured 
with  nearly  all  his  forces  by  the  enemy.  A 
court  of  inquiry  was  ordered  by  Napoleon,  at 
which  he  was  so  aggrieved  that  he  fell  sick 
and  died  before  he  reached  France.  II.  Aehllle, 
marshal  of  France,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
Sept.  6,  1795.  He  served  as  second  lieutenant 
during  the  Russian  campaign,  became  in  1813 
aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Marmont,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  had  his  left  hand  carried  away 
by  a  cannon  ball.  He  was  a  captain  on  the 


fall  of  the  empire,  though  not  yet  20  years  old. 
Adhering  to  the  restored  Bourbons,  he  entered 
the  royal  guards,  served  in  Spain  and  Algeria, 
became  second  in  command  at  the  military 
school  of  St.  Cyr  in  1832,  and  afterward  prin- 
cipal, a  position  which  he  held  till  1840.  For 
some  years  thereafter  he  served  with  some  dis- 
tinction in  Algeria  and  became  a  general.  Re- 
turning to  France  in  1847,  he  was  appointed 
inspector  general  of  infantry.  After  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  second  division  of  the 
army  near  the  Alps.  He  was  elected  to  the 
constituent  assembly  from  the  department  of 
Doubs,  and  joined  the  party  of  reaction.  In 
1849  he  went  to  Rome  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  sent  to  sustain  the  authority  of 
the  pope,  and  in  1851  was  put  in  command  of 
the  army  of  Paris  in  place  of  Gen.  Changar- 
nier,  whom  Napoleon  distrusted.  He  favored 
the  coup  d'etat,  and  was  made  a  member  of 
the  consultative  commission.  In  the  Crimean 
war  he  commanded  the  expedition  to  the  Bal- 
tic, and  on  his  return  was  made  a  marshal  and 
became  one  of  the  vice  presidents  of  the  sen- 
ate. He  commanded  the  first  army  corps  in 
the  Italian  campaign  of  1859,  and  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  battle  of  Solferino.  In  1868 
he  was  in  command  of  the  camp  at  Chalons, 
and 'shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of 
1870  was  for  a  few  days  military  governor 
of  Paris. 

i:\K\XHT,  Nikolai,  a  deaf-mute  Russian 
painter,  born  in  Esthonia  in  1810.  He  studied 
in  Berlin  at  the  expense  of  the  czar,  and  has 
produced  genre  and  historical  pictures. 

BARANOFF,  Alexander  Andreyeviteh,  governor  of 
the  Russian  possessions  in  North  America,  born 
in  1746,  died  at  sea,  near  the  island  of  Java, 
April  28,  1819.  Early  in  life  he  was  engaged 
in  commerce  in  western  Siberia,  but  in  1790 
established  himself  at  Kadiak,  and  opened  a 
trade  with  the  natives.  In  1796  he  founded  a 
commercial  colony  on  Behring  strait,  and  in 
1799  took  possession  of  the  largest  of  the  Sit- 
ka  group  of  islands,  now  known  by  his  name. 
He  built  a  large  factory  at  Sitka,  and  opened 
commercial  relations  with  Canton,  Manila, 
Boston,  New  York,  California,  and  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  founded  a  colony  near  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  was  ennobled  by  the  czar  Alexander 
and  made  first  governor  of  Russian  America. 
He  died  while  returning  to  Russia. 

BARAXTE,  Amable  Gnillanme  Prosper,  baron  de 
Brugiere,  a  French  statesman  and  historian, 
born  at  Riom  in  Auvergne,  June  10,  1782,  died 
in  Auvergne  in  1866.  He  was  educated  at 
the  polytechnic  school  in  Paris,  and  occupied 
during  the  empire  several  offices  at  home  and 
missions  abroad.  He  was  prefect  of  Loire-In- 
ferieure  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  kept  his  post 
under  the  restoration,  and  after  the  hundred 
days  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state 
and  general  secretary  of  the  home  department. 
In  1819  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France,  and 
after  that  most  of  his  time  was  given  to  lit- 


296 


BARANYA 


BARBADOES 


erary  pursuits.  As  early  as  1809  ho  had  publish- 
ed anonymously  his  Tableau  de  la  litterature 
francaise  au  18'  siecle,  and  he  was  the  real  au- 
thor of  a  great  part  of  Mine,  de  la  Rochejaque- 
lin's  Memoires  on  the  war  in  La  VendCe.  He 
published  a  French  version  of  Schiller's  dra- 
mas (1821),  contributed  to  the  Collection  des 
the&tres  etrangen,  and  furnished  the  "Ham- 
let "  of  Guizot's  translation  of  Shakespeare. 
His  IIMoire  de»  dues  de  Bouryogne  de  la  mai- 
ion  de  Valois  (3  vols.  8vp,  1824-'6),  a  skilful 
arrangement  of  the  memoirs  of  old  chroniclers, 
has  been  considered  a  model  of  purely  narra- 
tive history,  and  secured  his  election  to  the 
French  academy.  After  the  revolution  of  1830 
he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Turin,  and  in 
1835  he  went  as  minister  to  St.  Petersburg. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  devoted  him- 
self wholly  to  literary  pursuits.  Among  his 
remaining  works  are :  Melanges  hiatoriques  et 
litteraires  (3  vols.,  1836);  Questions  constitu- 
tionnelles  (1850) ;  ffistoire  de  la  convention  na- 
tionale  (6  vols.,  1851-'3) ;  ffistoire  du  directoire 
(3  vols.,  1855);  Ultudes  historiques  et  biogra- 
phiques  (2  vols.,  1857) ;  La  vie  politique  de 
M.  Royer-Gollard  (2  vols.,  1861);  and  De  la 
decentralisation  en  1829  et  en  1833  (1865).  As 
a  historian  Barante  was  impartial  and  accurate 
in  his  statements. 

BARANYA,  a  county  of  S.  W.  Hungary,  bound- 
ed by  the  Danube,  which  there  forms  Margitta 
island,  and  the  Drave,  which  separates  it  from 
Slavonia ;  area,  about  1,965  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
283,506,  of  whom  more  than  half  are  Magyars, 
and  the  rest  chiefly  Germans,  Croats,  and 
Serbs.  The  surface  is  partly  hilly  and  partly 
level,  and  the  soil  almost  everywhere  very  fer- 
tile, producing  wheat,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  ex- 
cellent wines.  The  county  is  also  rich  in  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  swine.  There  are  several  min- 
eral springs.  The  most  important  towns  are 
Funfkirchen  or  Pecs,  the  capital,  and  Mohacs, 
near  which  in  1526  Hungary  lost  her  army,  her 
king,  and  her  independence. 

BARATIER,  Joliann  Phllipp,  a  precocious  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Schwabach,  near  Nurem- 
berg, Jan.  19,  1721,  died  in  Halle  Oct.  5,  1740. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  pastor,  who 
had  fled  from  France  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Before  his  5th  year  he  had 
learned  to  read  and  write  French,  German, 
and  Latin,  and  he  afterward  mastered,  almost 
unaided,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Ethiopia.  In  his  9th  year  he  made  a  dictionary 
of  difficult  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  words,  and  in 
his  13th  year  published  a  translation  from  the 
Hebrew  of  the  itinerary  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela, 
to  which  life  added  notes  and  historical  disser- 
tations, lie  also  published  several  learned 
theological  pamphlets,  and  made  difficult  math- 
ematical and  astronomical  calculations.  In  his 
14th  year  he  received  from  the  university  of 
Halle  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  on  which 
occasion  he  defended  14  theses  in  the  presence 
of  more  than  2,000  spectators.  The  royal  so- 
ciety of  sciences  at  Berlin  made  him  a  member, 


and  the  king  of  Prussia  made  him  an  annual 
allowance  of  $50,  presented  him  with  books 
and  mathematical  instruments,  and  gave  to  his 
father  a  living  at  Halle.  He  began  a  history 
of  the  church,  a  history  of  the  30  years'  war, 
and  various  other  works. 

BARATYKSKI,  Yevgenl  Abramoviteh,  a  Russian 
poet,  died  in  Italy  in  September,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Petersburg,  served  eight  years 
as  a  soldier  in  Finland,  and  afterward  lived  in 
Moscow.  "Eda,"  the  first  offspring  of  his 
muse,  is  a  spirited  poem,  with  strong  local  col- 
oring and  Finnish  characteristics.  His  most 
agreeable  production  is  the  "Gypsy,"  a  grace- 
ful picture  of  the  best  features  of  Russian 
high  life. 

BARB,  a  fine  breed  of  horses  cultivated  by 
the  Moors  of  Barbary,  and  first  introduced  by 
them  into  Spain.  They  are  believed  to  have 
been  of  a  kindred  origin  with  the  Arabian 
horse,  but  are  less  remarkable  for  beauty  and 
symmetry  than  for  speed,  endurance,  and  do- 
cility. They  are  generally  larger  than  the 
Arabian,  and  the  black  barbs  of  Dongola  are 
said  to  be  rarely  less  than  16  hands  high.  The 
wild  horses  of  America  are  believed  to  have 
descended  from  Spanish  barbs,  brought  over 
by  the  early  explorers. 

BARBADOES,  or  Barbados,  a  British  island  of 
the  West  Indies,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Ca- 
ribbean group,  in  lat.  13°  10'  N.,  Ion.  59°  32' 
W.  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  22  m.  long  and  14 
broad ;  area,  166  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1861, 152,727, 
being  920  to  the  square  mile.  The  population 
of  Barbadoes  is  denser  than  that  of  any  other 
country  in  the  world  except  Malta.  In  1861 
there  were  16,594  white,  36,118  of  mixed 
race,  and  100,005  black.  The  island  is  di- 
vided by  a  deep  valley  into  two  parts.  Near 
the  centre  of  the  northern  and  larger  part 
is  Mount  Hillaby,  1,147  ft.  high.  From  the 
W.  coast  the  ground  rises  in  successive  ter- 
races, broken  by  ravines  to  the  central  ridge, 
from  which  hills  of  a  conical  form  radiate  in  a 
N.  E.  direction  to  the  seashore.  The  N.  W. 
and  S.  parts  of  the  island  consist  of  rocks  of 
coralline  limestone  with  beds  of  calcareous 
marl ;  the  E.  part  is  composed  of  strata  of 
silicious  sandstone,  intermixed  with  ferrugi- 
nous matter,  clay,  marl,  minute  fragments  of 
pumice,  strata  of  volcanic  ashes,  seams  of  bitu- 
men, and  springs  of  petroleum.  There  are 
several  chalybeate  springs,  containing  chic-fly 
iron,  carbonic  acid,  and  fixed  alkali,  in  differ- 
ent proportions.  The  island  is  encircled  by( 
coral  reefs,  which  in  some  parts  extend  sea- 
ward for  three  miles,  and  are  dangerous  to 
navigation.  Carlisle  bay,  the  port  and  harbor 
of  Barbadoes,  is  a  spacious  open  roadstead, 
capable  of  containing  500  vessels;  but  it  is 
exposed  to  S.  and  S.  W.  winds.  The  climate, 
though  warm,  is  salubrious.  The  island  is 
greatly  exposed  to  hurricanes.  One  of  these, 
in  October,  '1780,  destroyed  almost  every 
building,  and  3,000  or  4,000  lives.  During 
another  in  August,  1831,  the  loss  of  life  is 


BARBARA 


BARBAROSSA 


297 


Barbadoes. 


stated  to  have  been  from  2,000  to  5,000,  and 
the  destruction  of  property  £1,602,800.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  sugar,  cotton, 
aloes,  and  arrowroot ;  the  imports  are  chiefly 
fish,  beef,  flour,  cutlery,  and  cloths.  In  1850 
the  imports  were  £734,358,  exports  £831,534; 
in  1860,  imports  £976,300,  exports  £1,345.- 
400  ;  in  1870,  imports  £1,026,221,  exports 
£935,425.  There  are  only  four  towns,  of  which 
Bridgetown,  the  capital,  has  about  25,000  in- 
habitants. The  government  consists  of  a  gov- 
ernor, council,  and  house  of  assembly.  The 
governor,  appointed  by  the  crown,  is  also  gov- 
ernor general  (since  1871)  of  the  neighboring 
islands  of  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago,  and 
St.  Lucia.  The  council  consists  of  12  mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  crown,  who  hold  office 
during  the  royal  pleasure.  The  assembly  con- 
sists of  24  delegates,  elected  annually  by  the 
people. — Barbadoes  was  probably  discovered 
varly  in  the  16th  century  by  the  Portuguese. 
When  it  was  first  visited  by  the  English  in 
1605,  it  was  uninhabited  and  covered  with 
dense  forests.  The  first  English  colony,  con- 
sisting of  40  whites  and  7  negroes,  was  founded 
in  1625.  In  1665  the  Dutch  made  a  fruitless 
attempt  to  seize  the  island.  In  1676,  1692, 
1816,  and  1825,  plots  were  formed  among  the 
negroes  to  take  possession.  In  1788  the  pop- 
ulation was  16,127  whites,  2,229  free  colored, 
and  64,405  negroes.  There  appears  to  have 
been  no  increase  in  the  white  population  for 
75  years,  while  the  colored  or  mixed  portion 
has  multiplied  15  fold.  The  abolition  of  sla- 
very in  1834  was  effected  without  disorder. 

BARBARA,  Saint,  a  virgin  and  martyr,  hon- 
ored in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  church- 
es, and  supposed  to  have  suffered  at  Heliopolis 
in  306,  or  at  Kicomedia  in  Bithynia  in  235. 


According  to  the  Aurea  Legenda,  she  was 
born  at  Heliopolis  in  Egypt,  of  pagan  parents; 
and  her  father,  fearing  she  should  be  taken 
from  him  on  account  of  her  great  beauty,  con- 
fined her  in  a  tower.  In  her  seclusion  she 
heard  of  the  preaching  of  Origen,  and  wrote 
to  him  begging  for  instruction,  whereupon  he 
sent  one  of  his  disciples,  who  taught  and  bap- 
tized her.  On  learning  this  her  father  put  her 
to  death,  and  is  said  to  have  been  immediately 
struck  by  lightning;  for  which  reason  the  saint 
has  been  regarded  as  the  patron  of  sailors  in  a 
storm,  and  of  artillerymen.  In  art  she  is  gen- 
erally represented  with  a  tower.  Her  festival 
day  is  Dec.  4. 

BARBARELLI,  Giorgio.    See  GIOBGIOKE. 

BARBAROSSA,  the  name  given  to  two  rene- 
gade Greek  corsairs,  and  supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  Baba-rai*,  father  captain.  I.  Arndj, 
Hornsh,  or  llorok,  horn  at  Mitylene  (Lesbos) 
about  1474,  executed  in  1518.  He  acquired 
fame  in  the  service  of  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  Tu- 
nis, and  with  his  brother  became  the  terror  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Invited  by  the  emir  of 
the  Metidja,  Selim  Eutemi,  in  1516,  to  aid  him 
against  the  Spaniards,  he  made  himself  master 
of  Algiers,  Tenez,  and  Tlemcen,  and  murdered 
the  emir,  but  was  defeated  by  the  troops  of 
Charles  V.,  besieged  in  Tlemcen,  captured  on 
his  flight  from  that  city,  and  put  to  death.  II. 
Khair-ed-Din,  brother  and  successor  of.  the  pre- 
ceding, born  about  1476,  died  in  Constantino- 
ple in  1546.  After  his  brother's  death  he 
obtained  the  assistance  of  the  sultan  Selim  I. 
in  recovering  Algiers.  Solyman  I.  putting  him 
in  command  of  his  ileet,  he  fortified  Algiers, 
and  conquered  Tunis  and  other  territories  for 
the  Turks.  After  Charles  V.  retook  Tunis  in 
1535,  Barbarossa  preyed  upon  the  coast  of 


298 


BAEBAEOSSA 


BARBEL 


Italy,  defeated  Doria  in  the  gnlf  of  Ambra- 
cia,  captured  Castel  Nuovo  (1539),  defeated  a 
Christian  squadron  off  Candia,  threatened  Do- 
ria at  Genoa,  joined  Francis  I.  against  Charles 
V.,  aided  the  French  in  taking  Nice  (1543), 
and  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  Constanti- 
nople with  many  thousand  prisoners. 

BARBAROSSA,  Frederick.  See  FKEDEBICK  I., 
emperor  of  Germany. 

BARBAROIIX,  Charles  Jean  Marie,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  in  Marseilles,  March  6, 
1767,  guillotined  at  Bordeaux,  June  25,  1794. 
He  was  a  prominent  young  lawyer  when  in 
1791  he  was  sent  by  his  native  city  as  revo- 
lutionary agent  to  the  legislative  assembly  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Jacobin  club.  When  it 
was  feared  that  the  court  would  succeed  in 
arresting  the  revolutionary  movement  in  the 
north  of  France,  Barbaroux  was  vehement  in 
supporting  the  plan  of  a  separate  republic  in 
the  south.  He  took,  with  his  500  countrymen, 
who  were  especially  called  let  Marseillais,  an 
important  part  in  the  insurrection  of  August 
10,  1792,  which  led  to  the  downfall  of  the 
monarchy.  Elected  a  deputy  to  the  conven- 
tion, he  joined  the  deputies  of  the  Gironde, 
became  by  his  zeal,  eloquence,  and  rare  per- 
sonal beauty  a  conspicuous  member  of  their 
party,  opposed  the  merciless  policy  of  Marat 
and  Robespierre,  and  demanded  an  act  of  ac- 
cusation against  the  promoters  of  the  massacre 
of  September.  He  manifested  remarkable  abil- 
ity in  the  discussion  of  questions  of  finance, 
commerce,  and  the  internal  administration  of 
the  country;  he  strongly  opposed  several  of 
the  rash  and  unjust  financial  measures  of  the 
day,  and  suggested  several  plans  for  a  more  pru- 
dent management.  At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. 
he  voted  for  the  king's  death,  but  favored  an 
appeal  to  the  nation.  After  the  popular  rising 
of  May  31,  1793,  which  sealed  the  tragic  fate 
of  the  Girondists,  Barbaroux  left  Paris  with 
some  of  his  colleagues,  and  tried  to  raise  an 
insurrection  in  the  provinces  against  the  con- 
vention; but  this  movement  was  soon  sup- 
pressed, and  Barbaroux,  hunted  from  place  to 
place;  sought  a  refuge  in  the  vicinity  of  Bor- 
deaux. Being  discovered,  he  shot  himself 
twice ;  but  though  in  a  dying  condition,  he 
retained  life  enough  to  be  sent  to  the  scaffold 
by  the  revolutionary  committee  of  Bordeaux. 

BARBARY  STATES,  a  general  term  designat- 
ing that  portion  of  northern  Africa  stretching 
from  the  W.  frontier  of  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  desert  of 
Sahara,  between  lat.  25°  and  37°  N.,  Ion.  10° 
"W.  and  25°  E.,  and  including  Tripoli,  Tunis, 
Algeria,  and  Morocco.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Berbers,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
the  region,  who  still  constitute  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  population. 

BARBASTRO,  a  town  of  Aragon,  Spain,  on 
the  Cinca,  in  the  province  and  26  m.  S.  E.  of 
Huesca ;  pop.  about  6,500.  It  is  an  old  town, 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral  with  good  mediaaval 
paintings,  and  an  important  school. 


BARB  Aft  I),  Anna  Lfftitia,  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Kibworth-IIarcourt,  Leicestershire, 
June  20,  1743,  died  at  Stoke-Newington,  near 
London,  March  9,  1825.  She  displayed  un- 
usual talent  as  a  child,  and  her  early  educa- 
tion was  directed  with  care  by  her  father,  the 
Rev.  John  Aikin,  a  Unitarian  minister.  At 
the  age  of  15  she  removed  with  him  to  War- 
rington  in  Lancashire,  where  he  took  charge 
of  the  academy,  out  of  which  grew  the  central 
Unitarian  college,  afterward  transferred  to 
York,  and  finally  established  in  Manchester. 
In  1773,  at  the  age  of  30,  she  published  a  vol- 
ume of  her  poems,  which  the  same  year  ran 
through  four  editions.  This  was  followed  by 
"  Miscellaneous  Pieces  in  Prose,"  partly  writ- 
ten by  her  brother  John  Aikin.  In  1774  she 
married  the  Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld,  with 
whom  she  kept  a  school  for  the  next  11  years 
in  the  village  of  Palgrave,  Suffolk.  During  this 
period  she  published  "  Devotional  Pieces,  com- 
piled from  the  Psalms  of  David,"  "  Early  Les- 
sons for  Children,"  and  "  Hymns  in  Prose  for 
Children."  After  a  short  visit  to  the  conti- 
nent in  1785-'6,  Mrs.  Barbanld  went  to  live  at 
Hampstead,  near  London,  where  her  husband 
became  pastor  of  a  small  congregation,  and  she 
took  charge  of  a  few  pupils.  Here  she  wrote 
several  pamphlets  and  poems  on  popular  sub- 
jects, such  as  the  removal  of  the  civil  disabili- 
ties of  the  dissenters  and  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade,  and  various  contributions  to  her 
brother's  "Evenings  at  Home."  In  1802  she 
removed  with  her  husband  to  Stoke-Newing- 
ton,  and  there  passed  the  rest  of  her  life.  Here 
she  prepared  "  Selections  from  the  Spectator, 
Guardian,  Tatler,  and  Freeholder,"  with  a  pre- 
liminary essay.  She  wrote  the  life  of  Richard- 
son, the  novelist,  to  accompany  his  correspon- 
dence, edited  Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  the 
Imagination  "  and  Collins's  "  Odes,"  and  a  col- 
lection of  the  "  British  Novelists,"  with  me- 
moirs and  criticisms,  and  published  "The  Fe- 
male Spectator,"  a  miscellany  of  prose  and 
verse.  Her  last  separate  publication,  "Eigh- 
teen Hundred  and  Eleven"  (1812),  is  her  long- 
est and  most  highly  finished  poem.  Her  works, 
in  two  volumes,  were  edited,  with  a  memoir, 
by  her  niece,  Miss  Lucy  Aikin.  Her  writings 
are  distinguished  for  their  pure  moral  tone, 
simplicity,  and  earnestness,  and  her  books  for 
children  are  among  the  best  of  their  class. 


Barbel. 


BARBEL  (ftarfow,  Cuv.),  a  large,  coarse  fresh- 
water fish,  of  the  family  cyprinida,  found  in 


BARBE-MAEBOIS 


BARBERINI 


299 


many  of  the  large  European  rivers.  It  has 
several  barbs  or  beard-like  feelers  pendent 
from  its  leathery  mouth,  which  are  said  to  be 
the  origin  of  its  name.  It  frequents  deep,  still 
pools  with  eddies,  in  swift-flowing  streams; 
roots  in  the  gravel  bottoms  like  a  hog;  and 
feeds  on  worms  and  other  bottom  bait.  It 
grows  to  the  length  of  3  feet  and  to  the  weight 
of  18  or  20  pounds,  is  a  determined  biter,  and, 
when  hooked,  a  desperate  puller.  It  is  of  little 
value  as  food. 

BARBE-MARBOIS,  Franfois  de,  count  and  mar- 
quis, a  French  statesman,  born  at  Metz,  Jan. 
31,  1745,  died  Jan.  14,  1837.  After  filling 
diplomatic  offices  at  several  German  courts, 
he  was  sent  to  the  new  government  of  the 
United  States  of  America  as  consul  general  of 
France.  He  organized  all  the  French  consul- 
ates in  this  country,  and  during  his  residence 
here  married  the  daughter  of  William  Moore, 
governor  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1785  he  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XVI.  intendant  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  introduced  many  reforms  in  the 
administration  of  justice  and  of  finance.  lie 
returned  to  France  in  1790,  and,  having  vindi- 
cated himself  from  various  accusations,  was 
again  employed  in  German  diplomacy.  In  1795 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  council  of 
elders,  but  was  soon  charged  with  a  variety 
of  offences,  and,  though  he  defended  himself 
with  spirit,  was  in  1797  exiled  to  Guiana  as  a 
friend  of  royalty.  He  was  recalled  in  1801  and 
made  director  of  the  treasury,  a  title  which  he 
soon  exchanged  for  that  of  minister  of  finance. 
In  1803  he  was  authorized  to  cede  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States  for  50,000,000  fr.,  but  had 
the  skill  to  obtain  75,000,000  fr.,  a  piece  of 
diplomacy  for  which  he  was  liberally  rewarded 
by  Napoleon.  He  was  soon  after  made  count 
of  the  empire  and  chief  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor.  In  1806  a  sudden  decline  in  the  funds 
caused  by  a  blunder  in  his  administration 
brought  about  his  disgrace,  which  was  however 
speedily  ended  by  Napoleon,  who  recognized 
and  needed  his  ability.  In  1813  he  entered 
the  senate,  and  the  next  year  voted  for  the 
deposition  of  the  emperor  and  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  He  was  well 
received  by  Louis  XVIII.,  appointed  a  peer  of 
France  and  honorary  counsellor  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  confirmed  in  the  office  of  first  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  accounts,  which  he  had 
formerly  held.  Napoleon  after  his  return  from 
Elba  ordered  him  to  leave  Paris.  He  resumed 
his  offices  on  the  return  of  the  Bourbons.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  July  he  took  the  oath  of 
fidelity  to  Louis  Philippe.  lie  wrote  Reflexions 
sur  la  colonie  de  Saint- Domingue  (1796)  ;  Corn- 
plot  (T Arnold  et  de  Sir  Henry  Clinton  centre 
les  Etrtt*-Uni»  cCAmerique  et  centre  le  Gene- 
ral Washington  (Paris,  1816);  De  la  Gvyane 
(1822) ;  Lettres  de  Madame  la  Marquise  de 
Pompadour,  with  a  memoir  (1811);  Histoire 
de  la  Louuiane  et  de  la  cession  de  cette  colonie 
par  la  France  aux  &tati-Unu  (1828);  and 
various  other  works. 


BARBER,  Francis,  the  negro  servant  and 
friend  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  born  in  Jamaica, 
probably  about  1741,  died  Feb.  13,  1801.  He 
was  taken  to  England  in  1750,  and  sent  to  a 
boarding  school  in  Yorkshire.  In  1752  he  en- 
tered Dr.  Johnson's  service,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued till  Johnson's  death,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  intervals :  in  one  of  which,  upon 
some  difference  with  his  master,  he  served  an 
apothecary  in  Cheapside;  and  in  another  he 
took  a  fancy  to  go  to  sea.  This  last  escapade 
occurred  in  1759,  and  through  Dr.  Smollett's 
interference  with  John  Wilkes,  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  admiralty,  procured  his  discharge 
(in  June,  1760),  without  any  wish  on  the  part 
of  Barber.  On  returning,  he  resumed  his  situ- 
ation with  Dr.  Johnson,  who  sent  him  to  school 
for  a  time.  It  was  owing  to  Barber's  care 
that  the  manuscript  of  Johnson's  diary  of  his 
tour  in  Wales  in  1774  was  preserved.  Dr. 
Johnson  gave  Barber  in  his  will  an  annuity  of 
£70,  and  after  the  payment  of  a  few  legacies 
made  him  residuary  legatee.  Barber's  whole 
income  from  this  bequest  amounted  to  about 
£140,  on  which,  at  Johnson's  recommendation, 
lie  retired  to  Lichfield,  and  passed  the  rest  of 
his  days  in  comfort. 

BARBER,  Francis  an  officer  in  the  American 
revolution,  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1751, 
died  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  in  April,  1783.  He 
graduated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in 
1767,  and  in  1769  became  rector  of  the  acade- 
my at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  He  gained  a  very 
high  reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  had  among 
his  pupils  Alexander  Hamilton.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  he  enlisted  with  his  two 
younger  brothers.  In  February,  1776,  he  re- 
ceived a  commission  as  major  of  the  3d  battal- 
ion of  the  New  Jersey  troops,  in  November 
of  the  same  year  was  appointed  lieutenant 
colonel  of  the  3d  Jersey  regiment,  and  in  1777 
was  named  assistant  inspector  general  under 
Baron  Steubtn.  He  served  with  his  regiment 
under  Gen.  Schuyler  in  the  northern  army, 
and  participated  in  the  battles  of  Trenton, 
Princeton,  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and 
Monmouth.  In  the  last-mentioned  action  he 
was  severely  wounded,  and  compelled  to  retire 
to  his  home  at  Elizabethtown.  There  he  made 
himself  useful  in  obtaining  intelligence  of  the 
enemy's  movements.  In  1779  he  served  as 
adjutant  general  in  Gen.  Sullivan's  campaign 
against  the  Indians,  and  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  at  Newtown.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
battle  of  Springfield,  and  in  1781,  when  the 
mutiny  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey 
troops  broke  out,  he  was  selected  by  Washing- 
ton to  suppress  the  revolt.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Yorktown,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
war  was  with  the  army  at  Newburgh.  On  the 
day  that  he  was  invited  by  Washington  to  be 
present  at  a  dinner  to  hear  the  news  of  the 
peace  he  was  killed  by  a  falling  tree. 

BARBKRIM,  an  Italian  family  of  Tuscany, 
who  settled  in  Florence  in  the  llth  century, 
and  acquired  wealth  by  trade  in  the  16th,  and 


300 


BARBERRY 


historical  importance  early  in  the  17th  century 
by  the  elevation  of  MAFFEO  BARBERINI  to  the 
papacy  under  the  name  of  Urban  VIII.  His 
brother  ANTONIO  became  cardinal,  and  his 
brother  CARLO  general  of  the  papal  troops; 
and  the  three  sons  of  the  latter  exercised  a 
vast  influence,  especially  TADDEO,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  general  of  the  papal  troops, 
and  married  Anna  Colonna.  He  acquired 
Palestrina  and  other  fiefs,  and  became  prefect 
of  Rome  in  1631  after  the  death  of  the  duke  of 
Urbino  and  the  addition  of  the  dukedom  to  the 
papal  possessions.  Other  leading  Italian  houses, 
especially  the  Farnese,  took  umbrage  at  the  in- 
creasing power  of  the  Barberini,  which  led  to 
the  Castro  war  (1641-'4)  for  the  possession 
of  Castro  and  Ronciglione,  Odoardo  Farnese, 
duke  of  Parma,  declaring  that  he  was  waging 
war  against  the  Barberini,  and  not  against  the 
pope.  Urban  VIII.  died  in  1644,  and  though 
the  election  of  his  successor  Innocent  X.  was 
due  to  the  Barberini  influence,  one  of  the  first 
measures  of  the  new  pope  was  to  institute  pro- 
ceedings against  them,  and  especially  against 
Taddeo  for  financial  mismanagement.  Taddeo 
fled  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1647. — FRAN- 
CESCO, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1597, 
died  in  1679.  He  became  cardinal  and  vice 
chancellor,  obtained  great  influence  in  the  ad- 
ministration, and  founded  with  the  aid  of  Leo 
Allazzi,  a  Greek  scholar,  the  Barberini  library. 
He,  too,  had  to  leave  Rome  after  the  accession 
of  Innocent  X.,  but  was  permitted  to  return, 
and  became  dean  of  the  sacred  college. — AN- 
TONIO, brother  of  the  preceding,  cardinal  and 
high  chamberlain  under  Urban  VIII.,  born  in 
1608,  died  in  1671.  He  held  high  ecclesiastical 
offices  in  France  through  the  favor  of  Maza- 
rin,  but  returned  to  Italy  after  his  reconciliation 
with  the  new  pope.— Over  100,000,000  scudi 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Barberini  family 
during  their  tenure  of  power.  The  Barberini 
palace,  one  of  the  largest  in  Rome,  still  attests 
their  sumptuous  and  artistic  tastes,  and  the  libra- 
ry continues  to  be  renowned  for  its  valuable 
MSS. — The  present  head  of  the  Barberini-Co- 
lonna  family  is  ENRICO,  prince  of  Palestrina, 
born  March  26,  1823,  who  married  in  1853  the 
princess  Teresa  Orsini. 

BARBERRY  (berberis),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  berberidacea,  whose  char- 
acteristics are :  6  roundish  sepals,  with  bract- 
lets  outside ;  6  obovate  petals,  with  2  glandu- 
lar spots  inside;  6  stamens;  alternate,  ovate, 
serrated,  and  pointed  leaves ;  a  shrubby  habit, 
with  yellow  wood  and  inner  bark ;  yellow 
flowers  in  drooping  racemes ;  and  sour  berries 
and  leaves.  The  stamens  have  a  remarkable 
irritability,  so  that  when  the  filament  is  touched 
on  the  inside  with  the  point  of  a  needle,  they 
throw  themselves  quickly  forward  upon  the 
stigma;  the  petals  also  follow  them  in  this 
movement.  This  phenomenon  is  best  observed 
in  mild  and  dry  weather,  and  can  rarely  be 
Been  after  the  stamens  have  been  dashed  against 
each  other  by  a  violent  wind  or  rain.  The 


genus  comprises  about  50  species,  which  are 
found  in  various  regions  from  China  to  Mexico ; 
several  of  them  are  evergreens,  and  most  of 
them  are  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.  B. 
vulgaris,  or  common  barberry,  has  thorns  tipun 
the  branches,  obovate-oblong,  bristly  toothed 
leaves  in  rosettes  or  fascicles,  drooping  many- 
flowered  racemes,  and  scarlet  oblong  berries. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  has  become  naturalized  and 
thoroughly  wild  in  the  thickets  and  waste 
grounds  of  eastern  New  England.  In  the 
north  of  Europe  it  prefers  the  valleys,  but  in 
the  south  it  grows  on  mountains,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  hardy  of  Alpine  shrubs.  In  Italy  it 
attains  a  height  of  from  4  to  6  ft.,  and  fives  for 
centuries.  B.  Canadensis,  or  American  bar- 
berry, is  a  shrub  from  1  to  3  ft.  high,  with 
leaves  less  sharply  pointed  and  racemes  with 
fewer  flowers  than  the  preceding,  and  is  found 
on  the  Alleghanies  of  Virginia  and  southward. 
B.  aquifolium,  a  native  of  western  North 
America,  has  shining  evergreen  pinnated  leaves, 


Barberry  (Berberis  vulgarls). 

and  deep  violet  or  red  berries,  and  is  often  cul- 
tivated for  its  beauty.  There  are  several  other 
Asiatic  and  American  species  which  are  among 
the  most  hardy  ornaments  of  gardens. — Near- 
ly all  the  parts  of  this  plant  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose. The  inner  bark  and  the  root,  with  the 
aid  of  alum,  furnish  an  excellent  yellow  dye 
for  coloring  linen  and  leather.  Its  leaves  are 
cropped  by  cows  and  sheep.  It  is  probably  by 
reason  of  its  yellow  color  that  it  has  been  es- 
teemed good  for  the  jaundice,  the  same  having 
been  fancied  also  of  the  dock  and  carrot ;  but 
the  bitterness  and  astringency  of  the  bark  have 
made  it  valued  as  a  medicine.  The  berries  are 
so  acid  that  birds  refuse  to  eat  them ;  but  when 
prepared  with  sugar,  they  make  delicious  and 
healthful  preserves,  sirups,  and  comfits.  It- 
has  been  a  very  general  opinion  that  barberry 
bushes  cause  blight  to  wheat  sown  in  their  vi- 


BARBES 


BARBOTJ 


301 


cinity ;  but  if  this  be  true,  it  has  not  been  ac- 
counted for. 

UAKBKS.  Armand,  a  French  revolutionist,  born 
at  Pointe-a-Pitre,  Guadeloupe,  Sept.  18,  1809, 
died  at  the  Hague,  June  26,  1870.  He  went 
to  southern  France  as  an  infant,  and  was  edu- 
cated for  the  bar.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
who  left  him  a  large  fortune,  he  went  to  Paris 
(1830),  where  he  soon  became  conspicuous  as 
a  member  of  secret  political  societies.  He 
was  imprisoned  for  several  months  in  1834  on 
charges  which  were  not  substantiated.  In  1 835 
he  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  complicity  in 
Fieschi's  attempt  at  regicide,  and  soon  after- 
ward sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment  for 
secretly  making  gunpowder.  In  1839  he  was 
sentenced  to  death  as  ringleader  of  an  insurrec- 
tion which  resulted  in  the  murder  of  Lieut. 
Drouineau ;  but  his  life  was  spared,  and  during 
his  imprisonment  he  wrote  Deux  jours  de  con- 
damnation  a  mart  (Paris,  1848;  2d  ed.,  with  a 
letter  of  Louis  Blanc).  He  recovered  his  liberty 
after  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  elected  to 
the  constituent  assembly.  For  a  new  attempt 
at  insurrection  in  May  of  that  year,  with  Hu- 
bert, Raspail,  and  Blanqui,  he  was  sentenced  to 
perpetual  imprisonment  at  Belle-Isle-en-Mer. 
He  refused  to  accept  a  pardon  from  the  empe- 
ror Napoleon  in  1854,  and  being  turned  out  of 
prison  he  went  to  Paris  and  asked  permission 
to  return  to  jail ;  but  this  being  declined,  he 
went  to  Spain,  and  afterward  to  Holland. 

BARBEYRAC,  Jean,  a  French  jurist,  born  at 
Beziers,  March  15,  1674,  died  March  3,  1744. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinist  minister,  and  on 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  taken 
to  Switzerland  and  educated  there.  He  taught 
at  Berlin  and  Lausanne,  and  finally  settled  at 
Groningen  as  a  professor  of  international  law. 
He  is  best  known  for  his  translations  from  the 
Latin  writings  on  public  law  of  Grotius,  Pn- 
fendorf,  and  others,  with  commentaries.  He 
also  published  a  supplement  to  the  Grand  corps 
diplomatique,  with  notes  (5  vols.  fol.,  Amster- 
dam, 1739),  and  a  Traite  dujeu  (2d  ed.,  1737). 

BARBIE   Dl    BOCAGE,  Jean  Denis,  a  French 

Geographer,  born  in  Paris,  April  28,  1760, 
led  Dec.  28,  1825.  He  was  a  pupil  of  D'An- 
ville.  He  classified  the  documents  brought  by 
Choiseul-Gouffler  from  Greece,  and  attended 
from  1782  to  1824  to  the  publication  of  the 
Voyage  pittoresyue  de  la  Grece,  which  he  illus- 
trated with  many  valuable  maps.  Meanwhile 
he  drew  up  the  maps  attached  to  Barthelemy's 
"Travels  of  Anacharsis,"  published  in  1788. 
In  1807  he  completed  an  excellent  map  of  the 
Morea,  and  wrote  a  curious  Notice  sur  vn 
manuscrit  de  la  bibliotheque  du  prince  de  Tal- 
leyrand, wherein  he  attempted  to  demonstrate 
that  the  eastern  coast  of  Australia  had  been 
visited  by  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  1525. 

BARBIER.  I.  Antoine  Alexandra,  a  French  bib- 
liographer, born  at  Coulommiers,  Jan.  11,  1765, 
died  in  Paris  in  December,  1825.  He  studied 
at  the  college  of  Meaux  and  took  orders,  but 
afterward  renounced  the  priesthood  and  mar- 


ried. He  removed  to  Paris  in  1794,  and  was 
commissioned  to  collect  the  books  and  works 
of  art  belonging  to  the  abolished  convents,  in 
order  to  place  them  in  the  ne  ivly  created  pub- 
lic establishments.  In  1798  he  became  librarian 
to  the  directory.  Napoleon  in  1807  made  him 
his  private  librarian.  In  this  capacity  it  was 
his  duty  to  make  reports  on  the  most  impor- 
tant works  that  were  published.  The  libraries 
of  the  Louvre,  Compiegue,  and  Fontainebleau 
were  made  up  by  him.  After  the  return  of  the 
Bourbons  he  was  superintendent  of  the  private 
royal  libraries  till  1822,  when  he  was  suddenly 
discharged.  His  Noutelle  libliotheque  (fun 
homme  de  gout  gives  excellent  directions  for 
collecting  a  good  library,  and  his  Dictionnaire 
des  outrages  anonymes  et  pseudonymes  is  full 
of  research,  able  criticism,  and  curious  learning. 
He  wrote  many  tracts  and  pamphlets  on  biblio- 
graphical subjects.  II.  KilniiiiKl  Jean  Franfols,  a 
French  jurist,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  16,  1689, 
died  Jan.  29,  1771.  Hie  principal  claim  to  at- 
tention is  founded  on  his  interesting  Journal 
Tiutorique  et  anecdotique  du  regne  de  Louis 
XV.  (Paris,  1856),  embracing  a  period  of  44 
years,  from  1718  to  1762.  It  narrates  many 
facts  not  found  in  the  newspapers  of  the  time. 
III.  Henri  Anguste,  a  French  satirical  poet,  born 
in  Paris,  April  28,  1805.  He  was  a  jawyer,  and 
his  first  poem,  a  satire  called  La  curee,  published 
just  after  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  created  a 
remarkable  sensation  by  its  boldness,  original- 
ity, and  roughness  of  language.  Several  oth- 
er poems  of  the  same  kind  appeared  in  quick 
succession,  La  popularite  and  L'Idole  among 
the  number.  They  were  collected,  under  the 
title  lambes,  in  a  volume  which  was  eagerly 
sought  for.  His  popularity  afterward  declined. 
II  Pianto  and  Lazare  obtained  but  moderate 
praise.  His  later  works  have  been  neglected ; 
and  it  has  even  been  questioned  whether  he 
wrote  the  brilliant  satires  attributed  to  him  in 
his  youth.  He  translated  Shakespeare's  "  Julius 
Cfflsar"  in  1848.  His  latest  works  are  Silnes 
(1864)  and  Trois  passions  (1867).  He  was  cho- 
sen to  the  French  academy  in  1869.  IV.  Paul 
.liili>,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1822.  His  first  drama  was  Le  Po'ete,  produced 
with  success  at  the  Theatre  Francais  in  1847. 
He  afterward  wrote  Amour  et  lergerie  (1848), 
Andre  Chenier  (1849),  Les  derniers  adieux 
(1851),  La  loterie  du  mariaye  (1868),  Jeanne 
ff  Arc  (1869),  and  many  other  dramas,  come- 
dies, vaudevilles,  &e. ;  and  in  1849  he  became 
associated  with  M.  Carre  in  furnishing  Gounod 
with  the  texts  for  Faust,  Romeo  et  Juliette,  Le 
Medecin  malgre  lui,  and  La  reine  de  Saba ; 
Ambroise  Thomas  with  Hamlet,  Mignon,  and 
Psyche ;  Victor  Mass6  with  Galathee  and  Lea 
noces  de  Jeannette ;  and  Meyerbeer  with  L( 
pardon  de  Ploermel. 

BARBIERI,  Giovanni  Franeesco.   See  GUERCINO. 

BARBOU,  the-  name  of  a  family  of  French 
printers,  distinguished  for  the  correctness  and 
elegance  of  their  work.  The  first  was  JEAN, 
who  in  1539  printed  at  Lyons  a  very  correct 


302 


BARBOUE 


BAECA 


edition  of  the  works  of  Clement  Marot.  His 
son  HUGUES  established  himself  at  Limoges, 
and  in  1580  printed  a  fine  edition  of  Cicero's 
epistles  to  Atticus.  The  first  in  Paris  was 
JEAN  JOSEPH,  who  was  licensed  as  a  bookseller 
in  1704,  and  died  in  1752.  His  brother  JOSEPH 
was  licensed  as  a  bookseller  in  1717  and  as  a 
printer  in  1723,  and  died  in  1737.  His  widow 
carried  on  the  printing  office  till  1750,  when 
she  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  JOSEPH 
GERARD,  born  in  1715,  who  had  become  a 
bookseller  in  1743.  His  name  was  attached  to 
a  celebrated  collection  of  Latin  classics  in 
12mo,  commenced  on  the  suggestion  of  Len- 
glet-Dufresnoy  in  1743  to  replace  the  Elzevir 
editions,  then  becoming  rare,  and  the  publica- 
tion of  which  was  assumed  by  Barbou  in 
1755,  when  18  volumes  had  appeared.  To 
these  he  added  42  volumes  of  classics,  and 
many  of  other  works  in  the  same  style.  He 
transferred  his  interest  to  his  nephew  HUGUES 
in  1789,  and  died  in  1813.  Hugues  died  in 
1808,  when  the  business  passed  into  other 
hands,  who  continued  the  collection. 

BARBOl'R,  the  name  of  counties  in  three  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  West 
Virginia ;  area,  330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,312,  of  whom  386  were  colored.  Its  sur- 
face is  hilly,  and  its  soil  very  fertile,  and  well 
adapted  for  grazing.  It  is  drained  by  the 
constituents  of  the  east  fork  of  the  Mononga- 
hela  river.  Bituminous  coal  and  iron  ore  are 
found,  and  salt  mines  have  been  opened.  In 
1870  the  chief  productions  were  42,305  bushels 
of  wheat,  173,195  of  Indian  corn,  43,367  of 
oats,  10,803  tons  of  hay,  and  81,973  Ibs.  of 
wool.  Capital,  Philippi.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Alabama,  bounded  E.  by  the  Chattahoochee 
river,  which  separates  it  from  Georgia;  area, 
about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,309,  of  whom 
17,165  were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face, partly  covered  with  forests  of  pine.  The 
soil  in  the  valleys  of  the  streams  is  fertile,  and 
suitable  for  Indian  corn  and  cotton.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  364,304  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  42,734  of  sweet  potatoes,  17,011 
bales  of  cotton,  and  25,738  gallons  of  molasses. 
Capital,  Clayton.  III.  A  S.  county  of  Kansas, 
not  yet  settled,  bordering  on  Indian  territory ; 
area,  780  sq.  m.  The  Nescatunga  river,  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Arkansas,  intersects  the  S.  W.  cor- 
ner, and  a  branch  of  the  former  also  drains  the 
N.  and  E.  portions  of  the  county. 

BARBOl'R,  James,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Orange  county,  Va.,  June  10,  1775,  died 
June  8,  1842.  While  very  young  he  served  as 
a  deputy  sheriff,  and  at  the  age  of  19  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
legislature  of  Virginia  from  1796  to  1812,  when 
he  became  governor  of  the  state.  After  serv- 
ing two  terms  in  this  office  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  senate  (1815),  where  for  sev- 
eral sessions  he  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  relations.  He  remained  in  the  sen- 
ate till  1825,  when  President  John  Quincy 
Adams  appointed  him  secretary  of  war.  In 


1828  he  became  minister  to  England,  but  was 
recalled  the  next  year  by  President  Jackson, 
of  whose  administration  and  that  of  Mr.  Van 
Buren  he  was  a  vigorous  opponent.  In  1839 
he  presided  at  the  Ilarrisburg  convention,  which 
nominated  Gen.  Harrison  for  president. 

BARBOl'R,  John,  a  Scottish  poet  and  histo- 
rian, born  in  Aberdeen  about  1320,  died  about 
1396.  Little  is  known  of  his  early  life.  He 
was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  by 
David  II.  in  1356.  He  made  two  visits  to  Ox- 
ford by  royal  permission  for  the  purpose  of 
studying,  and  in  1368  obtained  a  passport  to 
France  for  a  similar  object.  At  one  time  he 
was  one  of  the  auditors  of  the  exchequer  for 
King  Robert  II.  The  work  which  has  made 
his  name  famous  is  his  poem  of  "The  Bruce," 
a  history  of  the  life  and  deeds  of  Robert  Bruce. 
He  is  known  to  have  also  written  a  metrical 
romance,  now  lost,  called  "The  Brute,"  on 
the  mythical  Brutus  the  Trojan.  Barbour  re- 
ceived two  pensions,  one  charged  on  the  cus- 
toms of  Aberdeen  for  life,  and  another  in  per- 
petuity from  the  borough  rents,  recorded  as  a 
reward  for  the  production  of  "The  Brute." 
At  his  death  he  assigned  the  latter  to  the  chap- 
ter of  the  cathedral  church  of  Aberdeen,  to  pay 
for  an  annual  mass  for  his  soul.  The  first  known 
printed  edition  of  "The  Bruce"  is  that  of  1616 
(Edinburgh),  but  there  is  believed  to  have  been 
an  earlier  one.  The  best  of  the  later  editions 
is  that  of  Dr.  Jamieson  (4to,  Edinburgh,  1820). 

BARBY,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Saxony,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  15m.  S.  E.  of  Magdeburg;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,212.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  woollens  and  linens.  The 
Moravians  in  1749  established  at  Barby  a 
Padagogivm  (educational  institution),  which 
in  1809  was  transferred  to  Niesky  in  Lusatia. 
The  town  has  a  normal  school  and  a  hospital 
for  the  blind.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
counts  of  Barby,  who  became  extinct  in  1659. 

BARCA,  a  country  of  Africa,  bounded  N.  by 
the  Mediterranean,  E.  by  Egypt,  W.  by  the 
gulf  of  Sidra  or  Great  Syrtis,  S.  by  the  Libyan 
desert.  It  lies  between  lat.  29°  and  33°  N., 
Ion.  20°  and  25°  E.,  and  corresponds  nearly  to 
the  ancient  Cyrenaica,  although  the  bounda- 
ries are  not  clearly  defined.  The  population  is 
estimated  at  about  400,000,  mostly  nomadic 
Arabs  and  Berbers.  The  northwestern  portion 
is  elevated,  has  a  healthy  climate,  and  many 
fertile  tracts  producing  rice,  grain,  dates,  olives, 
sugar,  tobacco,  saffron,  and  senna;  it  is  well 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  grapes.  The  eastern 
and  southern  portions  are  sandy,  gradually 
merging  in  the  desert.  The  horses  of  the  coun- 
try are  of  a  famous  breed ;  there  are  sheep 
of  the  fat-tailed  species,  camels,  and  buffaloes. 
Barca  is  governed  by  its  beys,  who  are  trib- 
utary to  the  bey  of  Tripoli.  It  was  an  early 
colony  of  the  Greeks;  it  afterward  became 
subject  to  Egypt,  and  still  later  a  province  of 
the  Byzantine  empire.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  in  641.  The  most  important  towns 


BARCA 


BARCELONA 


303 


are  Benghazi  (anc.  Berenice),  and  Derne  (anc. 
Darnis).     (See  CYEENAIOA.) 

BARCA,  or  Barce,  an  ancient  inland  city  of 
Cyrenaica,  founded  by  revolted  Cyrenseans 
and  Libyans  about  554  B.  0.  Arcesilaus  II., 
king  of  Cyrene,  was  signally  defeated  in  an  at- 
tempt to  punish  this  secession,  and  the  power 
of  Barca  was  soon  extended  to  the  seacoast 
and  W.  toward  Carthage.  About  514  B.  C. 
Arcesilaus  III.  of  Cyrene,  having  taken  refuge 
with  his  father-in-law  Alazir,  king  of  Barca, 
was  slain  by  the  citizens.  His  mother  Phere- 
tima  induced  the  Persian  satrap  of  Egypt  to 
besiege  Barca,  and  after  it  was  captured  caused 
numbers  of  the  citizens  to  be  crucified  around 
the  walls,  on  which  she  fixed  as  bosses  the 
breasts  of  their  wives.  Many  others  were 
made  slaves  and  removed  to  Bactria.  Under 
the  Ptolemies  most  of  the  remaining  inhabi- 
tants were  removed  to  the  new  city  of  Ptole- 


mais  (now  Tolmeta)  on  the  coast.  The  old 
town  was  still  in  existence  in  the  2d  century 
of  our  era,  and  its  ruins  are  now  traced  near 
the  village  of  Merjeh. 

BARCA,  or  liarcas  an  epithet  applied  to  Ha- 
milcar  and  other  Carthaginian  generals,  and 
supposed  to  signify  "lightning,"  like  the  He- 
brew Barak. 

BARCELONA.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in 
Catalonia,  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean; 
area,  2,983  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  749,143.  It 
is  less  mountainous  and  better  cultivated,  more 
densely  peopled,  and  in  general  more  flourish- 
ing than  any  other  Catalonian  province.  The 
Llobregat,  its  principal  river,  intersects  it  N.  and 
S.  It  is  traversed  by  several  railways,  and  has 
good  roads.  Its  chief  products  are  gram,  oil, 
wine,  fruit,  hemp,  silk,  iron,  copper,  and  coal ; 
there  are  several  salt  mines  and  numerous 
mineral  springs.  II.  A  city  and  seaport,  cap- 


Barcelona. 


ital  of  the  above  described  province,  situated 
in  lat.  41°  21'  K,  Ion.  2°  10'  E.,  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, 315  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Madrid,  in  a 
beautiful  plain  between  the  rivers  Besos  and 
Llobregat,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Monjuich  (the 
Mons  Jovis  of  the  Romans,  the  Mons  Jndaicus 
of  the  middle  ages,  so  named  because  it  was 
then  inhabited  by  the  Jews);  pop.  in  1864, 
190,000;  in  1868,  including  the  large  suburb 
of  Barceloneta,  167,095.  The  diminution  is  as- 
cribed to  the  mortality  caused  by  the  cholera 
of  1865,  and  the  removal  of  much  of  the  manu- 
facturing industry  beyond  the  municipal  boun- 
dary. It  is  the  most  flourishing,  and  after 
Madrid  the  most  populous  city  in  Spain,  the 
great  manufacturing  and  commercial  emporium, 
and  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  peninsula. 
The  harbor  is  formed  by  a  huge  mole,  running 
72  VOL.  n.— 20 


southward  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
shore ;  the  depth  of  water  within  the  mole  is 
20  ft.  The  fort  of  Monjuich,  south  of  the 
town,  stands  upon  the  isolated  hill  of  that 
name,  752  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
commands  the  city,  the  citadel,  and  the  port, 
and  is  considered  by  the  Spaniards  to  be  im- 
pregnable. The  citadel,  N.  E.  of  the  town,  is 
a  regular  fortress  built  on  the  system  of  Vau- 
ban.  There  are  also  walls,  ditches,  and  bat- 
teries. Barcelona  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  and 
the  seat  of  an  audiencia.  It  has  a  university 
established  in  1450,  several  commercial  acade- 
mies, and  many  civil,  military,  art,  and  benevo- 
lent institutions,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
junta  de  comercio,  or  board  of  trade,  which 
supports  professorships  of  navigation,  architec- 
ture, chemistry,  experimental  philosophy,  agri- 


304 


BARCELONA 


culture,  commerce,  mechanics,  and  foreign 
languages.  The  city  is  generally  well  built; 
the  houses  in  the  newer  part  are  mostly  of 
brick  four  or  five  stories  high,  with  ornamented 
balconies.  The  principal  streets  are  long,  wide, 
well  paved,  and  lighted.  In  the  older  portion 
the  streets  are  narrower,  and  crooked,  but 
picturesque.  Foremost  among  its  numerous 
promenades  is  the  Rambla  (so  called  from  the 
Arabic  raml,  sand,  applied  to  a  dry  river  bed, 
used  as  a  road).  There  is  also  a  fine  prom- 
enade around  the  ramparts,  with  pleasant 
views  toward  the  sea.  Among  the  churches 
are  the  cathedral,  a  fine  structure,  which  the 
Moors  converted  into  a  mosque;  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  del  Mar,  erected  on  the  site 
of  a  chapel  of  the  Goths,  the  rebuilding  of 
which  was  begun  in  1328,  and  completed  in 
1483 ;  and  the  church  of  San  Cucufat,  erected 
on  the  spot  where  its  patron  saint  was  mar- 
tyred. Other  public  buildings  are  the  casa 
consistorial  and  casa  de  la  deputacion,  the 
casa  lonja  or  exchange,  and  the  palace  of  the 
captain  general.  There  are  many  Roman  an- 
tiquities, but  mostly  in  fragments. — The  com- 
merce and  manufactures  of  Barcelona  have 
received  a  great  impulse  since  1860.  Many 
large  manufacturing  establishments,  especially 
of  silk  and  cotton,  have  sprung  up.  In  1865 
there  were  7  banking  companies,  10  marine 
insurance  companies,  5  railway  companies,  4 
steam  navigation  companies,  3  canal  com- 
panies, and  3  gas  companies.  The  bank  of 
Barcelona,  founded  in  1844,  has  a  capital  of 
80,000,000  reals  ($10,000,000),  of  which  20,- 
000,000  has  been  paid  up.  Railways  are  being 
gradually  extended  from  Barcelona  into  the 
interior.  The  principal  exports  are  silks  and 
cotton  goods,  paper,  hats,  laces,  ribbons,  soap, 
steel,  and  firearms.  The  principal  imports  are 
raw  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other 
colonial  products,  mainly  from  Cuba  and  Por- 
to Rico ;  salted  fish,  hides,  and  horns.  Iron 
and  coal,  machinery  and  hardware,  have  lately 
been  largely  imported  from  England.  Most 
kinds  of  manufactured  goods  are  prohibited, 
but  they  are  smuggled  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. The  coastwise  trade  is  also  very  con- 
siderable. In  1863  the  imports  at  Barcelona 
were  $50,734,079;  the  exports,  $16,864,490; 
ealue  of  imports,  $41,849,940 ;  of  exports,  $72,- 
420,770. — Barcelona,  according  to  tradition, 
was  founded  by  Hercules  400  years  before  the 
building  of  Rome.  It  was  reestablished  or,  ac- 
cording to  more  trustworthy  accounts,  founded 
by  Hamilcar  Barca,  the  father  of  Hannibal,  who 
called  it  Barcino,  whence  comes  its  present 
name.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians, it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  who 
made  it'  a  colony,  known  also  under  the  name 
of  Faventia.  In  the  5th  century  it  was  taken 
by  the  Goths;  in  the  7th  century  by  the 
Arabs,  from  whom  it  was  reconquered  about 
800  by  the  Christians,  aided  by  Charlemagne. 
It  was  then  governed  until  the  12th  century  by 
counts,  who  were  really  independent,  though 


nominally  subject  to  the  Carlovingian  kings.  It 
subsequently  became  attached  to  the  kingdom 
of  Aragon,  preserving  however  its  most  impor- 
tant municipal  privileges.  During  this  period 
the  Barcelonians  competed  with  the  Italians 
for  the  commerce  of  the  Levant,  and  were 
among  the  first  to  establish  consuls  and  facto- 
ries in  distant  parts  for  the  protection  of  their 
trade.  The  famous  code  of  maritime  law 
known  as  the  Consolato  del  Mar  is  said  to  have 
been  compiled  and  promulgated  at  Barcelona. 
Marine  insurance  and  the  negotiation  of  bills 
of  exchange  were  practised  here  at  an  early 
date.  In  1640  Barcelona  rose  against  the  tyr- 
anny of  Philip  IV.,  and  threw  herself  into  the 
arms  of  France.  It  was  retaken  in  1652.  In 
1697  it  was  captured  by  the  French,  but  re- 
stored to  Spain  in  the  same  year.  During  the 
war  of  the  succession,  it  espoused  the  cause  of 
Austria.  In  1706  it  was  captured  by  the  Span- 
iards and  English  under  the  earl  of  Peter- 
borough. In  1714  it  was  bombarded  and  taken 
by  the  French,  under  the  command  of  the  duke 
of  Berwick.  In  1808  it  was  taken  by  Napoleon, 
who  held  it  till  1814.  In  1842  it  revolted 
against  the  queen  of  Spain,  and  was  bombard- 
ed and  taken  by  Espartero  in  December.  An- 
other insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  June, 
1843,  was  suppressed,  after  a  bombardment,  in 
November,  and  another,  in  July,  1856,  after 
a  few  days,  but  with  considerable  bloodshed. 
Several  minor  popular  movements  took  place 
both  before  and  after  the  fall  of  Queen  Isa- 
bella. 

BARCELONA.  I.  A  N.  state  of  Venezuela, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Caribbean  sea  and  S.  by 
the  river  Orinoco;  area,  13,800  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  78, 600.  Except  a  belt  of  hills  that  border 
the  coast,  where  there  are  excellent  arable 
lands,  and  the  best  plantations  in  the  state,  the 
face  of  the  country  is  composed  of  low  plains 
and  extensive  plateaus,  offering  fine  pasturage 
for  cattle,  horses,  and  mules.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Neveri,  Pao,  and  Unare.  Cacao,  cof- 
fee, sugar  cane,  cotton,  maize,  cocoanuts,  and 
tropical  fruits  are  largely  produced.  The  state 
is  divided  into  8  cantons.  II.  A  city,  formerly 
called  New  Barcelona,  capital  of  the  state, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Neveri,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  a  wooden  bridge,  about 
3  m.  from  the  sea,  and  160  m.  E.  of  Carac- 
as ;  pop.  about  6,000  (in  1800,  16,000)  half 
colored.  It  was  founded  in  1637  by  Juan  Ur- 
pin  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  Santo,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  its  present  site  in  1671  by 
Sancho  Fernando  de  Agula.  The  city  has  been 
nearly  ruined  by  war  and  revolution.  There 
is  a  church  and  several  schools.  The  houses 
are  mostly  of  mud,  ill  constructed  and  poorly 
furnished ;  and  the  streets  are  unpaved  and  in 
rainy  weather  extremely  filthy,  while  in  dry 
weather  the  dust  is  intolerable.  The  harbor 
and  shipping  are  protected  by  a  fortress,  on  a 
hill  400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
climate,  owing  to  the  excessive  heat  and  moist- 
ure of  the  air,  is  exceedingly  insalubrious,  and 


BARCKHAUSEN 


BARCLAY 


305 


the  city  is  said  by  Humboldt  to  be  one  of  the  j 
most  unhealthy  places  on  the  globe.     The  sur- 
rounding country  is  very  fertile.     Barcelona  ' 
exports  horned  cattle,  jerked  beef,  hides,  in-  j 
digo,  annotto,  cotton,  and  cacao. 

BAKCKHAISEJV,  or  ItarHinsoii,  Johaiin  kourail, 
a  German  physician  and  chemist,  born  at  Horn,  j 
in  Westphalia,  March  16,   1666,  died  Oct.  1,  | 
1723.     He  studied  medicine  and  pharmacy  at  j 
Berlin,  Mentz,  and  Vienna,  and  afterward  ac- 
companied the  Venetian  troops  into  the  Mo- 
rea.     In  1703  he  was  made  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  Utrecht.     He  wrote  several  treatises 
on  chemistry,  embodying  the  result  of  impor- 
tant researches,   a  history   of  medical   sects, 
Collecta  Medicirue  Practices  generalis  (Am- 
sterdam, 1715),  &c. 

BARCLAY,  Alexander,  an  English  poet,  born  in  , 
the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  whether  i 
in  England  or  Scotland  is  uncertain,  died  at  ! 
Croydon  in  June,  1552.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  travelled  through  Europe,  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  several  languages,  became  a  Ben- 
edictine and  afterward  a  Franciscan,  and  was 
a  monk  at  Ely  when  that  monastery  was  sup- 
pressed in  1539.  He  became  vicar  of  Great 
Badow  in  Essex  and  of  Wokey  in  Somerset- 
shire, and  finally  rector  of  All  Saints  in  Lom- 
bard street,  London,  complying  probably  with 
the  new  ecclesiastical  order.  His  most  noted 
work  is  "  The  Ship  of  Fools,"  based  on  Brant's 
Narrenschiff.  It  was  printed  by  Pynson  in 
1509.  His  "  Egloges  "  are  noted  as  the  earli- 
est specimens  of  English  pastoral  poetry.  He 
also  wrote  "  The  Castle  of  Labour,"  printed  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1506,  and  "  The  Myrrour 
of  Good  Manners,"  besides  some  lives  of  saints, 
a  work  on  French  pronunciation,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Sallust's  "Jugurthine  War."  He 
possessed  a  culture  and  refinement  unusual  in 
his  day,  and  did  much  to  revive  a  taste  for 
literature,  which  was  then  at  a'  low  ebb. 

BARCLAY,  John,  a  Scottish  anatomist,  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1760,  died  in  Edinburgh  in  1826. 
He  studied  divinity  at  the  united  college  of 
St.  Andrews,  was  licensed  as  a  preacher,  vis- 
ited Edinburgh  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir 
James  Campbell,  where  he  commenced  the 
study  of  anatomy,  acted  as  assistant  to  Mr. 
John  Bell,  and  graduated  in  1796,  when  he 
went  to  London  and  studied  under  Dr.  Mar- 
shall. On  his  return  to  Edinburgh  in  1797,  he 
gave  lectures  on  anatomy.  He  published  sev- 
eral works  on  anatomy,  and  made  some  efforts 
toward  reforming  the  system  of  anatomical 
nomenclature.  He  bequeathed  his  valuable 
anatomical  collection  to  the  royal  college  of 
surgeons  6f  Edinburgh,  where  it  is  known  as 
the  Barclayan  museum. 

BARCLAY,  John,  an  English  Latin  author,  son 
of  William  Barclay,  born  at  Pont-a-Mousson, 
France,  Jan.  28,  1582,  died  in  Rome,  Aug.  12, 
1621.  Ho  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits'  college 
of  Pont-a-Mousson,  and  the  Jesuits  endeavored 
to  induce  him  to  join  their  order ;  but  his 
father  refused  to  give  his  consent  and  took 


him  to  England  in  1603.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  following  year  he  presented  James  I.  with 
a  Latin  poem  entitled  Kalendm  Januaria,  and 
afterward  dedicated  to  him  the  first  part  of 
Euphormionis  Lusinii  Satyricon.  He  was  not 
successful  in  obtaining  preferment  in  England 
on  account  of  being  a  Catholic,  and  returned 
more  than  once  to  France,  and  married  there. 
He  resided  in  England  from  1606  to  1615.  In 
1609  he  published  his  father's  work  De  Potes- 
tate  Papce.  This  was  attacked  by  Cardinal 
Bellarmin,  and  John  Barclay  published  a  large 
volume  in  Latin  in  answer  to  the  cardinal,  to 
which  a  reply  was  made  by  the  Jesuit  Eudse- 
mon.  The  fourth  part  of  the  Satyricon  was 
published  in  1614.  It  is  a  satirical  romance 
directed  against  the  Jesuits.  His  resources  in 
England  being  scanty,  he  went  to  Paris  in 
1615  and  remained  there  until  the  following 
year,  when  he  removed  to  Rome  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Pope  Paul  V.  He  published  at  Rome  an 
Apologia  pro  se  (often  printed  with  the  Saty- 
ricon), in  which  he  defended  himself  against 
the  charges  of  heresy  brought  against  him  by 
the  Jesuits,  and  his  ParcenesU  ad  Sectarian. 
He  was  treated  with  great  kindness  at  Rome, 
but  not  obtaining  any  appointment  devoted 
himself  to  literary  pursuits  and  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  flowers.  He  shared  in  the  passion  for 
the  tulip  which  then  began  to  spread  through- 
out Europe.  Here  he  composed  the  Argenis 
(London,  1621),  his  most  celebrated  work,  a 
prose  romance  in  Latin,  in  which  political  ques- 
tions are  discussed  with  great  spirit  and  origi- 
nality in  feigned  dialogue.  This  book  was  a 
favorite  with  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Leibnitz, 
was  more  read  than  any  other  work  of  its  day, 
and  has  been  translated  into  almost  every  lan- 
guage of  Europe.  Its  Latin  style  is  highly 
praised  by  Grotius. 

BARCLAY,  or  Barclay-Allardiee,  Robert,  com- 
monly known  as  Captain  Barclay,  a  British 
pedestrian  and  a  captain  in  the  British  army, 
born  Aug.  25,  1779,  died  May  8,  1854.  His 
father,  a  skilful  farmer,  descended  from  the 
famous  Quaker,  Barclay  of  Ury,  was  himself  a 
noted  pedestrian,  having  walked  510  miles  in 
10  days.  His  son  at  the  age  of  15  won  his  first 
match,  walking  6  miles  within  an  hour.  In 
December,  1799,  he  walked  150  miles  in  two 
days;  in  June,  1800,  300  miles  in  five  days; 
in  1801,  110  miles  in  19  hours  27  minutes;  and 
in  1806,  100  miles  in  19  hours,  on  a  hilly  pub- 
lic road.  One  of  his  most  surprising  perform- 
ances was  walking  1,000  miles  in  1,000  suc- 
cessive hours;  £100,000  were  staked  on  the 
result.  After  the  feat  was  accomplished,  Bar- 
clay slept  17  hours,  and  awoke  in  his  usual 
health  and  vigor.  He  afterward  trained  Tom 
Cribb,  champion  of  England,  for  his  fight  with 
Molyneux,  which  took  place  Sept.  29,  1811. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Captain  Barclay 
devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  his  pater- 
nal estate,  and  to  breeding  sheep  and  cattle. 
In  right  of  his  mother,  Sarah  Ann  Allardice,  he 
received  a  charter  of  the  barony  of  Allardice 


306 


BARCLAY 


BARD 


in  1800;  and  in  1839  lie  laid  claim  to  the  barony 
of  Airth,  as  heir  through  her  of  William  Gra- 
ham, last  earl  of  Airth  and  Monteith  (died  1694). 

BARCLAY,  Robert  (called  Barclay  of  Ury),  a 
distinguished  member  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
born  at  Gordonstown,  Scotland,  Dec.  23,  1648, 
died  at  Ury,  Oct.  13,  1690.  He  was  sent  for 
his  education  to  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris,  of 
which  one  of  his  uncles  was  rector ;  but  efforts 
having  been  made  to  convert  him  to  Catholi- 
cism, he  returned  home  about  1664.  In  1667 
he  embraced  the  principles  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  and  in  1670  vindicated  them  from 
charges  which  had  been  brought  against  them 
in  a  publication  entitled  "Truth  cleared  of 
Calumnies."  He  published  in  1676  in  Latin, 
and  in  1678  in  English,  "An  Apology  for  the 
True  Christian  Divinity,  as  the  same  is  held 
forth  and  preached  by  the  People  called  in 
scorn  Quakers."  Its  dedication  to  King  Charles 
II.  is  a  model  of  frankness  and  independence. 
It  was  the  ablest  defence  that  had  been  made 
at  that  time  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Friends, 
and  is  perhaps  the  ablest  that  has  ever  been 
made.  It  materially  affected  public  sentiment 
in  regard  to  the  Friends.  His  "  Treatise  on 
Universal  Love  "  (1677)  was  the  first  of  the 
remonstrances  which  have  been  made  by  the 
Friends  against  the  criminality  of  war.  He 
made  various  journeys  in  England,  Holland,  and 
Germany,  generally  in  company  with  William 
Penn,  for  the  propagation  of  his  doctrines,  and 
was  several  times  imprisoned  on  account  of 
them ;  but  the  English  government  upon  the 
whole  was  indulgent  toward  him.  Charles  II. 
was  his  friend,  and  in  1679  made  his  estate  of 
Ury  a  free  barony  with  the  privilege  of  crim- 
inal jurisdiction.  He  was  appointed  in  1682 
by  the  proprietors  of  East  Jersey  in  America 
governor  of  that  province,  but  he  only  exer- 
cised the  office  by  deputy. 

BARCLAY,  William,  a  Scottish  jurist,  born  in 
Aberdeenshire  in  1541  or  1546,  died  at  Angers, 
France,  in  1605.  He  studied  law  at  Bourges, 
under  Cujas,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws.  He  was  soon  after  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  civil  law  in  the  university  of  Pont- 
a-Mousson,  then  recently  founded  by  the  duke 
of  Lorraine.  He  was  also  made  counsellor  of 
state  and  master  of  requests.  Having  quar- 
relled with  the  Jesuits  on  account  of  his  refusal 
to  let  his  son  enter  the  society,  he  lost  favor, 
went  to  England,  and  was  offered  a  professor- 
ship of  law  upon  condition  that  he  would  re- 
nounce the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  This  he 
refused,  and  returned  to  France,  where  he  was 
made  professor  of  law  at  Angers.  During  the 
troubles  of  the  league  he  supported  the  royal  i 
cause  and  was  uniformly  an  opponent  of  the 
ultramontane  doctrines.  His  principal  works 
are:  De  Regno  et  Regali  Potentate  (Paris, 
1600);  a  commentary  on  the  title  of  the  Pan- 
dects De  Rebus  Creditis  et  de  Jure  Jurando ; 
and  a  treatise  De  Potentate  Papa  (London, 
1609),  in  which  the  independent  rights  of  sov- 
ereign princes  against  the  pope  are  vindicated. 


BARCLAY  DE  TOLLY,  Michael,  prince,  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  Livonia  in  1759,  died  at  Inster- 
burg  in  East  Prussia,  May  25,  1818.  He  was 
a  descendant  of  the  Scottish  Barclays.  Being 
adopted  by  Gen.  Van  Vermoulen,  he  entered 
a  Russian  regiment  of  cuirassiers  as  a  sergeant, 
and  served  with  credit  in  the  Turkish  war  of 
1788-'9,  in  the  Swedish  campaign  of  1790,  and 
in  the  campaigns  against  Poland  in  1792  and 
1794.  In  the  Polish  campaign  of  1806  he  was 
a  major  general,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Pultusk  as  the  commander  of  Benningsen's  ad- 
vance guard.  He  defended  Eylau  with  great 
bravery  in  1807,  and  there  lost  an  arm  and  won 
the  title  of  lieutenant  general.  In  1809  he 
marched  with  12,000  men  for  two  days  on  the 
ice  across  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  compelled 
the  Swedes  to  surrender  at  Umea.  He  was 
soon  after  made  governor  of  Finland,  and  in 
1810  became  minister  of  war,  in  which  office 
he  remained  three  years.  In  1812  he  took 
command  of  the  first  army  of  the  west,  the 
second  being  under  Prince  Bagration,  and  con- 
ducted the  retreat  to  Smolensk  for  the  purpose 
of  drawing  the  enemy  into  the  interior  of  the 
country.  This  retreat  and  the  loss  of  the  bat- 
tle at  Smolensk  gave  the  Russian  national  party, 
who  hated  him  as  a  foreigner,  an  opportunity 
against  him,  and  he  was  superseded  in  the 
command  by  Gen.  Kutuzoff.  He  led  the  right 
wing  on  the  Moskva,  did  brilliant  service  in 
1813  at  Bautzen,  and  was  again  placed  in 
chief  command  of  the  army.  He  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  Dresden,  Calm,  and  Leipsic, 
and  in  1814  was  made  a  prince  and  field  mar- 
shal. After  visiting  London  with  the  emperor 
Alexander,  he  returned  to  the  army  at  War- 
saw, and  remained  in  command  until  the  war 
was  over. 

BAR-COKHEBA,  or  Bar-Cothebas,  the  leader 
of  a  Jewish  insurrection  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian,  killed  A.  D.  135  or  136.  His  real 
name  is  believed  by  some  critics  to  have  been 
Simeon,  but  his  followers  called  him  Bar- 
Cokheba  (son  of  a  star),  and  applied  to  his 
appearance  the  prophecy  of  Balaam,  "There 
shall  come  a  star  out  of  Jacob,"  &c.  The 
harshness  of  the  Roman  rule  in  Judea  made 
the  people  eager  for  an  insurrection,  and  Bar- 
Cokheba  was  readily  supported  by  the  great 
rabbi  Akiba  and  his  numerous  disciples.  In 
131  he  gathered  a  large  army,  took  Jerusalem 
and  other  important  places,  proclaimed  him- 
self the  Messiah  and  ruler  of  the  Jews,  and  had 
coins  struck  in  his  own  name.  Hadrian  or- 
dered Julius  Severus  from  Britain  to  the  scene 
of  the  insurrection.  Jerusalem  was  retaken 
and  the  whole  province  desolated,  but  Bar- 
Cokheba  long  maintained  himself  at  Bethar, 
fighting  obstinately,  and  falling  when  that  for- 
tress was  finally  stormed.  All  his  prominent 
followers  were  executed.  The  insurrection 
cost  hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives,  and  was 
followed  by  greater  oppression  than  ever. 

BARD  (Cymric,  bardh  ;  Gaelic,  lard),  a  pro- 
fessional poet,  who  made  his  livelihood  by 


BARD 


307 


singing  the  amours  and  battles  of  gods,  the 
deeds  of  heroes,  the  glory  and  genealogy  of 
chiefs,  and  the  victories  of  tribes  over  their 
enemies.  Bards  were  called  aot&6i  or  rhapso- 
dists  by  the  Greeks,  vates  by  the  Latins,  scalds 
by  the  Scandinavians,  scopes  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  ollamhs  by  the  Irish,  and  baydars 
and  gpiewaks  by  the  Slavs.  In  ancient  Gaul 
they  were  a  subdivision  of  the  druids,  or  the 
priestly  and  learned  order.  Caesar  says  that 
they  spent  20  years  in  their  education,  acquir- 
ing the  knowledge  by  rote  of  an  immense 
number  of  verses,  which  they  did  not  record 
in  writing,  but  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth 
from  generation  to  generation.  After  the  sub- 
jugation of  Gaul  this  profession  was  put  under 
restrictions,  and  eventually  annihilated  by  the 
Roman  civil  power  both  in  Gaul  and  in  that 
part  of  Britain  which  fell  within  the  pale  of 
Roman  civilization.  Wales,  Cornwall,  Cumber- 
land, and  Strathclyd,  only  remotely  aifected 
by  the  Roman  conquest,  kept  alive  the  flame 
of  minstrelsy.  In  the  parish  of  Llanidan,  in 
the  isle  of  Anglesey,  are  the  remains  of  an  arch- 
druid's  palace,  surrounded  by  the  several  col- 
leges into  which  druidism  was  divided.  One 
of  these  colleges,  or  independent  buildings,  is 
called  by  the  peasantry  at  this  day  trer  beird, 
or  hamlet  of  the  bards.  Each  chief  of  a  clan 
in  Britain  had  a  bard,  whose  office  was  hered- 
itary in  the  family.  At  the  feasts  of  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  and  Whitsuntide  the  bardd  teulu, 
or  court  bard,  sat  next  to  the  master  of  the 
ceremonies,  and  received  the  steward's  robe  as 
his  fee.  The  bard  who  had  won  in  the  musical 
contest  of  the  day  was  to  sing,  first  to  the 
glory  of  God,  secondly  to  the  glory  of  the 
prince;  and  then  the  teuluier,  or  regular  court 
bard,  was  to  sing  on  the  topics  of  the  day. 
On  investment,  the  court  singer  received  a 
harp  from  the  prince  and  a  ring  of  gold  from 
the  queen.  The  pagan  tendencies  of  these 
singers  finally  led  to  their  discouragement,  and 
in  1078  Gryffyth  Conan,  prince  of  Wales, 
issued  edicts  placing  them  under  rigid  restric- 
tions. Many  of  the  Welsh  bards  abandoned 
their  profession  at  this  change,  and  their  places 
were  supplied  by  ollamhs  from  Erin,  who  in- 
troduced into  Wales  all  the  instrumental  music 
for  many  centuries  in  use  there.  In  the  edicts 
of  Conan  the  bards  were  classified  in  several 
ways:  1,  the  bards  of  the  princes  and  nobles, 
or  pruddud ;  2,  bards  of  the  middle  ranks,  or 
telmar  ;  3,  bards  for  the  lower  classes,  or  clewr. 
There  were  three  special  sub-classes,  viz.,  com- 
posers, instructors  of  the  rising  generation,  and 
heralds.  Some  professed  the  faculty  of  second 
sight,  as  diviners,  sorcerers,  interpreters  of 
dreams,  &c.  For  mutual  encouragement  and 
instruction,  public  sessions  of  .the  Welsh  bards 
(eisteddfods)  were  held  for  many  centuries  at 
the  town  of  Caerwys,  the  residence  of  the 
prince  of  Wales;  at  Aberfraw,  in  Anglesey, 
for  the  bards  of  that  island  and  the  adjoining 
county ;  and  at  Mathraval,  for  those  of  the  land 
of  Powis.  Only  minstrels  of  skill  performed, 


and  degrees  were  conferred  according  to  the 
branch  in  which  the  victors  had  perfected 
themselves.  After  the  conquest  of  Wales  by 
Edward  I.  of  England  (1282),  royal  commis- 
sioners were  appointed  who  presided  over  the 
eisteddfods,  and  acted  the  part  of  censors  and 
inquisitors.  No  bardic  poem  was  allowed  to 
be  circulated  which  appealed  to  the  patriotic 
sentiments  of  the  conquered  race.  The  story 
of  the  massacre  of  the  Welsh  bards  and  the 
destruction  of  their  records  is  a  fiction,  origi- 
nating in  Edward's  stringent  measures  against 
the  right  of  free  song.  The  last  eisteddfod 
held  under  royal  commission  was  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  at  Caerwys,  in  1569.  On  this 
occasion,  the  victor  of  the  silver  harp  was  Si- 
mon ap  Williams  ap  Sion.  Various  persons 
received  degrees,  some  as  chief  bards  of  vocal 
song,  others  as  primary,  secondary,  or  proba- 
tionary students ;  and  many  more  as  bards, 
students,  and  teachers  of  instrumental  song 
upon  the  harp.  The  degrees  were  four  in  the 
poetical  and  five  in  the  musical  faculty.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  last  century  some  patriotic 
Welsh  gentlemen  determined  to  revive  the 
eisteddfod.  In  1770  theGwyneddigion  society 
was  formed,  in  1818  the  Cambrian  society,  and 
some  years  later  the  Cymmoridian,  or  metro- 
politan Cambrian  institution,  of  which  George 
IV.  of  England  declared  himself  the  patron. 
Annual  meetings  have  since  been  held  for  the 
recitation  and  reward  of  prize  poems,  and  per- 
formances upon  the  harp.  The  above-named 
societies  have  been  instrumental  in  preserving 
relics  of  the  poems  of  Myrddyn  ap  Morfryn, 
Myrddyn  Emrys,  Talliesin,  and  other  less 
celebrated  composers  of  triads.  The  bards  of 
Ireland  formed  a  hereditary  guild,  and  were 
divided  into  three  classes,  the  filedha,  who 
sang  in  the  service  of  religion  and  in  war,  and 
were  counsellors  and  heralds  to  the  princes; 
the  breitheamhaim,  who  chanted  the  laws; 
and  the  seanaehaidhe,  who  were  chroniclers 
for  princes  and  nobles.  They  were  anciently 
held  in  high  esteem,  but  their  tendency  to 
foster  a  rebellious  spirit  led  to  their  suppres- 
sion. Turlogh  O'Carolau,  who  died  in  1737,  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  last  Irish  bard.  The 
bards  of  Scotland  are  believed  to  have  been  on 
a  similar  footing  with  those  of  Ireland,  but 
nothing  is  known  of  their  actual  history,  and 
no  remains  of  their  songs  have  been  preserved. 
BARD.  I.  John,  an  American  physician,  born 
near  Philadelphia,  Feb.  1,  1716,  died  March 
30,  1799.  He  removed  to  New  York  in  1746, 
where  he  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  physi- 
cians. In  1759,  on  the  arrival  of  a  ship  on 
board  of  which  a  malignant  fever  was  raging, 
Dr.  Bard  was  appointed  to  take  measures  to 
prevent  the  disease  from  spreading.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  the  pestilence  within  the 
limits  of  a  temporary  hospital,  but  to  guard 
against  similar  dangers  in  future,  at  his  sug- 
gestion Bedloe's  island  was  purchased,  and 
hospital  buildings  were  erected  thereon,  which 
were  placed  under  his  charge.  Upon  the  estab- 


308 


BARDAS 


BAREFOOTED   FRIARS 


lishment  of  the  New  York  medical  society  in 
1788,  he  was  elected  its  first  president.  He 
left  an  essay  on  malignant  pleurisy,  and  seve- 
ral papers  on  the  yellow  fever.  II.  Samuel, 
an  American  physician,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  April  1,  1742,  died  May 
24, 1821.  He  studied  at  King's  (now  Columbia) 
college,  New  York,  and  at  the  medical  school 
of  Edinburgh.  On  his  way  to  Edinburgh  he 
was  captured  hy  a  French  vessel,  and  was  re- 
leased by  the  influence  of  Dr.  Franklin,  who 
was  then  residing  in  London.  After  taking 
his  degree  he  travelled  through  Scotland  and 
parts  of  England,  studying  minerals,  plants, 
animals,  arts,  and  manufactures.  Returning 
to  America  in  1767,  he  entered  at  once  upon 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  New  York,  in 
partnership  with  his  father.  He  effected  the 
organization  of  a  medical  school,  which  was 
united  to  King's  college,  and  in  which  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  practice  of  physic, 
and  subsequently  became  dean  of  the  faculty. 
After  the  revolutionary  war  he  was  for  a  time 
Washington's  family  physician,  the  general 
government  being  then  in  New  York.  Through 
his  influence  a  public  hospital  was  opened  in 
New  York  in  1791,  and  he  was  appointed  its 
visiting  physician.  He  retired  in  1798  to  his 
country  seat  in  New  Jersey,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  agricultural  pursuits.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons  in  New  York.  He  left  several 
tracts  on  medical  subjects. 

BAKDAS,  a  patrician  of  Constantinople,  bro- 
ther of  Theodora,  the  wife  of  the  emperor  The- 
ophilus,  and  uncle  to  the  emperor  Michael  III., 
killed  April  21,  866.  On  the  death  of  Theophi- 
lus  (842)  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young 
prince  Michael,  in  conjunction  with  Theoctis- 
tus  and  Manuel.  He  did  much  to  revive  sci- 
ence, but  caused  Theoctistus  to  be  slain  and 
Manuel  to  be  banished,  threw  his  sister  the  em- 
press into  prison,  exiled  the  patriarch  Ignatius, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  Caesar  (856).  His  cruel- 
ty and  arrogance  raised  a  bitter  opposition,  and 
Michael  at  last  consented  to  his  assassination  by 
Basil  the  Macedonian,  afterward  emperor. 

BARDESANES,  or  Bar-Deisan,  a  Gnostic,  who 
flourished  at  Edessa,  Syria,  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  2d  century,  and  founded  a  sect  des- 
ignated as  Bardesanists.  The  common  opin- 
ion is  that  Bardesanes  was  a  disciple  of  Val- 
entine, but  Neander  thinks  that  both  Marcion 
and  Bardesanes  drew  from  the  same  fountain 
as  Valentine,  the  Syrian  Gnosticism.  From 
the  fact  that  Bardesanes  wrote  afterward 
against  the  Gnostics,  and  then,  still  later, 
showed  himself  a  Gnostic  again,  he  has  been 
accused  of  being  fickle ;  and  Eusebius  says  of 
him  that,  although  he  refuted  at  one  time  most 
of  the  opinions  of  Valentine,  "he  did  not  en- 
tirely wipe  away  the  filth  of  his  old  heresy." 
Neander  thinks  there  is  no  evidence  that  Bar- 
desanes was  other  than  a  Gnostic  in  the  whole 
of  his  career  as  a  theologian.  He  believed  the 
devil  to  be  self-existent  and  independent ;  that 


Christ  was  born  of  a  woman,  but  brought  his 
body  from  heaven ;  and  he  denied  the  resur- 
rection of  the  human  body. 

BARDILI,  Christoph  Gottfried,  a  German  meta- 
physical writer,  born  at  Blaubeuren,  in  Wurtem- 
berg,  May  28,  1761,  died  in  Stuttgart  in  1808. 
He  is  principally  known  by  his  work  on  the 
elements  of  logic,  published  in  1800,  and  di- 
rected against  the  philosophy  of  Kant.  Ho  was 
a  very  abstruse  and  obscure  writer,  but  his 
system  contains  the  germ  of  the  later  philos- 
ophy of  absolute  identity. 

i;U:ii!V  Jean,  a  French  historical  painter, 
born  at  Montbard,  Oct.  31,  1732,  died  at  Or- 
leans, Oct.  6,  1809.  He  studied  painting  in 
Rome,  and  under  Lagrenee  and  Pierre  in  Paris. 
In  1764  he  gained  the  prize  for  his  picture  of 
"Tullia  drivingover  the  Body  of  her  Father." 
lie  afterward  became  a  member  of  the  insti- 
tute and  director  of  the  school  of  fine  arts  at 
Orleans.  His  chef-d'auvre,  "  Christ  disputing 
with  the  Doctors,"  procured  him  admission  to 
the  academy  in  1795.  Among  his  pupils  were 
David  and  Regnault. 

BARDINGS,  horse  armor  of  the  middle  ages. 
See  AEMOR,  vol.  i.,  p.  734. 

BARDSTOWN,  or  Bairdstown,  a  post  town  and 
the  capital  of  Nelson  county,  Ky.,  situated  on 
an  elevated  plain  near  the  Beech  fork  of  Salt 
river,  40  m.  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Louisville,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  rail- 
road ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,835.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  theological  seminary,  and 
preparatory  seminary.  It  contains  several 
churches,  and  has  factories  of  cotton,  wool- 
len, and  other  fabrics. 

BAREBONE,  Praise  God,  an  English  fanatic  in 
the  time  of  Cromwell.  He  was  a  leather  dealer 
in  London,  and  a  conspicuous  member  of  the 
short  parliament  called  together  hy  Cromwell 
in  1653,  which  was  on  that  account  nicknamed 
Barebone's  parliament.  When  Gen.  Monk  came 
to  London,  Barebone  marched  at  the  head  of  a 
large  procession  of  the  people  and  presented  to 
parliament  a  remonstrance  against  the  restora- 
tion of  the  king.  In  1661  he  was  arrested  and 
thrown  into  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  being 
concerned  in  a  plot  against  the  government. 
He  was  afterward  released,  but  his  further 
history  is  unknown.  It  is  said  that  two  of  his 
brothers  assumed  the  names  respectively  of 
"  Christ  came  into  the  World  to  save  Bare- 
bone,"  and  "If  Christ  had  not  Died  Thou 
hadst  been  Damned  Barebone." 

BAREFOOTED  FRIARS  AND  M  \S.  religions 
orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  which 
discard  the  use  of  coverings  for  the  feet,  either 
at  all  times  or  at  special  seasons.  Thus  the 
nuns  of  our  Dear  Lady  of  Calvary  go  unshod 
from  May  1  to  Sept.  14.  Some  wear  sandals 
of  wood,  leather,  or  platted  rope,  fastened  to 
the  feet  by  thongs.  About  25  different  orders 
of  barefooted  friars  and  nuns  are  enumerated, 
the  most  prominent  of  which  are :  The  bare- 
footed monks  of  St.  Augustine,  who  spread 
over  France  and  the  Indies;  the  barefooted 


BAREGES 


BARERE   DE   VIEUZAO 


309 


nuns  of  St.  Augustine ;  the  barefooted  Car- 
melites of  Avila,  male  and  female,  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  India ; 
the  barefooted  Trinitarians,  in  Spain,  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Bo- 
hemia ;  nuns  of  St.  Francis  of  the  stricter  ob- 
servance, established  in  France  in  1593,  and 
afterward  endowed  with  the  convent  of  Picpus 
in  Paris,  whence  they  are  often  called  leg  Pic- 
pus,  and  the  Passionists. 

BAREGES,  a  French  watering  place  in  the 
department  of  Hautes-Pyr6nees,  25  m.  S.  of 
Tarbes,  situate  in  the  Bastan  valley,  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  between  two  chains  of  moun- 
tains. The  village  consists  of  one  long  street 
on  the  Gave  de  Bastan,  and  forms  part  of  a 
commune  with  only  about  600  permanent  in- 
habitants, who  escape  from  the  snow  and  ava- 
lanches during  the  winter  to  the  town  of 
Luz.  The  fine  silk  crfepe  tissue  first  took  its 
name  from  Bar6ges,  though  chiefly  manufac- 
tured at  Bagneres  de  Bigorre.  During  summer 
and  autumn  Bar6ges  can  accommodate  about 
800  invalids  and  visitors.  The  springs  rise 
near  the  junction  of  the  slate  rock  with  the 
granite,  and  are  celebrated  for  curing  ulcers, 
rheumatism,  scrofula,  tumors,  and  gunshot  and 
other  wounds.  Their  principal  ingredients 
are  sulphuret  of  sodium,  carbonate,  muriate, 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  azotic  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gases,  and  animal  matter.  Their 
temperature  varies  from  73°  to  120°  F.  They 
have  been  known  since  the  16th  century,  but 
became  fashionable  only  at  the  end  of  the  17th, 
after  they  had  been  successfully  employed  by 
Madame  de  Maintenon  for  the  cure  of  the 
crippled  duke  de  Maine,  Louis  XIV.'s  natural 
son.  A  new  bath  house  was  erected  by  the 
French  government  in  1864,  and  the  springs 
are  described  in  Dr.  Macpherson's  "Baths  and 
Wells  of  Europe  "  (1869).  Bareges  is  the  seat 
of  a  famous  military  hospital. 

I! U!i:iLLK,  Jean  Francois,  abbe",  a  French  the- 
ologian, born  at  Valentine,  Haute-Garonne,  in 
1813.  He  received  a  superior  education  and 
became  honorary  canon  of  the  dioceses  of 
Toulouse  and  Lyons,  and  afterward  director 
of  a  school  at  SorSze.  He  has  published  His- 
toire  de  Saint  Thomas  d'Aquin  (1846;  4th  ed., 
1862),  and  La  vie  du  caur  (1856 ;  3d  ed.,  1863) ; 
and  he  has  translated  several  works  of  Balmes, 
the  (Enures  completes  de  Louis  de  Grenade  (21 
vols.,  1861-'6),  and  the  (Euvres  completes  de 
Saint  Jean  Chrysostome  (10  vols.,  1864-'7,  and 
4  vols.,  without  the  original  text,  1866-'7). 
The  French  academy  in  1868  conferred  one  of 
the  Monthyon  prizes  upon  his  translation  of 
the  Homelies  in  the  3d  volume  of  the  last-men- 
tioned edition. 

BAREILY,  a  city  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
of  Hindostan,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  region  of  Rohilcund,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Ganges,  in  lat.  28°  23'  N.  and  Ion.  79° 
26'  E.,  122  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Delhi ;  pop.  92,000, 
two  thirds  of  whom  are  Hindoos.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1801.  The  officials  live 


in  a  citadel  outside  the  town.  The  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  swords, 
daggers,  carpets,  saddles,  housings,  embroidery, 
jewelry,  brass  wares,  and  cabinet  work.  In 
the  last  two  of  these  branches  of  manufacture 
they  particularly  excel.  The  sepoy  garrison 
mutinied  May  31,  1857,  and  killed  every  Euro- 
pean that  fell  in  their  way.  The  place  was 
recovered  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell  in  the  follow- 
ing year. 

BAREBiTZ,  Willem,  a  Dutch  navigator,  died 
I  June  20,  1597.  He  was  appointed  chief  pilot 
of  the  vessel  fitted  out  by  the  city  of  Am- 
sterdam in  the  expedition  which  sailed  from 
Holland  June  5,  1594,  in  search  of  a  passage 
to  China  and  India  northward  of  Asia.  The 
ship  in  which  Barentz  sailed  explored  Nova 
Zembla,  sailed  to  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the 
island,  reaching  lat.  77°,  and  then  turned  back 
(Aug.  1).  The  next  year  the  government  of 
Holland  equipped  a  second  expedition  of  seven 
vessels,  spending  half  the  summer  in  loading 
them  with  rich  merchandise  for  the  East. 
Barentz  was  appointed  head  pilot  of  the  whole 
expedition,  but  it  started  so  late  in  the  season 
that  nothing  of  importance  was  accomplished. 
The  city  of  Amsterdam  despatched  a  third 
expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships,  under  Ja- 
cobus van  Heemskerk  and  Jan  Cornelisz  Ryp, 
May  18,  1596.  Barentz  was  the  pilot  on  one 
of  them.  The  two  vessels  visited  Spitzbergen 
together,  and  afterward  parted  company.  Ba- 
rentz's  vessel  sailed  in  the  direction  of  Nova 
Zembla,  and  succeeded  in  doubling  its  N.  E. 
extremity,  but  then  encountered  ice,  and  be- 
ing unable  to  continue  its  voyage  eastward, 
turned  southward  Aug.  25.  On  Sept.  1  it  was 
frozen  up  in  Ice  Haven,  and  the  crew  were 
forced  to  spend  the  winter  there  "  in  great 
cold,  poverty,  misery,  and  grief,"  and  with  no 
sun  from  Nov.  4  to  Jan.  24.  The  crew,  with 
the  exception  of  two  who  had  died,  quitted  Ice 
Haven  June  14,  1597,  in  two  open  boats,  and 
Barentz  died  a  few  days  afterward.  The  sur- 
vivors after  two  and  a  half  months  reached 
the  N.  E.  shore  of  Lapland,  and  were  there 
rescued  by  Cornelizs. 

BARERE  DE  VIKIZAC,  Bertram!,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Tarbes,  Sept.  10,  1755, 
died  in  January,  1841.  He  was  educated  for 
the  law.  In  1789  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to 
the  states  general,  and  published  a  journal,  Le 
point  dujour,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of 
the  proceedings  of  that  body.  He  took  part 
in  nearly  every  debate,  always  being  foremost 
in  the  popular  movements  of  the  time.  On 
the  death  of  Mirabeau  he  was  chosen  to  de- 
liver the  panegyric.  On  the  adjournment  of 
the  assembly  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  tribunal  de  cassation.  In  1792 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  convention, 
where  he  voted  for  the  immediate  death  of 
the  king.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety  in  1793,  and  at  first 
avoided  committing  himself  to  either  party ; 
but  when  the  ascendancy  of  the  Jacobins  was 


310 


BARETTI 


BARHAM 


secured,  he  proposed  the  prosecution  of  the 
Girondists  and  the  death  of  Marie  Antoinette, 
the  confiscation  of  all  property  belonging  to 
outlawed  citizens,  the  formation  of  a  revolu- 
tionary army,  the  declaration  that  "  terror 
was  the  order  of  the  day,"  and  the  transporta- 
tion of  all  who  had  not  given  evidence  of  their 
patriotism  (civisme)  previously  to  a  certain 
day.  The  florid  and  bombastic  style  in  which 
he  set  fortli  the  atrocious  measures  of  the 
terrorists  won  for  him  the  title  of  the  Ana- 
creon  of  the  Guillotine.  He  was  distrusted, 
however,  by  his  associates,  and  was  only  saved 
from  proscription  by  Robespierre,  whose  name 
nevertheless  he  was  afterward  one  of  the  most 
zealous  in  defaming.  Despite  the  violence  of 
his  ingratitude,  a  commission  was  appointed 
after  Robespierre's  fall  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
duct of  Bardre,  Oollot-d'Herbois,  and  Billaud- 
Varennes,  and  in  March,  1795,  they  were  sen- 
tenced to  transportation.  BarSre  was  nearly 
torn  to  pieces  by  the  mob  on  his  way  to  jail. 
He  escaped  from  prison,  and  was  chosen  to 
the  corps  16gislatif  in  1797 ;  but  the  election 
was  declared  null,  and  his  arrest  was  ordered 
again.  He  remained  in  hiding  until  after  the 
.18th  Brumaire,  when  he  was  included  in  the 
amnesty.  He  was  employed  by  Fouche1  to 
write  pamphlets  in  the  interest  of  Bonaparte, 
and  the  first  consul  made  him  the  editor  of 
the  Memorial  anti-britannique.  The  paper 
failed,  but  Barere  had  in  the  mean  time  become 
one  of  the  writers  for  the  Moniteur.  During 
the  hundred  days  he  was  called  to  the  house  of 
deputies,  and  published  the  Theorie  de  la  con- 
stitution de  la  Grande  Bretagne,  which  pro- 
duced a  great  impression.  On  the  second 
return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  banished  as  a 
regicide,  and  took  refuge  in  Belgium.  After 
the  revolution  of  1830  he  returned  to  France, 
and  was  in  1832  elected  deputy,  but  on  account 
of  some  informality  his  election  was  declared 
void.  He  became  a  member  of  the  general 
council  of  his  department,  and  resigned  in 
1840.  He  published  a  great  number  of  his- 
torical, political,  and  miscellaneous  works,  and 
two  volumes  of  Nemoires  (Paris,  1834),  a  new 
edition  of  which  appeared  in  1848. 

BARETTI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  writer,  born  in 
Turin,  March  22,  1716,  died  in  London,  May  5, 
1789.  He  was  intended  by  his  father  for  the 
bar,  but,  disliking  the  study,  took  to  literature. 
After  travelling  in  southern  Europe  he  went  in 
1751  to  London  as  a  teacher  of  Italian,  became 
intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  and  published  the 
"  Italian  Library,"  in  which  he  gave  an  account 
of  the  principal  authors  of  his  native  country. 
He  afterward  spent  nine  years  on  the  conti- 
nent, wrote  an  excellent  book  of  "Travels 
through  England,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  France," 
and  established  at  Venice  the  Fru&ta  lettera- 
ria  ("Literary  Scourge"),  which  he  made  so 
personal  that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city. 
Returning  to  London  in  1769,  he  stabbed  a 
man  in  a  street  brawl  and  was  tried  for  mur- 
der, but  acquitted,  Johnson,  Burke,  and  Gar- 


rick  testifying  to  his  inoffensive  character.  He 
was  for  several  years  foreign  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  royal  academy.  He  published  an 
English-Italian  and  Italian-English  dictionary, 
which  is  still  in  high  esteem ;  an  Italian  and 
English  grammar ;  a  Spanish  and  English  dic- 
tionary ;  "  Introduction  to  the  most  useful 
European  Languages ;  "  "  Account  of  the  Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  Italy,"  &c. 

BARGAIN  MI)  SALE,  a  contract  in  relation  to 
real  estate,  which  has  introduced  a  form  of 
conveyance  now  generally  used  in  England  and 
this  country.  By  the  ancient  English  law, 
there  could  be  no  transfer  of  lands  without 
livery  of  seisin,  which  was  an  actual  or  con- 
structive delivery  of  possession  by  a  prescribed 
formality.  A  sale  of  lands  in  any  other  mode 
did  not  change  the  title,  but  it  was  held  that 
if  a  pecuniary  consideration  had  been  paid,  a 
contract  of  sale  would  raise  a  use  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  vendee,  or  in  other  words,  that  the 
effect  would  be  that  the  vendor  would  hold 
the  lands  for  the  use  of  the  vendee,  and  could 
be  compelled  to  account  for  the  profits.  The 
statute  27  Henry  VIII.,  called  the  statute  of 
uses,  annexed  the  possession  to  the  use,  or  ex- 
ecuted the  use,  as  the  lawyers  expressed  it, 
thereby  making  the  party  for  whose  use  the 
lands  were  held,  technically  called  the  cestuy 
que  «*<?,  the  complete  owner  of  the  lands.  By 
the  same  statute  it  was  required  that  a  deed 
of  bargain  and  sale  should  be  enrolled  in  one 
of  the  courts  of  Westminster,  or  in  the  county 
where  the  lands  lay,  which  furnished  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  practice  now  universal  in  this 
country  of  recording  deeds.  The  effect  was  that 
in  cases  of  freehold — the  statute  of  uses  being 
held  not  to  apply  to  lesser  estates — the  deed  of 
bargain  and  sale  transferred  a  complete  title 
without  livery  of  seism ;  and  that  form  of  con- 
veyance in  consequence  was  brought  into  com- 
mon use.  (See  TRUSTS,  and  USES.) 

BARGE,  an  old  town  of  Piedmont,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Monbracco,  about  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Turin ; 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  has  a  college,  a  good 
trade,  manufactories  of  firearms,  and  slate  quar- 
ries. It  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake 
in  1808. 

i:\ICII \11,  Richard  Harris,  an  English  humor- 
ist, born  at  Canterbury,  Dec.  6,  1788,  died  in 
London,  June  17,  1845.  He  was  educated  at 
London  and  Oxford,  studied  law,  but  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  theology,  took  orders,  and 
obtained  a  living  in  Kent.  While  confined 
with  a  broken  leg,  he  wrote  a  novel  called 
"Baldwin,"  which  attracted  little  notice.  In 
1821  he  was  elected  minor  canon  of  St.  Paul's 
cathedral,  and  removed  to  London.  His  lei- 
sure was  there  devoted  to  writing  for  Gorton's 
"Biographical  Dictionary,"  and  occasional 
pieces  for  periodicals,  and  contributing  to 
"Blackwood's  Magazine  "  a  serial  story  of  col- 
lege life  entitled  "  My  Cousin  Nicholas."  In 
1824  he  was  appointed  priest  of  the  chapel 
royal,  and  presented  to  the  united  metropoli- 
tan livings  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  and  St. 


BARI 


BARIMA 


311 


Gregory  by  St.  Paul.  In  1837,  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  "Bentley's  Miscellany,"  Mr.  Bar- 
ham  contributed,  under  the  pseudonyme  of 
Thomas  Ingoldsby,  the  "Ingoldsby  Legends," 
a  series  of  humorous  stories,  chiefly  in  verse, 
which  became  very  popular.  Three  volumes 
of  these  legends  were  finally  collected,  to  the 
last  of  which  was  prefixed  a  life  of  the  au- 
thor. In  1840  Mr.  Barham  succeeded  for  a 
year  to  the  presidency  of  Sion  college.  In 
1842  he  was  promoted  to  the  divinity  reader- 
ship of  St.  Paul's,  and  allowed  to  exchange 
his  living  for  that  of  St.  Faith. 

BARI  (anc.  Barium),  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  a 
small  peninsula  of  the  Adriatic,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Terra  di  Bari,  140  m.  E.  of  Naples ; 
pop.  in  1872,  50,524.  It  is  surrounded  by 
strong  walls  and  further  defended  by  an  old 
Norman  castle  nearly  a  mile  in  circuit.  It  has 
a  good  harbor,  carries  on  an  active  trade  with 
Trieste  and  the  Dalmatian  coast  in  corn,  oil, 
wine,  &c.,  and  is  environed  by  extensive  olive 
and  almond  plantations.  The  priory  of  San 
Nicol6  in  Bari  is  a  magnificent  old  structure  in 
the  Lombard  style,  founded  in  1087  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  the  remains  of  St.  Nicho- 
las, which  were  brought  from  Myra  in  Lycia 
and  deposited  in  a  splendid  crypt.  Roger  II. 
was  here  crowned  king  of  Sicily ;  and  Bona 
Sforza,  queen  of  Poland,  was  buried  in  a  vault 
of  the  church  in  1557.  The  cathedral  of  San 
Sabino  was  once  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  but 
has  been  spoiled  by  modern  repairs.  In  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  Bari  was  the  principal 
stronghold  of  the  Saracens  on  the  Adriatic. 
About  870  it  was  taken  by  the  emperor  Louis 
II.  after  a  siege  of  four  years.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tury it  was  held  by  the  Greek  emperors,  who 
made  it  the  seat  of  the  governor  of  all  the 
Greek  possessions  in  Italy.  In  the  llth  cen- 
tury it  was  taken  by  the  Normans  under  Rob- 
ert Guiscard. 

BARI,  or  Baris,  a  negro  tribe  of  Gondokoro 
and  other  places  on  the  White  Nile,  savage 
in  character  and  excessively  brutal  in  appear- 
ance. Sir  Samuel  Baker  says  in  his  "Albert 
N'yanza"  (1866):  "The  women  are  not  pre- 
possessing, but  the  negro  type  of  thick  lips  and 
flat  nose  is  wanting ;  their  features  are  good, 
and  the  woolly  hair  alone  denotes  the  trace  of 
negro  blood."  The  only  hair  upon  the  heads 
of  the  men  is  a  small  tuft,  in  which  they  stick 
feathers.  Their  villages  are  circular.  They 
inhabit  a  region  capable  of  the  highest  cultiva- 
tion. Goats,  sheep,  and  cattle  are  very  small, 
but  extremely  prolific.  The  poorer  classes  are 
employed  in  fishing  and  in  manual  labor.  They 
live  under  chieftains  in  a  patriarchal  fashion, 
practise  polygamy,  and  are  under  the  influence 
of  weather  prophets  and  doctors.  The  hut  of 
each  family  is  surrounded  by  an  impenetrable 
hedge  of  euphorbia,  the  interior  generally  con- 
sisting of  a  yard  plastered  with  a  cement  of 
ashes,  cow  dung,  and  sand.  When  not  at  war 
with  the  slave  and  ivory  traders,  they  are  gen- 
erally at  war  among  themselves. 


BARI,  Terra  di,  a  province  of  S.  Italy,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  other 
sides  by  the  provinces  of  Oapitanata,  Basili- 
cata,  and  Terra  d'Otranto  ;  area,  2,295  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  604,518.  The  southern  part  is 
crossed  by  a  ridge  from  the  Apennines,  which 
aftords  little  else  but  pasturage  ;  but  the  lower 
lands  are  fertile,  and  wheat  is  produced  in 
great  quantities ;  the  other  crops  are  olives, 
tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  and  fruits.  Wine  and  oil 
are  largely  manufactured,  and  along  the  coast 
there  are  extensive  fisheries  and  salt  works. 
Ship-building  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
Terra  di  Bari  formed  the  portion  of  ancient 
Apulia  known  as  Apulia  Peucetia,  and  was  tra- 
versed by  the  Appian  Way.  Capital,  Bari. 

BARILLA  (Span,  barrilla),  or  Soda  Ash,  a 
crude  carbonate  of  soda,  procured  by  the  incin- 
eration of  the  salsola  soda,  salicornia,  and  other 
plants  which  are  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in 
Spain,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  the  Canary  Islands. 
In  Alicante  the  plants  are  raised  from  seed, 
which  is  sown  at  the  close  of  the  year  in  salt 
marshes  near  the  coast,  and  they  are  usually 
fit  to  be  gathered  in  September  following.  In 
October  the  plants  are  dried  like  hay,  and 
then  burned  in  holes  in  the  ground  capable  of 
containing  a  ton  or  a  ton  and  a  half  of  soda. 
Iron  bars  are  laid  across  these  cavities,  and 
the  dried  plants,  stratified  with  dry  seeds,  are 
placed  upon  them.  The  whole  is  set  on  fire, 
and  the  crude  soda  runs  out  in  a  red-hot  fluid 
state  and  collects  in  the  bottom  of  the  pit. 
As  fast  as  one  portion  is  consumed  fresh  ma- 
terial is  added,  until  the  cavity  is  filled  with 
the  alkali.  The  holes  are  then  covered  with 
earth,  and  the  soda  is  allowed  to  cool  gradu- 
ally. The  spongy  mass,  when  sufficiently  cold, 
is  broken  up  and  packed  for  shipment  without 
further  preparation.  It  rarely  contains  more 
than  20  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  soda ;  the 
impurities  are  chiefly  common  salt  and  sul- 
phates of  soda,  lime,  and  alumina,  with  some 
free  sulphur.  Soda  ash  is  now  manufactured 
artificially  from  common  salt  according  to  the 
method  of  Le  Blanc.  Kelp,  made  from  the 
drift  sea  plants  of  the  north  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  varec  on  the  northern  coast  of 
France,  of  similar  origin,  are  still  more  im- 
pure than  barilla.  The  principal  uses  of  baril- 
la are  to  furnish  the  alkali  required  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass  and  soap. 

BARIMA,  a  river  of  South  America,  rising  in 
the  Imataca  mountains  of  Venezuela,  flowing 
E.  into  British  Guiana,  and  then  N.  W.  to  the 
estuary  of  the  Orinoco,  which  it  enters  just 
W.  of  the  headland  of  Barima,  in  lat.  8°  46' 
N.,  Ion.  60°  W.  Sixty  miles  above  its  mouth 
a  natural  canal  8  m.  long  connects  it  with  the 
Guaini,  a  stream  navigable  for  70  m.,  having  a 
depth  of  from  4  to  11  fathoms.  The  country 
bordering  both  streams  abounds  in  the  valua- 
ble black  mora  timber,  and  a  great  variety  of 
other  useful  wood,  as  the  bullet  tree,  red  cedar, 
lancewood,  silverballs,  &c.  The  climate  of  this 
region  is  extremely  unhealthy. 


312 


BARINAS 


BARIUM 


BARINAS,  or  Varinas.  I.  An  inland  state  of 
Venezuela,  bounded  N.  W.  by  a  chain  of  the 
Andes,  which  separates  it  from  Merida  und 
Trujillo;  area,  24,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  126,- 
OOO'.  The  larger  portion  of  the  state  is  com- 
posed of  delightful  savannas,  with  luxuriant 
pasture  for  innumerable  herds  of  cattle,  flocks 
of  sheep,  and  droves  of  asses  and  mules.  The 
hill  country  in  the  W.  part  presents  gentle 
declivities,  which  are  very  fertile;  the  moun- 
tain slopes  and  surrounding  tracts  are  covered 
with  virgin  forests ;  while  above  the  temperate 
line  are  cold  regions  terminating  in  arid  para- 
mos, extending  into  the  states  of  Merida  and 
Trujillo.  The  beautiful  valleys  of  Barinas  are 
watered  by  the  Portuguesa,  Bocono,  Guanare, 
Uribante,  Caparro,  Surepa,  Santo  Domingo, 
Masparro,  Pagiley,  and  Oanagua  rivers,  all  trib- 
utaries of  the  Apure,  which  flows  on  the  S. 
border.  The  principal  products  are  coffee,  ca- 
cao, cotton,  indigo,  excellent  tobacco,  and  an 
endless  variety  of  tropical  fruits.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  state,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Santo  Domingo,  262  m.  S.W.  of  Caracas ; 
pop.  about  12,000  (in  1839,  4,000).  This  city, 
which  has  twice  changed  its  site,  was  founded 
in  1576  by  Juan  Andres  Varela,  and  first 
named  Altarnira  de  Caceres,  in  honor  of  the 
governor  of  that  name.  It  was  once  in  a  pros- 
perous condition ;  but  during  the  wars  of  inde- 
pendence it  was  besieged,  sacked,  and  laid  in 
ruins  by  the  royalists.  It  has  made  rapid 
progress,  however,  of  late  years.  Barinas  has 
a  church,  a  hospital,  and  some  schools;  the 
houses  are  remarkably  neat;  the  streets  are 
regular  and  clean;  and  its  name  is  famed  in 
European  markets  for  the  superior  quality  of 
its  tobacco,  the  chief  article  of  export.  Its 
shipping  point  is  Toruno,  a  small  town  14  m. 
distant,  at  the  head  of  river  navigation. 

BARING,  the  name  of  a  mercantile  family  of 
London.  JOHN  BAKING  came  from  Bremen, 
and  settled  in  Exeter  in  the  first  part  of  the 
18th  century.  He  had  four  sons,  two  of  whom, 
John  and  Francis,  established  the  house  of 
Baring  Brothers  and  company  in  London  in 
1770.  I.  Sir  Franeis,  born  April  18,  1740,  died 
Sept.  12,  1810.  Having  been  elected  director 
of  the  East  India  company,  he  became  a  zeal- 
ous supporter  of  Mr.  Pitt's  policy,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  baronetcy  in  May,  1793. 
His  "  Observations  on  the  Establishment  of  the 
Bank  of  England  "  (1797)  had  great  weight  in 
the  question  of  renewing  the  charter  of  that 
institution.  Three  of  his  sons,  Thomas,  Alex- 
ander (see  ASHBURTON),  and  Henry,  had  al- 
ready been  associated  in  the  business;  but 
Henry  (died  April  13,  1848)  quitted  it  and 
accompanied  Lord  Macartney  in  his  embassy 
to  China,  and  afterward  took  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  East  India  company's  factories  at 
Canton.  II.  Sir  Thomas,  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Francis,  born  June  12,  1772,  died  April  3, 
1848.  He  sat  from  1830  to  1832  in  the  house 
of  commons,  and  was  known  to  the  public  as 
a  patron  of  art  and  by  his  fine  collection  of 


pictures.  III.  Francis  Tliiirnliill.  a  lawyer  and 
statesman,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas,  born 
April  20,  1796,  died  Sept.  6,  1866.  He  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Portsmouth  in  1 826 ; 
was  a  lord  of  the  treasury  from  1830  to  June, 
1884  ;  a  secretary  of  the  treasury  from  June  to 
November,  1834,  and  from  April,  1835,  to 
1839  ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  from  1839 
to  1841  ;  and  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  from 
January,  1849,  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Kus- 
sell  ministry  in  March,  1852.  In  January, 
1866,  he  was  created  Baron  Northbrook.  Ho 
never  took  an  active  part  in  the  business  of 
the  firm.  IV.  Thomas  George,  second  Lord 
Northbrook,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1826.  He  is  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  and  was 
a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1857-'8,  under-secre- 
tary  of  state  for  India  in  1859-'61,  and  under- 
secretary for  war  in  1861-'6  and  1868-'72. 
He  was  a  member  of  parliament  for  Penryn 
and  Falmouth  from  1857  to  1866,  when  on  the 
death  of  his  father  he  succeeded  to  the  peer- 
age. In  February,  1872,  after  the  assassination 
of  Earl  Mayo,  he  was  appointed  viceroy  and 
governor  general  of  India.  V.  Charles,  another 
son  of  Sir  Thomas,  entered  the  church,  became 
bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1856,  and 
was  translated  to  the  see  of  Durham  in  1861. 

BARING-GOULD,  Sabine,  an  English  clergyman 
and  author,  born  at  Exeter  in  1834.  He  is  a 
descendant  of  Charles  Baring,  brother  of  the 
first  Lord  Ashburton.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1856.  In  1862  he  visited  Iceland  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  the  Norse  tongue,  and 
in  1863  published  "  Iceland :  its  Scenes  and 
Sagas."  In  1865  he  took  orders,  and  for  a 
while  was  curate  at  Horbury  near  Wakefield. 
His  present  parish  is  Dalton,  near  Thirsk 
(1872).  His  remaining  works  are :  "  Post- 
Mediasval  Preachers "  and  "  The  Book  of 
Were- Wolves  "  (1865) ;  "  Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages"  (1869);  "In  Exitu  Israel,"  a 
historical  novel  (1870) ;  "  The  Origin  and  De- 
velopment of  Religious  Belief,"  in  two  parts, 
the  first  treating  of  "Heathenism  and  Mo- 
saism,"  and  the  second  of  "  Christianity " 
(1870);  the  "Golden  Gate"  (1869-'70);  and 
"  Legends  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets " 
(1871). 

BARIUM,  one  of  the  metallic  elements.  The 
mineral  known  as  heavy  spar  was  first  men- 
tioned in  1602  by  an  Italian  cobbler  of  Bo- 
logna, Vincenzio  Cascariolo,  who  discovered 
that  when  this  mineral  was  fused  with  resin 
and  charcoal  it  became  phosphorescent.  The 
Bologna  phosphorescing  stone,  or  lapis  Solaris, 
soon  became  famous  all  over  Europe,  and  mar- 
vellous cures  were  sometimes  attributed  to  it. 
The  true  composition  of  the  heavy  spar  was 
not  known  till  1760,  when  Marggraf  showed 
that  it  contained  sulphur.  That  the  mineral 
contained  an  earth  was  first  made  known  by 
Scheele  and  Gahn  in  1774.  Berzelius,  and 
almost  simultaneously  Pontin  and  Davy,  ob- 
tained in  1808  an  amalgam  of  barium,  whicb. 


BARIUM 


BARK 


313 


Davy  subsequently  decomposed  by  distillation 
and  thus  isolated  tbe  metal.  More  recently 
Bunsen  and  Matthiessen  have  prepared  barium 
from  the  fused  chloride  by  means  of  electro- 
lysis. Bergman  introduced  the  word  heavy 
spar,  terra  ponderosa,  and  Guyton  de  Mor- 
veau  substituted  the  Greek  (tapiif,  heavy,  from 
which  he  derived  the  word  barote,  which  was 
afterward  changed  to  baryta,  while  the  metal 
was  called  barium. — For  the  preparation  of 
barium,  anhydrous  chloride  of  barium  is  mix- 
ed with  sal  ammoniac  and  fused  in  a  Hessian 
crucible.  A  small  porcelain  crucible  is  then 
filled  with  the  fused  mass,  and  so  attached 
to  the  poles  of  a  battery  of  six  Bunsen's  cups 
as  to  be  readily  decomposed  when  brought 
to  a  state  of  fusion.  The  barium  is  obtained 
in  a  fine  brass-yellow  powder,  which  must 
be  stored  under  naphtha,  as  it  oxidizes  rap- 
idly in  the  air  and  decomposes  water  at  all 
temperatures.  Alloys  of  barium  with  bis- 
muth, tin,  and  aluminum  have  been  pre- 
pared ;  they  are  crystalline,  and  decompose 
water  at  all  temperatures,  but  have  no  appli- 
cation in  the  arts.  The  compounds  of  barium 
are  numerous,  and  have  extensive  use  in  medi- 
cine, chemistry,  and  technology.  The  oxide  has 
been  employed  as  a  substitute  for  lime  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  also  to  prevent  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  molasses  of  sugar  cane.  The 
binoxide  has  been  proposed  as  an  agent  for  the 
manufacture  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere. 
If  the  protoxide  be  heated  in  a  tube  and  a 
current  of  air  be  passed  over  it,  it  absorbs 
oxygen,  which  it  again  gives  up  on  raising  the 
temperature.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that 
the  process  could  be  made  continuous,  but  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  the  baryta  melts  and 
refuses  to  take  up  more  oxygen.  This  can  in 
a  measure  be  prevented  by  previously  mixing 
it  with  manganese  dioxide  and  soda.  By  adding 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  the  binoxide  of 
barium  and  gently  warming,  oxygen  gas  in  the 
form  of  ozone  is  liberated. — As  the  native  sul- 
phate of  baryta  is  generally  too  impure  to  be 
used  directly  in  the  arts,  it  is  fused  with  char- 
coal and  resin  or  oil,  and  the  pure  white  sul- 
phate obtained  from  the  dissolved  residue  by 
tbe  addition  of  sulphuric  acid.  Thus  prepared, 
sulphate  of  baryta  is  used  as  a  permanent 
white,  under  the  name  of  blanc  Jixe,  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  as  a  white  pigment, 
and  to  adulterate  white  lead.  As  the  specific 
gravity  of  heavy  spar  ranges  from  4'3  to  4'7, 
it  is  frequently  mistaken  for  the  ore  of  copper 
or  lead.  Blanc  fixe  hardens  when  mixed  with 
soluble  glass,  and  is  therefore  capable  of  use  in 
fresco  painting.  It  is  also  used  in  making  bril- 
liant white  satin  paper. — Chloride  of  barium 
can  be  readily  made  by  dissolving  the  native 
carbonate  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  a  valu- 
able reagent  in  the  laboratory  for  the  detection 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  in  medicine  as  a  remedy 
in  scrofulous  complaints.  Several  cases  of 
poisoning  by  means  of  this  agent  are  on  rec- 
ord. The  chloride  and  the  oxalate  are  manu- 


factured into  anti-incrustation  powders.  A 
very  good  blasting  powder  is  made  of  the  ni- 
trate of  baryta,  which,  being  much  cheaper 
than  the  ordinary  nitre  powder,  has  long  been 

j  employed  in  mines  and  on  public  works  in 
Europe.  It  is  not  considered  so  dangerous  as 
common  powder,  and,  although  slow  in  action, 
is  found  to  be  effective  enough  for  all  practical 
purposes. — Baryta  salts  are  used  in  Belgium  in 
the  preparation  of  citric  acid,  tartaric  acid, 
and  hydrocyanic  acid.  In  the  manufacture  of 
alum  it  has  been  found  that  the  aluminate  of 
baryta  can  be  very  readily  prepared  by  fusion, 
from  which  alumina  salts  can  be  easily  sepa- 
rated. This  method  is  employed  in  France,  in 
making  alum  from  bauxite.  Prussian  blue, 
made  from  potash  salts,  can  be  prepared  in  a 
ready  and  cheap  way  through  the  intervention 
of  cyanide  of  barium.  Chromic  acid  is  more 
cheaply  prepared  by  the  aid  of  baryta  than  in 
any  other  way.  Stearic  acid,  from  which  ada- 
mantine candles  are  made,  can  be  combined 
with  and  afterward  easily  separated  from  this 
substance.  Baryta  is  also  used  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  starch  sirup,  so  frequently  sold  as 
liquid  honey ;  spirits  of  hartshorn  or  ammonia ; 
a  beautiful  yellow  paint,  often  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  chrome  yellow,  on  account  of  its 
delicacy  of  tone  and  cheapness ;  soap,  and  an 
infinite  number  of  other  substances.  Some  of 
the  best  English  plate  glass  has  been  made  by 
substituting  carbonate  of  baryta  for  carbonate 
of  soda.  It  is  a  clear  crystal  sheet,  and  not 
liable  to  atmospheric  changes.  This  glass  has 
also  been  found  to  be  admirably  adapted  for 
optical  instruments.  The  soluble  salts  of  ba- 

j  ryta  are  poisons,  the  readiest  antidote  being 
sulphate  of  soda  or  magnesia. 

BARK,  the  outer  covering  of  trees  and 
plants.  It  is  found  in  its  complete  form  only  in 
the  exogenous  and  gymnospermous  classes,  in 
which  it  consists  of  three  portions,  often  quite 
distinct,  but  generally  closely  blended :  the  libel- 
or  inner  bark  (endophlaum),  the  cellular  tissue 
or  green  layer  (mesophlasum),  and  the  corky 
envelope  (epiphlceum).  The  liber,  or  fibrous 
bark,  consists  of  bast  cells,  long,  with  thick 
walls,  formed  of  cellulose;  liber  cells,  thin- 
walled,  of  ordinary  parenchyma,  marked  with 
reticulated  spots,  and  seldom  if  ever  absent 
from  the  liber ;  and  laticiferous  tubes,  contain- 
ing various  secretions.  The  cellular  envelope, 
which  usually  disappears  after  the  second  year, 
is  formed  of  loose  parenchyma,  giving  the  bark 
its  green  color.  The  suber,  or  corky  envelope, 
consists  of  cork,  formed  of  parenchymous  cells 
with  thin  walls  and  rectangular  section,  soon 
dead  and  empty ;  and  periderme,  of  flat,  thick- 
walled  cells  united  in  layers.  The  epidermis 
or  outer  skin  is  not  permanent,  but  breaks  away 
as  the  layers  beneath  it  expand.  The  bark 
serves  as  a  channel  through  which  the  sap  elab- 
orated by  the  leaves  descends  to  feed  the  cam- 
bium layer,  with  which  the  bark  is  continuous, 
and  by  which  it  grows  in  annual  rings,  as  does 
the  wood  itself.  The  medullary  rays  also  con- 


314 


BARKEK 


BARKING 


nect  the  bark  and  wood  and  afford  channels 
for  the  deposit  of  the  solid  contents  of  the 
wood  cells.  From  this  it  follows  that  while 
the  youngest  part  of  the  wood  is  on  the  outside, 
the  youngest  part  of  the  bark  is  on  the  inside ; 
and  when  the  newly  formed  cells  are  gorged 
with  sap  in  the  spring  the  bark  may  be  readily 
separated  from  the  wood ;  the  newly  formed 
cells  are  also  the  first  to  decay  in  the  dead 
wood.  The  course  of  the  sap  is  seen  by  cutting 
horizontally  through  the  bark,  when  the  upper 
edge  of  the  cut  will  be  moistened  with  the 
oozing  sap,  while  the  lower  is  nearly  dry.  | 
Cutting  off  entirely  the  circulation  of  sap,  as 
in  girdling,  destroys  the  tree.  Bark  may  be 
reduced  to  extreme  thinness,  as  in  the  grape 
vine,  which  sheds  its  liber  annually,  or  be  very 
thick,  as  in  the  sequoia  gigantea,  where  it  at- 
tains a  thickness  of  two  feet.  The  fibres,  usu-  '. 
ally  called  bast  (see  BAST),  are  sometimes  ! 
wanting,  and  are  sometimes  found  in  the  woody 
portion  of  the  stem.  When  present  they  are 
frequently  limited  to  the  young  plant.  They 
are  of  use  when  tenacious  for  cordage,  many 
barks  well  supplying  the  place  of  ropes  even  in 
the  construction  of  bridges.  The  leatherwood 
(direa  palustru),  and  the  inner  bark  of  the 
white  cedar,  are  used  in  this  country  in  place 
of  hempen  cordage,  and  the  fibres  may  be 
soaked  and  felted  into  a  cloth  or  paper,  as  in 
the  tapa  of  the  Pacific  islanders.  In  the  West 
Indies  a  remarkably  tough  bark  called  miha- 
gua  is  in  general  use  for  a  great  variety  of  pur- 
poses, and  the  hibiscus  fibres  are  well  known 
throughout  the  tropics.  The  corky  envelope 
occurs  on  many  trees,  but  attains  a  remarkable 
thickness  on  certain  species  of  the  oak.  (See 
OOEK.)  Bark  contains  many  of  the  secretions 
of  the  sap,  and  thus  has  many  economic  uses  j 
as  a  reservoir  of  vegetable  products.  The  Peru- 
vian bark  (see  CINCHONA)  is  the  source  of  qui- 
nine; the  Angostura  bark  (galipea  officinalis), 
canella  bark  (from  0.  alba),  cascarilla  (croton 
cascarilla),  and  other  species,  are  well  known 
drugs.  Cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  cinnamomum 
Ceylonicum,  a  lauraceous  tree,  native  of  Cey- 
lon. Quercitron  bark  is  the  yellow  dyestuff  of 
quercus  tinetoria.  From  the  tannin  which 
barks  contain,  especially  oak  and  hemlock 
barks,  arises  their  importance  in  the  making 
of  leather. 

BARKER,  Fordyte,  M.  D.,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Wilton,  Maine,  May  2,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1837, 
studied  medicine  at  Harvard  university,  Edin- 
burgh, and  Paris,  taking  his  degree  at  Paris  in 
1844.  In  1845  he  commenced  practice  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  and  became  professor  of  midwife- 
ry in  Bowdoin  college.  In  1850  he  became 
professor  of  midwifery  in  the  New  York  medi- 
cal college,  and  in  1856  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  state  medical  society, 
and  in  1860  was  chosen  professor  of  clinical 
midwifery  and  diseases  of  women  in  Bellevue 
hospital  medical  college.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  work  on  puerperal  diseases  (1872). 


BARKER,  Jacob,  an  American  financier,  born 
at  Swan  Island,  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  Dec. 
7,  1779,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  26,  1871. 
He  was  of  a  Quaker  family  of  Nantucket,  and 
connected  on  the  mother's  side  with  Franklin. 
At  the  age  of  16  he  went  to  New  York,  where 
he  got  employment  with  Isaac  Hicks,  a  com- 
mission merchant,  began  to  trade  on  his  own 
account  in  a  small  way,  and  before  his  majority 
was  in  possession  of  four  ships  and  a  brig,  and 
had  his  notes  regularly  discounted  at  the  United 
States  bank.  In  1801  he  lost  nearly  all  his 
fortune  by  a  series  of  mishaps  in  business.  Not 
long  afterward,  however,  he  entered  into  a  con- 
tract with  the  government  for  the  supply  of 
oil,  and  again  accumulated  considerable  wealth 
Ho  received  the  consignment  of  the  first  steam 
engine  used  on  the  Hudson  river.  The  war  of 
1812  coming  on,  he  took  the  democratic  side  in 
politics,  engaged  to  raise  a  loan  of  $5,000,000 
for  the  government,  was  one  of  the  building 
committee  of  Tammany  hall,  and  took  part  in 
the  first  meeting  held  in  it.  He  became  senator 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  when  sitting  in 
the  court  of  errors  he  delivered  an  opinion  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Chancellor  Kent,  in  an 
insurance  case,  in  which  he  was  sustained  by 
the  court.  He  soon  afterward  established  th« 
"Union"  newspaper  to  advocate  the  election 
of  Gov.  Clinton.  In  1815  he  founded  the 
Exchange  bank  in  Wall  street,  and  began  to 
speculate  in  stocks.  The  bank  broke  in  1819, 
but  he  made  use  of  other  institutions  chartered 
in  different  states,  and  for  many  years,  by  the 
extent  of  his  operations,  was  thought  to  have 
the  control  of  great  capital.  In  the  extensive 
transactions  in  which  he  now  engaged,  he  came 
into  frequent  and  violent  collision  with  other 
capitalists,  and  called  forth  much  opposition. 
On  the  failure  of  the  life  and  fire  insurance 
company,  he  was  indicted,  with  others,  for 
conspiracy  to  defraud,  and  defended  himself  in 
person  with  great  ability.  At  the  first  trial  the 
jury  disagreed ;  on  the  second  he  was  con- 
victed, but  a  new  trial  was  granted.  After  the 
third  the  indictment  was  quashed.  In  1834  he 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  after  being 
unsuccessful  on  his  first  examination.  Here  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  politics  and  business, 
and  had  again  accumulated  a  fortune  when 
the  civil  war  began.  By  this  he  was  so  im- 
poverished that  in  1867  he  was  in  bank- 
ruptcy, and  he  ended  his  career  in  compara- 
tive poverty. 

BARKING,  a  market  town  and  parish  of  Es- 
sex, England,  6  m.  E.  of  London;  pop.  of  the 
town  in  1871,  6,574.  It  is  on  a  navigable 
creek  near  the  Thames,  and  is  inhabited  chiefly 
by  fishermen,  bargemen,  and  market  carriers. 
Barking  abbey,  one  of  the  oldest  and  richest 
nunneries  in  England,  was  founded  about  677. 
In  870  it  was  burnt  to  the  ground  and  the  nuns 
were  killed  or  dispersed  by  the  Danes.  In  the 
10th  century  it  was  restored  by  King  Edgar. 
Several  queens  of  England  and  other  noble 


BARL^EUS 


BARLEY 


315 


ladies  were  among  its  abbesses.  The  abbess  of 
Barking  was  one  of  the  four  persons  who  were 
baronesses  ex  officio.  Under  Henry  VIII.  it 
was  suppressed  and  the  abbess  and  nuns  were 
pensioned,  and  Charles  I.  sold  the  estate. 
Hardly  a  vestige  of  the  building  remains. 

i:\KL  Kis.  Caspar.     See  BAEBLE. 

BAR-LE-DUC,  or  Bar-snr-Ornain,  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  Meuse,  France,  and  in 
the  middle  ages  of  the  duchy  of  Bar,  on  the 


Bar-le-Duc. 

Ornain,  125  m.  E.  of  Paris,  on  the  railway 
from  Paris  to  Strasburg,  and  the  canal  from 
the  Marne  to  the  Rhine;  pop.  in  1866,  15,334. 
The  old  town  was  anciently  fortified,  with  a 
strong  castle  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  yet  to  be  seen,  and  had 
some  historical  importance,  being  the  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Bar,  and  the  birthplace  of 
Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  surnamed  le  £alafre, 
of  Marshal  Oudinot,  and  Gen.  Excelmans.  It 
contains  some  old  public  buildings;  in  one  of 
the  churches  is  the  celebrated  monument  of 
Ren6  de  Chalons,  prince  of  Orange,  by  Richier, 
pupil  of  Michel  Angelo.  The  new  town,  which 
stands  lower  on  the  river  bank,  has  establish- 
ments for  manufacturing  cotton  stuffs,  hand- 
kerchiefs, hosiery,  hats,  and  jewelry,  with  tan- 
neries. Its  preserved  fruits,  and  especially  its 
confitures  de  groseillei,  are  highly  esteemed,  as 
well  as  its  sparkling  wine.  The  Ornain  being 
navigable  from  the  town,  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  forwarding  timber,  wine,  and  other 
articles  for  the  supply  of  Paris. 

BARLETTA,  a  walled  town  and  seaport  of  S. 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Bari,  on  the 
Adriatic,  33  m.  N.  W.  of  Bari;  pop.  in  1872, 
28,163.  It  has  wide  streets,  a  colossal  bronze 
statue  supposed  to  be  of  the  emperor  Heraclius, 
and  a  Gothic  cathedral  in  which  Ferdinand  I. 
of  Aragon  was  crowned.  There  is  a  good  har- 
bor, partly  artificial,  and  considerable  com- 
merce is  carried  on  with  Greece  and  the  Ionian 


Islands.  Barletta  is  supposed  to  occupy  the 
site  of  a  Greek  town  called  Bardnli.  While  it 
was  besieged  by  the  French  in  1503,  a  combat 
was  fought  by  challenge  between  13  French 
and  13  Italian  cavaliers,  respectively  under 
Bayard  and  Prospero  Colonna.  At  the  first 
collision  seven  of  the  French  knights  were 
unhorsed,  but  Bayard  and  his  remaining  com- 
rades fought  with  such  skill  that  the  tour- 
nament ended  as  a  drawn  battle. 

BARLETTA,  GabrMlo, 
an  Italian  preacher, 
born  at  Barletta,  liv- 
ed in  the  second  half 
of  the  15th  century. 
He  was  a  Benedictine 
monk,  and  rendered 
himself  very  famous 
both  by  his  eloquence 
and  eccentricity.  He 
had  a  habit  of  inserting 
between  the  clauses  of 
the  liturgy  practical 
comments  and  sharp 
personal  illustrations. 
Though  his  style  of 
preaching  was  not  in 
good  taste,  it  was  very 
effective,  and  the  es- 
teem in  which  he  was 
held  was  expressed  by 
the  proverb,  Neseitprm- 
dicare,  qui  neseit  bar- 
lettare.  A  collection  of 

his  sermons  passed  through  about  20  editions. 
BARLEY  (hordeum),  a  grain  more  widely  dis- 
tributed and  generally  used  than  any  other, 
and  from  the  most  remote  tunes  an  important 
article  of  the  food  of  man.  Pliny  speaks  of 
it  as  the  first  grain  cultivated  for  nourishment. 
It  is  adapted  to  hot  and  cold  climates,  in  the  for- 


Hordeum  vulgare. 


Hordeum  hexastichom. 


mer  being  obtained  in  two  successive  crops  in 
a  season.  Where  it  originated  is  not  known, 
but  the  plant  grows  wild  in  Sicily  and  the  in- 


316 


BARLEY 


BARLOW 


Hordeum  distichum. 


tenor  of  Asia,  and  the  common  species  is 
stated  by  Pursh  to  occur  apparently  wild  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  barley 
cultivated  in  this  country  is  of  two  species,  If. 
vulyare  and  H.  distichum,  the  grains  of  the 
former  being  arranged  in  four  rows,  and  of  the 
latter  in  two.  A  third  species  is  cultivated  in 
Europe,  H.  kexastichum,  also  called  the  au- 
tumn and  winter  barley.  This  has  six  rows 
of  grains,  each  row 
terminating  in  along 
beard.  This  is  al- 
ways sown  in  the 
fall,  and  ripens  the 
first  in  the  summer. 
Its  grains  are  small, 
but  the  yield  is  large 
— sometimes  20  for 
1.  The  Scotch  bere 
or  bigg  is  of  this  spe- 
cies. H.  distichum, 
or  English  barley, 
originally  from  Tar- 
tary,  has  no  grain 
beard,  is  more  pro- 
ductive than  the 
other  kinds,  and  suc- 
ceeds in  almost  all 
soils.  The  grain  is 
excellent  feed  for 
cattle  and  barnyard 
stock.  The  crop  in 
Great  Britain  is  from  28  to  40  bushels  to  the 
acre,  the  weight  of  the  bushel  being  from  50 
to  54  Ibs.,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  grain. 
The  total  production  of  barley  in  the  United 
States  in  1870  was  15,825,898  bushels.  In  Cal- 
ifornia it  is  next  to  wheat  the  most  important 
grain  crop,  sometimes  yielding  largely  for  five 
successive  years  without  renewed  sowing;  its 
production  in  1870  was  4,415,426  bushels.  The 
next  largest  crop  was  in  New  York,  4,186,668 
bushels;  then  follow  Ohio,  1,663,868;  Illinois, 
1,036,338;  Maine,  802,108;  Wisconsin,  707,307; 
and  Pennsylvania,  530,714.  In  most  of  the 
other  states,  especially  of  the  south,  the  pro- 
duction is  small. — Barley  hulled  and  ground 
makes  a  coarse,  heavy  kind  of  bread,  and  is 
very  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer,  and  to  some  extent  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. Barley  corns  are  of  an  oval,  elongated 
shape,  pointed  at  one  end  and  obtuse  at  the 
other,  and  marked  with  a  longitudinal  furrow. 
Their  color  externally  is  yellowish,  but  within 
they  are  white.  Stripped  of  their  outer  cover- 
ing or  husk,  and  rounded  and  polished  in  a 
mill,  the  grains  are  pearly  white,  and  are  then 
known  as  pearl  barley.  This  is  the  form  in 
which  they  are  always  kept  by  druggists.  Bar- 
ley flour  analyzed  by  Einhoff  was  found  to  con- 
tain, in  1,000  parts,  starch,  720  parts;  sugar, 
56 ;  mucilage,  50 ;  gluten,  36-6  ;  vegetable  al- 
bumen, 12-3;  water,  100;  phosphate  of  lime, 
2'5;  and  fibrous  or  woody  matter,  68.  The 
quality  of  the  grain  is  judged  of  by  the  quantity 
of  water  it  absorbs  when  steeped  in  it;  100  Ibs. 


of  good  barley  gain  by  absorption  47  Ibs.  of 
water. — From  the  times  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galen,  barley  drinks  have  been  in  high  repute 
in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints.  They 
possess  mild,  soothing  qualities,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  impart  nourishment. 

BARLOW,  Joel,  an  American  poet  and  politi- 
cian, born  at  Reading,  Conn.,  in  1755,  died 
near  Cracow,  Poland,  Dec.  22,  1812.  He  was 
educated  at  Dartmouth  and  Yale  colleges,  and 
during  his  latter  vacations  took  part  in  the 
opening  scenes  of  the  revolution,  fighting  val- 
iantly, it  is  said,  in  the  battle  at  White  Plains. 
At  his  graduation  in  1778  he  read  a  poem  upon 
the  prospect  of  peace,  which,  with  another 
poem  delivered  on  occasion  of  taking  his  mas- 
ter's degree,  was  published  in  the  Litchfield 
collection  of  American  poems.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  upon  leaving  college,  but  the  army 
being  at  that  time  deficient  in  chaplains,  he 
was  persuaded  to  study  theology,  and  after  six 
weeks'  preparation  was  licensed  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  and  joined  the  army,  where  he 
inspired  the  troops  not  only  by  his  preaching  but 
by  patriotic  songs  and  speeches.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  resumed  the  study  of  law,  and 
settled  in  Hartford,  where  ho  established  a 
weekly  newspaper,  and  prosecuted  his  poetical 
designs,  adapting  Watts's  versions  of  the  Psalms 
of  David  to  the  use  of  the  general  association 
of  Connecticut,  and  adding  to  the  collection 
several  original  hymns.  His  "  Vision  of  Colum- 
bus" was  published  by  subscription  in  1787, 
received  with  favor,  and  reprinted  in  London 
and  in  Paris.  In  1788  he  went  to  England 
as  agent  of  a  land  company,  but  learning  that 
he  had  become  associated  with  a  party  of 
swindlers,  he  resigned  his  office,  repaired  to 
Paris,  and  involved  himself  in  revolutionary 
schemes.  In  1791  he  published  in  London 
the  first  part  of  his  "Advice  to  the  Privileged 
Orders,"  a  vehement  production,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  a  poem  upon  the  "  Conspiracy 
of  Kings."  The  poem  was  suggested  by  the 
first  continental  alliance  against  France,  and 
was  introduced  by  a  prose  preface  violently  de- 
nouncing Mr.  Burke  as  the  author  of  the  calam- 
ities of  the  time.  He  published  a  translation 
of  Volney's  "  Ruins,  or  Reflections  on  the  Rev- 
olutions of  Empires,"  and  in  1792  sent  a  letter 
to  the  national  convention  of  France,  in  which 
he  recommended  an  extremely  popular  govern- 
ment. He  became  associated  with  the  constitu- 
tional reformers  of  England,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  one  of  a  commission  sent  by  France 
to  organize  the  newly  acquired  territory  of 
Savoy.  At  Chambery  he  wrote  an  enthusiastic 
exhortation  to  the  people  of  Piedmont  to  adopt 
the  revolutionary  principles  of  France,  and 
there  he  wrote  his  humorous  and  most  popular 
poem  upon  "  Hasty  Pudding."  He  made  a  for- 
tune in  France  by  commercial  speculations, 
and  after  addressing  two  extravagant  political 
letters  to  the  people  of  the  United  States,  he 
returned  in  1805  and  established  himself  in 
Washington.  In  1806  he  propounded  a  scheme 


BARLOW 


BARNABAS 


317 


for  a  national  academy  under  the  patronage  of 
government,  and  the  next  year  his  "  Colum- 
biad,"  the  fruit  of  the  labor  of  half  his  life,  ap- 
peared in  a  style  which  made  it  the  most  costly 
publication  that  had  yet  been  attempted  in 
America,  being  illustrated  by  engravings  exe- 
cuted by  the  best  artists  of  London.  A  more 
elaborate  and  declamatory  poem  than  his  "  Vis- 
ion of  Columbus,"  it  yet  never  attained  to  the 
popularity  of  the  latter.  In  its  design  it  was 
simply  a  historical  view  of  events  from  the  time 
of  Columbus  to  the  scenes  of  the  revolution, 
the  great  discoverer  being  represented  as  seeing 
them  from  his  prison  in  Spain.  In  his  latter 
years  he  was  collecting  materials  for  a  history 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  1811  was  appointed 
by  President  Madison  minister  to  France.  His 
diplomatic  skill  was  there  in  request,  and  Na- 
poleon, perplexed  by  negotiations  at  the  time 
of  his  Russian  campaign,  sent  for  him  to  meet 
him  at  Wilna.  Barlow  set  off  immediately, 
but  died  at  a  cottage  in  Poland  before  accom- 
plishing his  mission.  His  last  poem,  dictated 
from  his  deathbed,  was  a  powerful  expression 
of  resentment  against  Napoleon  for  the  hopes 
which  he  had  disappointed. 

BARLOW,  or  Bartowe,  William,  an  English 
theologian,  died  Dec.  10,  1569.  Before  the 
reformation  he  belonged  to  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine,  was  elected  prior  of  the  house  at 
Bisham  in  Berks,  and  in  1535  was  sent  by  Hen- 
ry VIII.  on  an  embassy  to  Scotland.  Securing 
the  favor  of  the  king,  he  was  successively  ap- 
pointed to  the  bishoprics  of  St.  Asaph,  of  St. 
Davids,  and  of  Bath  and  Wells.  He  formally 
left  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  married, 
and  during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  Protestant  zeal.  Under 
Mary  he  lost  his  bishopric,  and  for  a  time  his 
liberty,  and  retired  to  Germany  till  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth.  In  1559  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Chichester,  and  continued  in  this  see  till 
his  death.  He  left  a  work  entitled  "Cosmo- 
graphy," and  several  slight  controversial  trea- 
tises. He  had  a  numerous  family,  and  his  five 
daughters  all  became  the  wives  of  bishops. 

BARMECIDES  (descendants  of  Barmek),  a 
powerful  family  of  Khorasan,  attached  to  the 
Abbasside  caliphs.  One  of  them,  Khaled  ben 
Barmek',  was  tutor  of  Haroun  al-Rashid.  His 
son  Yahya  became  the  vizier  of  Haroun  about 
786,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  renown  of 
his  master's  reign.  Of  his  sons,  Fadhl  was 
distinguished  as  a  soldier  and  as  minister  of 
justice,  and  Jaffar  figures  in  the  "Arabian 
Nights"  as  the  friend  and  confidant  of  Haroun. 
At  the  same  time  some  25  members  of  the 
family  held  important  civil  and  military  dig- 
nities. The  downfall  of  the  Barmecides  took 
place  about  803.  Haroun,  becoming  jealous  of 
the  popularity  and  power  of  the  family,  and 
incensed,  it  is  said,  on  account  of  the  birth  of 
a  son  of  his  sister  Abassa,  whom  he  had  mar- 
ried to  Jaffar  on  condition  that  the  union 
hould  be  merely  platonic,  caused  Jaffar  to  be 
eheaded  at  Anbar,  on  the  Euphrates;  Yahya 


and  Fadhl  were  thrown  into  prison  at  Racca, 
where  they  died  in  chains,  while  nearly  all 
their  relatives  were  arrested  and  deprived  of 
their  property.  Ibn  Khaldun  disputes  the 
truth  of  this  story,  which  in  modern  times  has 
afforded  a  theme  to  poets  and  dramatists.  To 
one  of  the  Barmecides  is  attributed  the  fa- 
mous feast  in  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  where  the 
guest  was  served  with  only  imaginary  viands ; 
whence  the  phrase  "Barmecide  feast." 

BARMEN,  an  industrial  town  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  closely  adjoining  Elberfeld,  and  24  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Cologne.  It  is  situated  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Wupper,  and  stretches  along  the 
Bergisch-Miirkische  railway  over  a  distance  of 
about  9  m.  to  the  frontier  of  Westphalia.  It  is 
divided  into  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Barmen, 
each  of  which  consists  of  a  number  of  small 
towns  or  villages  which  were  formerly  in- 
dependent, and  which  even  now,  though  all 
absorbed  into  the  town  of  Barmen,  retain  their 
old  names.  In  1706  the  population  of  the 
valley  was  only  2,500;  in  1861  it  was  49,740; 
and  in  1871  it  had  risen  to  74,496.  The  ribbon 
manufacture  is  the  most  important  in  Europe ; 
and  cottons,  velvets,  silks,  chemical  products, 
plated  ware,  &c.,  are  produced.  There  is  a 
gymnasium ;  also  a  seminary  of  foreign  mis- 
sions belonging  to  the  Rhenish  Westphalian 
missionary  society. 

BARNABAS,  Epistle  of,  a  work  purporting  to 
be  written  by  St.  Barnabas.  It  was  known 
early  in  the  Christian  church,  for  it  is  cited 
several  times  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Origen,  and  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 
For  several  centuries  it  was  lost  sight  of,  until 
Sirmond  in  the  17th  century  discovered  it  at 
the  end  of  a  manuscript  of  one  of  the  epistles 
of  Polycarp.  About  the  same  time  Hugo  Me- 
nardus  discovered  a  Latin  version  of  it  in  the 
abbey  of  Corvey.  This  was  printed  at  Paris  in 
1645.  The  year  before  Archbishop  Usher  had 
received  a  copy  of  the  MS.,  which  he  annexed 
to  the  Ignatian  epistles ;  but  a  fire  at  Oxford 
destroyed  all  but  a  few  pages.  The  work, 
both  in  Greek  and  in  the  Latin  version,  has 
been  several  times  reprinted;  among  others, 
by  Vossius  in  his  "Ignatian  Epistles"  (1646); 
Russell,  "Apostolic  Fathers"  (1746);  Hefele, 
Patrum  Apostolicorum  Opera  (1842).  It  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Wake,  and  sev- 
eral times  into  German.  All  these  editions 
are  from  Sirmond's  Greek  text,  in  which  were 
wanting  the  first  four  chapters  and  a  part  of 
the  fifth,  and  from  the  Corvey  Latin  version, 
where  the  last  five  chapters  were  lacking.  But 
in  1859  Tischendorf  brought  from  Mt.  Sinai  a 
Greek  MS.  of  the  entire  epistle,  divided  into 
21  chapters,  which  was  published  in  his  No- 
tsum  Tettamentum  Sinaiticum  (2d  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1863).  The  best  separate  edition  of  the  epistle 
is  that  of  Hilgenfeld,  with  the  ancient  Latin 
version,  notes,  and  a  commentary  (Leipsic, 
1865).  An  English  version,  from  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus,  appeared  in  the  "Journal  of  Sacred 
Literature,"  October,  1863;  reprinted  in  the 


318 


BARNABAS 


BARNABITES 


"American  Presbyterian  Review,"  January 
and  July,  1864.  A  commentary  on  the  epistle, 
by  J.  G.  Miiller,  has  been  published  as  an  ap- 
pendix to  De  Wette's  Exegetuchea  Ifandbuch 
zum  Neuen  Testament  (Leipsic,  1869). — Many 
eminent  critics,  as  Voss,  Pearson,  Wake,  Lard- 
ner,  Gieseler,  Black,  and  others,  hold  that  this 
epistle  was  written  by  Barnabas,  the  compan- 
ion of  Paul ;  but  the  current  of  recent  opinion 
is  against  its  authenticity.  Among  the  ob- 
jections urged  against  it  are:  1.  It  speaks  of 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  must  there- 
fore have  been  written  after  A.  D.  70 ;  where- 
as there  is  reason  to  believe  that  Barnabas  was 
not  living  in  64,  the  earliest  date  assignable  for 
the  martyrdom  of  Paul.  2.  The  work  bears 
internal  evidence  of  having  been  written  by  a 
gentile,  with  no  sympathy  for  the  Hebrews. 
3.  Barnabas  was  a  Levite,  and  presumably  well 
acquainted  with  the  Hebrew  ritual,  which  the 
writer  of  the  epistle  in  many  places  mis- 
represents. 4.  His  mode  of  interpretation  is 
puerile  and  absurd.  5.  He  shows  himself  wholly 
unacquainted  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 
commits  the  blunder  of  representing  Abraham 
as  familiar  with  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  did 
not  exist  until  centuries  after  his  death.  The 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  it  existed  in  the 
Alexandrian  church  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  was  written  by  some  one  who  had  studied 
Philo  and  adopted  his  allegorical  mode  of  inter- 
preting the  Old  Testament.  Some  critics  put 
the  probable  time  of  its  composition  just  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  none  judge  it  to 
be  later  than  A.  D.  120. 

BARNABAS,  Saint,  a  Christian  teacher,  noted 
for  his  early  connection  with  the  apostle  Paul. 
His  original  name  was  Joses  or  Joseph.  The 
surname  Barnabas  (Gr.  1iapv&/)af,  from  Ohald. 
JBar-nebwK),  signifies  "  son  of  prophecy,"  or 
"son  of  exhortation"  (vl&f  irapaK^aeuf,  Acts 
iv.  36).  He  was  born  in  Cyprus  of  Jewish 
parents,  and  possessed  of  property,  which  he 
sold,  giving  the  proceeds  to  the  common 
Christian  fund.  As  this  occurred  soon  after 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  he  must  have  been  one 
of  the  earliest  converts.  When  the  tidings 
reached  Jerusalem  of  the  conversion  of  Saul, 
Barnabas  was  sent  to  Antioch,  where  a  gentile 
church  had  been  organized,  to  investigate  the 
matter.  He  labored  there  with  Paul  for  a 
year,  and  when  a  contribution  was  raised  for 
the  poor  brethren  of  Jerusalem,  it  was  sent  up 
by  Barnabas  and  Paul.  They  were  soon  de- 
spatched on  a  mission  to  Cyprus  and  Asia  Minor. 
A  controversy  having  arisen  at  Antioch  re- 
specting the  obligation  of  gentiles  to  receive 
the  rite  of  circumcision,  they  were  deputed  to 
lay  the  matter  before  the  elders  of  Jerusalem. 
Their  representations  induced  the  elders  to  de- 
cide, notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Peter, 
that  the  rite  was  not  essential.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  then  proposed  another  missionary  jour- 
ney. Barnabas  wished  to  take  with  them  his 
nephew  Mark.  Paul  objected  to  this,  for  some 
reason  not  assigned ;  but  as  Mark  is  afterward 


spoken  of  as  the  special  companion  of  Peter,  it 
may  he  that  he  had  sided  with  him  in  the  con- 
troversy about  circumcision.  The  dispute  be- 
came so  sharp  that  a  separation  took  place, 
Barnabas  and  Mark  going  to  Cyprus,  while 
Paul,  taking  with  him  Silas,  went  through  Syria 
and  Cilicia.  Beyond  this,  with  the  exception 
of  three  incidental  allusions  in  the  epistles  of 
Paul,  nothing  is  certainly  known  respecting 
Barnabas.  From  these  it  appears  that  he  was 
unmarried,  and  supported  himself,  like  Paul, 
by  some  manual  occupation ;  and  that  he  so 
far  went  over  to  the  Judaizing  party  as  for  a 
time  to  keep  aloof  from  communion  with  the 
gentile  converts.  From  the  fact  that  the 
heathen  of  Lystra  called  him  Jupiter,  while 
they  styled  Paul  Mercury  on  account  of  his 
eloquence,  it  has  been  inferred  that  Barnabas 
was  a  man  of  imposing  aspect  and  demeanor. 
There  are  numerous  legends  respecting  him, 
none  of  which  can  be  traced  beyond  the  6th 
century.  According  to  one,  he  attempted  to 

I  preach  in  the  synagogue  at  Salamis,  was  drag- 
ged out  and  stoned  to  death,  and  an  ineffectual 
attempt  was  made  to  burn  his  body.  Mark 
rescued  the  body  and  buried  it  in  a  cave ;  but 
a  persecution  arising,  the  Christians  were  dis- 
persed, and  the  knowledge  of  the  place  of 
interment  was  lost.  Four  centuries  later  a 
heretical  attempt  was  made  to  set  aside  the 
orthodox  bishop  of  Salamis.  Barnabas  three 
times  appeared  to  the  bishop  in  a  vision,  and 
told  him  where  his  body  might  be  found,  with 
a  copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel'  lying  upon  it. 
Search  was  made,  and  the  body  and  book  were 
found.  A  tradition  wholly  unsupported  makes 
Barnabas  the  first  bishop  of  Milan ;  but  Am- 
brose does  not  mention  him  among  the  bishops 
who  had  preceded  him  in  that  see.  The  Roman 
Catholic  church  celebrates  the  festival  of  St. 
Barnabas  on  June  11.  The  church  at  Tou- 
louse claims  to  possess  bis  body,  and  there  are 
eight  or  nine  other  churches  which  claim  to 
possess  his  head.  A  spurious  gospel  attributed 
to  Barnabas  exists  in  Arabic,  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 
It  appears  to  be  a  forgery  by  some  heretical 
sect,  with  .interpolations  by  Mohammedans.  It 
was  placed  among  the  apocryphal  books  by 
Cotelerius  in  his  edition  of  the  "Apostolic 
Canon,"  and  was  formally  condemned  by  Pope 

!  Gelasius  II.  in  1118. 

BARNABITES,  or  Regular  Clerks  of  si.  Paul,  a 
religious  order,  so  called  from  the  church  of 
St.  Barnabas  in  Milan,  which  was  granted  them 
in  1545.  The  order  consists  of  two  branches, 
formerly  distinct,  but  united  into  one  during 
the  time  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  The  origin 
of  the  older  branch,  who  were  properly  called 
Ambrosians,  is  uncertain,  but  is  supposed  to 
date  from  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XI.  (1370- 
'78).  The  younger  branch  was  founded  in  1532 
by  three  priests,  Zaccaria  of  Cremona,  and 
Ferrari  and  Morigia  of  Milan,  for  the  purpose 
of  preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments 
among  the  populace  of  Milan,  who  had  become 


BARNACLE 


BARNARD 


319 


much  corrupted  by  the  continual  presence  of  a 
multitude  of  German  soldiers  in  the  city,  and 
who  were  also  much  afflicted  by  pestilence. 
In  1579  their  constitutions  and  rules  were  fully 
revised  and  established,  under  the  direction 
of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  The  mother  house 
is  at  present  in  Rome,  and  the  order  has 
about  20  colleges  in  Italy,  Austria,  and  France. 
BARNACLE,  a  name  commonly,  given  both  to 
the  pedunculated  and  sessile  cirripeds.  By  the 
older  naturalists  they  were  classed  with  the 
testaceous  mollusca,  the  pedunculated  forming 
the  genus  lepas,  and  the  sessile  the  genus  ~bala- 
nm  ;  they  are  now  recognized  as  belonging  to 
the  articulata.  Those  provided  with  the  fleshy 
peduncle  or  footstalk,  as  well  as  those  without 
it,  are  found  firmly  fixed  below  the  level  of  the 
water  to  the  surface  of  rocks,  shells,  and  float- 
ing substances.  Adhering  to  the  bottoms  of 
vessels,  they  are  carried  to  almost  all  parts  of 
the  world  and  are  found  in  all  seas,  even  the 


Goose  Barnacles  on  a  bottle. 

Arctic  ocean.  In  warm  climates  particularly 
the  barnacles  attach  themselves  in  such  num- 
bers to  the  bottom  of  vessels,  especially  of 
those  not  protected  by  copper,  as  often  to 
retard  their  progress.  Their  bodies  are  enclosed 
in  shells,  white  or  of  a  purplish  blue  color; 
the  peduncle  is  a  fleshy  worm-like  stem,  the 
extremity  of  which  is  fixed  to  the  object  upon 
which  the  animal  is  stationed.  The  food  of  the 
barnacles  consists  of  small  Crustacea  and  mol- 
lusks ;  these  are  entangled  by  the  many-jointed 
cirri  which  are  perpetually  thrown  out  and 
folded  again,  so  as  to  serve  the  purpose  of 
casting  a  net,  which  drags  the  prey  to  the 
mouth.  The  young  are  produced  from  eggs, 
which  are  discharged  by  the  female  in  great 
numbers.  On  emerging  from  the  egg  they  are 
quite  free,  possessing  locomotive  organs,  and 
being  furnished  also  with  large  lateral  eyes. 
In  due  time  a  metamorphosis  takes  place,  and, 
assuming  the  shapes  and  habits  of  their  pa- 
78  VOL.  n.— 21 


rents,  they  affix  themselves  to  their  future  per- 
manent place  of  residence.  It  would  appear 
that  the  growth  of  these  animals  is  very  rapid, 
for  a  ship  perfectly  free  of  them  will  return 
after  a  short  voyage  covered  with  them  below 
the  water  line.  The  flesh  of  some  of  the  varie- 
ties of  the  barnacle  was  esteemed  by  the  an- 
cients, and  at  the  present  day  the  Chinese  eat  it. 
Except  as  to  the  obstruction  of  vessels,  they 
seem  to  be  perfectly  harmless. — The  barnacle 
was  in  ancient  times  supposed  to  produce  the 
bird  known  as  the  barnacle  goose.  (See 
GOOSE.)  It  is  from  this  fabulous  connection 
with  the  goose  that  the  generic  name  anatifa 
of  Lamarck  (Lat.  anas,  duck)  is  still  retained 
for  the  true  barnacles,  those  furnished  with 
the  footstalk ;  and  so  of  the  name  anserifera 
or  goose  barnacle  of  Linnaeus  applied  to  one  of 
the  species  of  this  genus,  which  is  called  lepas. 
(See  CIBBIPEDES.) 

BARNARD,  Frederick  Augustus  Porter,  LL.  D., 
an  American  scholar  and  educator,  born  at 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  in  1809.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1828,  became  tutor  there  in 
1829,  in  1831  teacher  in  the  asylum  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb  at  Hartford,  and  in  1832  in  that 
of  New  York.  From  1837  to  1848  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  Alabama,  and  afterward 
of  chemistry  till  1854.  The  same  year  he  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  church.  He  then  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  and  astrono- 
my in  the  university  of  Mississippi,  of  which 
institution  he  was  elected  president  in  1856. 
In  1861  Dr.  Barnard  left  Mississippi,  and  in 
1864  he  became  president  of  Columbia  college, 
New  York,  which  office  he  still  holds  (1873). 
He  was  United  States  commissioner  to  the  uni- 
versal exposition  at  Paris  in  1867,  and  pub- 
lished an  elaborate  "Report  on  Machinery  and 
Industrial  Arts  "  (New  York,  1869).  His  other 
principal  works  are:  "Treatise  on  Arithme- 
tic "  (1830) ;  "  Analytic  Grammar  with  Sym- 
bolic Illustration  "  (1836),  originating  a  system 
still  used  in  the  principal  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb ;  various  reports,  essays,  &c., 
on  collegiate  and  university  education,  includ- 
ing a  volume  of  "  Letters  on  Collegiate  Govern- 
ment "  (1855) ;  "  History  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey"  (1857);  "Recent  Progress  of 
Science"  (1869);  and  "The  Metric  System" 
(1871).  In  1860  he  was  a  member  of  the  astro- 
nomical expedition  to  observe  the  total  eclipse 
of  the  sun  in  Labrador ;  in  1862  was  engaged 
in  continuing  the  reduction  of  Gilliss's  obser- 
vations of  the  stars  in  the  southern  hemisphere; 
and  in  1863  had  charge  of  the  publication  of 
charts  and  maps  of  the  United  States  coast 
survey.  In  1860  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  American  association  for  the  advancement 
of  science;  in  1865  of  the  board  of  experts  of 
the  American  bureau  of  mines;  and  in  1872 
of  the  American  institute.  In  1855  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Jefferson  college, 
Miss.,  and  in  1859  from  Yale  college;  in  1861 
that  of  D.  D.  from  the  university  of  Missis- 


320 


BARNARD 


BARNAUL 


sippi;  and  in  1872  that  of  doctor  of  literature 
from  the  regents  of  the  university  of  the  state 
of  New  York.  He  is  a  member  of  various 
learned  societies  in  America  and  Europe,  and 
has  been  a  contributor  to  the  "  American  Jour- 
nal of  Education"  from  its  commencement, 
and  to  Silliman's  "American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence and  Arts"  since  1837. 

BARNARD,  Henry,  LL.  D.,  an  American  schol- 
ar and  educator,  horn  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan. 
24,  1811.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in 
1830,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1835.  From  1837  to  1840  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legislature  of  Connecticut,  and 
labored  to  secure  the  independence  of  the  ju- 
diciary, the  improvement  of  county  prisons, 
the  care  of  the  insane  poor,  and  the  reorgani- 
zation of  common  schools.  From  1838  to 
1842,  and  again  from  1850  to  1854,  he  was  su- 
perintendent of  schools,  and  revolutionized  the 
construction  of  school  houses,  established  pub- 
lic high  schools,  teachers'  institutes,  and  a  nor- 
mal school,  and  improved  the  system  of  school 
instruction.  From  1843  to  1849  he  was  school 
commissioner  of  Ehode  Island,  and  by  repeat- 
ed visits  to  and  public  addresses  in  ditferent 
states  he  aided  to  set  on  foot  similar  reforms 
elsewhere.  From  1857  to  1859  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  state  university  of  Wisconsin,  and 
in  1865-'6  of  St.  John's  college  at  Annapolis, 
Md.  He  labored  to  improve  these  institutions 
by  consolidating  them  with  other  colleges,  thus 
increasing  their  resources,  by  establishing  pub- 
lic high  schools,  and  by  abridging  the  enforced 
course  of  study  to  two  years,  and  extending 
the  range  of  optional  studies  to  the  modern 
languages  and  sciences.  From  1867  to  1869 
he  was  United  States  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion, and  brought  about  the  national  recogni- 
tion of  the  educational  interests  of  the  whole 
country,  for  which  he  had  labored  since  1840. 
He  has  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Har- 
vard, Yale,  and  Union  colleges.  Among  his 
works,  several  of  which  have  passed  through 
many  editions,  are :  "  School  Architecture  " 
(1839) ;  "  National  Education  "  (4  vols.,  1840) ; 
"Normal  Schools  and  Teachers'  Institutes" 
(1850);  "Educational  Biography"  (3  vols., 
1857) ;  "  Papers  for  Teachers  "  (8  vols.) ;  "  Mil- 
itary Schools,"  and  "Technical  and  Scientific 
Education."  He  has  also  conducted  the  follow- 
ing educational  periodicals :  "  Common  School 
Journal"  (1838-'42);  "Rhode  Island  School 
Journal"  (1845-'49);  "American  Journal  of 
Education  "  (Hartford,  1856  et  seq.). 

BARNARD,  John  Gross,  an  American  military 
engineer,  brother  of  President  F.  A.  P.  Barnard, 
born  in  Berkshire  county,  Mass.,  May  19,  1815. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  engineer  corps,  in  which  he  has 
since  served,  having  been  promoted  as  follows : 
lieutenant,  1833;  captain,  1838;  brevet  major, 
1848;  major,  1858  ;  brigadier  general  of  volun- 
teers, 1861;  brevet  colonel,  1862;  lieutenant 
colonel,  1863 ;  brevet  major  general  of  volun- 
teers, 1864;  brevet  brigadier  general  and  bre- 


vet major  general  of  the  regular  army,  March 
13,  1865;  colonel  of  the  corps  of  engineers, 
Dec.  28,  1865.  Up  to  1846  he  was  employed 
as  constructing  engineer  on  the  southern  coasts 
and  at  New  York  and  New  Orleans.  During 
the  war  with  Mexico  he  fortified  Tampico, 
and  made  surveys  of  the  battlefields  around 
the  capital.  In  1850-'51  he  was  chief  engineer 
for  the  survey  of  the  projected  Tehuantepec 
railroad,  and  afterward  acted  as  engineer  of 
various  public  works.  In  1855-'6  he  was  su- 
perintendent of  the  military  academy  at  West 
Point,  and  for  the  next  four  years  he  had 
charge  of  the  defences  around  New  York.  At 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  fortifications  around  Washington, 
served  as  engineer  for  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
and  finally,  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Grant,  as  chief 
engineer  to  the  armies  in  the  field.  He  was 
mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service  in  1866  ; 
and,  with  the  actual  rank  of  colonel  of  the 
corps  of  engineers,  he  is  a  member  of  boards 
having  in  charge  the  fortifications  and  harbor 
and  river  obstructions  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  He  has  published  "The  Gyro- 
scope "  (1857),  and  "  Problems  in  Rotary  Mo- 
tion" (1872),  two  very  profound  mathematical 
investigations ;  "  Dangers  and  Defences  of  New 
York  "  (1859) ;  "  Notes  on  Seacoast  Defence  " 
(1861);  "The  0.  S.  A.  and  the  Battle  of  Bull 
Run"  (1862);  and  "Artillery  Operations  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac"  (1863).  In  1864 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him 
by  Yale  college. 

BARNARD,  Sir  John,  an  English  merchant, 
born  at  Reading,  Berkshire,  in  1685,  died  at 
Clapbam,  Aug.  29,  1764.  His  parents  were 
Quakers,  but  at  the  age  of  19  he  left  the  sect, 
and  was  baptized  into  the  church  of  England. 
He  entered  the  counting-house  of  his  father, 
a  prosperous  wine  merchant,  soon  took  the 
chief  management  of  the  business,  became  one 
of  the  most  eminent  traders  of  the  metropolis, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  parliament  for 
the  city  of  London,  which  he  continued  to  rep- 
resent during  nearly  40  years.  He  generally 
opposed  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Wai- 
pole.  In  1728  he  was  chosen  an  alderman  of 
London ;  in  1732  was  knighted,  on  presenting 
i  to  the  king  a  congratulatory  address  on  his  re- 
turn from  Germany;  in  1735  discharged  the 
duties  of  sheriff;  and  in  1737  became  lord 
mayor.  He  formed  a  plan  for  reducing  the 
national  debt  of  England,  which,  deemed  chi- 
merical at  first,  was  afterward  adopted;  and 
during  the  rebellion  in  Scotland  in  1745  he  as- 
sisted in  maintaining  public  credit  by  agreeing 
with  the  leading  merchants  of  London  to  re- 
ceive the  notes  of  the  bank  of  England  in  pay- 
ment of  all  debts.  He  retired  from  public  life 
in  1758.  A  statue  has  been  erected  to  him  in 
the  royal  exchange. 

BARNAliL,  the  chief  town  in  the  mining  dis- 
trict of  the  Altai  mountains  in  Siberia,  lat.  53° 
20'  N.,  Ion.  84°  E.,  on  the  river  Barnaulka,  a 
small  branch  of  the  Obi,  230  m.  S.  by  W.  of 


BARNAVE 


BARNES 


321 


Tomsk ;  pop.  about  12,000.  All  the  gold  ob- 
tained in  Siberia  must  be  sent  to  Barnaul  to  be 
smelted,  with  the  exception  of  that  yielded  by 
the  Yablonnoi  mountains.  The  gold-washing 
begins  in  May  and  lasts  till  September,  the 
metal  being  sent  to  Barnaul  once  or  twice  dur- 
ing the  year.  It  then  passes  into  the  control 
of  the  government,  which  in  time  accounts  to 
the  miners  for  its  value.  The  silver  is  not  sep- 
arated from  the  gold  in  Siberia,  but  the  metal 
is  sent  for  that  purpose  to  St.  Petersburg.  The 
smelting  works  at  Barnaul  are  on  a  large  scale, 
and  are  conducted  in  the  most  approved  scien- 
tific manner.  The  governor  of  Tomsk,  who  is 
always  chosen  from  the  mining  engineers,  is 
required  to  visit  every  mine  and  smelting  works 
at  least  once  in  two  years.  Exploring  expedi- 
tions are  sent  out  every  spring,  to  prospect  in 
the  mining  regions.  At  Barnaul  there  is  a 
magnetic  observatory,  whence  observations  are 
regularly  forwarded  to  St.  Petersburg.  There 
is  also  a  museum,  containing  a  good  collection 
of  Siberian  minerals,  animals,  and  birds.  The 
market  is  well  supplied.  The  workmen  live  in 
small  wooden  cottages,  and  nearly  all  the  peas- 
ants own  cows  and  horses. 

BARNAVE,  Antoine  Pierre  Joseph  Marie,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Grenoble,  Oct.  22,  1761, 
guillotined  at  Paris,  Nov.  29,  1793.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  and  at  the  age  of  22  he 
was  chosen  by  the  bar  of  Grenoble  to  pro- 
nounce a  discourse  at  the  closing  of  the  parlia- 
ment ;  his  subject  was  the  "  Division  of  Po- 
litical Powers."  He  distinguished  himself  in 
1788  by  a  pamphlet  against  certain  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  king ;  and  a  few  months  after 
he  was  elected  a  deputy  of  the  third  estate  in 
the  states  general  which  met  at  Versailles,  May 
4,  1789.  He  supported  the  movement  for  a 
national  assembly,  the  formation  of  the  nation- 
al guard,  the  abolition  of  all  feudal  privileges, 
the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man,  the  secu- 
larization of  the  church  estates,  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  Jews,  the  abolition  of  religious 
orders,  and  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery ;  and 
opposed  the  absolute  veto  of  the  king,  the 
elegibility  to  office  of  members  of  the  national 
assembly,  and  the  conferring  on  the  king  the 
right  of  making  peace  and  war.  On  the  last 
two  questions  he  separated  from  Mirabeau.  In 
October,  1790,  he  was  made  president  of  the 
assembly.  On  May  11,  1791,  he  proposed  that 
no  change  should  be  made  in  regard  to  slavery 
without  the  consent  of  the  planters;  he  was 
opposed  by  Robespierre,  Sieyes,  and  Gregoire, 
and  defeated.  On  the  flight  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily and  their  arrest  at  Varennes,  he  was  sent 
with  Latour-Maubourg  and  Petion  to  bring 
back  the  captives  to  Paris.  From  the  date  of 
this  event  he  was  totally  changed.  He  became 
the  advocate  of  the  king  and  queen,  and  main- 
tained constant  relations  with  the  latter,  en- 
deavoring to  bring  them  into  unison  with  the 
constitutional  party  in  the  assembly.  He  de- 
fended the  inviolability  of  the  royal  person, 
opposed  the  proposition  to  give  soldiers  the 


right  of  denouncing  their  officers,  spoke  in  be- 
half of  priests  who  denied  the  authority  of  the 
assembly,  and  moved  the  order  of  the  day  on 
the  question  of  the  right  of  the  assembly  to  dis- 
miss the  ministers.  He  retired  to  Grenoble  in 
January,  1792,  and  devoted  himself  to  political 
philosophy  and  literature  until  Aug.  29,  when 
he  was  arrested  on  account  of  a  pamphlet 
found  in  the  king's  cabinet.  He  was  kept  10 
months  in  prison  at  Grenoble ;  was  transferred 
to  Paris,  Nov.  3,  1793,  and  was  tried  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal  Nov.  28,  and  guil- 
lotined the  next  day.  His  last  words  to  the 
people  about  the  scaffold  were:  "Behold  the 
reward  for  all  that  I  have  done  for  liberty." 
A  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the  senate 
house  under  the  consulate,  but  on  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  it  was  removed.  His 
works  have  been  collected  in  four  volumes  by 
M.  Berenger  (de  la  Dr&me). 

BARNEGAT.  I.  A  post  village  of  Union  town- 
ship, in  the  S.  part  of  Ocean  county,  N.  J.  It  lies 
on  Double  creek,  near  the  inlet  of  that  name, 
1  m.  from  Barnegat  bay.  It  has  excellent  sea 
bathing,  and  an  abundance  of  wild  fowl.  II. 
A  bay  on  the  E.  border  of  Ocean  county,  N.  J., 
extends  N.  from  below  Barnegat  inlet  to  the 
mouth  of  Metetecunk  river.  It  is  about  23  m. 
long,  and  from  1  to  4  m.  wide.  Metetecunk, 
Toms,  and  Forked  rivers,  and  Kettle  and  Cedar 
creeks,  discharge  into  it.  Squan  beach  and 
Island  beach,  strips  of  sandy  land  from  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  separate  it  from 
the  ocean.  Its  entrance  is  about  a  mile  wide. 

BARNES,  Albert,  an  American  theologian,  born 
at  Rome,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  1798,  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, Dec.  24,  1870.  He  graduated  at  Hamil- 
ton college  in  1820,  intending  to  become  a 
lawyer;  but  considering  it  his  duty  to  enter 
the  ministry,  he  studied  at  the  Princeton  the- 
ological seminary,  and  in  1823  was  licensed  to 
preach.  He  officiated  in  various  churches  till 
1830,  when,  being  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  of  Morristown,  N.  J.,  he  was  called  to 
the  first  Presbyterian  church  of  Philadelphia, 
in  which  charge  he  remained  till  1867,  when 
he  resigned  it  in  consequence  of  failing  health 
and  the  almost  total  loss  of  his  eyesight.  Mr. 
Barnes  was  distinguished  as  an  eloquent  preach- 
er and  faithful  pastor,  and  was  the  author  of 
many  books.  He  js  best  known  by  his  "  Notes  " 
on  various  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  originally 
prepared  as  lectures  to  his  own  congregation. 
The  book  of  Psalms  was  always  a  favorite 
study,  and  his  notes  upon  this  are  highly  esteem- 
ed (new  ed.,  3  vols.  12mo,  New  York,  1868-'9). 
He  also  published  notes  on  Job,  Isaiah,  and 
Daniel.  But  his  reputation  as  a  commentator 
rests  mainly  upon  his  notes  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, comprising  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  all 
the  Epistles.  They  are  especially  adapted  for 
the  use  of  Sunday  schools  and  Bible  classes, 
and  have  been  widely  adopted  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Great  Britain.  No  other  works 
of  this  class  have  ever  had  so  wide  a  circulation. 
Several  editions  have  been  published,  with 


322 


BARNES 


slight  emendations ;  and  at  his  death  he  had 
completed  a  new  revision,  with  additions,  em- 
bodying the  results  of  the  latest  researches. 
The  publication  of  this  edition  was  completed 
in  1872  (6  vols.  12mo,  New  York).  During 
the  discussions  which  led  to  the  temporary 
disruption  of  the  Presbyterian  church,  Mr. 
Barnes  was  arraigned  on  a  charge  of  heresy, 
based  mainly  upon  some  passages  in  his  "  Notes 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans."  He  was  ac- 
quitted, but  was  recommended  to  change  a 
few  expressions  which  were  thought  liable  to 
misconstruction  ;  this  was  done,  but  the  alter- 
ation involved  no  substantial  variations  of  opin- 
ion from  his  earlier  form  of  expression.  When 
the  Presbyterian  church  was  divided,  he  re- 
mained with  the  New  School  branch.  The  de- 
gree of  D.  D.  was  repeatedly  conferred  upon 
him,  but  was  declined.  Besides  his  work  as 
pastor  and  commentator,  Mr.  Barnes  took  a 
firm  though  moderate  part  in  the  movement 
against  slavery  in  America.  He  also  wrote 
largely  for  periodicals,  and  published,  besides 
the  works  mentioned,  an  excellent  introduc- 
tory essay  to  "Butler's  Analogy,"  "Scriptural 
Views  of  Slavery,"  "The  Way  of  Salvation," 
"The  Atonement,"  "Claims  of  Episcopacy," 
"Church  Manual,"  "Lectures  on  the  Eviden- 
ces of  Christianity  in  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
"Prayers for  Family  Worship,"  his  "Defence" 
when  on  trial  upon  charge  of  heresy,  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  and  a  series  of  Sunday 
school  question  books. 

BARNES,  Thomas,  an  English  journalist,  born 
about  1785,  died  May  7, 1841.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ's  hospital,  London  (where  Leigh  Hunt 
was  his  contemporary),  and  at  Pembroke  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  after  having  published 
some  powerful  political  letters  in  the  "Times" 
newspaper,  he  succeeded  Dr.  (afterward  Sir 
John)  Stoddart  in  the  editorship,  which  posi- 
tion he  continued  to  occupy  for  nearly  25  years, 
finally  becoming  one  of  the  proprietors.  Among 
the  best  leaders  from  his  pen  was  that  on  the 
character  of  George  IV.,  which  accompanied 
the  obituary  notice  of  that  monarch,  and  a  se- 
vere analysis  of  the  character  of  Lord  Broug- 
ham, suggested  by  the  premature  announcement 
of  his  death  in  1839. 

BARNES,  William,  an  English  poet  and  phi- 
lologist, born  in  Dorsetshire  in  1810.  His  fam- 
ily were  farmers,  his  means  of  education  were 
limited,  and  his  philological  learning  was  the 
result  of  study  late  in  life.  He  was  for  a 
while  a  teacher  in  Dorsetshire,  became  curate 
of  Whitcombe  in  1847,  and  rector  of  Winter- 
bourn  Came  in  1862.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Poems  in  the  Dorset  Dialect"  (1864)  and 
"  Poems  of  Rural  Life  "  (1868).  Among  his 
philological  and  scientific  works  are  :  a  "  Gram- 
mar of  the  Dorset  Dialect ;"  a  "  Philological 
Grammar,"  grounded  upon  English  and  formed 
from  a  comparison  of  more  than  60  languages ; 
"Tiev,  or  a  View  of  the  Roots  and  Stems  of 
the  English  as  a  Teutonic  Tongue;"  "An  An- 
glo-Saxon Dilectus;"  "Views  of  Labor  and 


BARNEY 

Gold ;  "  and  a  treatise  on  linear  perspective  and 
the  projection  of  shadows. 

BARiVEVELDT,  Jan  Van  Olden,  grand  pension- 
ary of  Holland,  born  at  Amersfoort,  Sept.  14, 
1547,  beheaded  at  the  Hague,  May  13,  1619. 
After  studying  law  and  divinity  five  years  he 
began  to  practise  law  at  the  Hague  "in  1569, 
and  soon  became  known  as  an  able  lawyer. 
He  served  hi  the  army  against  the  Spaniards, 
and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Haarlem 
in  1573.  In  1585,  after  the  death  of  William 
of  Orange,  he  headed  a  deputation  which  offer- 
ed the  sovereignty  of  the  Dutch  provinces  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  queen  refused  the  oft'er, 
but  sent  a  force  under  the  earl  of  Leicester  to 
their  assistance.  Barneveldt  was  soon  after- 
ward appointed  advocate  general  or  grand  pen- 
sionary of  Holland  and  West  Fricsland,  and 
became  leader  of  the  republican  party  which 
favored  subordinating  the  stadtholder  to  the 
legislature.  He  opposed  the  influence  which 
the  earl  of  Leicester  was  gaining,  and  in  order 
to  limit  his  military  power  had  the  dignity 
of  stadtholder  conferred  on  the  young  Prince 
Maurice,  son  of  William  of  Orange.  In  1603 
he  was  one  of  an  embassy  to  James  I.,  and 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  secret  aid  of  Eng- 
land and  France  against  Spain.  In  the  religious 
strife  between  the  Gomarists  and  Arminians, 
which  began  in  1604  and  soon  included  all 
the  clergy  and  laity  of  Holland,  Barneveldt, 
who  with  most  of  the  eminent  scholars  and 
statesmen  of  the  country  favored  the  more 
liberal  views  of  the  Arminians,  endeavored  to 
reconcile  the  two  factions,  now  upon  the  point 
of  war,  by  a  conference  of  ecclesiastics,  which 
resulted  in  a  declaration  of  general  toleration 
on  the  disputed  points.  In  this  the  states  con- 
curred, and  in  1614  an  edict  was  issued  enjoin- 
ing peace.  But  Maurice,  now  Barneveldt's 
great  rival,  being  at  the  head  of  the  military 
party  which  had  favored  a  prosecution  of  the 
war  with  Spain,  while  Barneveldt  had  in  1609 
concluded  a  truce  of  12  years,  procured  the 
summoning  of  the  council  of  Dort,  Nov.  13, 
1618,  which  condemned  entirely  the  Arminian 
doctrines.  Barneveldt  and  his  friend  Grotius 
had  already  been  arrested  at  the  instigation 
of  Maurice  in  the  beginning  of  that  year.  His 
trial  soon  followed  the  decision  of  the  synod, 
and  was  a  mere  farce,  it  having  been  already 
determined  that  he  should  die.  He  was  found 
guilty,  among  other  things,  of  "having  brought 
the  church  of  God  into  trouble,"  and  was  be- 
headed. As  grand  pensionary,  which  office  he 
held  until  the  year  before  his  death,  he  con- 
ducted through  peace  and  war  the  affairs  of 
the  commonwealth  with  great  ability ;  and  in 
the  conflicts  of  religious  factions  he  advocated 
I  the  most  enlightened  measures  of  toleration  and 
freedom.  His  two  sons  formed  a  plot  to  avenge 
his  death  by  assassinating  Maurice.  The  con- 
spiracy being  detected,  one  of  them  escaped, 
while  the  other  was  seized  and  executed. 

BARNEY,  Joshna,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Baltimore,  July  6,  1759,  died  in  Pitts- 


BARNI 


BARNUM 


323 


burgh,  Penn.,  Dec.  1,  1818.  When  the  war 
of  the  revolution  began  he  was  appointed  mas- 
ter's mate  in  the  sloop  of  war  Hornet,  and  in 
1776,  when  scarce  17  years  of  age,  was  made 
lieutenant  for  his  gallant  conduct  in  the  schooner 
Wasp,  which  captured  the  British  brig  Tender  in 
Delaware  bay.  Soon  after  this  he  embarked 
in  the  Sachem,  and  was  placed  on  board  a  cap- 
tured vessel  as  prize  master,  but  was  captured  by 
the  Perseus  of  20  guns,  and  exchanged.  In  1 777 
he  joined  the  Virginia  frigate,  which  was  taken 
by  the  British,  having  run  aground  in  getting 
to  sea.  He  was  again  exchanged,  and  joined  a 
privateer  which  sailed  in  November,  1778,  for 
France,  and  on  her  return  took  a  valuable 
prize,  arriving  at  Philadelphia  in  1779.  He 
subsequently  sailed  in  the  Saratoga,  of  16  guns, 
Capt.  Young,  which  fell  in  with  the  ship 
Charming  Molly  and  two  brigs,  and  took  them. 
Barney  headed  the  boarders  thrown  aboard 
the  Molly,  and  was  placed  in  one  of  the  prizes, 
but  on  the  following  day  all  three  were  retaken 
by  the  Intrepid,  74.  Barney  remained  a  pris- 
oner in  England  for  some  time,  but  at  length 
escaped,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia  in  March, 
1782.  He  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Hyder  Ali,  a  small  vessel  of  16  guns,  and 
encountering  off  the  capes  of  the  Delaware  the 
Gen.  Monk,  of  20  guns,  took  her  after  a  hot 
fight  of  less  than  half  an  hour.  For  this 
the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  presented  him 
a  sword,  and  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Gen.  Monk,  and  sailed  for  France 
in  November,  1782.  He  returned  to  Philadel- 
phia with  a  large  sum  of  money  lent  by  the 
French  government,  and  the  information  that 
preliminaries  of  peace  had  been  signed.  In 
1795  he  was  commissioned  as  captain  in  the 
French  service,  but  gave  up  his  command  in 
1800,  and  returned  home.  On  the  declaration 
of  war  against  Great  Britain  in  1812,  he  was 
appointed  by  congress  to  the  command  of  the 
flotilla  which  defended  Chesapeake  bay.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburg,  and 
was  severely  wounded.  A  sword  was  voted 
to  him  by  the  corporation  of  Washington,  and 
thanks  by  the  legislature  of  Georgia.  In  1818 
he  determined  to  emigrate  to  Kentucky,  but 
on  his  way  was  taken  ill  and  died. 

BIKM,  Jules  Romain,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Lille,  June  1,  1818.  He  was  for  some  time 
secretary  of  Victor  Cousin,  and  since  1861  he 
has  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  acad- 
emy of  Geneva.  He  translated  the  principal 
works  of  Kant  into  French,  with  critical  com- 
ments and  explanations  (183G-'55)  ;  published 
several  academic  discourses  under  the  title  of 
Les  martyres  de  la  libre  pensee  (1862);  and 
wrote  Hwtoire  des  idees  morales  et  politiques 
en  France  au  XVIII*  siecle  (2  vols.,  1866). 

BARNSLEY,  a  market  town  and  municipal 
borough  of  Yorkshire,  England,  12  m.  N.  of 
Sheffield,  and  17  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Leeds;  pop.  in 
1871,  23,021.  It  has  a  spacious  market  place, 
extensive  manufactures  of  linen,  yarn,  and 
drills,  a  glass  factory,  iron  foundery,  needle  and 


wire  works,  dyeing  and  coal  works.  Barnsley 
communicates  with  Wakefield  and  Leeds  by 
the  Barnsley  canal,  which  connects  the  Cal- 
der  and  Don.  Near  it  are  the  remains  of 
Monk  Briton  priory. 

BARNSTABLE.  I.  A  S.E.  county  of  Massa- 
chusetts, consisting  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape 
Cod  and  several  small  islands,  joining  Plymouth 
county  on  the  N.W.,  bounded  E.  and  S.  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  S.  W.  by  Buzzard's  bay, 
and  including  Cape  Cod  bay ;  area,  290  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  32,774.  The  surface  is  generally 
low  and  level,  and  there  are  numerous  clear 
sandy-bottomed  ponds  without  outlet.  The 
soil  is  light,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  cape 
sandy,  and  in  great  part  covered  with  beach 
grass.  Cranberries  are  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  swamp  lands.  The  forests  are  chiefly 
of  pine.  Seafaring  is  the  principal  occupation 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  county  communicates 
with  Boston  and  other  cities  by  the  Cape  Cod 
railway  and  its  branches.  It  has  4  or  5  banks, 
5  weekly  newspapers,  184  public  schools,  2 
woollen  mills,  2  glass  works,  3  tanneries,  1  saw 
mill,  &c.  In  1865  there  were  28  vessels  en- 
gaged in  the  whale  fishery,  314  in  the  mack- 
erel and  cod  fishery,  and  313  in  the  coastwise 
or  carrying  trade.  In  1870  the  county  pro- 
duced 2,648  bushels  of  rye,  12,069  of  corn, 
4,019  of  oats,  2,065  of  barley,  11,246  of  pota- 
toes, and  3,872  tons  of  hay.  II.  A  town,  port 
of  entry,  and  capital  of  the  preceding  county, 
situated  on  the  S.  side  of  Barnstable  bay,  on 
the  Cape  Cod  railroad,  65  m.  S.  E.  of  Boston ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,793.  It  has  a  bank,  a  savings 
institution,  an  insurance  company,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  and  several  churches  and  good 
schools.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  employed 
in  fisheries  or  in  coasting. 

BARNSTAPLE,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  seaport,  market  town,  and  parish  of 
Devonshire,  England,  on  the  Taw,  6  m.  from 
its  mouth  in  Barnstaple  or  Bideford  harbor,  on 
the  N.  W.  coast,  and  34  m.  N.  W.  of  Exeter; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1871, 11,250.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  founded  by  King  Athelstan.  It 
is  well  built,  has  an  ancient  church,  a  grammar 
school,  where  Bishop  Jewell  and  the  poet  Gay 
were  taught,  a  mechanics'  institute,  tanneries, 
potteries,  iron  founderies,  paper  mills,  and  man- 
ufactories of  woollen  cloths,  cotton  lace,  and 
nets.  The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted 
with  gas.  The  weekly  market  held  here  is 
the  principal  one  of  North  Devon,  and  there  is 
also  a  celebrated  cattle  fair  in  September. 

BARNUM,  Phincas  Taylor,  an  American  specu- 
lator, born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  July  5, 1810.  His 
father  was  an  innkeeper  and  country  merchant, 
and  from  the  age  of  13  to  18  the  son  was  in 
business  in  various  parts  of  Connecticut,  and 
also  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Having  accumulated 
a  small  sum  of  money,  he  returned  to  Bethel 
and  opened  a  small  store.  Here  he  was  very 
successful,  especially  after  adding  several  lot- 
tery schemes  to  his  other  sources  of  income. 
After  his  marriage  in  1829  he  became  editor  of 


324 


BARNWELL 


BAEODA 


the  "Herald  of  Freedom,"  published  in  Dan- 
bnry,  Oonn.  In  1834  he  removed  to  New 
York,  his  property  having  become  much  re- 
duced. Here  he  tried  many  ways  to  obtain  a 
livelihood,  but  without  success  till  1835,  when, 
hearing  of  Joyce  Heth,  a  colored  woman  then 
on  exhibition  in  Philadelphia  as  the  reputed 
nurse  of  George  Washington,  he  bought  her  for 
$1,000,  and  created  some  excitement  by  wide 
advertising,  so  that  the  receipts  soon  amounted 
to  $1,500  a  week.  He  now  collected  a  small 
company  and  travelled  through  the  country, 
realizing  large  sums.  In  1836  Joyce  Heth  died, 
and  a  post-mortem  examination  proved  her  to 
have  been  but  75  or  80  years  old,  instead  of 
161,  which  was  her  reputed  age.  From  1836 
to  1839  Mr.  Barnum  continued  in  the  show 
business,  but  then  returned  to  New  York,  again 
reduced  to  poverty.  In  1841,  although  with- 
out a  dollar  of  his  own,  he  purchased  the  estab- 
lishment known  as  Scudder's  American  Muse- 
um, and  in  December  took  possession.  At  the 
end  of  a  year  he  was  able  to  pay  for  it,  and  in 
1848  he  had  added  to  it  two  other  extensive 
collections  besides  several  minor  ones.  In  1842 
Mr.  Barnum  first  heard  of  Charles  8.  Stratton 
of  Bridgeport,  then  five  years  old,  less  than  two 
feet  high,  and  weighing  only  16  pounds,  who 
soon  became  known  to  the  world  under  Mr. 
Barnum's  direction  as  Gen.  Tom  Thumb,  and 
was  exhibited  in  the  United  States  and  Europe 
with  great  success.  In  1849  Mr.  Barnum,  after 
much  negotiation,  engaged  Jenny  Lind  to  sing 
in  America  for  150  nights,  at  $1,000  a  night. 
A  concert  company  was  formed  to  accompany 
her,  and  the  gross  receipts  of  the  tour  in  1850- 
'51  were  over  $700,000,  upon  which  Mr.  Bar- 
num made  a  large  profit.  In  1855,  after  hav- 
ing been  connected  with  many  enterprises  be- 
sides those  named,  he  built  a  villa  at  Bridge- 
port, retired  from  business,  and  published  "The 
Life  of  P.  T.  Barnum,  written  by  Himself."  A 
full  autobiography  under  the  title  of  "  Strug- 
gles and  Triumphs "  (8vo,  Hartford),  appeared 
in  1869.  Unfortunate  investments  having  made 
him  a  bankrupt  in  the  latter  part  of  1857,  he 
once  more  took  charge  of  his  old  museum, 
and  conducted  it  till  1865,  when  it  was  burned. 
Another  which  he  opened  was  also  burned. 
Since  this  event  he  has  been  interested  in  other 
enterprises  in  New  York  and  in  a  travelling 
exhibition  of  animals  and  curiosities,  and  has 
retrieved  his  losses.  He  was  an  unsuccessful 
republican  candidate  for  congress  in  Connec- 
ticut in  1868.  Mr.  Barnum  has  frequently  ap- 
peared as  a  public  lecturer  on  temperance  and 
on  the  practical  affairs  of  life,  and  has  publish- 
ed, in  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  works, 
"The  Humbugs  of  the  World"  (12mo,  New 
York,  1865). 

BARNWELL,  a  S.  W.  county  of  South  Caro- 
lina, bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Edisto  river, 
and  separated  from  Georgia  on  the  S.  W.  by 
the  Savannah ;  area,  1,550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
85,724,  of  whom  22,146  were  colored.  Its  S. 
portion  is  watered  by  the  Big  and  Little 


Salkehatchie  rivers.  The  surface  is  hilly, 
and  the  soil  productive  near  the  rivers.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  59,379  bushels 
of  wheat,  781,054  of  Indian  corn,  70,106  of 
oats,  131,371  of  peas  and  beans,  227,566  of 
sweet  potatoes,  360,240  gallons  of  molasses, 
24,910  bales  of  cotton,  and  1,544,784  Ibs.  of 
rice.  Capital,  Barnwell  Court  House. 

BABOCCIO,  or  Barocti,  Florl  Federigo,  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  born  at  Urbinoin  1528,  died  there, 
Sept.  31,  1612.  In  his  youth  he  studied  the 
works  of  Titian,  and  in  1549  went  to  Borne  to 
see  those  of  Raphael.  In  1560  he  was  intrust- 
ed by  Pius  IV.  with  the  decoration  of  the  Bel- 
vedere palace,  and  some  of  the  Roman  paint- 
ers, envious  of  his  genius,  invited  him  to  a 
banquet,  where  they  gave  him  poison.  For  four 
years  he  was  not  able  to  touch  his  pencil,  and 
afterward  could  only  work  two  hours  a  day. 
His  later  pictures  are  in  the  style  of  Correggio. 
His  "Last  Supper,"  "  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
"St.  Francis  stigmatized,"  "  Christ  and  Mag- 
dalen," and  "Annunciation"  are  among  his 
best  productions. 

BAROACH.     See  BROACH. 

BAROCHE,  Pierre  Jnles,  a  French  statesman, 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  18,  1802.  He  became  a 
lawyer,  and  had  acquired  great  celebrity  as  an 
advocate — particularly  as  the  defender  of  Co- 
lombier,  charged  with  complicity  in  the  plot  to 
assassinate  the  duke  d'Aumale,  and  Joseph 
Henry,  indicted  for  an  attempt  upon  the  life  of 
Louis  Philippe — when  in  1847  he  was  elected 
by  the  town  of  Rochefort  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies.  He  attached  himself  to  the  oppo- 
sition, and  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the 
act  of  impeachment  presented  by  Odilon  Bar- 
rot  against  the  Guizot  cabinet,  for  prohibiting 
the  reform  banquet  in  the  12th  arrondissement 
of  Paris.  Being  elected  a  member  of  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  he  was  most  emphatic  in  his 
declarations  of  fealty  to  the  republic,  but  soon 
leaned  toward  the  Bonapartists.  Reflected  to 
the  legislative  assembly  in  May,  1849,  he  was 
made  by  Louis  Napoleon  home  secretary  March 
15,  1850,  and  a  few  days  later  changed  this  post 
for  that  of  secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  He  fa- 
vored the  eovp  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  and  on 
the  establishment  of  the  empire  was  appointed 
vice  president  of  the  council  of  state.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  privy  council  nominated  by  im- 
perial decree  of  Feb.  1,  1858,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  council  of  regency  in  the  contin- 
gency of  the  emperor's  death.  In  1860  he  was 
for  a  short  time  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
in  1863  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice 
and  public  worship,  retaining  that  office  till 
July,  1869.  Among  his  most  important  acts 
in  this  capacity  were  the  publication  of  a  de- 
cree forbidding  the  bishops  to  promulgate  the 
papal  syllabus  in  1865,  and  a  circular  recom- 
mending the  public  prosecutors  to  observe 
great  moderation  in  enforcing  the  new  press 
law.  He  was  created  a  senator  in  1864. 

BARODAt  I.  A  district  in  the  province  of 
Guzerat,  British  India,  forming  the  territory 


BARODA 


BAROMETER 


325 


of  a  native  prince  called  the  Guicowar,  and 
lying  between  lat.  21°  and  23°  N.  and  Ion. 
73°  and  74°  E. ;  area,  4,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
350,000.  For  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  district,  see  GDZEEAT.  Baroda  has  been 
under  the  rule  of  the  family  of  the  Guicowars 
since  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century,  before 
which  period  its  history  is  not  recorded.  In 
1780  the  East  India  company  made  a  treaty  of 
amity  with  the  prince  then  reigning,  Futteh 
Sing  Guicowar,  but  kept  up  a  merely  formal 
intercourse  with  him  and  his  successors  till 
1802,  when,  a  rebellion  taking  place  in  the  dis- 
trict, the  ruling  Guicowar  applied  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Bombay  for  aid.  From  this  time  till 
1820  a  series  of  similar  appeals  and  of  treaties 
brought  Baroda  gradually  under  the  protection 
of  the  British,  who  also  became  answerable  for 
certain  debts  of  the  Guicowar.  In  1828,  on 


his  failure  to  discharge  these,  the  East  India 
company  sequestrated  a  portion  of  his  territory ; 
but  after  some  years  the  matter  was  arranged, 
and  the  district  nominally  restored  to  the  native 
rule.  A  strong  British  force  is  however  kept 
in  the  Guicowar's  dominions,  and  Baroda  is  in 
fact,  like  the  other  native  dependencies  in  India, 
a  tributary  state.  II.  The  capital  of  the  pre- 
ceding district,  in  lat.  22°  16'  N.,  Ion.  73°  15' 
E.,  on  the  Biswamintri  river,  which  is  crossed 
near  the  city  by  the  only  bridge  in  the  province, 
231  m.  N.  of  Bombay;  pop.  140,000.  The  for- 
tifications of  the  town,  though  ancient,  are  un- 
important in  a  military  point  of  view.  The 
houses  are  generally  of  wood,  and  have  several 
stories.  The  two  principal  streets  run  at  right 
angles  to  one  another,  crossing  at  the  market 
place  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The  palace  of 
the  Guicowar,  the  house  of  the  British  resident, 


A  State  Procession  at  Baroda. 


and  the  market  house  are  the  principal  buildings. 
Baroda  was  formerly  a  very  important  seat  of 
trade,  and  of  various  industries ;  but  since  1830 
its  prosperity  has  declined,  and  although  it  still 
carries  on  a  considerable  commerce  with  the 
country  immediately  about  it,  it  has  no  note- 
worthy manufactures. 

BAROMETER  (Gr.  /3dpof,  weight,  and  /tfrpov, 
a  measure),  an  instrument  used  for  determin- 
ing the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  doc- 
trine of  a  plenum  in  natural  philosophy,  and 
the  abhorrence  of  nature  for  a  vacuum,  had 
long  been  too  fully  established  in  the  old  sys- 
tems to  admit  the  possibility  of  a  vacuum, 
when  Galileo,  toward  the  close  of  his  life,  was 
requested  to  explain  why  water  could  not  be 
raised  in  a  suction  pump  more  than  about 
32  feet.  He  was  led  to  admit  that  nature's 
abhoirence  of  a  vacuum  did  not  exceed  the 


pressure  of  a  column  of  water  32  feet  high ; 
but  subsequently,  as  mentioned  in  the  last 
of  his  dialogues,  he  devised  an  experiment  to 
ascertain  the  power  of  a  vacuum.  This  con- 
sisted in  applying  weights  to  a  piston  closely 
fitting  in  a  smooth  tube,  placed  in  an  inverted 
position,  to  see  what  weight  would  draw  it 
down;  and  previous  to  his  death  he  recom- 
mended to  his  pupil  Torricelli  to  continue  these 
investigations.  The  decisive  experiment,  made 
by  Torricelli,  and  called  after  him  the  Torri- 
cellian experiment,  was  in  ascertaining  the 
length  of  a  column  of  mercury  sustained  by 
the  same  cause,  whatever  it  might  be,  which 
supported  the  column  of  water.  The  weight 
of  the  mercury  being  about  14  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  water,  the  height  of  the  two 
columns,  he  reasoned,  should  be  proportional 
to  their  weights.  Filling  a  glass  tube  three 


326 


BAROMETER 


feet  or  more  in  length  with  mercury,  and  clos- 
ing the  open  end  with  his  finger,  he  introduced 
this  by  inverting  the  tube  under  the  surface  of 
mercury  in  a  basin.  On  removing  the  finger, 
the  mercury  in  the  tube  sank  down,  and  after 
oscillating  stood  at  about  28  inches  above  the 
surface  of  that  in  the  vessel,  leaving  in  the  upper 
end  a  vacant  space.  (See  fig.  1.)  Tor- 
ricelli  continued  his  experiments,  X'ig.l- 
and  discovered  the  fluctuations  in 
the  height  of  the  column  of  mer- 
cury caused  by  the  changes  of  the 
weather,  and  in  1645  an  account  of 
his  observations  was  published ;  but 
he  soon  after  died,  before  his  great 
discovery  was  fully  completed.  The 
subject  was  taken  up  with  great 
zeal  by  Pascal  at  Rouen  in  France. 
It  occurred  to  him  that  if  it  were 
the  atmospheric  pressure  which  sup- 
ported the  column  of  mercury  or 
water,  the  height  of  the  column 
should  be  lessened  as  the  pressure 
is  reduced  by  ascending  to  greater 
elevations  above  the  surface.  He 
communicated  his  views  to  his 
brother-in-law  P6rier,  who  lived  at 
Clermont  in  Auvergne,  near  the 
high  conical  mountain  of  Puy-de-D6me,  with 
the  request  that  he  should  test  the  theory 
upon  this  elevation.  This  was  not  accomplish- 
ed, however,  till  Sept.  19,  1648.  Perier  at  this 
time,  provided  with  mercury  and  tubes,  ob- 
served in  the  garden  of  a  monastery  in  the 
lowest  part  of  Clermont  the  height  at  which 
the  mercury  stood  in  two  tubes,  which  was  26 
French  inches  and  3£  lines.  Leaving  one  of 
the  barometers  to  be  noticed  in  his  absence, 
he  took  the  other  up  the  mountain,  and  at  the 
summit  found  the  height  of  the  column  was 
only  23  inches  and  2  lines.  At  lower  points, 
as  he  descended,  the  mercury  rose  in  the  tube, 
and  at  the  base  it  occupied  the  same  space  in 
the  tube  as  at  first.  This  was  the  first  observa- 
tion ever  made  upon  the  different  pressures  of 
the  atmosphere  at  different  elevations.  Perier 
repeated  the  experiment  upon  the  highest 
tower  of  Clermont;  and  Pascal,  on  learning 
the  result,  made  similar  observations  upon  the 
top  of  a  high  house  and  the  belfry  of  a  church 
in  Paris.  Satisfied  with  the  results,  he  soon 
proposed  this  process  for  determining  dif- 
ferences of  elevation.  Attention  began  now 
to  be  directed  to  the  variations  in  the  height 
of  the  mercurial  column  caused  by  the  atmo- 
spheric changes.  Otto  Guericke,  an  ingenious 
and  wealthy  burgomaster  of  Magdeburg,  con- 
trived a  gigantic  barometer  for  indicating  the 
state  of  the  weather.  It  was  a  glass  tube  near- 
ly filled  with  water,  30  feet  in  length,  placed 
within  the  wall  of  his  house  and  rising  above 
the  roof,  the  lower  end  terminating  in  a  cistern 
of  water.  In  the  upper  part,  which  was  of 
larger  dimensions  than  the  rest,  was  placed 
the  figure  of  a  man,  large  enough  to  be  visible 
from  the  street.  In  fine  weather  this  figure, 


floating  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  appeared 
in  full  size  above  the  roof;  but  as  the  fluid  sub- 
sided with  the  change  of  weather,  the  manikin 
withdrew  into  the  building.— From  the  origi- 
nal invention  of  the  barometer  to  the  present 
time,  the  ingenuity  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  science  has  been  exercised  in  improving 
its  construction.  Numerous  modifications  of 
its  form  have  been  contrived,  and  yet  those 
now  most  approved  are  but  slightly  varied 
from  the  straight  inverted  tube  of  Torricelli, 
and  the  siphon  tube  also  proposed  by  him. 
The  liquid  selected  by  him  is  still  preferred  to 
all  others  by  reason  of  the  required  weight  of 
it  occupying  so  little  space.  It  is  also  not 
liable  to  be  volatilized  by  slight  elevations  of 
temperature,  and  thus  fill  with  its  vapor  the 
vacant  space  in  the  top  of  the 
tube.  The  simplest  form  of  the 
instrument  is  that  called  the 
cistern  barometer.  The  straight 
tube  of  Torricelli  terminates  at 
its  foot  in  a  cistern  of  mer- 
cury. By  the  rising  and  fall- 
ing of  the  liquid  in  the  tube, 
the  level  of  that  in  the  cistern 
must  change.  The  absolute  J 
height  of  the  mercury,  there- 
fore, is  found  by  rendering  the 
scale  movable,  and  bringing  its 
zero  point  always  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  in  the  cis- 
tern; or  by  making  the  scale 
fixed,  and  bringing  the  mercury 
to  its  zero  point  by  means  of  a 
screw,  which  is  made  to  press 
against  a  flexible  bag  that  forms 
the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder, 
as  represented  in  fig.  2,  where 
the  details  of  the  upper,  middle, 
and  lower  part  of  the  barome- 
ter are  shown  separately.  The 
latter  method  is  the  most  gen- 
erally adopted  in  the  best  in- 
struments. By  means  of  a  slid- 
ing vernier,  the  scale  may  be  read  to  the  - 
of  an  inch.  Though  various  contrivances  have 
been  suggested  for  taking  the  place  of  these 
minute  divisions  and  vernier  readings,  no  sub- 
stitute has  yet  been  found  to  give  such  good 
results.  By  a  skilful  observer  they  can  be  read 
with  great  minuteness,  and  much  within  the 
limits  of  accuracy  of  the  instrument  in  other  re- 
spects.— The  barometer  adopted  by  the  Smith- 
sonian institution  is  that  of  Mr.  James  Greene 
of  New  York.  A  full  description  of  this,  with 
the  drawings  that  are  required  to  render  it  in- 
telligible, is  published  in  the  10th  annual  re- 
port of  the  institution.  In  the  same  article 
are  also  directions  for  the  use  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  for  making  barometrical  observa- 
tions. The  instrument  is  designed  for  service 
as  a  mountain  barometer  as  well  as  for  sta- 
tionary  uses.  In  fig.  3  is  represented  the  tri- 
pod serving  for  its  support  during  observations 
when  used  as  a  mountain  or  travelling  barom- 


BAROMETER 


327 


eter.  This  stand  folds  up  as  seen  in  fig.  4,  and 
serves  then  as  an  envelope  to  protect  the  in- 
strument. Mr.  Greene  constructed  also,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Prof.  Henry,  a 
sulphuric  acid  barometer  for 
the  Smithsonian  institution. 
As  this  liquid  is  much  heavier 
than  water,  the  tube  was  only 
about  18  ft.  long  ;  but  experi- 
ence proved  it  to  be  behind 
the  mercurial  barometer  in  its 
indications,  and  its  use  was 
abandoned.  —  The  siphon  ba- 
rometer of  Gay-Lussac,  im- 
proved by  Bunten  of  Paris,  is 
a  very  portable  and  conve- 
nient form  for  the  use  of  the 
scientific  traveller.  It  is  rep- 
resented in  fig.  5.  The  name 
siphon  is  applied  to  barome- 
ters of  which  the  lower  end 
of  the  tube  is  turned  tip  to 
form  a  short  arm,  which  con- 
stitutes the  cistern,  and  may 
be  left  open  for  the  air  to  press  directly  upon 
the  mercury.  A  capillary  opening  in  this  short 
arm,  which  is  otherwise  tight,  answers  the 


same  purpose  as  if  the  whole  were  open.  The 
surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  lower  arm  cor- 
responds to  the  zero  point  in  the  cistern  ba- 
rometer; and  as  this  fluctuates  as 
Fiy.5.  well  a8  that  of  the  longer  limb,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  vernier  at  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  column,  and  take  two 
readings  in  order  to  determine  the 
height  of  the  column.  As  the  two 
limbs  are  made  of  precisely  the  same 
diameter,  the  reading  of  one  and  doub- 
ling this  gives  a  correct  result.  In  Gay- 
Lussac's  barometer,  the  tube  at  each 
extremity  is  of  the  usual  diameter,  but 
in  the  elbow,  and  along  the  lower  part 
of  the  long  limb,  it  is  drawn  down  to 
a  very  small  bore.  The  instrument  is 
thus  made  to  occupy  very  little  space, 
so  that  the  glass  is  enclosed  in  a  brass 
cylinder  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
cane.  An  open  slit  at  each  end  of  the 
brass  tube  affords  an  opportunity  of 
reading  the  verniers,  the  indexes  of 
which  traverse  up  and  down  these 
openings  by  means  of  toothed  wheels 
which  run  in  a  rack  made  upon  the  edge  of 
the  brass.  The  improvement  introduced  by 
Bunten  is  in  dividing  the  long  limb  into  two 
parts,  the  upper  one  of  which  is  drawn  down 
at  its  lower  end  to  a  small  opening  and  in- 
serted into  the  lower  portion,  to  which  it  is 
attached,  making  again  one  tube.  (See  fig.  6.) 
The  object  of  this  conical  projection  of  the 
upper  into  the  lower  part  is  to  form  a  chamber 
or  trap  to  catch  any  air  which  may  be  acci- 


dentally  introduced  through  the  short  branch, 
and  thus  intercept  its  passage  to  the  vacuum, 
where  by  its  elasticity  it  would  counterbal- 
ance to  some  extent  the  pressure 
of  the  external  air.  When  the  ba-  Tff.a-.ll. 
rometer  is  inverted,  the  air  lodged 
in  the  air  trap  escapes  through  the 
short  branch  by  which  it  entered. — 
A  barometer  in  common  use  is  pro- 
vided with  an  index  which  turns 
around  upon  a  dial,  and  points  to 
figures  which  indicate  the  height  of 
the  mercury,  as  also  to  words  de- 
scriptive of  the  state  of  the  weather, 
as  "  Cloudy,"  "Fair,"  "Rainy,"  &c. 
The  index  is  made  to  move  by  means 
of  a  string,  which  passes  around  its 
axle,  and  has  at  each  end  a  weight 
attached,  the  larger  one  resting  upon 
the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the 
shorter  limb  of  a  siphon  barometer. 
(See  fig.  7.)  This  is  open  to  the  objection  that 
the  reading  of  one  limb  gives  but  half  the  ac- 
tual effect ;  but  as  the  length  of  the  index  is 
several  times  greater  than 
the  radius  of  the  pulley  up- 
on its  axis,  this  objection  is 
really  more  than  counter- 
balanced. Still,  little  con- 
fidence is  placed  in  its  ac- 
curacy in  marking  the  true 
variations  of  the  column, 
there  being  so  much  fric- 
tion that  slight  changes  do 
not  affect  it  at  all.  The 
words  "Fair,"  "Variable," 
"Rain,"  "Storm,"  &c., 
found  on  the  barometer 
scales,  convey  an  erroneous 
impression  about  this  in- 
strument to  the  uninstruct- 
ed ;  for  the  barometer  does 
not  designate  by  the  abso- 
lute height  of  the  mercury,  but  by  its  rising 
or  falling,  the  kind  of  weather  we  may  expect, 
and  this  change  is  not  indicated  by  the  index. 
— In  filling  a  tube  with  mercury,  particular 
care  is  required  that  the  mercury  be  free 
from  mixtures  of  other  metals.  It  is  intro- 
duced into  the  tube  in  small  quantities  at  a 
time,  and  boiled  as  each  portion  is  added, 
the  heat  being  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
tube  containing  the  mercury  last  introduced. 
By  boiling  the  mercury  in  the  tube  in  vacua, 
the  air  and  moisture  are  most  effectually  ex- 
pelled. On  inverting  the  tube  when  prop- 
erly filled,  its  lower  end  being  kept  in  a  basin 
of  mercury,  the  column  sinks  to  the  proper 
level  to  counterbalance  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. When  the  operation  has  been  suc- 
cessfully completed,  the  column  of  mercury 
presents  a  bright  undimmed  appearance,  and 
emits  flashes  of  electrical  light  in  the  vacuum 
above,  on  the  column  being  made  to  oscillate 
up  and  down  in  the  dark ;  and  a  perfect  vacuum 
is  indicated  by  the  clicking  sound  of  the  mer- 


328 


BAROMETER 


cury  when  it  is  allowed  to  strike  the  top  of  the 
glass  tube.  Still  the  electrical  light  is  supposed 
to  be  dependent  on  a  small  quantity  of  vapor 
left  behind  in  the  vacant  space  of  the  tube ;  but 
in  several  instances  it  has  been  observed  that 
the  mercury  remains  suspended  in  the  tube 
when  this  is  inverted,  even  if  the  lower  end  be 
not  placed  in  a  cistern  of  the  metal.  It  is  de- 
tached by  a  sudden  jar.  The  adherence  of  the 
mercury  to  the  glass  tends  to  introduce  errors 
in  estimating  the  true  height  of  the  column. 
Instead  of  forming  at  the  top  of  the  column  a 
concave  surface  by  the  particles  adhering  to 
the  glass  and  climbing  up  its  surface,  as  water 
and  other  fluids  do  by  the  property  called  ca- 
pillarity, the  mercury  takes  a  convex  form, 
and  the  column  is  lower  than  it  should  be. 
The  smaller  the  bore  of  the  tube,  the  greater 
is  this  depression  and  the  error  involved ;  but 
in  the  siphon  barometer  (fig.  5)  the  error  of 
one  convex  surface  of  the  mercury  in  one  limb 
is  counteracted  by  the  same  effect  from  that 
of  the  other. — However  well  constructed  and 
filled,  all  barometers  are  liable  to  vary,  after 
years  of  use,  by  a  partial  oxidation  of  the  mer- 
cury, producing  a  thin  film,  which  attaches  it- 
self to  and  obscures  the  inner  surface  of  the 
tube.  This  film  can  be  removed  only  by  clean- 
ing and  refilling  with  fresh  mercury.  Air  is 
liable  to  creep  in  between  the  mercury  and 
the  glass,  and  gradually  enter  into  the  vacuum, 
producing  in  the  best  instruments  effects  that 
are  only  perceived  after  a  series  of  years ;  in- 
struments used  for  a  long  period  show  a  less 
height  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former  part  of 
the  period. — Prof.  Daniell  constructed  the  most 
perfect  water  barometer  ever  made,  which  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  already  noticed  of 
Guericke  at  Magdeburg.  It  is  fixed  in  the  hall 
of  the  royal  society  at  Somerset  house.  The 
tube  is  of  glass,  40  ft.  long  and  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  water  in  it  stands  at  an  average 
height  of  400  inches  above  the  fluid  in  the 
cistern.  A  layer  of  a  solution  of  caoutchouc 
in  naphtha  upon  the  water  in  the  cistern  pre- 
vents access  of  any  air  to  the  tube.  The 
column  is  sensitive  to  continual  changes  of 
pressure  in  the  atmosphere,  which  do  not  affect 
other  barometers.  In  windy  weather  it  is  in 
perpetual  motion,  vibrating  up  and  down  al- 
most with  the  regularity  of  respiration.  It  in- 
dicates the  horary  oscillations  of  the  pressure 
sooner  than  does  the  mercurial  barometer  of 
half  an  inch  bore. — In  the  use  of  barometers, 
it  is  often  desirable  to  have  their  variations 
recorded  without  the  necessity  of  frequently 
observing  them.  Several  methods  have  been 
devised  of  rendering  them  self-registering. 
One  method  is  that  of  Mr.  Bryson  of  Edin- 
burgh. Upon  the  mercury  in  the  lower  limb 
of  a  siphon  barometer  is  placed  an  ivory  float, 
which  carries  outside  to  the  tube  a  knife  edge. 
This,  by  proper  machinery,  is  made  to  touch 
once  every  hour  the  surface  of  a  vertical  cyl- 
inder, which  revolves  with  uniform  motion 
once  in  24  hours,  and  upon  the  face  of  which 


are  marked  spaces  corresponding  to  the  hours 
of  the  day  and  night.  A  new  cylinder  is  used 
each  day.  The  marks  are  made  upon  a  coat- 
ing of  fine  chalk  and  water  laid  on  with  a 
camel's-hair  brush.  Such  arrangements  are, 
however,  far  inferior  to  the  photographic 
method  now  adopted  in  all  meteorological  ob- 
servatories. This  consists  simply  in  a  slip  of 
sensitive  photographic  paper,  moving  by  clock- 
work behind  •  the  upper  part  of  the  mercurial 
column,  which  throws  its  shadow  on  it,  and 
thus  prevents  the  impression  of  the  light  on 
the  lower  shaded  portion.  The  light  used 
is  a  kerosene  lamp,  and  the  slips  of  paper, 
after  having  been  exposed,  are  darkened  upon 
their  upper  half,  while  the  undulating  line  be- 
tween the  darkened  and  light  portion  shows 
the  variations  of  the  barometer  during  the  time 
of  exposure.  Account  should  be  taken  of  the 
temperature  at  the  same  time  that  the  obser- 
vations of  the  barometer  are  noted;  for  the 
height  of  the  column,  as  in  the  thermometer, 
must  vary  with  change  of  temperature,  as  well 
as  by  change  of  atmospheric  pressure.  It  is 
particularly  important  to  make  allowance  for 
this  cause  of  variation  in  observations  for  de- 
termining elevations,  and  a  thermometer  is  al- 
ways attached  to  the  barometer  for  this  use. 
Between  the  points  of  boiling  and  freezing  it 
is  found  that  the  space  occupied  by  mercury 
amounts  to  jij  of  its  bulk.  For  each  degree  of 
heat  by  the  centesimal  scale  its  volume  in- 
creases TTTJ  !  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer, 
fTf-fj.  Though  little  reliance  can  be  placed 
upon  the  barometer  as  indicating  by  any  single 
observation  the  condition  of  the  weather,  its 
fluctuations  caused  by  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure  may,  when  care- 
fully noticed,  often  serve  to 
foretell  the  effects  that  must 
still  ensue.  Thus,  a  sudden 
and  long-continued  fall  is  a 
sure  sign  of  an  impending 
storm.  Many  instances  are 
recorded  of  vessels  being 
saved  by  the  precautions 
taken,  in  consequence  of  the 
warning  of  the  barometer 
at  the  immediate  approach 
of  hurricanes,  of  which  no 
other  notice  was  given. — 
Barometers  have  been  con- 
structed with  particular  ref- 
erence to  use  at  sea.  (See 
fig.  8.)  Their  tube  has  a 
bore  scarcely  exceeding  3V 
of  an  inch.  Its  upper  end 
terminates  in  a  cylinder  4  or  5  inches  high  and 
nearly  T3<y  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  sus- 
pended by  a  spring  and  gimbals  near  the  top. 
The  object  of  the  larger  bore  above  the  capil- 
lary tube  is  to  prevent  a  rapid  flow  of  the 
mercury,  which  might  be  caused  by  the  motion 
of  the  ship,  and  break  the  tube  by  its  striking 
against  the  top.  The  form  is  liable  to  the  ob- 
jection that  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  fluid  is 


BAROMETER 


329 


necessarily  very  slow,  aud  several  minutes  may 
elapse  before  a  sudden  change  of  atmospheric 
pressure  is  indicated. — The  cause  of  the  shift- 
ing pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  to  be  looked 
for  in  the  operations  of  the  winds  which  may 
be  blowing  in  distant  localities.  By  drawing 
the  air  away  from  any  point,  the  pressure  is 
here  to  some  extent  taken  off,  producing  a 
partial  vacuum  which  must  soon  be  filled  by  a 
rush  of  air  from  other  sources.  Where  the 
winds  are  equable,  like  the  trade  winds  of  the 
tropics,  the  movements  of  the  barometer  par- 
take of  the  same  regularity.  Humboldt,  in  his 
researches  in  the  equatorial  regions  of  South 
America,  was  greatly  struck  by  the  uniformity 
of  the  motion  of  the  barometer  in  the  different 
periods  of  the  day.  From  4  o'clock  in  the 
morning  till  10  the  mercury  generally  rises,  and 
then  falls  until  4  in  the  afternoon.  It  then 
rises  again  till  10  at  night,  after  which  it  falls 
till  4  in  the  morning.  In  temperate  northern 
latitudes  the  barometer  generally  stands  higher 
at  9  A.  M.  and  9  P.  M.  and  lower  at  3  A.  M. 
and  3  P.  M.  than  at  other  hours.  Prof.  Daniell 
recommends  these  hours  as  the  best  times  for 
consulting  the  barometer  as  a  weather  glass. 
Its  rise  between  9  A.  M.  and  3  P.  M.  indicates 
fine  weather.  A  fall  from  this  time  to  9  P.  M. 
is  likely  to  be  followed  by  rain.  Prof.  Buys-Hal- 
lot  of  Utrecht  occupied  himself  for  many  years 
in  making  with  others  simultaneous  observa- 
tions in  different  localities  of  the  changes  in  the 
barometer  and  in  wind  and  weather.  He  de- 
termined positive  numerical  relations  between 
the  force  of  the  wind  and  the  height  of  the  ba- 
rometer preceding  it.  He  succeeded  at  last  in 
finding  the  laws  governing  the  forward  motion 
of  the  centre  of  barometric  depression,  followed 
by  storms,  and  induced  the  government  of  Hol- 
land to  establish  a  weather  bureau  with  public 
storm  signals  in  1860,  which  was  followed  by 
England  in  1861,  by  France  in  1863,  and  by  the 
United  States  in  1870.  These  laws,  as  might 
be  expected,  differ  in  different  localities.  From 
this  relation  rules  have  been  deduced  by  which 
the  maximum  force  of  the  wind  during  the  day 
may  be  predicted  every  morning,  thus  enabling 
outward-bound  vessels  to  determine  the  safety 
of  putting  to  sea. — The  BOILING  POINT  BAROM- 
ETER is  an  instrument  whose  action  depends 
upon  the  variable  temperature  at  which  water 
boils  at  different  elevations,  or,  what  is  the 
same  thing,  under  different  atmospheric  pres- 
sures. It  is  constructed  with  a  small  cistern  for 
the  water,  arranged  in  a  cylindrical  tin  tube, 
which  contains  in  the  lower  part  an  alcohol 
lamp  for  heating  the  fluid.  The  temperature 
is  best  noticed  by  suspending  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer  in  the  partially  confined  steam 
which  rises  from  the  boiling  water.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  temperature  observed  at  two 
different  points,  expressed  in  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer,  being  multiplied  by  530, 
will  give  the  approximate  difference  of  eleva- 
tion between  these  two  points.  For  greater 
accuracy  correction  should  be  made  for  the 


difference  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  the 
two  places.  Although  the  instrument  is  in  a 
very  portable  and  convenient  form,  it  has  not 
proved  a  favorite  with  scientific  observers,  from 
a  want  of  confidence  in  its  results. — The  ANE- 
ROID BAROMETER  (Gr.  a,  vjip6f,  and  ddof,  a  form 


JPjy.  9. 


without  fluid)  is  a  modification  of  the  vacuum 
case  barometer,  the  earliest  form  of  which  was 
invented  by  M.  Cont6,  professor  in  the  aeros- 
tatical school  at  Meudon,  near  Paris,  and  de- 
scribed by  him  in  the  Bulletin  des  sciences,  Flo- 
real,  year  6  (1798),  p.  106.  M.  Cont6  in  his 
balloon  ascents  found  the  reading  of  the  mer- 
curial barometer  subject  to  the  same  difficul- 
ties so  much  complained  of  on  shipboard,  aris- 
ing from  the  violent  oscillations  of  the  instru- 
ment. He  therefore  invented  a  watch-like, 
metallic,  air-tight  vacuum  case,  the  lid  of  which, 
sustained  by  internal  springs,  rose  and  fell 
under  the  variable  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
an  index  showing  the  motion.  M.  Vidi  sub- 
sequently devised  a  case  of  different  form,  with 
a  flat  corrugated  top  and  bottom,  flanged  over 
and  soldered  to  a  rim,  first  pressed  together  at 
the  centre  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  enclosed 
air,  and  then  separated  a  certain  distance  by 
the  introduction  of  a  compensating  spring. 
The  instrument  thus  improved  and  constructed 
has  come  into  extensive  use.  It  is  represented 
externally  by  fig.  9;  fig.  10  shows  the  interior 


arrangement,  while  fig.  11  shows  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  flexible  air-tight  box,  which  col- 
lapses when  the  air  is  withdrawn.  (See  fig. 
12.)  By  means  of  a  spring  it  is  brought  back 


330 


BAROMETER 


BAROMETRICAL  MEASUREMENT 


to  its  original  position,  the  spring  pulling  it 
out  again,  and  thus  counterbalancing  the  at- 
mospheric pressure,  which  tends  to  make  the 

box  collapse.  A 
change  in  this 
pressure  will  of 
course  resist  the 
spring  more  or 
less,  and  this 
slight  motion, 
multiplied  by  a 
proper  mechani- 
cal arrangement, 
turns  the  hand 
seen  at  the  top 
of  fig.  10,  and  also,  with  the  scale,  in  fig.  9. 
As,  however,  a  rise  in  temperature  expands 
the  spring  and  diminishes  its  resistance,  it  will 
have  the  same  result  as  an  increased  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  namely,  tend  to  let  the  box 
collapse.  Becker,  a  well-known  balance  maker 
of  New  York,  corrects  this  by  introducing  into 
the  vacuum  in  the  box  a  measured  but  very 
small  quantity  of  perfectly  dry  air,  the  expan- 
sion of  which  by  heat  counterbalances  the  loss 
of  tension  of  the  spring  by  the  same  cause. 
Experience  proves,  however,  that  this  kind  of 
compensation  becomes  inert  after  a  lapse  of  a 
few  years ;  hence  a  correction  for  temperature 
is  required,  the  instrument  having  a  thermom- 
eter attached,  as  shown  in  fig.  9.  Unfortunate- 
ly, this  correction  must  be  found  by  experiment 
for  every  instrument,  and  changes  even  for  the 
same  instrument  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
coast  survey  and  the  Smithsonian  institution 
have  therefore  pronounced  against  these  ba- 
rometers. Their  objections,  however,  it  is 
thought,  do  not  apply  to  their  use  in  the  hands 
of  practical  surveyors,  topographers,  civil  en- 
gineers, artists,  travellers,  and  sailors,  who  all 
pronounce  emphatically  in  their  favor.  The 
observer  must  however  learn  to  know  his  in- 
strument well,  or  he  can  do  nothing  with  it 
on  an  extended  survey.  Of  course  the  aneroid 
can  be  of  no  service  in  the  high  geodesy  of  a 
coast  or  ordnance  survey.  In  civil  engineer- 
ing, on  the  contrary,  up  to  the  final  location 
line,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  it  will 
almost  replace  the  spirit  level.  In  geological 
examinations  it  is  invaluable.  The  geologist 
in  tracing  outcrops  through  the  woods  and 
where  the  rocks  are  entirely  concealed,  across 
ravines,  and  over  the  shoulders  of  hills,  in  a 
broken  country,  has  only  to  discover  and  take 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  strike,  to  know  by 
the  infallible  rise  or  fall  of  the  index  hand  to 
the  level  of  the  point  of  his  departure  pre- 
cisely when  he  is  passing  up  or  down  over  the 
outcrop  of  his  bed.  In  countries  where  the 
rocks  are  nearly  or  quite  horizontal,  in  fact 
over  half  the  United  States,  the  aneroid  is  'to 
the  geologist  a  whole  corps  of  assistants,  and 
the  work  of  a  week  can  with  its  help  often 
be  done  in  a  day.  There  is  an  external  index 
to  assist  the  memory  of  the  house  observer 
from  one  observation  to  another. 


BAROMETRICAL  MEASUREMENT.  By  the  per- 
fection now  attained  in  the  construction  of 
barometers,  and  the  skill  applied  to  their  use 
by  the  best  observers,  differences  of  elevation 
may  be  ascertained  by  them  with  greater  accu- 
racy than  by  the  most  carefully  conducted  tri- 
angulation — at  least,  in  places  where  the  eleva- 
tions are  great  and  difficult  of  access.  High 
summits,  covered  with  shifting  clouds,  involve 
uncertain  errors,  arising  from  constantly  vary- 
ing refraction ;  and  inaccessible  mountains  can 
only  be  observed  under  very  small  angles  from 
the  termini  of  a  carefully  constructed  base  line, 
in  some  smooth  district,  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  them.  A  comparison  of  results  ob- 
tained by  both  methods  is  generally  in  favor 
of  the  barometer.  Humboldt  noticed  this,  par- 
ticularly in  the  numerous  measurements  that 
had  been  made  of  the  peak  of  Teneriffe,  and,  in 
determining  this  elevation  by  the  mean  results 
of  the  various  observations,  he  rejected  eight 
out  of  nine  geometrical  measurements,  and  only 
one  out  of  four  barometrical  measurements. 
Both  modes,  however,  are  capable  in  many  lo- 
calities of  a  great  degree  of  accuracy,  as  is 
shown  in  the  two  measurements  of  Mt.  Wash- 
ington, the  first  by  Prof.  Guyot  with  the  ba- 
rometer, and  the  second  by  the  officers  of  the 
coast  survey,  in  which  the  difference  was  only 
3  ft.  in  the  height  of  6,285  ft.  determined  by 
Prof.  Guyot.  To  insure  the  greatest  degree  of 
accuracy,  it  is  essential  to  use  two  good  ba- 
rometers, one  at  the  lower  and  the  other  at  the 
upper  point.  If  only  one  be  employed,  there 
is  a  liability  of  error  from  a  change  of  atmo- 
spheric pressure  taking  place  during  the  time 
spent  in  passing  from  one  station  to  the  other. 
These  barometers  should  have  been  carefully 
compared  by  many  observations,  and  the  mean 
of  their  variation  noted,  to  be  always  allowed 
in  the  calculation.  They  should  also  have 
been  compared  with  other  barometers  of  known 
character,  and  their  differences  with  these 
noted,  and  this  comparison  should  be  repeated 
after  their  use,  in  the  same  way  as  chronome- 
ters are  compared,  and  their  rates  noted,  be- 
fore and  after  a  voyage.  Repeated  observa- 
tions should  also  be  made  at  both  stations  at 
the  same  times,  and  the  mean  of  all  be  taken, 
unless  some  show  good  reasons  for  their  rejec- 
tion. It  is  also  important  that  the  two  stations 
be  not  very  far  apart.  In  a  distance  of  40  or 
50  m.  there  may  well  be  varying  conditions  of 
the  atmosphere  that  cause  a  difference  of  pres- 
sure not  due  altogether  to  the  difference  of  ele- 
vation. This  cause  of  error  may  be  avoided  by 
using  intermediate  stations,  and  advancing  step 
by  step. — One  point  determined  serves  as  the 
established  base  for  determining  the  next  be- 
yond. In  measuring  the  heights  of  the  princi- 
pal summits  of  the  Black  mountains  of  North 
Carolina,  Prof.  Guyot  used  as  his  starting  point 
the  level  determined  by  a  railroad  survey,  7 
m.  distant  from  the  nearest  hill.  The  next  sta- 
tion was  taken  half  way  to  the  summit,  and  by 
repeated  observations  at  both,  continued  dur- 


BAROMETRICAL  MEASUREMENT 


BARON 


331 


ing  two  days,  the  liability  to  error  resulting 
from  too  great  distance  was  avoided ;  so  also 
was  that  from  a  faulty  correction  for  tempera- 
ture. This  correction,  as  applied  by  the  tables, 
amounts  sometimes  to  300  ft.  But  it  supposes 
the  actual  temperature  of  the  stratum  of  air 
between  the  two  points  to  be  represented  by 
the  mean  of  the  temperature  at  the  two  places, 
and  a  moderate  variation  from  this  may  well 
involve  an  error  of  -^  or  ^  of  the  whole  cor- 
rection. Such  a  variation  is  not  at  all  improb- 
able where  the  difference  of  elevation  is  very 
great,  as  in  the  higher  regions  the  decrease  of 
temperature  takes  place  more  and  more  rapidly. 
The  next  station  was  the  summit  of  the  first 
hill,  the  height  of  which  was  ascertained  by 
comparative  observations  made  upon  it  and  at 
the  same  time  at  the  second  station.  The  dif- 
ferent peaks  were  then  compared  one  with  an- 
other by  observations  made  upon  them  in  pairs. 
So  exactly  were  these  measurements  conducted 
by  Prof.  Guyot,  that,  as  he  states,  his  single 
observations  differed  only  two  or  three  metres 
from  the  means,  and  the  mean  of  one  day 
scarcely  differed  one  metre  (39  inches)  from 
the  mean  of  another.  But  for  these  precau- 
tions an  error  might  have  resulted  in  the  de- 
termination of  the  first  summit  of  50  ft.  or  more, 
such  as  Prof.  Guyot  found  he  was  liable  to  in 
the  course  of  his  observations  at  the  White 
mountains  when  the  two  stations  were  from 
10  to  20  m.  apart.  As  the  distance  between 
stations  increases,  the  number  of  observations 
should  also  be  multiplied,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
correct  mean.  The  barometers  are  to  be  care- 
fully suspended,  so  that  the  column  shall  be 
perfectly  vertical,  and  they  should  be  placed  in 
a  situation  not  subject  to  sudden  change  of 
temperature.  The  reading  of  the  height  of  the 
mercurial  column  is  to  be  taken  at  the  same 
time  as  that  of  the  thermometer  attached  to 
the  barometer,  and  also  of  the  detached  ther- 
mometer. If  the  instrument  has  been  suspend- 
ed for  some  moments,  the  two  temperatures 
may  not  differ.  When  these  observations  are 
compared  with  those  made  at  the  same  time  at 
the  other  station,  the  calculations  for  the  dif- 
ference of  elevation  are  usually  made  by  the 
aid  of  the  tables  prepared  by  M.  Oltmanns. 
This  is  a  much  more  simple  process  than  calcu- 
lating the  difference  by  the  theorem  of  Laplace, 
which  gives  the  same  result.  If  the  instru- 
ments are  graduated  in  inches,  these  must  be 
turned  into  metres,  and  the  temperatures  must 
also  be  expressed  in  degrees  of  the  centigrade 
thermometer.  With  the  tables  for  these  con- 
versions and  calculations  are  given  very  simple 
directions  for  their  use,  and  applying  the  neces- 
sary corrections. — Some  singular  barometric 
anomalies  are  reported  by  Lieut.  Herndon  to 
have  been  observed  by  him  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Andes.  At  the  eastern  base  he  found  the 
pressure,  as  measured  by  the  boiling  point  of 
water,  to  be  nearly  as  great  as  at  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Having  descended  nearly  1,000  m.  on 
the  Amazon,  the  boiling  point  indicated  an  as- 


cent  of  nearly  1,500  ft.  Maury  explains  this 
by  referring  it  to  the  effect  of  the  trade  winds, 
which  strike  upon  the  flanks  of  the  mountains 
and  are  banked  up  against  them,  as  a  current  of 
water  interrupted  by  impediments  in  the  chan- 
nel is  piled  against  these.  By  the  banking  of 
the  current  of  air  an  increased  pressure  is  sup- 
posed to  be  exerted  upon  the  surface  at  their 
base. — In  the  earlier  measurements  made  with 
the  barometer  the  air  was  considered  as  a  uni- 
form fluid,  no  regard  being  paid  to  the  gradual 
diminution  of  density  in  ascending  into  the 
higher  regions ;  but  when  this  gradation  was 
taken  into  the  calculations,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  relation  between  the 
j  density  of  the  air  and  its  elastic  force.  Mari- 
otte,  who  published  his  "  Discourse  on  the  Na- 
I  ture  of  Air"  in  1076,  and  who  was  the  first 
I  to  demonstrate  the  law  which  bears  his  name, 
j  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  is  in  the  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  pressure  upon  it,  opened  the 
;  culture  of  a  new  field  from  which  rich  harvests 
i  were  subsequently  reaped.  From  the  sugges- 
1  tions  afforded  by  this  simple  law  he  proposed 
to  compute  heights  from  barometrical  observa- 
tions by  the  rule  usually  employed  in  con- 
structing tables  of  logarithms,  seeming  to  have 
obtained  some  idea  of  the  remarkable  fact  that 
the  density  of  the  atmosphere  decreases  in  a 
geometrical  progression  corresponding  to  the 
elevations  taken  after  an  arithmetical  one. 
But  for  some  reason  he  seemed  not  to  be  aware 
of  the  importance  of  the  great  principle,  and 
abandoned  the  method  for  another  in  which 
he  repeated  the  bisection  of  a  column  of  air 
between  two  stations  into  successive  horizontal 
strata,  calculating  the  densities  according  to  a 
harmonic  division. 

BARON  (Gallic  ber,  Gothic,  vair,  medieval 
Latin  baro,  early  Spanish  varon,  a  man),  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  possessor  of  an  estate,  who 
might  have  feudal  tenants  under  him.  In 
France  the  nobles  in  general  were  at  first  called 
barons,  but  subsequently  the  immediate  vassals 
of  the  king  received  the  appellation  of  hauls 
barons,  or  high  barons.  In  Germany  the  early 
barons  were  the  highest  nobility,  who  after- 
ward assumed  the  titles  of  counts  and  princes. 
In  more  modern  times,  in  both  France  and  Ger- 
many, a  baron  (in  the  latter  country  now  gen- 
erally called  Freiherr),  is  a  nobleman  next  in 
rank  to  a  count.  In  England  the  original  bar- 
ons of  the  realm  were  those  who  held  lands  by 
tenure  of  suit  and  service  to  the  king.  They 
were  bound  to  attend  the  king  in  war,  to  supply 
money  on  particular  occasions,  to  furnish  a  mil- 
itary contingent  proportioned  to  the  extent  of 
their  fiefs,  and  to  attend  the  king's  courts.  Va- 
rious circumstances  having  increased  the  num- 
bers of  the  barons  holding  direct  from  the  sove- 
reign, a  practice  became  established  about  the 
time  of  Edward  I.  of  summoning  individuals 
by  writ  to  the  great  councils.  The  barony  by 
tenure  and  by  writ  being  heritable,  the  inher- 
itance of  the  titles  became  complicated  by  the 
devolution  of  the  estates  to  female  descendants, 


332 


BARON  AND  FEME 


BARQUISIMETO 


who,  though  incapable  of  holding  titles,  were 
nevertheless  capable  of  transmitting  them. 
From  this  a  practice  arose  of  creating  barons 
by  patent,  limiting  the  succession  to  heirs  male. 
All  noblemen  were  originally  the  king's  barons, 
and  inter  pares  the  question  of  precedence 
was  one  not  always  easy  of  settlement.  The 
creation  of  dignities  superior  to  those  of  bar- 
ons— dukes,  marquises,  earls,  and  viscounts — 
to  which  some  of  the  greater  barons  were 
raised,  settled  the  question  in  part,  and  the 
antiquity  of  the  particular  title  determined  the 
precedence  among  those  of  equal  dignity.  Some 
other  persons  in  England,  as  for  instance  the 
citizens  of  York  and  London,  were  styled  bar- 
ons, whose  titles  were  drawn  perhaps  from  the 
relation  of  suit  and  service  in  which  they  stood 
to  the  crown.  The  judges  of  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer, a  court  instituted  immediately  after 
the  conquest,  are  still  styled  barons. 

BARON  AND  FEME,  the  Norman-French  term 
used  to  signify  man  and  wife  in  the  early  Eng- 
lish law  writers.  (See  HUSBAND  AND  WIFE.) 

BARONET,  an  English  title  of  honor.  The 
baronet  is  the  next  degree  in  point  of  prece- 
dence below  a  baron.  The  baron  is  a  peer  of 
the  realm,  a  hereditary  legislator ;  the  baronet 
is  a  commoner.  The  dignity  dates  from  James 
I.,  and  according  to  Blackstone  was  instituted 
by  that  monarch  in  order  to  raise  a  competent 
sum  for  the  reduction  of  the  province  of  Ulster 
in  Ireland,  for  which  reason  all  baronets  have 
the  arms  of  Ulster  superadded  to  their  family 
coat.  The  candidates  for  the  honor  were  re- 
quired to  be  of  gentle  blood,  and  of  adequate 
means  to  support  the  dignity ;  and  it  was  prom- 
ised that  the  number  should  not  exceed  200, 
and  that  lapses  by  death  should  not  be  filled 
up.  This  promise,  however,  was  soon  aban- 
doned. For  similar  reasons  an  order  of  baro- 
nets of  Nova  Scotia  was  created  by  Charles  I. 
(See  ALEXANDER,  WILLIAM.) 

BARONIES,  or  Baronio,  Cesar*,  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  at  Sora  in  1538,  died  in  Rome  in 
1607.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1557,  and  became 
one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Philip  of  Neri, 
founder  of  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  superior  in  1593. 
Pope  Clement  VIII.  soon  after  made  him  his 
confessor,  in  1596  created  him  cardinal,  and 
finally  appointed  him  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can. He  was  twice  a  candidate  for  the  papal 
chair,  .but  was  defeated  by  the  Spanish  party, 
to  which  he  had  given  offence  in  his  treatise 
De  Monarchia  Sicilim,  by  opposing  the  claim 
of  Spain  to  Sicily.  His  principal  work,  a  his- 
tory of  the  church,  entitled  Annales  Ecclesias- 
tici  a  Christo  nato  ad  annum  1198  (12  vols., 
Rome,  1588-1607),  written  to  oppose  the 
"Magdeburg  Centuries,"  occupied  him  for  30 
years.  It  abounds  in  errors  of  various  kinds, 
and  shows  a  lack  of  critical  spirit ;  but  it 
is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  reposito- 
ries of  church  history,  and  a  work  of  great 
learning  and  research.  It  was  continued  by 
Rinaldi  and  Laderchi,  and  annotated  by  Pagi ; 


and  the  whole  work,  with  the  continuations, 
&c.,  was  republished  at  Lucca  in  38  vols.  fol., 
1737-'57.  A  more  recent  continuation,  em- 
bracing the  years  1572-'85,  was  composed  by 
Theiner  (Rome,  1856-'57).  Baronius  also  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  Martyrologium  Roma- 
num,  with  notes  (fol.,  Rome,  1586),  but  after- 
ward endeavored  to  suppress  it  on  account  of 
errors  discovered  in  it. 

BARONY,  in  England,  the  manorial  right  or 
lordship  of  a  baron,  for  which  the  courts  baron 
were  formerly  held.  In  Ireland  the  term  des- 
ignates a  particular  territorial  division  existing 
from  very  ancient  times,  and  corresponding 
nearly  to  the  English  hundred. 

BAROTSE,  a  valley  in  the  interior  of  S.  Africa, 
inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  the  same  name,  lying 
between  lat.  15°  20'  and  16°  30'  S.  and  Ion. 
23°  and  24°  E.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Zam- 
bezi river  below  its  confluence  with  the  Leba, 
and  is  subject  to  annual  inundations  by  that 
river,  like  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  to  which  it 
bears  a  close  resemblance.  The  villages  are 
built  on  mounds,  some  of  which  are  said  to  be 
artificial,  and  during  the  inundation  the  country 
assumes  the  appearance  of  a  large  lake,  with 
the  villages  on  the  mounds  like  islands,  as  in 
Egypt.  Barotse  is  supposed  to  have  once  been 
a  lake,  and  there  is  a  slight  tradition  of  the 
waters  having  burst  through  the  low  hills  on  the 
south.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  the  natives 
are  able  to  raise  two  crops  a  year ;  but  there 
are  comparatively  few  trees.  Dr.  Livingstone 
thought  that  the  Barotse  valley  was  too  rich 
to  raise  wheat,  and  would  make  the  corn  run 
to  straw ;  one  species  of  grass  was  observed 
12  feet  high  with  a  stem  as  thick  as  a  man's 
thumb.  The  land  is  little  cultivated,  and  mostly 
covered  with  coarse  succulent  grasses  which 
afford  ample  pasturage  for  large  herds  of  cattle. 
On  the  waters  retiring  subsequent  to  the  inun- 
dation the  gases  arising  from  the  masses  of 
decaying  vegetation  are  the  cause  of  fevers  from 
which  the  natives  suffer  severely.  Other  dis- 
eases are  almost  unknown  except  smallpox, 
which  sometimes  rages  there.  The  natives, 
however,  appear  to  be  acquainted  with  inocu- 
lation. The  river  abounds  with  voracious  alli- 
gators. The  Barotse  pray  to  these  animals,  and 
eat  them  too.  They  reverence  the  sun,  and 
believe  in  a  future  spiritual  existence.  The 
capital  of  the  country  is  Narile,  with  1,000  in- 
habitants. 

BAROZZIO  DA  VIGNOLA.     See  VIGNOLA. 

BARQUISIJIETO.  I.  A  N.  W.  state  of  Vene- 
zuela, touching  the  Caribbean  sea  on  the  N.  E. ; 
area,  9,350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  314,000.  The 
surface  consists  of  fertile  valleys,  densely  cov- 
ered desert  mountains,  arid  hills  and  barren 
plains,  all  of  which  afford,  however,  good  pas- 
turage for  goats,  which  are  reared  in  num- 
bers, also  for  horses,  mules,  and  asses.  Cattle 
raising  and  agriculture  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions. The  largest  rivers  are  the  Portuguesa, 
Tocuyo,  and  Yaracuy.  The  state  is  the  most 
prosperous  of  Venezuela,  and  is  divided  into 


BARE 


BARRAOKPOOR 


333 


six  cantons.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  state, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  70  m.  from  the 
sea,  and  155  m.  W.  S.W.  of  Caracas;  pop.  about 
11,000.  It  was  founded  in  1552  by  Juan  de 
Villegas,  who  first  called  it  Nueva  Segovia.  It 
is  situated  1,719  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
A  terrible  earthquake  in  1812  scarcely  left  a 
house  standing;  but  the  city  has  since  been 
handsomely  rebuilt.  It  is  conveniently  situated 
for  commerce,  as  several  important  roads  from 
the  west  converge  here.  There  are  a  college, 
seminary,  and  numerous  other  schools.  Excel- 
lent coffee  and  fine  cacao  are  produced  in  abun- 
dance. The  city  was  frequently  occupied  by 
the  belligerents  during  the  war  of  independence, 
and  the  scene  of  much  bloodshed. 

BIRR,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Alsace,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Vosges  mountains,  and  at  the  en- 
trance into  the  picturesque  Ulric  valley,  18  m. 
S.  W.  of  Strasburg ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,651.  It 
has  manufactories  of 
soap  and  of  woollen, 
cotton,  china,  pottery, 
and  crystal  ware;  it 
also  has  a  brisk  trade  in 
wine,  iron,  wood,  and 
cattle.  The  place  is 
mentioned  in  the  8th 
century.  In  1592  it 
was  totally  destroyed 
by  the  troops  of  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine. 
Above  the  town  rises 
Mount  Odilia  (2,521 
ft.),  on  which  St.  Odil- 
ia, the  daughter  of 
Duke  Attic  of  Alsace, 
established  a  celebra- 
ted monastery,  which 
was  sold  during  the 
French  revolution. 

BIRR,  or  Barra,  a 
small  kingdom  of  W. 
Africa,  near  the  mouth 

of  the  Gambia,  extending  along  the  N".  bank 
of  the  river  about  50  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at 
200,000.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  a  Man- 
dingo  warrior  from  the  interior,  who  overran 
the  country,  and  afterward  kept  his  hold  of  it 
by  means  of  arms  procured  from  Europeans  in 
exchange  for  slaves.  The  free  Mandingoes  con- 
stitute only  a  quarter  of  the  population,  and 
are  described  as  a  well  made,  industrious,  and 
shrewd  race,  all  zealous  Mohammedans.  The 
remainder  of  the  population  are  in  slavery. 

BARRA  (or  BARRA  Y)  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  about 
20  islands,  forming  a  parish  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Scotland,  belonging  to  the 
chain  known  as  the  Outer  Hebrides.  The  prin- 
cipal island,  from  which  the  rest  are  named,  is 
about  8  m.  long,  and  from  2  to  4  m.  wide ; 
pop.  about  1,600,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics.  It 
contains  the  ruins  of  several  very  old  religious 
houses.  At  a  place  called  Kilbar  are  the  re- 
mains of  two  churches  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  monks  of  Icolmkill,  and  at  various 


points  throughout  the  island  stand  ancient 
watch  towers.  Druidical  circles  are  found  in 
many  places,  and  a  dun  or  fort,  supposed  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Scandinavians,  is  on 
every  lake.  In  the  middle  of  a  beautiful  bay, 
on  a  small  rock  entirely  covered  by  the  tide 
at  high  water,  stands  the  ancient  castle  of  the 
Mac  Neils.  On  Barra  is  the  highest  lighthouse 
in  Britain,  680  ft.  above  the  sea. 

BARRACKPOOR,  a  town  and  military  canton- 
ment of  Bengal,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Hoogly, 
about  10  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Calcutta.  It  is  a  fa- 
vorite retreat  for  the  Europeans  of  Calcutta, 
and  contains  the  country  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor general.  The  town  itself  is  irregularly 
built,  most  of  the  houses  being  bungalows,  em- 
bosomed among  lofty  trees,  and  the  country 
around  is  profusely  wooded.  It  possesses  a 
park  of  250  acres,  with  a  fine  collection  of 
Indian  zoology,  and  a  stud  of  elephants,  main- 


Barrackpoor. 

tained  mainly  for  the  recreation  of  the  guests 
of  the  governor  general.  Barrackpoor  is 
noted  as  the  place  in  which  the  first  blood 
was  shed  in  the  sepoy  mutiny.  The  town  was 
a  convenient  station  for  military  operations  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Bengal,  and  for  any  sudden 
emergency  at  Calcutta.  Four  native  regi- 
ments, with  European  officers,  were  stationed 
there.  Discontent  had  arisen  among  the  men, 
who  supposed  that  the  new  cartridges  issued 
to  them  were  greased  with  animal  fat,  and 
one  regiment  was  disbanded  in  February,  1857. 
On  March  29  an  armed  sepoy  marched  about, 
declaring  that  he  would  shoot  the  first  Euro- 
pean he  met.  He  wounded  a  European  lieu- 
tenant, and  a  native  officer  refused  to  arrest 
him.  Both  were  afterward  arrested,  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  executed  April  5;  and  a 
few  days  later  the  regiment  to  which  they  be- 
longed was  disbanded.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  extensive  barracks  were  erected 
here  for  British  troops. 


334 


BARRAL 


BARRE 


BARRAL,  Jean  Angnstin,  a  French  chemist  and 
physician,  born  at  Metz  in  1810.  After  receiv- 
ing his  education  at  the  polytechnic  school,  he 
became  an  officer  of  the  regie  or  government 
tobacco  monopoly.  He  was  the  first  to  extract 
nicotine  from  the  leaf  of  that  plant,  and  to 
demonstrate  by  experiment  its  poisonous  qual- 
ities. In  1845  he  was  made  a  tutor  of  chemis- 
try at  the  polytechnic  school,  and  in  1851  a 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy 
at  the  college  of  Sainte-Barbe.  In  1850  he 
made  two  ascents  in  a  balloon,  which  were 
attended  with  great  danger,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  observations  on  the  temperature,  hu- 
midity, and  other  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
at  various  heights.  He  edited  for  a  while  the 
Journal  d?  agriculture  pratique,  and  has  writ- 
ten many  treatises  on  the  application  of  chem- 
istry to  agriculture,  metallurgy,  and  the  arts. 

BARRAS,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicolas,  count  de, 
a  French  revolutionist,  born  at  Fox-Amphoux, 
Provence,  June  30,  1755,  died  at  Chaillot,  near 
Paris,  Jan.  29,  1829.  He  served  in  the  East 
Indies,  in  the  army,  returned  to  France  with 
the  rank  of  captain,  wasted  his  fortune,  and, 
though  he  had  no  political  opinions,  threw 
himself  among  the  revolutionists,  probably  in 
the  hope  of  retrieving  his  affairs.  He  took 
part  in  the  attacks  on  the  Bastile  and  the  Tui- 
leries,  and  was  elected  by  the  department  of 
Var  a  member  of  the  convention,  where  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  with  neither  de- 
lay nor  appeal  to  the  people.  In  October,  1793, 
being  sent  to  the  south  of  France  with  Freron, 
he  succeeded  in  forcing  the  anti-revolutionists 
to  submission.  He  went  alone  to  arrest  Gen. 
Brunei,  who  was  charged  with  having  traitor- 
ously delivered  Toulon  into  the  hands  of  the 
English.  Returning  to  that  city,  he  hurried 
the  siege ;  and  when  Toulon  was  taken,  he 
visited  the  traitors  with  the  most  severe  pun- 
ishment. He  was  one  of  the  most  active  in 
the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermidor,  and  head- 
ed the  troops  who  took  Robespierre  in  the 
hotel  de  ville.  Next  day,  having  resigned  his 
command,  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
convention,  and  in  November  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  general  safety,  when  he  proved 
himself  at  once  an  ardent  persecutor  of  the 
montagnards  and  the  emigrants.  At  the  same 
time  he  proposed  the  celebration  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  On  Feb. 
4,  1795,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  con- 
vention. On  the  12th  Germinal,  when  the 
mob  presented  themselves  in  arms,  demand- 
ing "bread  and -the  constitution  of  '93," 
he  caused  martial  law  to  be  proclaimed,  and 
conducted  himself  with  energy.  On  the  1st 
Prairial  he  again  beat  down  the  attack  of 
the  suburban  people.  On  the  13th  Vende- 
miaire  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of 
the  troops  to  protect  the  assembly,  and  select- 
ed as  his  assistant  Gen.  Bonaparte,  whose  vig- 
orous measures  very  promptly  quelled  the  roy- 
alist insurrection.  Elected  one  of  the  five 
members  of  the  directory,  he  used  his  office  as 


the  means  of  gaining  immense  wealth  and  in- 
dulging his  taste  for  debauchery.  On  the  18th 
Fructidor,  1798,  he  executed  the  coup  d'etat, 
which  changed  the  complexion  of  the  two 
councils,  and  banished  the  minority  of  the  di- 
rectory. In  the  internal  revolution  which  oc- 
curred in  the  directory  on  the  30th  Prairial, 
1799,  he  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  position, 
and  thenceforth  reigned  nearly  paramount.  A 
series  of  intrigues  and  plots  then  commenced, 
which  ended  only  when  the  directory  was 
overthrown  by  Bonaparte  on  the  18th  Bru- 
maire.  (See  DIBECTOBY.)  Suspected  of  cor- 
responding with  the  royalists  and  strictly 
watched,  he  was  compelled  at  last  to  fly  to 
Brussels,  where  he  lived  in  great  luxury.  Af- 
ter the  establishment  of  the  empire  he  was 
permitted  to  return  to  Marseilles.  Convicted 
of  participation  in  Mallet's  conspiracy,  he  was 
exiled  to  Rome.  He  declined  serving  Murat 
in  1814,  and  started  for  France,  but  was  ar- 
rested at  Turin,  and  led  to  Montpellier,  where 
he  conspired  openly  in  the  interest  of  the 
Bourbons.  After  the  restoration  he  lived  near 
Paris  in  almost  princely  style.  His  memoirs 
were  published  in  1873. 

BARRATRY  (It.  barrateria,  fraud),  in  mari- 
time law,  fraudulent  conduct  by  the  master  of 
a  vessel,  or  by  the  mariners,  to  the  injury  of 
the  owner  of  the  ship  or  cargo,  and  without 
his  consent.  Gross  negligence,  or  unauthorized 
acts  of  the  master  to  the  injury  of  the  owner, 
are  also  held  to  constitute  barratry.  Under 
the  first  are  included  wilful  acts,  such  as  de- 
stroying or  carrying  off  ship  "or  cargo,  or  em- 
bezzling any  part  of  the  cargo  ;  under  the  sec- 
ond, deviation  from  the  usual  course  of  the 
voyage  by  the  master  for  his  own  private  pur- 
poses, trading  with  an  enemy,  evading  port 
duties,  disregard  of  a  blockade,  and  other  acts 
exposing  the  vessel  or  cargo  to  seizure  and 
confiscation.  Barratry  is  one  of  the  risks  com- 
monly insured  against,  and  the  underwriter  is 
liable  for  loss  by  any  of  the  acts  above  speci- 
fied, with  the  limitations:  1,  that  the  owner 
in  order  to  recover  must  not  have  consented  to 
the  act  of  the  master  or  crew,  but  the  consent 
of  the  owner  of  the  ship  will  not  affect  the 
right  of  the  owner  of  the  cargo ;  so  also  if  the 
vessel  has  been  chartered,  the  charterer  is  pro 
hac  vice  the  owner,  and  will  not  be  affected  by 
the  connivance  of  the  real  owner.  2.  The  un- 
derwriter is  liable  for  the  acts  of  mariners  only 
so  far  as  they  could  not  be  prevented  by  ordi- 
nary care  on  the  part  of  the  master.  Barratry 
by  the  wilful  burning,  casting  away,  or  other- 
wise destroying  a  vessel  on  the  high  seas,  is  a 
highly  penal  offence  in  Great  Britain,  and  in 
this  country  if  done  by  a  person  belonging  to 
the  vessel  not  being  an  owner,  as  also  if  done 
by  an  owner  with  intent  to  defraud  an  under- 
writer, shipper,  or  other  part  owner.  (See 
BABBETEY.) 

BARRE,  Antoine  Joseph  le  Fevre  de  la,  a  French 
naval  officer,  died  May  4,  1688.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Guiana  in  1663,  and  retook 


BARRE 


BARREL 


335 


Cayenne  from  the  Dutch.  In  1667  he  was 
created  lieutenant  general,  and  defeated  the 
English  in  the  Antilles,  forcing  them  to  raise 
the  blockade  of  St.  Christopher.  In  1682  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Canada,  taking  the 
place  of  the  count  de  Frontenac.  He  was, 
however,  recalled  about  1684,  for  having  by  his 
irresolution  caused  the  failure  of  the  expedition 
to  treat  with  the  savages.  He  published  a 
work  on  Guiana,  entitled  Description  de  la 
France  equinoxiale  (1666),  and  Journal  (Tun 
voyage  d_  Cayenne. 

BAKRE,  Isaae,  a  British  soldier  and  statesman, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1726,  died  July  1,  1802.  He 
received  his  education  at  Dublin  university  and 
afterward  studied  law  in  London,  but  entered 
the  army,  was  ordered  to  Canada,  and  became 
an  intimate  friend  of  Gen.  Wolfe,  who  obtained 
his  promotion  at  various  times,  until  he  reached 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  He  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  capture  of  Quebec,  and  was 
with  Wolfe  when  that  general  died.  He  occu- 
pies a  prominent  position  in  Benjamin  West's 
painting  of  "  The  Death  of  Wolfe."  After  the 
surrender  of  Montreal,  Sept.  8,  1760,  he  was 
appointed  bearer  of  despatches  from  Gen.  Am- 
herst  to  Lord  Chatham.  In  1761,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  earl  of  Shelburne,  Col.  Barre 
was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  the  bor- 
ough of  Chipping  Wycombe.  Almost  his  first 
political  act  was  to  make  a  personal  attack  upon 
the  earl  of  Chatham.  He  has  been  accused  of 
personal  motives  in  this  action,  as  he  had  con- 
sidered Chatham  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his 
promotion  while  in  the  army.  This  attack 
was  as  bold  as  it  was  unexpected,  and  at  once 
raised  Barr6  to  a  prominent  position  among 
the  supporters  of  the  ministry,  Chatham  lead- 
ing the  opposition.  In  1763,  after  the  disband- 
ing of  Barre's  regiment,  he  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  adjutant  general  to  the  British 
forces  and  governor  of  Stirling  castle,  his  pat- 
ron, Lord  Shelburne,  becoming  president  of  the 
board  of  trade ;  but  in  December  of  the  same 
year  he  was  removed  from  his  appointments, 
having  joined  the  opposition  and  voted  against 
the  government  on  several  occasions.  In  1765 
he  opposed  the  stamp  act,  and  made  a  forcible 
appeal  to  the  house  in  favor  of  the  colonies. 
In  1766,  under  the  second  administration  of 
Lord  Chatham,  Col.  Barr6  was  appointed  one 
of  the  vice  treasurers  to  Ireland  and  was  sworn 
of  the  privy  council.  In  the  discussion  upon 
the  question  of  reporting  the  parliamentary 
debates  Col.  Barre  opposed  the  ministry,  and 
after  a  full  exposure  of  the  corruption  then  ex- 
isting, and  the  strongest  denunciation  of  the 
corrrupt  members,  he  left  the  house,  calling 
upon  every  honest  man  to  follow  him.  Through- 
out the  administration  of  Lord  North  Col. 
Barre  continued  the  warm  friend  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  distinguished  himself  greatly 
by  the  boldness  with  which  he  advanced  his 
sentiments.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  North 
ministry,  Lord  Shelburne  became  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  Col.  Barr6  treas- 
74  VOL.  ii.— 22 


urer  of  the  navy.  Afterward,  upon  Shelburne 
becoming  premier,  Barre  received  the  post  of 
paymaster  of  the  forces,  which  he  held  but  a 
short  time,  as  he  retired  with  his  patron  in 
1783,  receiving  for  his  services  a  pension  of 
£3,200  per  annum,  which  was  afterward  ex- 
changed for  the  sinecure  of  clerk  of  the  pells, 
with  £3,000  per  annum.  Col.  Barre  continued 
in  parliament  till  1790,  when  he  retired,  owing 
to  the  loss  of  his  sight  consequent  on  a  wound 
received  at  Quebec.  He  has  been  supposed  by 
many  to  be  the  author  of  the  Junius  letters. 

BiRREGES.     See  BAREP.ES. 

BARREL,  a  hollow  vessel  made  of  staves, 
set  on  end,  arranged  around  a  circle,  and  bound 
together  with  hoops.  By  each  stave  being 
made  wider  in  the  middle  and  tapering  a  little 
toward  the  ends,  the  barrel  is  of  larger  diam- 
eter, or  bulges,  in  the  middle.  The  bevelled 
edges  of  the  staves  cause  them  to  fit  closely  to- 
gether, making  a  tight  joint  along  their  length. 
The  ends  are  closed  by  circular  heads,  the  edges 
of  which  are  made  thin  to  fit  into  a  groove  cut 
to  receive  them  near  the  ends  of  the  staves,  in 
which  they  are  held  fast  by  driving  the  hoops 
upon  the  swell  of  the  barrel.  The  construction 
of  the  barrel  is  most  ingeniously  adapted  for 
combining  great  strength  with  lightness.  It 
resists  pressure  from  without  by  the  arched 
arrangement  of  the  staves ;  and  the  hoops  se- 
cure it  from  the  expansive  force  of  gases  often 
generated  in  its  contents.  Its  form  is  the  most 
convenient  for  transportation,  admitting  of  the 
vessel  being  rolled  or  rapidly  swung  by  hooks 
placed  under  the  chine  or  ends  of  the  staves. 
It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  many  millions 
of  them  should  be  annually  made  for  the  nu- 
merous uses  they  serve.  In  the  form  of  kegs, 
firkins,  liquor  casks,  butts,  hogsheads,  &c.,  they 
are  met  with  everywhere.  Yet  the  Chinese, 
with  all  their  ingenuity,  it  is  said,  have  never 
made  a  barrel. — Until  recently  barrels  have 
been  constructed  entirely  by  hand,  the  cooper 
shaving  the  staves  with  the  draw  knife,  and 
shaping  them  by  clamps.  But  machines  are  now 
applied  to  this  purpose,  by  which  the  work  is 
done  much  more  expeditiously.  The  staves  are 
planed,  steamed,  and  then  passed  between  a  se- 
ries of  rollers,  which  compress  and  bend  them 
into  proper  shape.  A  stave  is  next  set  up 
on  end  in  a  frame,  which  holds  it  securely  and 
forces  it  to  its  right  bend,  and  swinging  around 
to  a  plane  working  vertically  on  one  side,  one 
edge  is  jointed  to  its  right  bevel,  and  swinging 
to  the  other  side,  the  opposite  edge  is  served 
in  the  same  way,  the  grooving  at  each  end  or 
crozing,  the  chamfering  of  the  ends,  and  saw- 
ing off,  all  being  done  by  different  cutters  at 
the  same  time.  Other  machines  saw  the  staves, 
and  some  cut  them  with  great  rapidity  directly 
from  the  block ;  but  these  are  for  making  what 
are  called  slack  barrels,  which  do  not  need  to 
be  so  perfectly  tight  and  strong  as  those  used 
to  contain  most  liquids. — As  a  measure  of 
capacity  the  barrel  is  of  very  variable  dimen- 
sions, differing  in  size  in  the  different  states, 


336 


BAERELIER 


and  with  the  material  it  i8  designed  to  hold. 
The  measure  of  capacity  called  barrel  bulk  is  5 
cubic  feet.     The  old   English  measures  were 
31£  gallons  for  a  barrel  of  wine,  32  for  ale,  and 
36  for  beer ;  but  by  a  statute  of  1  William  and  ' 
Mary  the  beer  and  ale  barrel  was  equalized  to  | 
34  gallons.     This,  however,  only  created  con-  j 
fusion.     The  dimensions  of  the  barrel  in  Eng- 
land are  as  follows: 

Gallons.         Cubic  inches. 

Winebarrel 81|  7,816$ 

Ale  barrel  (London) 82  9,024 

Ale  and  boor  barrel  (England) 84  9,518 

Beer  barrel  (London) 86  10,182 

In  the  United  States  the  barrel  for  wine,  beer, 
and  cider  is  31 J  gallons.  The  lamp-oil  barrel  of 
Cincinnati  contains  43  gallons.  The  whiskey 
barrel  usually  contains  from  40  to  45  gallons. 
In  Maryland,  a  barrel  of  corn  is  equal  to  5  I 
bushels ;  a  barrel  of  fish,  220  Ibs. ;  a  barrel  of 
flour,  196  Ibs.;  and  of  lime,  320  Ibs. 

BARRELIER,  Jacques,  a  French  botanist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1606,  died  Sept.  17,  1673.  He  re- 
nounced the  medical  profession  to  enter  the 
Dominican  order.  In  1646  he  was  selected  as 
assistant  of  the  general  of  the  order  on  one 
of  his  tours  of  inspection,  travelled  through 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  collected  numerous 
specimens  of  plants,  and  also  founded  and 
superintended  a  splendid  garden  in  a  convent 
of  his  order  at  Rome,  where  he  remained  many 
years.  He  afterward  returned  to  Paris  and 
entered  the  convent  in  the  rue  St.  Honore. 
He  left  unfinished  a  general  history  of  plants, 
to  be  entitled  Eortus  Mundi.  The  copper- 
plates of  his  intended  work,  and  such  of  his 
papers  as  could  be  found,  were  collected  and 
made  the  basis  of  a  book  by  Antoine  de  Jus- 
sieu,  Plantce  per  Galliam,  Hupaniam  et  Ita- 
lian obiervatce,  &c.  (folio,  Paris,  1714). 

BARREN,  a  S.  county  of  Kentucky;  area, 
500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,780,  of  whom 
3,623  were  colored.  Its  name  comes  from  the 
immense  thinly  timbered  tracts  it  contains, 
which  are  technically  termed  "barrens."  It 
is  a  moderately  fertile  region,  watered  by  Bar- 
ren river  and  two  creeks.  The  superficial  soil 
rests  upon  cavernous  limestone,  and  sulphurous 
and  saline  springs  are  abundant.  The  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  railroad,  and  its  Glasgow 
branch,  traverse  the  county.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  111,848  bushels  of  wheat, 
603,541  of  Indian  corn,  179,609  of  oats,  247,771 
Ibs.  of  butter,  40,492  of  wool,  2,473,939  of  to- 
bacco, and  72  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Glasgow. 

BARRETO,  Francisco  de,  a  Portuguese  gov- 
ernor of  the  Indies,  died  on  the  banks  of  the 
Zambesi  river  in  1574.  Distinguishing  himself 
in  the  army  at  home,  he  was  sent  to  command 
the  fortress  of  Bassain  in  India,  and  was  ap- 
pointed governor  in  1555.  He  sent  the  poet 
Camoens  into  exile  at  Macao.  By  order  of  the 
Portuguese  government  he  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  that  ill-defined  and  little  known  por- 
tion of  Africa  called  Monomotapa.  He  set 
out  on  this  expedition  in  April,  1569,  and 


BARRETT 

struck  the  continent  where  the  Quilimane  river 
runs  into  the  Mozambique  channel.  HIB  am- 
bition was  to  penetrate  to  the  mines  of  Mas- 
sapa,  whence  the  queen  of  Sheba  was  said  to 
have  drawn  her  treasures,  and  from  which  a 
nugget  valued  at  12,000  cruzadoes  had  lately 
excited  cupidity  in  Portugal.  In  his  explora- 
tions he  fell  a  victim  to  the  climate. 

BARRETRY  (sometimes  called  barratry),  in 
criminal  law,  the  offence  of  stirring  up  suits 
and  quarrels.  The  person  guilty  of  the  offence 
may  be  indicted  as  a  common  barretor.  To 
sustain  the  indictment  it  is  necessary  that 
there  be  proof  of  not  fewer  than  three  distinct 
acts,  and  that  the  suits  or  quarrels  be  be- 
tween other  persons.  A  man  may  bring  any 
number  of  suits  in  his  own  name  without  be- 
ing chargeable  with  this  offence.  A  similar 
wrong  is  the  bringing  of  suits  by  an  attorney 
in  the  name  of  a  fictitious  plaintiff,  which  may 
be  treated  as  a  contempt  of  court. 

BARRETT,  Benjamin  Fisk,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  at  Dresden,  Maine,  June 
24,  1808.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college 
in  1832,  and  at  the  divinity  school  in  Cam- 
bridge in  1838.  "While  there  he  became  a  con- 
vert to  the  doctrines  taught  by  Swedenborg. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  first  New  Church  society 
in  New  York  from  1840  to  1848,  and  of  that 
in  Cincinnati  from  1848  to  1850.  In  1850  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  pulpit  on  account  of 
his  health,  and  went  to  Chicago,  where  he  en- 
gaged in  a  mechanical  business  by  which  in 
four  years  he  restored  his  health,  and  accu- 
mulated a  fortune.  For  several  years  subse- 
quently he  was  settled  over  the  first  New 
Church  society  in  Philadelphia.  His  princi- 
pal works  are:  "A  Life  of  Swedenborg," 
"Lectures  on  the  New  Dispensation,"  "Let- 
ters on  the  Divine  Trinity,"  "The  Golden 
Reed,"  "Catholicity  of  the  New  Church," 
"The  Visible  Church,"  "Beauty  for  Ashes," 
and  "A  New  View  of  Hell."  He  has  also 
published  various  theological  pamphlets  and 
articles  in  religious  magazines. 

BARRETT,  George  Morton,  an  American  actor, 
born  at  Exeter,  England,  June  9,  1794,  died  in 
New  York,  Sept.  5,  1860.  He  arrived  at  Bos- 
ton with  his  mother,  an  actress  of  some  ce- 
lebrity, in  October,  1796,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  the  same  year  in  the  part  of  Cora's 
child  in  "Pizarro,"  at  the  age  of  two  years. 
He  commenced  playing  in  New  York  in  1806, 
at  the  Park  theatre,  in  the  part  of  Young  Nor- 
val.  In  1826  he  became  manager  of  the  Bowery 
theatre,  New  York,  in  company  with  E.  Gil- 
fert.  He  afterward  visited  England,  and  in 
1837  performed  at  Drury  Lane.  He  was  also 
manager  of  the  Tremont  theatre,  Boston,  and 
in  1847  opened  the  Broadway  theatre,  New 
j  York,  then  newly  erected.  In  1855  he  retired 
from  the  stage.  His  favorite  characters  were 
!  in  genteel  comedy,  but  he  also  acted  in  farce 
and  low  comedy  with  great  success.  From  his 
elegance  and  stateliness,  he  was  known  by  the 
:  sobriquet  of  "  Gentleman  George." 


BARRIIEAD 


BARRON 


337 


BARRHEAD,  a  manufacturing  village  of  Ren- 
frewshire, Scotland,  on  the  river  Severn,  7  m. 
S.  W.  of  Glasgow,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  contains  cot- 
ton mills,  bleaching  and  print  works,  an  iron 
tbundery,  and  a  machine  shop,  employing  in 
all  about  3,000  operatives. 

BARRIER  REEFS,  reefs  of  coral  which  rise 
from  great  depths  among  the  South  sea  islands, 
at  a  distance  of  several  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  extend  along  in  front  of  it  as  a  barrier 
against  the  heavy  roll  of  the  sea.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  Great  Barrier  reef 
off  the  N.  E.  coast  of  Australia.  (See  AUSTRA- 
LIA, vol.  ii.,  p.  128.)  Other  reefs  of  this  nature 
are  met  with  along  the  opposite  coasts  of  the 
islands  of  Louisiade  and  New  Caledonia,  and 
between  are  numerous  coral  islands. 

BARRIACTOIV.  I.  John  Shnte-Barrlngton,  vis- 
count, an  English  lawyer  and  author,  born  in 
1678,  died  Dec.  14,  1734.  In  early  life  he  re- 
ceived by  will  the  estate  of  John  Wildman  of 
Berkshire,  not  related  to  him  and  but  slightly 
acquainted.  He  added  the  name  of  Harrington 
to  Shute  on  acquiring  an  estate  in  Essex  by 
the  will  of  Francis  Harrington,  distantly  re- 
lated to  him  by  marriage,  and  was  created 
Viscount  Barrington  in  the  Irish  peerage  in 
1720.  He  was  expelled  from  parliament  in 
1722  for  promoting  a  fraudulent  lottery  scheme, 
and  devoted  his  latter  years  to  theological 
studies.  He  published  Miscellanea  Sacra  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1725),  and  other  works  of  repute. 
II.  William  Wildman,  2d  viscount,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1717,  died  Feb.  1,  1793.  He 
was  secretary  at  war,  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  treasurer  of  the  navy.  III.  Dalnes, 
a  jurist  and  naturalist,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  1727,  died  March  11,  1800.  In 
1757  he  was  appointed  a  Welsh  judge,  and  after- 
ward second  justice  of  Chester.  He  published 
in  1766  "Observations  on  the  Statutes,  chiefly 
the  more  Ancient,  from  Magna  Charta  to  the 
21  James  I.,  c.  27,"  a  work  of  merit  and  author- 
ity; and  in  1773  an  edition  of  Orosius,  with 
Alfred's  Saxon  version  and  an  English  trans- 
lation. Most  of  his  other  writings,  among 
which  are  dissertations  on  the  singing  and  lan- 
guage of  birds,  on  the  Linnasan  system,  and  on 
the  probability  of  reaching  the  north  pole, 
may  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the  royal 
and  antiquarian  societies,  of  both  of  which  he 
was  a  member,  and  in  his  "  Miscellanies  on 
Various  Subjects"  (1781).  IV.  Samnel,  a  naval 
officer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  died  Aug.  16, 
1800.  He  was  rear  admiral  of  the  white,  took 
St.  Lucia  in  the  face  of  a  superior  force,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  relief  of  Gibraltar 
under  Lord  Howe.  V.  Shnte,  a  prelate,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1734,  died  March  27, 
1826.  He  was  chaplain  to  George  III.,  canon 
of  Christ  church,  of  St.  Paul's,  and  of  Wind- 
sor, and  bishop  successively  of  LlandafF,  Salis- 
bury, and  Durham.  Having  gained  the  sum  of 
£60,000  by  a  lawsuit,  he  devoted  the  whole  of 
it  to  the  foundation  of  charity  schools  and  the 


relief  of  poor  clergymen.  He  edited  the  Mis- 
cellanea Sacra  of  his  father,  prepared  for  the 
press  the  "Political  Lite"  of  his  brother  Lord 
Barrington,  and  furnished  valuable  notes  for 
a  new  edition  of  Bowyer's  "Critical  Conjec- 
tures "  on  the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament. 

BARRIBfGTON,  Sir  Jonah,  an  Irish  lawyer  and 
author,  born  in  Queen's  county  in  1767,  died 
at  Versailles,  April  8,  1834.  He  was  called  to 
the  Irish  bar  in  1788,  and  entered  the  Irish 
parliament  in  1790,  as  member  for  Tuam.  His 
maiden  speech  as  a  legislator  was  directed 
against  Grattan  and  Curran.  A  sinecure  in 
the  Dublin  custom  house,  worth  £1,000  a  year, 
was  given  to  him  in  1793,  and  he  was  made 
king's  counsel.  When  the  question  of  the 
union  came  up,  however,  he  changed  sides, 
voting  against  it,  and  displaying  such  zeal  for 
the  liberals,  that  in  1803  he  was  very  nearly 
returned  to  parliament  for  the  city  of  Dublin 
in  the  popular  interest,  the  first  four  votes  in 
his  favor  being  those  of  Grattan,  Curran,  Pon- 
sonby,  and  Plunket.  The  Irish  government 
tried  to  silence  him  by  making  him  judge  of 
the  Irish  admiralty  court,  and  also  knighting 
him.  Between  1809  and  1815,  dissatisfied  at 
not  having  obtained  higher  preferment,  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Historic 
Memoirs  of  Ireland,"  comprising  secret  records 
of  the  national  convention,  the  rebellion,  and 
the  union,  with  delineations  of  the  principal 
characters  engaged  in  these  transactions,  bring- 
ing the  narrative  down  to  the  assertion  of  in- 
dependence by  the  Irish  parliament.  The  gov- 
ernment dreaded  the  publication  of  the  con- 
cluding volume,  which  he  threatened,  and,  it  is 
said,  induced  him  to  abandon  it  on  condition 
of  receiving  the  full  salary  of  his  office  while 
residing  in  France,  where  he  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  from  his  creditors,  his  duties  being 
performed  by  a  deputy  chosen  and  paid  by  the 
government.  In  1827  he  published  two  vol- 
umes of  "  Personal  Sketches  of  his  own  Times," 
and  a  third  volume  appeared  in  1832.  This 
has  been  twice  republished  in  the  United 
States  with  great  success.  In  1830  he  was 
charged  in  parliament  with  appropriating  to 
his  own  nse  funds  belonging  to  suitors  in  his 
court.  He  went  to  London  to  plead  his  cause, 
but  was  removed  from  office.  He  now  pre- 
pared the  second  volume  of  his  "  Historic  Me- 
moirs." This  work  was  subsequently  repro- 
duced in  a  cheap  form  as  the  "  Rise  and  Fall 
of  the  Irish  Nation."  His  sketches  are  un- 
trustworthy in  their  details,  but  give  a  good 
idea  of  political,  literary,  and  social  Irish  life 
during  the  last  40  years  of  the  last  century. 

BARRON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin,  wa- 
tered by  Hay  and  Vermilion  rivers;  pop.  in 
1870,  538.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,665  bushels  of  wheat,  10,130  of  oats,  1,850 
of  potatoes,  and  401  tons  of  hay. 

BARRON,  James,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1768,  died  April  21,  1851. 
He  served  under  his  father,  JAMES  BARRON 
(died  1787),  who  held  the  rank  of  commodora 


338 


BARRON 


in  the  Virginia  navy  during  the  revolution. 
The  son  was  commissioned  lieutenant  on  the 
organization  of  the  United  States  navy  in  1798, 
and  the  next  year  promoted  to  be  captain,  and 
under  the  command  of  his  elder  brother,  Com- 
modore Samuel  Barren,  was  ordered  to  the 
Mediterranean,  where  he  became  known  for 
his  skill  in  seamanship  as  well  as  his  scientific 
attainments.  On  June  22,  1807,  the  frigate 
Chesapeake,  38  guns,  Capt.  Gordon,  bearing 
the  broad  pennant  of  Com.  Barron,  got  un- 
der way  from  Hampton  Roads,  bound  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  almost  immediately 
boarded  by  a  boat  from  the  British  ship  Leo- 
pard, of  60  guns,  Capt.  Humphreys,  conveying 
a  despatch,  signed  by  Vice  Admiral  Berkeley, 
ordering  all  captains  under  his  command, 
should  they  fall  in  with  the  Chesapeake  any- 
where on  the  high  seas,  to  search  her  for  cer- 
tain deserters  from  the  British  navy,  concern- 
ing whom  correspondence  had  taken  place  in 
Washington  between  the  British  minister  and 
the  secretary  of  state,  their  surrender  being 
refused  on  the  ground  that  they  were  Ameri- 
can citizens  who  had  been  impressed  into  the 
British  navy.  Com.  Barron  refused  to  submit 
to  this  extraordinary  demand,  and  in  a  very 
few  moments  afterward  the  Leopard  fired  a 
broadside  into  the  Chesapeake.  The  American 
ship  was  in  no  condition  to  return  it ;  besides 
her  inferior  force,  she  was  in  utter  confusion 
on  first  coming  out  of  port,  and  although  the 
guns  had  been  loaded,  rammers,  wads,  matches, 
gun  locks,  and  powder  horns  were  all  wanting. 
The  Leopard  continued  to  fire  until  Barron, 
finding  that  no  resistance  could  be  made,  or- 
dered the  colors  struck.  A  single  gun  was 
fired  by  the  Chesapeake  just  as  her  colors  were 
hauled  down.  There  being  no  matches  at  hand, 
it  was  discharged  by  means  of  a  coal  brought 
from  the  galley.  The  ship  received  21  shot  in 
her  hull,  and  3  were  killed  and  18  wounded; 
among  the  latter  were  Com.  Barron  and  his 
aid,  Mr.  Broom.  Four  men  claimed  as  English 
were  taken  out  of  her,  and  she  returned  to 
Hampton  Roads  the  same  evening.  Intense 
excitement  was  created  throughout  the  country 
by  this  outrage.  Barron  was  court-martialled 
under  four  charges,  which  embraced  22  speci- 
fications. He  was  entirely  acquitted  of  three 
of  the  charges,  but  was  found  guilty  of  two 
specifications  of  a  charge  "for  neglecting,  on 
the  probability  of  an  engagement,  to  clear  his 
ship  for  action,"  and  sentenced  to  be  suspend- 
ed for  five  years,  without  pay  or  emoluments. 
The  court  closed  its  finding  on  the  subject  of 
the  personal  conduct  of  the  accused  in  the  fol- 
lowing language:  "No  transposition  of  the 
specifications,  or  any  other  modification  of  the 
charges  themselves,  would  alter  the  opinion  of 
the  court  as  to  the  firmness  and  courage  of  the 
accused;  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  clear 
and  satisfactory."  Admiral  Berkeley's  conduct 
was  disavowed  by  the  British  government,  and 
he  was  recalled  from  his  command.  Capt. 
Humphreys  was  placed  on  half  pay.  Two  of 


the  alleged  deserters  were  afterward  returned ; 
one  had  been  executed,  and  the  fourth  died. 
Barron  entered  the  merchant  service  during 
his  suspension,  and  remained  abroad  till  1818, 
when  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  him  to 
duty.  This  was  resisted  by  many  officers,  in- 
cluding Decatur,  who  had  been  a  member  of 
the  court  martial,  and  after  a  long  and  bitter 
correspondence  Barron  sent  Decatur  a  chal- 
lenge. The  duel  was  fought  at  Bladensburg, 
March  22,  1820.  Both  fell  at  the  first  fire. 
Decatur  died  the  same  night,  and  Barron  re- 
covered after  months  of  great  suifering.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  held  several 
important  commands  on  shore.  The  command 
of  the  squadron  in  the  Pacific  was  tendered  to 
him,  but  declined. 

liAKKOV  Siiiiiui'l,  an  American  naval  officer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hampton,  Va., 
about  1763,  died  Oct.  29,  1810.  In  1798  he 
commanded  the  brig  Augusta,  which  was  pre- 
pared by  the  citizens  of  Norfolk  to  resist  the 
aggressions  of  the  French.  During  the  war 
with  Tripoli  he  took  a  conspicuous  position, 
and  in  1805  commanded  a  squadron  of  10  ves- 
sels, his  flag  ship  being  the  President,  44.  The 
bashaw  of  Tripoli  was  Yusuf  Caramalli,  a 
usurper,  who  had  deposed  his  brother  Ilamet. 
Mr.  Eaton,  the  consul  at  Tunis,  was  apprised 
that  it  might  be  of  great  service  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  Hamet  in  the  war  against 
his  brother.  Commodore  Barron  received  per- 
mission to  follow  this  policy,  and  accordingly 
sent  three  vessels  of  the  squadron,  the  Hornet, 
Argus,  and  Nautilus,  with  Mr.  Eaton  and 
Hamet,  which  captured  the  town  of  Derne  on 
the  Tripolitan  coast,  April  27,  1805.  Eaton 
now  pressed  Com.  Barron  for  further  supplies 
and  reinforcements  against  Tripoli,  but  they 
were  denied  on  the  ground  that  Ilamet  Cara- 
malli ought  to  be  able  to  effect  his  object  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  cooperation  of  the  squad- 
ron. Com.  Barron  was  perhaps  influenced  in 
this  decision  by  other  considerations.  Capt. 
Bainbridge,  with  his  officers  and  men,  were  at 
this  time  held  in  rigorous  captivity  in  Tripoli, 
and  it  was  well  known  that  the  reigning 
bashaw  had  threatened  a  bloody  retaliation. 
Com.  Barron  soon  afterward  relinquished  his 
command  to  Capt.  John  Rodgers  in  conse- 
quence of  extreme  ill  health,  and  returned  to 
the  United  States.  He  was  considered  an  ex- 
cellent officer,  and  died  much  respected  just  as 
he  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
navy  yard  at  Gosport,  Va. 

I!  IKKON,  Samuel,  nn  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Virginia.  He  entered  the  U.  S.  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1812.  He  was  attached  to 
the  Brandywine  when  she  conveyed  Gen.  La- 
fayette to  France  in  1825 ;  was  promoted  to  be 
lieutenant  in  1827,  commander  in  1847,  and 
captain  in  1855.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
i  civil  war  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau 
j  of  detail  in  the  navy  department.  He  had  al- 
ready accepted  a  commission  in  the  confederate 
navy,  and  soon  went  south,  and  was  placed  in 


BARROS 


BARROW 


339 


charge  of  the  naval  defences  of  North  Carolina 
and  Virginia,  with  the  rank  of  flag  officer.  He 
was  at  Hatteras  inlet  at  the  time  of  the  attack 
upon  Forts  Clark  and  Hatteras  by  Flag  Officer 
Stringliam,  Aug.  28,  1861,  and  by  request  of 
the  officers  commanding  the  forts  assumed  the 
general  direction  of  the  defence.  After  the 
surrender  he  was  sent  to  New  York,  and  re- 
mained a  prisoner  of  war  until  exchanged  in 
1802.  During  the  remainder  of  the  war  he 
was  in  England,  engaged  in  fitting  out  block- 
ade-runners and  privateers.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  he  returned  to  Virginia  and  en- 
gaged in  farming. 

BARROS,  Joao  de,  a  Portuguese  historian, 
born  in  1496,  died  in  1570.  He  was  of  noble 
family  and  early  employed  about  the  court. 
In  1522  he  was  governor  of  a  Portuguese  set- 
tlement on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  afterward 
treasurer  of  the  Indies.  He  was  recommended 
by  the  king  himself  to  cultivate  history,  some 
of  his  compositions  having  been  read  with  ap- 
proval by  his  majesty.  He  wrote  the  history 
of  Portuguese  conquest  in  India,  down  to  1526, 
under  the  title  of  Asia,  in  four  decades  (pub- 
lished 1552-1615).  It  was  continued  by  Diego 
de  Couto,  the  historiographer  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  1777-'8, 
from  the  royal  press  of  Lisbon.  He  also  wrote 
a  chivalric  romance,  Cronica  do  Imperador 
Clarimundo,  and  many  other  works.  His  style 
is  dignified  and  his  diction  elegant  and  pure. 
He  has  been  styled  the  Portuguese  Livy. 

BARROT.  I.  Camille  Hyaclnthe  Odllon,  popular- 
ly known  as  ODII.ON  BARROT,  a  French  advocate 
and  statesman,  born  at  Villefort,  department  of 
Loz6re,  in  July,  1791.  His  father  was  a  revo- 
lutionist, but  Odilon  became  after  his  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  in  1814  friendly  to  Louis  XVIII. ; 
but  subsequently  he  was  prominent  in  the  op- 
position, and  acquired  great  celebrity  as  an 
advocate,  especially  in  political  trials.  He  con- 
tributed as  president  of  one  of  the  principal 
political  associations,  and  by  his  activity,  to 
bring  on  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Paris  municipal  committee  which  in 
July  officiated  for  a  few  days  as  a  provisional 
government.  He  opposed  the  establishment 
of  a  republic  as  well  as  the  restoration  of  the 
elder  Bourbons,  and  contributed  much  to  make 
Louis  Philippe  king,  but  showed  personal  def- 
erence to  the  deposed  monarch,  escorting  him 
and  his  family  to  Cherbourg.  Louis  Philippe 
appointed  him  prefect  of  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  but  was  not  able  to  sustain  him  against 
the  subsequent  attacks  of  Guizot  and  his  party, 
who  especially  censured  his  attitude  during  the 
trial  of  Polignac.  The  disorders  following  the 
funeral  celebration  by  legitimists  of  the  anni- 
versary of  the  assassination  of  the  duke  de 
Bern,  on  which  occasion  he  was  accused  of 
negligence,  furnished  a  pretext  for  his  removal, 
and  on  Feb.  19,  1831,  lie  resigned  the  prefec- 
ture. He  now  became  a  leader  of  the  mod- 
erate left  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  opposing 
a  hereditary  peerage,  promoting  the  revision 


of  the  penal  code  and  public  instruction,  and 
obtaining  the  repeated  adoption  of  a  divorce 
bill  in  the  chamber,  notwithstanding  its  rejec- 
tion by  the  peers.  He  bore  an  important  part 
in  all  the  political  events  which  preceded  the 
revolution  of  1848,  as  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  and  influential  statesmen  of  his  day, 
and  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  famous  re- 
form banquets.  He  submitted  to  the  chamber 
the  act  of  accusation  against  the  Guizot  min- 
istry, signed  by  53  of  his  colleagues,  and  was 
appointed  by  Louis  Philippe  prime  minister 
on  Feb.  24.  In  this  capacity  it  was  his  duty 
to  announce  the  king's  abdication  and  the  ac- 
cession of  the  duchess  of  Orleans  as  regent. 
He  had  flattered  himself  that  his  influence 
would  allay  the  revolutionary  storm ;  but  he 
was  disappointed,  and  the  republic  was  pro- 
claimed. He  became  a  member  of  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  and  labored  in  vain  for  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution  after  the  English 
model.  Under  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice,  with 
the  privilege  of  presiding  over  the  cabinet  in 
the  absence  of  the  prince,  Dec.  20,  1848.  On 
April  16,  1849,  he  assumed  the  responsibility 
for  the  siege  of  Rome,  hut  retired  at  the  end 
of  October  on  account  of  ill  health.  Subse- 
quently failing  to  effect  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  executive  and  the  legislature,  he 
was  among  the  first  to  protest  against  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  and  to  join  in  the  un- 
availing proclamation  deposing  Louis  Napoleon. 
In  1863  he  endeavored  in  vain  to  be  elected  to 
the  chamber,  and  at  the  close  of  1869  he  de- 
clined to  accept  the  ministry  of  justice,  which 
was  tendered  to  him  by  Napoleon  III.  In  1872 
M.  Thiers  appointed  him  vice  president  of  the 
council  of  state.  II.  Vietorin  Ferdinand,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  10,  1806. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties and  solicitor  of  the  treasury,  and  in  1848 
he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  assembly  for 
Algeria,  and  in  the  following  year  to  the  legis- 
lative assembly.  Having  been  one  of  the  coun- 
sel for  Louis  Napoleon  in  his  trial  for  the  at- 
tempt of  Boulogne,  he  became  on  the  accession 
of  the  latter  to  the  presidency  secretary  general 
of  his  cabinet,  and  for  a  few  months  minister 
of  the  interior,  after  which  he  went  in  1850 
as  minister  to  Turin,  and  was  reflected  to  the 
legislative  assembly.  In  January,  1852,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  consultative  committee, 
and  subsequently  of  the  council  of  state  in  con- 
nection with  public  works,  commerce,  and  agri- 
culture. In  1853  he  was  made  senator,  and  in 
1865  secretary  of  the  senate. 

BARROW,  the  name  given  to  ancient  arti- 
ficial mounds,  constructed  for  purposes  which 
it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  discover,  but 
which  generally  appear  to  have  been  commem- 
orative of  famous  persons  or  events  in  the 
history  of  ancient  peoples.  They  are  formed 
either  of  earth  or  of  stones,  are  mentioned  in 
Joshua  and  Homer,  and  are  found  among  the 
relics  of  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Scy- 


340 


BAEKOW 


thian  domination.     There  are  also  in  England 
and    Scotland   numerous    barrows   of   Druid 


a.  Long  Barrow.    6.  c.  Druid  Barrows,    d.  Bell  Barrow. 
«.  CODC  Barrow,    f.  Twin  Barrows. 

origin.  Barrows  are  also  found  in  large  num- 
bers in  America,  the  memorials  of  an  un- 
known history. 

BARROW,  a  river  of  Ireland,  next  in  size  and 
importance  to  the  Shannon,  rises  in  the  N.  part 
of  Queen's  county,  flows  E.  to  the  border  of 
Kildare  county,  then  turns  to  the  south,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  the  counties  of 
Queen's,  Kilkenny,  and  Waterford  on  the  W., 
and  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  Wexford  on  the  E., 
passing  the  towns  of  Athy,  Carlow,  and  New 
Ross,  and  after  a  course  of  about  100  m.,  with 
a  descent  of  227  feet,  falls  into  the  estuary 
which  forms  Waterford  harbor.  Near  its 
month,  8  m.  E.  of  Waterford,  it  is  joined  by 
the  Suir,  and  near  New  Ross  by  the  Nore. 
These  three  rivers  are  called  the  three  sisters, 
from  their  rising  in  the  same  mountain  ridge, 
and,  after  flowing  through  different  counties, 
uniting  near  the  sea.  The  Barrow  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  300  tons  as  far  as  New  Ross,  25 
m.,  and  for  barges  to  Athy,  40  m.  further, 
whence  by  means  of  the  Grand  canal  it  com- 
municates with  Dublin. 

BARROW,  Isaae,an  English  divine  and  math- 
ematician, horn  in  London  in  October,  1030, 
died  there,  May  4,  1677.  lie  was  the  nephew 
of  Isaac  Barrow,  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man, 
and  the  son  of  Thomas  Barrow,  who,  though 
of  an  ancient  Norfolk  family,  was  linendraper 
to  Charles  I.,  whom  he  followed  to  Oxford, 
subsequently  attending  Charles  II.  till  the  res- 
toration. Young  Isaac  was  admitted  in  1643 
as  a  pensioner  in  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  and 
in  1645  entered  Trinity  college,  obtaining  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  in  1652  both  in  Cambridge  and 
Oxford.  In  1655  he  set  out  for  the  continent 
and  the  East,  and  during  his  journey  had  a 
successful  contest  with  an  Algerine  corsair,  of 
which  lie  wrote  a  poetical  narrative;  and  in 
Constantinople  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  Chrysostom.  After  his  return  he  became 


professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  (1660),  and 
of  geometry  at  Gresham  college  (1662),  and 
fellow  of  the  newly  established  royal  society 
(1663).  In  conformity  with  the  will  of  Lucas, 
he  was  the  first  Lucasian  professor  of  math- 
ematics at  Cambridge  from  1663  to  1669, 
when  he  resigned  this  post  to  his  pupil  and 
friend  Isaac  Newton,  and  devoted  himself  to 
theology,  his  uncle  giving  him  a  small  sinecure 
in  Wales,  and  the  bishop  of  Salisbury  making 
him  a  prebendary.  In  1670  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D. ;  in  1672  he  became  master  of 
Trinity  college,  the  king,  whose  chaplain  he 
was,  regarding  him  as  the  best  scholar  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  in  1675  he  was  made  vice  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Cambridge.  In 
mathematics,  and  especially  geometry,  he  had 
no  superior  except  Newton,  whom  he  was  the 
first  to  encourage.  In  geometry  he  originated 
the  idea  of  the  incremental  triangle,  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  fluxional  and  differential  cal- 
culus of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  His  posthumous 
Lectiones  Mathematics  (1783)  are  regarded  as 
a  model  of  sound  principles.  His  principal 
mathematical  works  have  been  translated  into 
English  by  Kirby  and  Stone,  and  by  others, 
and  were  edited  by  the  late  William  Whewell 
for  the  use  of  Trinity  college,  Cambridge  (1861). 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  to  the  church,  and  his  pulpit 
discourses  acquired  great  celebrity.  His  ser- 
mons were  excessively  long,  but  effective  and 
logical,  and  he  was  honored  as  a  prodigy  of 
learning,  wit,  virtue,  and  piety.  In  his  mo- 
ments of  leisure  he  composed  Greek  and  Latin 
verses.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey, 
where  a  monument  perpetuates  his  memory. 
The  first  edition  of  his  theological  and  ethical 
writings,  by  Dr.  Tillotson  and  Abraham  Hall, 
appeared  in  1685.  An  edition  by  the  Rev. 
James  Hamilton  was  published  in  Edinburgh 
in  18421,  and  in  New  York  in  1845  (3  vols.  8vo). 
BARROW.  I.  Sir  John,  an  English  trav- 
eller and  author,  born  at  Draleybeck,  near 
Ulverstone,  Lancashire,  June  19,  1764,  died  in 
London,  Nov.  23,  1848.  He  early  wrote  on 
land  surveying,  spent  some  time  in  a  Liver- 
pool iron  foundery,  visited  Greenland,  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Greenwich,  and,  on 
Sir  George  Staunton's  recommendation,  accom- 
panied Lord  Macartney  as  secretary  to  China, 
making  himself  conversant  with  the  Chinese 
language,  and  subsequently  was  witli  him  at 
Cape  Town,  as  secretary  and  auditor  of  public 
accounts.  The  services  which  he  rendered  in 
the  settlement  of  the  newly  acquired  Cape  Col- 
ony led  to  his  being  appointed  in  1804  second 
secretary  to  the  admiralty,  which  office  he  held 
till  1845,  except  for  a  short  time  in  1806.  He 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1835.  He  promoted 
arctic  expeditions  and  geographical  science, 
and  originated  the  plan  of  the  geographical 
society,  of  which  he  was  vice  president.  He 
wrote  nearly  200  essays,  chiefly  geographical, 
for  the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  contributed  to 
the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  and  published 


BARROW-IN-FURNESS 


BARKY 


341 


"  Travels  in  Southern  Africa  "  (2  vols.,  London, 
1801-'8);  "Travels  in  China"  (1804);  "A 
Voyage  to  Cochin-China"  (1806);  lives  of 
Macartney  (1807),  Lord  Howe  (1838),  Lord 
Anson  (1839),  and  Sir  Francis  Drake ;  "  A 
Chronological  History  of  Voyages  into  the  Arc- 
tic Regions"  (1818);  "Voyages  in  the  Arctic 
Regions  since  1818"  (1846);  and  other  works, 
including  his  "Autobiographical  Memoir" 
(1847),  and  "Sketches  of  the  Royal  Society" 
(1849).  II.  John,  second  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  June  28,  1808,  has  written  "Visit  to  Ice- 
land" (London,  1835),  "Summer  Tours  in 
Central  Europe  "  (1857),  and  other  books  of 
travel,  and  miscellaneous  works ;  and  prepared 
a  new  edition  of  Cook's  "Voyages  of  Discov- 
ery" (Edinburgh,  1860). 

BARROW-IN-ITRJiESS,  a  municipal  borough, 
manufacturing  town,  and  seaport  of  Lanca- 
shire, England,  on  the  S.  W.  shore  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Lower  Furness,  opposite  Walney 
island,  the  terminus  of  the  Furness  railway, 
4  m.  S.  W.  of  Dalton,  and  50  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
Liverpool;  pop.  in  1871,  17,992  (in  1847,  only 
800).  The  rapid  progress  of  the  town  is  due 
to  its  iron  and  steel  works.  The  annual  ex- 
port of  iron  ore  is  estimated  at  600,000  tons, 
and  of  copper  ore  at  3,000  tons.  The  steel 
works  convert  about  1,000  tons  of  pig  iron 
weekly  into  Bessemer  steel,  the  Barrow  hema- 
tite iron  and  steel  company  being  one  of  the 
largest  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
Great  quantities  of  coal  are  imported  from 
Wales,  and  of  timber  from  Canada  and  the 
Baltic.  The  town  received  a  charter  of  in- 
corporation in  1867,  and  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire, the  chief  owner  of  the  land,  inaugurated 
the  new  docks  in  the  same  year.  They  are 
unrivalled  in  Lancashire  in  extent  and  position, 
except  by  those  of  Birkenhead.  The  town 
contains  a  fine  town  hall  and  other  public 
buildings.  Bathing  establishments,  and  a  monu- 
ment of  Mr.  Noble,  the  chief  promoter  of  rail- 
way and  manufacturing  enterprise,  were  inau- 
gurated in  1872. 

BARROW  STRAIT,  a  channel  in  Arctic  Amer- 
ica, named  after  Sir  John  Barrow,  leading  W. 
from  Lancaster  sound  to  Melville  sound,  in  lat. 
74°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  84°  and  90°  W.  It 
averages  40  m.  in  width,  and  has  a  depth  of  75 
to  200  fathoms.  Its  coasts  are  mountainous. 
Capt.  Parry  first  navigated  it  in  1819-'20. 

I!  UtKI  Mil  t.  Jese  Frandseo,  a  Central  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  in  Guatemala  about  1780, 
died  in  New  York,  Aug.  4,  1854.  Many 
members  of  his  family  had  acquired  eminence 
in  the  service  of  Spain,  but  he  early  opposed 
the  mother  country,  and  in  1813  was  sentenced 
to  death  for  treason.  He  and  his  fellow  con- 
spirators hid  themselves  in  the  mountains  for 
six  years,  when  Barrundia  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  revolutionary  party  of  Guate- 
mala. He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
struggle  for  independence,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  first  republican  constituent  assembly. 
On  April  10,  1824,  he  introduced  and  carried 


a  decree  for  the  immediate  abolition  of  slavery 
throughout  the  republic,  and  he  subsequently 
procured  the  adoption  of  a  code  modelled  after 
that  of  Livingston  for  the  state  of  Louisiana, 
which  he  had  translated  into  Spanish.  In 
1825  he  declined  the  otfice  of  vice  president, 
but  in  1829  accepted  that  of  president,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  educational  and  other  reforms. 
When  in  1852  three  of  the  five  states  which 
had  composed  the  old  republic  again  united, 
he  was  unanimously  chosen  president ;  but  two 
of  the  states  withdrawing  their  adhesion,  he 
also  withdrew,  and  employed  himself  in  pre- 
paring a  narrative  of  Central  American  events. 
In  the  hope  of  regaining  his  ascendancy  in 
Guatemala  through  American  influence,  he  set 
out  in  1854  for  Washington  as  minister  of 
Honduras,  with  the  alleged  design  of  nego- 
tiating for  its  annexation  to  the  United  States ; 
but  apoplexy  ended  his  life  soon  after  landing 
in  New  York. 

BARRY.  I.  A  S.W.  county  of  Missouri,  bor- 
dering on  Arkansas,  and  drained  by  King's 
river,  Flat  creek,  and  White  river  of  Arkansas; 
area,  703  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,373,  of  whom 
52  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  in  some 
places  covered  with  forests,  in  others  occupied 
by  rich  prairies.  The  principal  rock  is  lime- 
stone. Lead  exists  in  various  parts  of  the 
county.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad 
skirts  the  N.  border.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  71,669  bushels  of  wheat,  322,808  of 
Indian  corn,  55,348  of  oats,  and  56,586  Ibs.  of 
tobacco.  Capital,  Cassville.  II.  A  S.W.  county 
of  Michigan,  intersected  by  Thornapple  river; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,199.  It  has 
an  undulating  surface,  occupied  by  alternate 
tracts  of  fertile  prairie  and  woodland,  and 
dotted  with  numerous  small  lakes.  The  Grand 
River  Valley  railroad  passes  through  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  575,149 
bushels  of  wheat,  373,420  of  Indian  corn, 
212,857  of  oats,  12,568  of  barley,  244,579  of 
potatoes,  28,899  tons  of  hay,  230,554  Ibs.  of 
wool,  623,171  of  butter,  and  138,698  of  maple 
sugar.  Capital,  Hastings. 

BARRT.  I.  Sir  Charles,  an  English  architect, 
born  in  London  in  May,  1795,  died  there,  May 
12,  1860.  He  studied  in  England  and  in  Italy, 
travelled  extensively,  and  after  his  return  be- 
came the  first  architect  in  London,  acquiring 
renown  especially  by  his  construction  of  the  Re- 
form and  Travellers'  club  houses.  His  master- 
work  is  the  new  parliament  houses.  The  corner 
stone  was  laid  in  1840;  the  lords  assembled  in 
the  new  house  in  1847,  and  the  commons  on  Nov. 
4,  1852.  The  queen  knighted  the  architect  on 
the  opening  of  the  new  buildings.  He  was  a 
royal  academician,  a  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety, and  a  member  of  many  distinguished 
bodies  at  home  and  abroad.  II.  Edward  Mid- 
dle! on,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1830.  He 
perfected  his  knowledge  of  architecture  under 
his  father,  whom  he  succeeded  as  architect  of 
the  new  houses  of  parliament,  and  he  also  com- 
pleted these  and  other  buildings  which  were  left 


342 


BARRY 


unfinished  by  him.  Among  his  works  are  the 
new  Covent  Garden  theatre,  the  Charing  Cross, 
the  Star  and  Garter  at  Richmond,  and  other 
hotels,  the  opera  house  at  Malta,  the  grammar 
school  at  Leeds,  and  other  famous  structures. 
In  18CT  he  became  architect  of  the  new  na- 
tional gallery.  In  1870  he  was  made  a  royal 
academician. 

HUSKY.  Gerald,  or  Gtraldns  Cambrensls  (Gerald 
of  Wales),  a  British  ecclesiastic  and  historian, 
born  about  1146,  died  about  1220.  His  father 
was  a  Norman  baron,  his  mother  a  descendant 
of  princes  of  South  Wales,  and  his  uncle, 
David  Fitz-Gerald,  was  bishop  of  St.  David's. 
He  completed  his  education  in  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  returned  to  that  city  in  1176, 
after  the  king's  rejection  of  his  appointment  as 
his  uncle's  successor  in  the  see  of  St.  David's. 
He  declined  in  1179  a  professorship  of  canon 
law  in  the  university  of  Paris  and  went  back 
to  England,  where  for  four  years  he  was  ad- 
ministrator of  the  see  of  St.  David's  during  a 
vacancy  of  the  bishopric,  and  afterward  chap- 
lain of  the  king,  and  secretary  and  privy  coun- 
cillor of  Prince  (afterward  King)  John  during 
the  letter's  visit  to  Ireland.  With  Archbishop 
Baldwin  he  preached  in  1188  in  Wales  in  be- 
half of  the  crusaders.  He  was  again  elected 
to  the  see  of  St.  David's  in  1199,  and  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  finally  obtained  pos- 
session and  resigned  in  1203  ;  but  according  to 
the  commonly  received  account  his  nomination 
was  not  confirmed.  He  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life  in  literary  pursuits,  and  wrote  To- 
pographia  ffiliernice,  in  three  books;  Expug- 
natio  Hibernim,  an  account  of  the  Korman 
conquest  of  Ireland ;  Itinerarium  Cambria,  or 
account  of  the  itinerary  of  Archbishop  Bald- 
win through  Wales,  an  English  translation  of 
which  has  been  published  by  Sir  Richard  Colt 
Hoare,  with  annotations  and  a  life  of  Giraldus 
("  The  Itinerary  of  Archbishop  Baldwin 
through  Wales,"  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1806) ; 
De  Principis  Instruetione ;  and  many  other 
works,  of  which  the  Speculum  Ecclesitisticum 
and  De  Gestis  Giraldi  laboriosis  are  the  most 
remarkable.  Most  of  his  works  have  been 
printed,  either  separately  or  in  collections. 

BAKRY,  James,  an  Irish  painter,  born  in 
Cork,  Oct.  11,  1741,  died  in  London,  Feb.  22, 
1806.  He  studied  in  Dublin,  and  in  Italy  under 
the  patronage  of  Burke.  After  his  return  to 
England  in  1770  he  painted  for  the  society  of 
arts  in  London  a  series  of  allegorical  pictures 
of  human  progress,  the  best  of  which  is  that 
of  the  "Victors  at  Olympia."  His  charges 
against  the  administration  of  the  royal  acad- 
emy led  in  1797  to  his  expulsion  from  that 
body,  and  to  his  removal  from  the  professorship 
of  painting,  which  he  had  held  for  ten  years, 
after  which  he  received  a  public  subscrip- 
tion of  £1,000,  and  a  year  before  his  death, 
through  Sir  Robert  Peel,  the  father  of  the 
premier,  a  government  annuity  of  the  same 
amount.  He  was  irritable  and  quarrelsome, 
and  lived  most  of  his  life  in  penury ;  but  he 


had  noble  conceptions  of  art,  though  his  execu- 
tion and  coloring  were  generally  defective.  He 
wrote  in  1775  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Real  and 
Imaginary  Obstructions  to  Art  in  England,"  in 
which  he  refuted  Winckelmann's  theory  in  re- 
spect to  the  unaasthetie  influence  of  the  Eng- 
lish climate.  His  various  works  were  pub- 
lished in  1809  in  2  vols.,  with  his  biography. 

BARKY,  John,  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
at  Tacumshane,  county  Wexford,  Ireland,  in 
1745,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  13,  1803.  Ik- 
settled  in  Philadelphia  about  1760,  and  acquired 
wealth  as  master  of  a  sailing  vessel.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  revolution  he  offered  his 
services  to  congress,  and  in  February,  1776, 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Lexing- 
ton, 14  guns,  and  after  a  sharp  action  took  the 
tender  Edward,  the  first  war  vessel  captured 
by  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  American 
navy.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Effingham 
frigate,  and  in  1777,  in  the  Delaware,  at  the 
head  of  four  boats,  captured  an  English  schoo- 
ner. Finding  naval  operations  interrupted  by 
the  ice,  he  served  for  a  short  time  as  aide-de- 
camp to  Gen.  Cadwalader  at  Trenton.  In 
1781,  while  returning  from  France  in  the  Al- 
liance, he  captured  the  Atalanta  and  the  Tre- 
passy,  and  was  severely  wounded.  After  the 
establishment  of  the  present  navy  in  1794,  he 
was  named  as  the  senior  officer  with  the  rank 
of  commodore. 

BARRY,  Marie  Jeanne  Gomard  de  Tanbernler, 
countess  du,  mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  born  at  Vau- 
couleurs,  in  Champagne,  Aug.  19,  1746,  guillo- 
tined in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1793.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  seamstress,  and  was  employed  in 
a  milliner's  shop  in  Paris,  where  she  led  a  dis- 
solute life.  One  of  her  lovers,  Count  Jean  du 
Barry,  brought  her  through  his  valet  to  the 
notice  of  Louis  XV.,  who  made  her  marry  the 
count's  brother,  after  which  she  was  intro- 
duced at  court.  By  her  beauty  and  wit  she 
retained  the  king's  affection  until  his  death. 
She  cost  France  over  35,000,000  francs,  out 
of  which  she  provided  for  her  relatives  and 
friends,  and  also  to  some  extent  for  charitable 
works.  She  persuaded  the  king  to  banish  his 
prime  minister,  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  her  un- 
relenting enemy,  and  to  dismiss  and  exile  the 
parliament  of  1771.  On  the  king's  death  Louis 
XVI.  banished  her  from  court,  but  after  a 
year  she  was  permitted  to  return  to  the  wing 
of  the  royal  palace  which  had  been  built  for 
her  use  at  Lucienne,  near  Versailles,  and  lived 
there  with  her  lover,  the  duke  de  Brissac,  in 
shameful  luxury.  After  a  journey  to  England 
she  was  arrested  in  July,  1793,  upon  a  charge 
of  having  squandered  public  funds,  conspired 
against  the  republic,  and  worn  mourning  in 
London  for  the  royal  family.  Sentenced  to 
death  Dec.  6,  she  bore  herself  with  fortitude 
during  the  trial,  but  her  courage  deserted  her 
on  the  way  to  the  scaffold,  and  to  the  last  mo- 
ment she  continued  her  piteous  appeals  for 
mercy.  She  was  an  illiterate  woman,  though 
j  she  patronized  some  small  poets. 


BARRY 


BARTFELD 


343 


BARRY,  Martin,  an  English  physiologist,  born 
at  Stratton,  Hampshire,  in  March,  1802,  died  at 
Beccles,  Suffolk,  April  27,  1855.  He  received 
his  doctor's  diploma  in  Edinburgh  in  1833,  and 
was  house  surgeon  of  the  royal  maternity 
hospital  in  that  city.  He  was  the  first  to  de- 
monstrate, in  his  contributions  to  the  "Philo- 
sophical Transactions  "  of  the  royal  society  of 
London  (1840-'43),  that  spermatozoa  actually 
penetrate  within  the  ovum.  He  also  estab- 
lished the  fact  of  the  segmentation  of  the  yolk 
in  the  mammals,  and  made  other  discoveries 
in  embryology. 

BARS  (Ger.  BarscJi),  a  county  of  N.  W.  Hun- 
gary, traversed  by  the  Gran ;  area,  1,031  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  137,191,  more  than  half  of 
whom  are  Slovaks,  and  the  rest  Magyars,  Ger- 
mans, and  Jews.  It  is  mountainous  in  the 
north,  where  the  rocky  soil  is  unfavorable  to 
agriculture,  though  fitted  for  cattle  breeding. 
The  south  is  very  fertile.  The  county  is  chiefly 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  wealth,  which  em- 
braces gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  an- 
timony; but  the  production  of  the  precious 
metals  is  declining.  The  richest  mines  are 
those  of  Kremnitz,  the  Austro-Hungarian  gold 
(Kremnitz)  ducats  being  coined  in  that  town. 
Capital,  Aranyos-Mar6th. 

BARSAO,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Gironde,  21  m.  by  railway  S.  E.  of 
Bordeaux;  pop.  in  1866,  3,076.  It  produces 
famous  white  wines  which  belong  to  the  vintage 
of  Graves.  The  ordinary  Barsac  is  less  delicate 
but  stronger  than  Preignac,  but  the  wines  of 
upper  Barsac  are  remarkable  alike  for  strength 
and  aroma.  When  old,  the  color  becomes  that 
of  ambergris. 

BARSI1MA,  or  Barsnmas.  I.  A  Nestorian  bish- 
op of  the  5th  century,  died  about  480.  Having 
been  expelled  from  the  school  of  Edessa,  he 
took  refuge  in  Persia,  accompanied  by  many 
of  his  followers,  and  in  435  was  created  bishop 
of  Nisibis.  He  acquired  great  influence  with 
the  Persian  king  Ferozes,  whom  he  induced 
to  expel  all  Christians  who  adhered  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  not  only  to 
admit  Nestorians  in  their  place,  but  to  allow 
them  to  establish  themselves  in  the  chief  cities, 
Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon.  He  established  the  fa- 
mous school  at  Nisibis,  from  which  went  forth 
missionaries  who  in  the  next  century  carried 
the  Nestorian  doctrines  into  Syria,  Egypt,  Ara- 
bia, India,  Tartary,  and  China.  The  Nestorians 
of  Persia  and  the  neighboring  countries  still 
venerate  him  as  the  parent  and  founder  of  their 
faith.  He  upheld  the  right  of  the  clergy  to 
marry,  and  himself  espoused  a  nun  named  Mam- 
masa.  Ho  was  the  author  of  discourses,  homi- 
lies, hymns,  and  a  Syriac  liturgy,  none  of  which 
are  extant.  II.  A  Syrian  archimandrite,  who 
headed  the  Eutychian  party  at  the  so-called 
"  robber  council "  of  Epliesus  in  449.  By  the 
Jacobites  he  is  held  to  have  been  a  saint  and 
worker  of  miracles. 

i:\K-si  it- \|  |(t;,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Aube,  on  the  river  Aube,  29  m.  E.  S. 


E.  of  Troyes;  pop.  in  1866,  4,809.  It  is  very 
ancient,  and  has  some  old  churches,  a  hospital 
founded  in  the  llth  century,  and  a  college.  In 
January  and  February,  1814,  it  was  the  scene 
of  two  battles,  in  consequence  of  which  it  was 
nearly  destroyed.  It  has  a  trade  of  some  im- 
portance in  breadstuff's,  wine,  wood,  hemp,  and 
wool,  and  has  extensive  nurseries  of  fruit  and 
ornamental  trees. 

I! Ut-Sl  K-SKINK,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Aube,  on  the  Seine,  16  m.  S.  S.  E.  of 
Troyes;  pop.  in  1866,  2,770.  It  was  a  large 
place  in  the  middle  ages,  but  it  was  several 
times  ruined  during  the  Burgundian  wars.  On 
March  1,  1814,  a  battle  was  fought  under  its 
walls  between  the  French  under  Macdonald 
and  the  Austrians  under  the  prince  of  Wur- 
temberg.  It  trades  in  breadstuff's,  wines,  bran- 
dies, wool,  and  hemp. 

BART,  or  Baert,  Jean,  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  at  Dunkirk,  Oct.  20,  1651,  died  there, 
April  27,  1702.  He  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman, 
and  early  took  to  the  sea.  The  royal  navy 
being  at  this  period  inaccessible  to  persons  of 
his  class,  he  distinguished  himself  in  command 
of  a  privateer.  Louis  XIV.  commissioned  him 
to  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  1697, 
in  consequence  of  his  bravery,  appointed  him 
captain  of  the  squadron  during  the  French 
war  with  the  Netherlands.  Bart  became  by 
his  unexampled  feats  of  daring  the  terror  of 
the  enemy.  On  one  occasion,  a  famine  exist- 
ing in  France,  he  recaptured  from  the  Dutch 
100  vessels  loaded  with  grain.  At  another 
time,  when  Dunkirk  was  blockaded,  taking 
advantage  of  a  fog,  he  sailed  through  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  fleets,  and  destroyed  86  mer- 
chantmen; then  making  a  descent  near  New- 
castle, he  destroyed  200  houses,  and  returned 
safely  with  property  valued  at  500,000  crowns. 
He  was  married  twice,  and  had  13  children. 
His  elder  son,  FBAN<;OIS  (born  in  1677,  died  in 
1755),  became  vice  admiral.  Jean's  brother 
GASPAED  was  likewise  a  brave  sailor,  as  were 
also  other  members  of  the  family,  the  last  of 
whom  died  in  the  French  West  Indies  in  1843, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  M.  Vanderest's 
ffistoire  de  Jean  Bart  was  adopted  in  1841  as 
a  text  book  in  the  maritime  schools  of  France. 
A  statue  of  Jean  Bart  was  erected  at  Dunkirk 
in  1845. 

BARTAS,  Gnillanme  de  Sallnstc  dn,  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Gascony  in  1544,  died  in  1590  of 
wounds  received  at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  His 
principal  poem  is  La  premih-e  semaine,  ou  la 
creation,  which  passed  through  30  editions  in 
six  years.  It  was  translated  into  English  by 
John  Sylvester.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
this  now  obsolete  work  is  that  of  1611  (2  vols., 
Paris). 

BiRTFELD  (Hun.  Bdrtfa),  a  town  of  North 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Saros,  on  the  river 
Topla,  near  the  Galician  frontier,  155  m.  N. 
E.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  5,303.  It  is  an  old 
royal  free  town,  has  a  gymnasium,  and  car- 
ries on  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  earthenware, 


EARTH 


and  linen.  It  was  formerly  an  important  em- 
porium of  the  trade  with  Galicia,  but  its  com- 
mercial activity  lias  declined.  It  contains  a 
Gothic  church  with  fine  works  of  art,  and  a 
town  hall  with  many  valuable  historical  records. 
The  town  was  founded  early  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, and  the  first  general  synod  of  Hunga- 
rian Protestants  was  held  here.  About  2  m. 
N.  of  the  town  are  mineral  springs  salutary  in 
nervous  and  other  diseases.  The  water  is  ex- 
cessively strong  and  cold  even  in  summer,  but 
never  freezes,  and  it  is  extensively  exported. 
It  is  drunk  cold  and  used  in  hot  baths. 

BARTII,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Pomerania,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Barth,  which  forms  its  port,  14m.  W.  of 
Stralsund;  pop.  in  1871,  5,774.  In  the  15th 
century  it  was  a  commercial  town  of  consider- 
able importance  and  the  residence  of  seve- 
ral dukes  of  Pomerania.  It  still  has  a  large 
coasting  trade.  From  1630  to  1815  it  belonged 
to  Sweden. 

laitTII,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  German  divine 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Stuttgart,  July  31, 
1799,  died  in  Tubingen,  Nov.  12,  1862.  He 
was  educated  at  Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  and 
in  1824  was  appointed  pastor  at  Mottlingen  in 
Wurtemberg.  In  conjunction  with  the  mis- 
sionary institute  of  Basel  he  instituted  a  mis- 
sionary society  in  Wurtemberg,  and  published 
a  periodical,  the  Calwer  Missionsllatt,  devoted 
to  the  enterprise.  He  travelled  in  Switzerland, 
France,  and  England,  in  the  interests  of  the 
missionary  cause,  and  founded  at  Calw  an  in- 
stitute for  training  poor  children.  His  books 
have  had  an  almost  unexampled  circulation. 
Of  the  "Bible  History"  and  "Bible  Stories" 
a  million  copies  have  been  published  in  more 
than  ten  languages.  He  was  a  fluent  versifier, 
writing  hymns  and  short  poems  for  children, 
many  of  which  have  been  introduced  into  pop- 
ular German  collections.  His  principal  works 
are:  Biblische  Geschichte  fiir  Schulen  und  Fa- 
milien,  often  republished;  Kirchengeichich- 
te  fur  Schulen  und  Familien  (Calw,  1835) ; 
Chrwtliche  Gedichte  (Stuttgart,  1836);  and 
EinderbUtter  (Calw,  1836). 

BARTII,  Ilelnrich,  a  German  explorer  and 
traveller,  bora  in  Hamburg,  Feb.  16,  1821,  died 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  25,  1865.  He  was  educated  at 
Hamburg  and  Berlin,  travelled  through  Italy 
and  Sicily,  and  in  1845  began  explorations  in 
Africa.  Starting  from  Tangier  in  Morocco,  he 
proceeded  along  the  coast  of  Algeria,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli,  making  excursions  into  the  inte- 
rior, reached  Benghazi,  and  thence  went  across 
the  desert  to  Egypt.  During  this  journey  he 
was  attacked  by  wandering  Arabs,  severely 
wounded,  and  robbed  of  his  papers.  He  trav- 
ersed Egypt,  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  Palestine, 
Asia  Minor,  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean  sea,  and 
Greece.  In  this  journey  he  expended  $14,000 
from  his  own  fortune.  Part  of  the  results  of 
his  enterprise  appeared  in  1849  in  his  Wan- 
derunyen  durch  die  KiistenUnder  des  Mittel- 
meerei,  of  which  only  the  first  volume  was 


ever  written;  for  while  engaged  in  preparing 
the  second  he  received  a  proposition  from  the 
British  government  to  undertake  an  expedition 
into  central  Africa,  as  scientific  associate  of 
James  Richardson.  In  the  winter  of  1849-'50 
Richardson,  Overweg,  and  Barth  met  at  Trip- 
oli, having  procured  a  boat  for  the  navigation 
of  Lake  Tchad.  Barth  made  a  preliminary 
trip  through  Tripoli,  and  on  April  2,  1850,  the 
three  explorers  set  out  for  the  interior  of  Africa, 
joining  the  great  semi-annual  caravan  for  Bor- 
noo.  On  May  6  they  reached  Moorzook,  the 
capital  of  Fezzan,  which  they  left  June  13,  pro- 
ceeding in  a  S.  W.  direction  through  the  terri- 
tory of  Air  or  Ashen,  which  had  never  before 
been  visited  by  Europeans.  Barth  left  his  com- 
panions to  visit  a  remarkable  mountain  which 
appeared  to  be  only  a  few  hours  distant,  but 
proved  to  be  much  further.  He  lost  his  way, 
and  for  28  hours  remained  without  water,  pre- 
serving his  life  by  sucking  the  blood  from  his 
own  arm.  He  was  at  length  found,  and  the 
natives  looked  upon  him  as  a  demigod,  for  they 
had  never  known  any  one  to  live  more  than  12 
hours  without  water  in  the  hot  desert.  Before 
reaching  Agadez  the  travellers  were  attacked 
by  fanatical  Moslems,  and  narrowly  escaped 
death.  At  Tintellust  they  were  detained  from 
September  to  December,  1850,  by  a  native 
chief.  Effecting  their  release  hy  an  appeal  to 
the  sultan  of  Ennoor,  they  went  on  to  Agadez, 
where  they  separated,  intending  to  reunite  at 
Kuka  in  April.  Richardson  died  March  4, 
when  six  days'  journey  from  the  rendezvous, 
but  Barth  was  able  to  secure  his  papers,  which 
he  forwarded  to  England.  At  Kuka  Barth 
was  kindly  received  by  the  sultan  of  Borneo, 
whose  vizier  lent  him  $100,  his  funds  being 
exhausted,  and  no  remittances  having  arrived. 
Overweg  had  in  the  mean  time  made  an  inde- 
pendent excursion  toward  Sackatoo,  and  re- 
joined Barth  at  Kuka  May  7.  During  these 
journeys  both  travellers  found  articles  of  Ame- 
rican manufacture  among  the  wildest  tribes, 
which  they  supposed  had  heen  received  in  ex- 
change for  slaves.  The  travellers  again  sepa- 
rated, Barth  setting  out  for  Adamawa,  with 
an  escort  from  the  sultan  of  Borneo,  May  29. 
For  four  weeks  he  travelled  southward  through 
forests  abounding  with  lions  and  elephants.  On 
June  19  he  came  upon  the  great  river  Bcnoowe, 
at  its  junction  with  its  affluent  the  Faro,  and 
at  once  correctly  conjectured  that  it  must  be 
the  same  with  the  Tchadda,  or  eastern  branch 
of  the  Niger,  described  by  the  Landers  and 
others.  Arriving  at  Yola,  the  capital  of  Ada- 
mawa, some  defect  in  etiquette  was  found  in 
the  letters  with  which  he  had  been  furnished 
by  the  sultan  of  Bornoo,  and  he  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  country  within  three  days.  He  turned 
|  back,  and  reached  Knka  July  22.  Overweg  had 
reached  Lake  Tchad  with  the  boat  which  had 
been  brought  overland  from  Tripoli,  and  had 
spent  five  weeks  in  exploring  it,  being  the  first 
European  who  had  ever  sailed  upon  its  waters. 
The  travellers  remained  at  Kuka  till  November, 


EARTH 


BARTHELEMY 


345 


1851,  when  they  planned  another  journey  to 
Kauem  and  Borgoo,  a  vast  unexplored  region 
lying  X.  E.  of  the  lake,  and  stretching  halfway 
to  Nubia;  but  they  were  assailed  by  Arabs, 
and  forced  to  return  to  Kuka.   They  found  the 
sultan  about  to  send  an  army  20,000  strong  to 
subjugate  Mandara,  a  country  S.  E.  of  Bornoo. 
They  joined  this  expedition,  which  after  march- 
ing 200  miles  returned  in  triumph,  with  a  booty 
of  5,000  slaves  and  10,000  cattle.   After  resting 
nearly  two  months,  Earth,  near  the  close  of 
March,  1852,  set  out  for  Baghirmi,  a  kingdom 
E.  of  Bornoo,  which  no  European  had  ever 
visited.     Here  he  was  again  forced  to  return, 
reaching  Kuka  Aug.  .20.     During  his  absence 
Overweg  tried  to  penetrate  the  Fellatah  king- 
dom of  Yakoba,  N.  W.  of  the  Benoowe,  but  his 
health  was  shattered,  and  he  returned  to  Kuka, 
near  which  place  he  died,  Sept.  27,  1852.  Barth 
was  now  alone ;  but  fresh  funds  reaching  him 
from  the  English  government,  he  resolved  to 
pursue  his  explorations,  sending  his  papers  to 
England,  with  a  request  that  another  associate 
should  be  provided  for  him,  and  fixing  upon 
the  kingdom  of  Timbuctoo  as  his  destination. 
He  had  sound  health,  goods  for  presents  worth 
$200,  four  camels,  as  many  horses,  and  five 
trusty  servants,  all  well  supplied  with  arms  and 
ammunition.     The  party  left  Kuka  Nov.  25, 

1852,  reached  Sackatoo  in  April,  and  Timbuc- 
too Sept.  7,  1853.     For  many  months  nothing 
was  heard  of  Barth  except  a  rumor  that  he  was 
dead.     Meanwhile  Edward  Vogel,  a  Gorman 
employed  as  an  assistant  to  the  British  royal 
astronomer,  volunteered  to  go  in  search  of  him. 
He  was  attended"  by  a  company  of  sappers  and 
miners.   At  Tripoli  he  was  joined  by  Mr.  War- 
rington,  son  of  the  British  consul.  They  reached 
Kuka  in  December,  1853.     Here  Warrington 
died ;  but  Vogel  learned  that  Barth  was  alive, 
and  had  left  Timbuctoo,  where  he  had  been 
detained  nearly  a  year.     The  vizier  of  Bornoo 
had  forwarded  the  report  that  he  had  died, 
hoping  that  this  would  soon  be  the  case,  so 
that  the  supplies  of  the  expedition  might  fall 
into  his  own  hands.    But  civil  troubles  arising, 
the  vizier  was  deposed,  and  Barth  was  protected 
by  the  sheik  of  Timbuctoo,  who  furnished  him 
with  an  escort  as  far  back  as  Sackatoo.   He  suc- 
ceeded in  exploring  the  middle  course  of  the 
Quorra  or  Niger,  which  had  not  been  before 
done  by  any  European  except  Mungo  Park, 
whose  journal  perished  with  him ;  he  also  dis- 
covered two  considerable  kingdoms,  Gando  and 
Hamd-Allahi,  the  existence  of  which  had  before 
been  unknown.     On  Oct.  17  he  reached  Kano, 
the  largest  town  in  central  Africa,  where,  his 
funds  being  exhausted,  he  succeeded  in  procur- 
ing a  loan  by  paying  100  per  cent,  interest.   On 
Dec.  1,  1854,  he  was  met  by  Vogel,  the  first 
European  he  had  seen  since  the  death  of  Over- 
weg, more  than  two  years  before.   Having  win- 
tered at  Kuka,  Barth  started  for  home  in  May, 
1855,  and  reached  Marseilles  Sept.  8,  having 
been  absent  nearly  six  years.     After  visiting  • 
his  friends  in  Germany,  he  went  to  London  to  , 


prepare  an  account  of  his  explorations.  The 
"  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North  and  Central 
Africa"  appeared  simultaneously  in  English 
and  German  (5vols.,  London  and  Gotha,  1855- 
'8),  with  numerous  illustrations,  many  of  them 
colored,  and  elaborate  maps  of  his  various 
routes.  This  is  Earth's  great  work,  and,  though 
heavy  and  diffuse  in  style,  it  is  still  the  most 
valuable  book  of  African  travel  which  has  ap- 
peared. Earth  made  it  a  point,  wherever  he 
was,  to  study  the  language  and  history  of  the 
country,  and  he  brought  to  light  much  that 
would  otherwise  have  been  wholly  lost  to  the 
student.  Having  completed  the  account  of  his 
African  travels,  he  made  several  other  journeys, 
of  which  he  published  accounts:  Seise  wn 
Trapezunt  durch  die  ndrdliche  Halfte  Klein- 
atiem  nach  Scutari  (Gotha,  I860) ;  Rei&e  (lurch 
das  Innere  der  europaischen  Tiirkei  (Berlin, 
1864) ;  and  in  1805  he  made  a  tour  in  Albania 
and  Montenegro.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  professor  extraordinary  of  geography  in 
the  university  of  Berlin.  His  posthumous  work, 
Sammlung  Centralafrikanucher  Vocabularien, 
appeared  in  1866. 

BARTHELEMY,  Angnste  Marseille,  a  French 
poet,  born  in  Marseilles  in  1796,  died  there, 
Aug.  23,  1867.  He  excelled  as  a  satirist,  and 
his  Rome  A  Paris  (1826)  passed  through  many 
editions.  About  1825  he  formed  a  literary  part- 
nership with  Mery,  another  satirical  poet,  and 
together  they  published  La  Villeliade,  an  at- 
tack on  the  ministry  of  Villele,  and  in  1828 
Napoleon  en  figypte,  copies  of  which  were  sent 
to  every  member  of  the  Bonaparte  family.  In 
1829  he  published  Le  fik  de  I'homme,  an  ac- 
count of  a  visit  to  the  duke  of  Reichstadt, 
for  which  he  was  fined  and  imprisoned.  He 
was  alternately  a  satirist  of  the  government 
and  of  the  opposition,  his  course  being  deter- 
mined by  pensions,  fines,  and  imprisonments. 
Among  the  latest  of  his  many  productions  was 
Le  deux  decemlre  (1852),  a  vindication  of  Louis 
Napoleon's  coup  d'etat. 

li.VKTIIKLKM V.  Francois,  marquis  de,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  at  Aubagne,  Oct.  20,  1747, 
died  in  Paris,  April  3,  1830.  He  was  educated 
by  his  uncle,  Jean  Jacques  Barth61emy,  and  be- 
came prominent  in  the  diplomatic  service,  espe- 
cially at  Basel,  where  in  1795  he  negotiated  the 
first  treaties  of  peace  of  the  republic  with 
Spain,  Prussia,  and  Hesse-Cassel.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  directory,  and  after  the  18th 
Fructidor  was  transported  with  Pichegru  to 
Guiana,  whence  he  escaped  to  the  United 
States  and  to  England.  He  was  among  the 
first  recalled  by  the  first  consul,  who  made  him 
a  senator,  and  afterward  a  count.  He  voted  to 
make  Bonaparte  consul  for  life,  and  presided 
in  1814  over  the  senate  which  deposed  the 
emperor,  for  which  Louis  XVIII.  created  him 
a  peer.  After  the  hundred  days  he  was  made 
a  minister  of  state  and  marquis.  His  motion  in 
1819  for  reducing  the  electoral  vote  became  one 
of  the  principal  sources  of  political  agitation 
during  the  restoration. 


3iG 


BARTIIELEMY 


BARTHfJLEJIY,  Jean  Jarqnes,  a  French  archae- 
ologist and  author,  born  at  Cassis,  Jan.  20, 
1716,  died  in  Paris,  April  30,  1795.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church,  and  retained  the  title 
and  costume  of  an  abbe,  but  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  archaeological  studies.  In  1753  he 
became  director  of  the  cabinet  of  medals  and 
coins,  which  he  made  the  most  renowned  and 
extensive  collection  in  the  world.  While  visit- 
ing Italy  in  1754r-'7  for  the  acquisition  of  an- 
cient medals,  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
M.  de  Stainville,  afterward  duke  de  Choisenl 
and  prime  minister,  who  placed  him  in  posses- 
sion of  handsome  revenues;  and  though  Bar- 
thelemy  made  a  modest  use  of  his  good  fortune, 
it  yet  exposed  him  to  the  animosity  of  D'Alem- 
hert  and  others.  As  early  as  1748  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and  belles- 
lettres,  and  in  1789  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
academy.  He  was  arrested  in  1793,  but  released 
through  the  intervention  of  the  minister  of  the 
interior.  He  wrote  many  learned  disquisitions 
on  numismatics  and  archaeology,  published  a 
romance  and  some  poetry,  and  left  the  MS.  of 
his  Voyage  en  Italie  (edited  by  Serieys,  Paris, 
1802);  but  his  fame  rests  on  his  Voyaye  du 
jeune  Anacharsu  en  Grece  (4  vols.,  1788),  on 
which  he  labored  30  years,  and  which  has 
passed  through  many  editions,  serving  for  a 
long  time  as  a  text  book  on  ancient  Greece. 
It  has  been  translated  into  English  and  most 
other  European  languages. 

BARTHELEMY-SAINT-HILAIRE,  Jules,  a  French 
savant,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  19,  1805.  He  was 
employed  in  the  ministry  of  finance  and  as  as- 
sistant professor  of  French  literature  in  the 
polytechnic  school  till  1838,  when  the  first  por- 
tion of  his  translation  of  Aristotle  gained  for 
him  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy 
in  the  college  de  France,  followed  the  next  year 
by  a  seat  in  the  academy  of  moral  and  political 
sciences.  In  1840  he  served  for  some  tune  un- 
der Cousin  in  the  ministry  of  public  instruction. 
He  became  connected  with  the  Olobe  and  other 
newspapers,  was  an  earnest  opponent  of  Charles 
X.  and  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  as  member  of  the  constituent 
and  legislative  assemblies,  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  conservative  republicans.  He  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  have  Gen.  Cavai- 
gnac  censured  for  the  ineffectiveness  of  the 
measures  taken  to  suppress  the  insurrection  of 
June  in  its  beginnings.  He  denounced  the  usur- 
pation of  Louis  Napoleon  in  December,  1851, 
and  for  a  short  time  was  a  prisoner  at  Mazas. 
He  resigned  his  connection  with  the  college  de 
France,  which  had  been  placed  under  his  di- 
rection, and  did  not  resume  his  professorship 
till  1862.  In  the  mean  time  he  had  cooperated 
with  M.  de  Lessens  in  the  Suez  canal  project 
(1855-'8),  and  visited  Egypt  as  one  of  the  rep- 
resentatives of  that  enterprise.  In  1869  he 
was  elected  to  the  national  assembly,  and  in 
1871  he  became  secretary  general  of  "the  cabi- 
net of  his  old  and  intimate  friend  M.  Thiers, 
with  whom  he  was  elected  in  1872  member  of 


BARTHOLDY 

the  geographical  society.  His  translation  of 
the  works  of  Aristotle  (17  vols.  8vo,  1837-'66) 
is  the  first  complete  French  version,  and  is 
very  fully  annotated.  He  has  also  published  a 
memoir  De  la  Logiqite  d'Aristote  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1838).  Among  his  other  works  are  several  on 
Buddhism,  Mahomet  et  le  Coran  (1865),  and 
Philosophie  dee  deux  Ampere  (1866). 

It  A  K I  Hi:/,  or  Barthes.  I.  Panl  Joseph,  a  French 
physician,  born  at  Montpellier,  Dec.  11,  1734, 
died  Oct.  15,  1806.  He  early  acquired  renown 
as  an  army  physician,  and  about  1760  became  a 
professor  in  the  medical  school  of  Montpellier, 
and  in  1773  coadjutor  and  prospective  successor 
of  the  chancellor  of  the  faculty.  He  was  also 
received  doctor  of  law  in  1780,  and  appointed 
councillor  in  the  court  of  aids.  His  haughty 
character  led  him  into  disagreements  with  his 
colleagues,  wherefore  he  removed  to  Paris  in 
1781,  and  became  consulting  physician  to  the 
king,  member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  of 
many  learned  societies.  He  lost  his  places  at 
the  revolution,  but  was  afterward  honorary 
professor  at  Montpellier,  and  received  many 
tokens  of  regard  from  Napoleon.  He  explained 
the  animal  economy  by  the  theory  of  a  vital 
principle,  and  has  been  called  the  Hegel  of 
medical  science.  His  method  is  stated  in  his 
Nouveaux  elements  de  la  science  de  Vhomme 
(Montpellier,  1778 ;  enlarged  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
1806),  which  has  been  translated  into  most 
European  languages.  His  Nomelle  mecaniqve 
dee  movements  de  Vhomme  et  det  animaux 
(Carcassonne,  1798),  and  his  Traitement  des 
maladies  goutteuses  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1802;  new 
ed.,  1819),  have  been  translated  into  German. 
Among  his  other  numerous  writings  are  two 
posthumous  works,  Traite  du  beau  (edited  by 
his  brother,  1807),  and  Consultations  de  mede- 
cine  (2  vols.,  1810).  II.  Antolne  Charles  Ernest  de, 
a  French  physician,  grand-nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Narbonne  about  1800.  He  re- 
ceived his  doctor's  diploma  in  Paris  in  1839, 
became  physician  to  several  hospitals,  and  pre- 
pared with  M.  Rilliet  his  Traite  clinique  et 
pratique  des  maladies  des  enfants  (new  ed.,  3 
vols.,  Paris,  1853-'4),  which  won  prizes  from 
the  medical  academy  and  academy  of  sciences. 

i;\KTII()l.l),  Frledrlth  Wilhelm,  a  German  his- 
torian, born  in  Berlin,  Sept.  4,  1799,  died  Jan. 
14,  1858.  He  studied  history  under  Eaumer, 
and  was  teacher  at  the  Frederick's  college  of 
Konigsberg  (1826-'31),  and  professor  of  history 
at  the  university  of  Greifswald  (1831-'58).  His 
principal  works  are:  I)er  Romerzvg  Kdnig 
HeinricK's  von  Lutzettturg  (2  vols.,  Konigsberg, 
1830-'31) ;  Geschichte  des  grossen  deutschen 
Krieges  von  Gustav  Adolf's  Tode  alt  (Stuttgart, 
1841-'3) ;  Geschichte  ier  deutschen  Stadte  vnd 
des  deutschen  Burgerthums  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1850-'52)  ;  and  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Han- 
sa  (Leipsic,  1854). 

BARTHOLDY,  Jakob  Salomon,  a  German  diplo- 
matist and  patron  of  art,  born  in  Berlin,  May 
13,  1779,  died  in  Rome,  July  27,  1825.  He  waf 
of  a  rich  Jewish  family,  studied  at  Kdnigsberg, 


BARTHOLIff 


BARTHOLOMEW 


347 


spent  several  years  in  Paris,  visited  Italy  and 
Greece,  aiid  in  1805  became  a  convert  to  Prot- 
estantism. He  fought  in  the  Austrian  army 
against  the  French,  and  roused  the  national 
spirit  by  his  Krieg  der  tiroler  Landleute,  1809 
(Berlin,  1814).  In  1813  he  held  a  place  in  the 
Prussian  chancery  under  Hardenberg,  attended 
the  congresses  of  Vienna  and  Aix-la-Ohapelle, 
and  was  consul  general  in  Italy  from  1815  to 
1818,  and  afterward  charge  d'affaires  in  Flor- 
ence. He  published  in  1815  an  anonymous 
biography  of  his  friend  Cardinal  Consalvi,  em- 
ployed Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  other  German 
artists  in  Rome  in  fresco  painting,  and  left  a 
large  art  collection,  the  greater  part  of  which, 
chiefly  bronzes,  vases,  and  terra  cotta,  has  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  museum  of  Berlin. 

i:\KTIIOIJV  I.  kaspar,  a  Danish  physician  and 
savant,  born  at  Malmo,  Sweden,  Feb.  12, 1585, 
died  in  Copenhagen,  July  13, 1629.  He  taught 
medicine  in  Basel,  practised  at  Wittenberg,  and 
was  successively  professor  of  rhetoric,  medicine, 
and  theology  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen. 
His  principal  work,  Iwtitutiones  Anatomic® 
(Wittenberg,  1611),  has  passed  through  several 
editions  and  been  translated  into  foreign  lan- 
guages. II.  Thomas,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  20,  1616,  died  at  Hage- 
sted,  Dec.  4,  1680.  He  was  a  physician,  profes- 
sor of  mathematics,  and  for  11  years  of  anato- 
my, in  Copenhagen,  and  finally  became  physician 
to  the  king,  director  of  the  university  library, 
and  adjunct  judge  of  the  supreme  court.  lie  is 
especially  distinguished  as  the  reputed  discov- 
erer of  the  lymphatic  system  of  vessels,  though 
the  priority  in  this  matter  was  contested  by 
Olaus  Rudbeck  of  Sweden.  His  works  were 
very  numerous,  the  most  important  being  De 
Lacteis  Thoracis  in  Nomine  Brutisque  (Co- 
penhagen, 1652),  and  Va»a  Lymphatica  nuper 
HiifnitB  in  Animalibui  inventa  et  in  Homine, 
et  Ilepatis  Exequia  (1653). 

I!  UM  II ;>l,011 1: Vt .  a  southeastern  county  of  In- 
diana, drained  by  Flat  Rock  creek  and  Drift- 
wood fork  of  White  river ;  area,  375  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  21,133.  The  eastern  part  is  gen- 
erally level,  but  in  the  west  are  hills  of  some 
elevation.  The  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and  In- 
dianapolis railroad  and  its  Shelbyville  division 
pass  through  the  county.  In  1870  the  chief 
productions  were  491,424  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,529,675  of  Indian  corn,  111,839  of  oats,  67,- 
352  of  potatoes,  9,370  tons  of  hay,  221,086  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  47,590  of  wool.  There  were 
6,189  horses,  4,372  milch  cows,  7,816  other 
cattle,  15,838  sheep,  and  38,546  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Columbus. 

BARTHOLOMEW  BAYOt',  a  large  stream  of  the 
S.  W.  United  States,  rises  N.  W.  of  Pine  Bluff, 
Jefferson  county,  Arkansas,  and  flows  very  tor- 
tuously S.  E.,  S.,  and  S.  W.  into  the  Washita 
river  at  Washita  City,  Morehouse  parish,  Louis- 
iana. It  is  navigable  by  steamboats  for  250  m. 

BARTHOLOMEW.  I.  Valentine,  an  English 
painter,  born  Jan.  18,  1799.  He  acquired  re- 
nown as  a  flower  painter,  and  ha«  been  for 


over  30  years  a  member  of  the  society  of  wa- 
ter-color painters.  II.  Anne  Charlotte,  a  minia- 
ture and  flower  painter  and  poetess,  second 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Loddon,  Nor- 
folk, early  in  this  century,  died  Aug.  18,  1862. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Arnall  Fayer- 
mann  and  a  niece  of  Dr.  John  Thomas,  bishop 
of  Rochester.  In  1827  she  married  Mr.  Wal- 
ter Turnbull,  a  composer  of  popular  songs, 
who  died  in  1838 ;  and  in  1840  she  became 
the  wife  of  Mr.  Valentine  Bartholomew.  She 
was  a  member  of  the  society  of  female  artists, 
and  published  "  The  Songs  of  Azrael,"  a  volume 
of  poems ;  "  The  Ring,  or  the  Farmer's  Daugh- 
ter," a  play  (1829) ;  and  "  It's  Only  my  Aunt," 
a  farce  (1849). 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  a  native  of  Galilee,  and  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Nathanael,  who  is 
mentioned  by  St.  John  among  the  first  disci- 
ples of  Christ.  According  to  Eusebius  and 
other  ancient  authors,  he  preached  the  gospel 
in  the  Indies,  under  which  name  they  generally 
include  not  only  India  proper,  but  also  Arabia 
and  Persia.  It  is  related  that  in  the  third  cen- 
tury traces  of  Christianity  were  found  in  those 
countries,  and  that  a  copy  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel  in  Hebrew  was  preserved  by  the  na- 
tives, who  had  a  tradition  that  St.  Bartholo- 
mew left  it  there  when  he  came  among  them 
to  preach  the  faith.  He  afterward  journeyed 
into  Phrygia,  met  St.  Philip  at  Hierapolis,  and 
thence  passed  into  Lycaonia.  Beyond  this  we 
are  told  little  of  his  life  and  travels,  and  even 
the  meagre  accounts  which  we  have  received 
are  of  doubtful  authenticity.  The  place  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  equally  uncertain. 
Modern  Greek  writers  assert  that  he  was  cru- 
cified at  Albanopolis ;  others  that  he  was  flayed 
alive.  As  we  know  that  it  was  not  unusual 
in  some  parts  of  the  East  to  unite  these  two 
barbarous  punishments,  it  is  possible  that  both 
accounts  may  be  true.  The  relics  of  this  apos- 
tle have  undergone  many  vicissitudes.  We  hear 
of  them  at  Dura  in  Mesopotamia,  in  the  island 
of  Lipari,  and  at  Benevento.  It  is  believed  by 
Roman  Catholics  that  they  rest  beneath  the 
high  altar  in  the  church  of  St.  Bartholomew 
at  Rome.  A  gospel  anciently  attributed  to 
St.  Bartholomew  was  declared  apocryphal  by 
Pope  Gelasius  I.  A  collection  of  writings  also 
ascribed  to  him,  but  doubtless  without  reason, 
is  known  to  have  existed  during  the  first  four 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  although  no 
part  of  it  now  remains.  His  festival  day  in 
the  Roman  church  is  Aug.  24,  and  in  the 
Greek  June  11. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Saint,  Massacre  of,  the  slaugh- 
ter of  Huguenots  in  France  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
day  (Aug.  24),  1572.  It  is  maintained  on  the 
one  hand  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  plot  laid 
long  beforehand  to  annihilate  the  Huguenots, 
in  which  religion  had  the  prominent  part ;  on 
the  other,  that  it  was  a  sudden  outbreak,  aris- 
ing wholly  from  political  motives.  A  desperate 
struggle  had  for  many  years  been  waged  in 


348 


BARTHOLOMEW 


France  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Hu- 
guenots, in  which  both  parties  committed  nu- 
merous outrages.  It  took  finally  the  form  of  a 
conflict  between  the  houses  of  Guise  and  Conde. 
The  feeble  Charles  IX.  was  now  king,  his  moth- 
er Catharine  de'  Medici  being  the  real  sovereign. 
It  being  certain  that  neither  Charles  nor  his 
brother  Henry  would  have  children,  Henry  of 
Navarre,  afterward  Henry  IV.,  was  the  next 
heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  by  birth  and 
education  a  Protestant,  and  had  distinguished 
himself  in  war.  In  1570  a  peace  had  been 
patched  up  between  the  parties,  which  was  to 
be  rendered  more  secure  by  the  marriage  of 
Henry  with  Margaret  of  Valois,  the  sister  of 
the  king.  August  18,  1572,  was  fixed  upon 
for  the  wedding,  and  many  of  the  principal 
Huguenots  were  gathered  in  Paris.  On  the 
22d  Admiral  Coligni,  one  of  the  foremost  Hu- 
guenots, was  fired  upon  by  an  assassin  named 
De  Maurevel,  known  to  have  been  a  crea- 
ture of  Catharine,  who  was  jealous  of  the  in- 
fluence which  the  admiral  had  acquired  over 
the  king.  It  has  been  maintained  by  many 
that  the  marriage  between  Henry  and  Mar- 
garet was  a  scheme  intended  only  to  collect 
the  Huguenot  leaders  in  Paris  in  order  that 
they  might  all  he  put  to  death  at  once,  and 
that  the  assassination  of  the  admiral  was  to  be 
the  signal  for  a  general  massacre.  Coligni  was 
not  killed,  but  severely  wounded.  The  king 
visited  him,  and  swore  that  the  assassin  should 
be  punished.  The  Huguenots  were  alarmed, 
and  uttered  violent  threats.  Catharine  per- 
suaded her  son  that  they  were  on  the  point  of 
massacring  the  Catholics,  and  that  the  only 
thing  to  he  done  was  to  anticipate  them.  At 
her  urgency,  Charles  in  the  night  of  the  23d 
gave  an  order  for  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots,  the  signal  to  be  the  tolling  of  the 
matin  hell  of  St.  Germain  1'Auxerrois.  The 
execution  of  this  measure  was  intrusted  to  the 
duke  of  Guise  and  the  Italian  guards  of  the 
palace,  supported  by  the  companies  of  the 
burghers.  Orders  were  also  sent  to  all  the 
principal  provincial  cities,  directing  a  simul- 
taneous massacre  throughout  France.  It  is 
said  that  the  king  was  reluctant  to  give  these 
orders,  and  that  at  the  last  moment  he  counter- 
manded them ;  but  the  duke  of  Guise,  to  whom 
the  counter-order  was  given,  replied  that  it 
•was  too  late,  and  mounting  his  horse  rode  off 
toward  the  hotel  of  Coligni,  for  the  completion 
of  the  murder  of  the  admiral  was  the  first 
step  4p  he  taken.  A  band  of  assassins  burst 
into  his  apartment,  ran  him  through  the  body, 
and  flung  the  corpse  from  the  window  into  the 
street,  where  the  duke  of  Guise  was  waiting 
on  horseback.  Ho  dismounted  and  wiped  the 
blood  from  the  face  of  the  victim  in  order  to 
be  sure  that  there  had  been  no  mistake  as  to 
the  person.  At  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  the 
signal  was  given,  and  the  general  massacre 
commenced.  It  is  said  that  Charles,  with  his 
brother  Henry  of  Anjou  and  their  mother,  j 
was  at  the  time  in  the  tennis  court ;  that  he 


was  at  first  overcome  with  horror,  but  soon 
began  himself  to  fire  from  the  windows  of  the 
Louvre.  But  this  statement  rests  upon  in- 
sufficient authority,  and  is  inconsistent  with 
his  conduct  before  and  after.  He  died  21 
months  after  the.  massacre,  not  without  suspi- 
cions of  having  been  poisoned  by  his  mother 
and  brother,  although  the  Huguenots  ascribed 
his  death  to  the  direct  visitation  of  God.  His 
agony  of  mind  and  body  was  extreme.  He 
"sweat  blood,"  say  credible  historians,  "from 
every  pore,"  and  died  exclaiming,  "Oh,  how 
much  blood !  how  many  assassinations !  Oh, 
what  evil  counsels  have  I  followed !  O  Lord 
God,  pardon  me,  and  have  mercy  upon  me !  " 
The  slaughter  in  Paris  lasted  for  several  days. 
Cond6  and  Henry  of  Navarre  escaped  by  at- 
tending mass,  and  pretending  to  become  Cath- 
olics ;  but  most  of  the  Huguenots  gathered  in 
Paris  were  killed.  But  the  slaughter  was  not 
confined  to  them.  Many  who  had  grudges  to 
avenge,  or  something  to  gain  by  the  death  of 
others,  took  occasion  to  gratify  their  malice 
or  cupidity.  The  orders  for  the  massacre  were 
executed  in  nearly  all  the  cities  and  towns  of 
France  where  Huguenots  were  to  be  found  as 
speedily  as  they  could  be  received  from  Paris. 
It  occurred  at  Meaux  on  Aug.  25 ;  at  La 
Charitfi  on  the  2Cth ;  at  Orleans  on  the  27th  ; 
at  Saumur  and  Angers  on  the  29th  ;  at  Lyons 
on  the  30th ;  at  Troves  on  Sept.  2 ;  at  Bourges 
on  the  llth;  at  Rouen  on  the  17th;  at  Tou- 
louse on  the  23d ;  at  Romans  on  the  30th ;  at 
Bordeaux  on  Oct.  3.  Many  districts  and  towns, 
however,  were  spared,  generally  through  the- 
opposition  of  their  governors  or  local  author- 
ities. The  number  of  persons  put  to  death  in 
all  France  is  variously  stated  at  100,000  to 
1,500.  The  former  number  is  doubtless  much 
too  great;  the  latter  much  too  small.  The 
estimate  of  De  Thou,  30,000,  is  probably  near 
the  truth.  —  The  subsequent  conduct  of  the 
French  government  throws  considerable  light 
upon  the  origin  of  the  massacre.  Lingard 
states  it  as  follows:  "The  bloody  tragedy  had 
been  planned  and  executed  at  Paris  with  so 
much  expedition  that  its  authors  had  not  deter- 
mined on  what  ground  to  justify  or  palliate 
their  conduct.  In  the  letters  written  the  same 
evening  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces  and 
to  the  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts  it  was 
attributed  to  the  ancient  quarrel  and  insatiate 
hatred  which  existed  between  the  princes  of 
Lorraine  and  the  house  of  Coligni.  But  as  the 
duke  of  Guise  refused  to  take  the  infamy  on 
himself,  the  king  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
in  parliament  that  he  had  signed  the  order  fof 
the  death  of  the  admiral,  and  sent  in  conse- 
quence to  his  ambassadors  new  and  more  de- 
tailed instructions.  La  Motte  Ffnelon,  the 
ambassador  to  England,  assured  Elizabeth  that 
Charles  had  conceived  no  idea  of  such  an 
event  before  the  preceding  evening,  when  he 
learned  with  surprise  and  astonishment  that 
the  confidential  advisers  of  the  admiral  had 
formed  a  plan  to  avenge  the  attempt  made  on 


BARTHOLOMEW 


BARTLETT 


340 


his  life  by  surprising  the  Louvre,  making  prison- 
ers of  the  royal  family,  and  putting  to  death 
the  duke  of  Guise  and  the  leaders  of  the  Cath- 
olics ;  that  the  plot  was  revealed  by  one  of  the 
council  whose  conscience  revolted  from  such 
a  crime  ;  that  his  deposition  was  confirmed  in 
the  mind  of  the  king  by  the  violent  and  un- 
dutiful  expressions  uttered  by  Coligni  in  the 
royal  presence ;  that  having  but  the  interval 
of  a  few  hours  to  deliberate,  he  had  hastily 
given  permission  to  the  duke  of  Guise  and  his 
friends  to  execute  justice  on  his  and  their 
friends ;  and  that  if,  from  the  excited  passions 
of  the  populace,  some  innocent  persons  had 
perished  with  the  guilty,  it  has  been  done  con- 
trary to  his  intention,  and  has  given  him  the 
most  heartfelt  sorrow."  The  balance  of  evi- 
dence evinces  that  the  original  plan,  formed  by 
Catharine  de1  Medici  and  the  duke  of  Guise, 
was  simply  to  disorganize  the  Huguenot  party 
by  the  murder  of  Coligni,  their  recognized 
leader;  that  the  partial  failure  of  this  threw 
the  court  into  alarm,  and  the  weak  king,  per- 
suaded that  his  person  was  in  danger,  consented 
to  issue  the  order  for  the  massacre,  which,  as 
expressed  by  Lingard,  "  was  not  originally 
contemplated,  but  grew  out  of  the  unexpected 
failure  of  the  attempt  already  made  upon  the 
life  of  the  admiral." — A  grave  question  has 
arisen  as  to  the  supposed  complicity  of  the 
papal  court  in  the  massacre.  The  despatches 
of  the  papal  nuncio  at  Paris  seem  to  set  this  | 
question  at  rest.  On  the  very  day  of  the  mas- 
sacre he  wrote  to  the  cardinal  secretary  at 
Rome  an  account  of  the  matter.  A  month 
later  (Sept.  22),  in  reply  to  inquiries  for  more 
detailed  information,  he  wrote:  "The  queen 
regent,  having  become  jealous  of  the  admiral, 
came  to  the  resolution  a  few  days  before,  and 
caused  the  arquebuse  to  be  discharged  at  him 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  king,  but  with 
the  participation  of  the  duke  of  Anjou,  and  of 
the  duchess  of  Nemours,  and  of  her  son  the 
duke  of  Guise.  Had  he  died  immediately,  no 
one  else  would  have  perished.  But  he  did  not 
die,  and  they  began  to  expect  some  great  evil ; 
wherefore,  closeting  themselves  in  consultation 
with  the  king,  they  determined  to  throw  shame 
aside,  and  to  cause  him  to  be  assassinated  with 
the  others ;  a  determination  which  was  carried 
into  execution  that  very  night."  This  account 
was  contained  in  a  cipher  despatch  from  the 
nuncio  at  Paris  to  the  government  at  Rome, 
which  would  hardly  have  asked  information 
about  a  conspiracy  in  which  they  had  borne  a 
part ;  and  the  nuncio,  in  a  secret  despatch, 
would  hardly  have  spoken  in  terms  of  such 
condemnation  of  a  plot  in  which  his  superiors 
were  implicated.  These  secret  despatches  were 
first  published  almost  two  centuries  after.  A 
solemn  Te  Deum  over  the  event  was  sung  at 
Rome  by  the  order  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII.; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  according 
to  the  accounts  then  at  hand,  the  affair  grew 
out  of  an  unsuccessful  conspiracy  against  the 
French  government  and  the  Catholic  church ; 


and  the  Te  Deum  belonged  to  the  same  category 
with  the  one  sung  shortly  before  for  the  vic- 
tory gained  at  Lepanto  over  the  Turks. — Nuth- 
dorf,  a  German  student  who  professed  to  have 
been  an  eye  witness  of  the  massacre,  left  a  nar- 
rative of  it  in  Latin,  which  has  been  recently 
discovered  in  France,  and  is  said  to  be  in 
course  of  publication  (1872). 

BARTLETT,  Kllsha,  an  American  physician 
and  author,  born  in  Smithfield,  R.  I.,  in  1805, 
died  there,  July  18,  1855.  He  graduated  from 
the  medical  department  of  Brown  university 
in  1826,  spent  a  year  in  Europe,  and  commenced 
practice  in  Lowell,  Mass.  He  delivered  the 
course  of  lectures  on  pathological  anatomy  at 
the  Berkshire  medical  institute  in  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  in  1832,  and  in  1839  lectured  at  Dart- 
mouth college.  Subsequently  he  held  pro- 
fessorships in  Transylvania  college,  Lexington, 
Ky.  (1841),  the  university  of  Maryland  (1844), 
Lexington  again  (1840),  Louisville  (1849),  and 
the  university  of  New  York  (1850) ;  and  from 
1851  till  his  death  he  held  the  chair  of  materia 
medica  and  medical  jurisprudence  in  the  col- 
lege of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  New  York. 
While  occupied  in  these  different  situations 
during  the  autumn  and  winter,  he  also  delivered 
from  1843  to  1852  the  lectures  at  the  Vermont 
medical  college,  Woodstock,  in  the  spring  and 
summer.  He  wrote  "  Essay  on  Philosophy  of 
Medical  Science  "  (1844)  ;  "  Inquiry  into  the 
Degree  of  Certainty  in  Medicine"  (1848); 
"The  Fevers  of  the  United  States "  (1850) ; 
"Discourse  on  the  Times,  Character,  and 
Works  of  Hippocrates  "  (1852) ;  and  a  volume 
of  verses  entitled  "  Simple  Settings  in  Verse 
for  Portraits  and  Pictures  from  Mr.  Dickens's 
Gallery"  (1855);  and  edited  "The  Monthly 
Journal  of  Medical  Literature  "  at  Lowell. 

BARTLETT,  lehabod,  an  American  lawyer, 
born  in  Salisbury,  N.  II.,  in  1780,  died  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Oct.  19,  1853.  He  was 
educated  at  Dartmouth  college,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  law  in  Durham,  but  soon  re- 
moved to  Portsmouth,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life.  He  is  celebrated  as  an  opponent 
of  Webster  and  Mason.  He  was  seven  years  in 
the  state  legislature,  a  representative  in  con- 
gress (1823-'9),  and  a  member  of  the  state 
constitutional  convention  of  1850. 

BARTLETT,  John  Rnssell,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  23,  1805.  He 
was  early  placed  in  a  banking  house,  and  was 
for  six  years  cashier  of  the  Globe  bank  at 
Providence.  While  there  he  was  one  of  the 
original  projectors  of  the  Providence  athenssum 
and  an  active  member  of  the  Franklin  society, 
before  which  he  occasionally  lectured.  In 
1837  he  engaged  in  business  in  a  commission 
house  in  New  York,  in  which  he  was  unsuc- 
cessful. He  then  took  part  in  establishing 
there  the  bookstore  of  Bartlett  and  Welford, 
chiefly  for  the  importation  of  foreign  works. 
He  became  at  this  time  one  of  the  active 
managers  of  the  New  York  historical  society, 
and  was  a  projector  of  the  American  ethno- 


350 


BARTLETT 


BARTOL 


logical  society.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Taylor  commissioner  to  fix  the  boun- 
dary line  between  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico under  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 
He  remained  in  this  service  till  Jan.  7,  1853, 
making  extensive  surveys  and  explorations, 
with  elaborate  scientific  observations ;  but,  for 
want  of  the  necessary  appropriations,  the 
boundary  line  was  not  completed  by  him.  In 
1854  he  published  a  "Personal  Narrative  of 
Explorations  and  Incidents  in  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  California,  Sonora,  and  Chihuahua." 
He  had  previously  published  a  small  work  on 
"The  Progress  of  Ethnology"  (1847),  and  a 
"Dictionary  of  Americanisms"  (1850),  since 
revised  and  enlarged  (1859).  He  became  sec- 
retary of  state  of  Rhode  Island,  May  1,  1855, 
and  has  held  that  office  ever  since.  He  has 
edited  and  published  the  "  Records  of  the  Col- 
ony of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Planta- 
tions "  (10  vols.,  1856-'65),  and  written  "  Bib- 
liography of  Rhode  Island  "  (1864),  "  Index  to 
the  Acts  and  Resolves  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  Rhode  Island  from  1758  to  1862"  (1863), 
"Literature  of  the  Rebellion"  (1866),  "Me- 
moirs of  Rhode  Island  Officers  in  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion  "  (1867),  "  Primeval  Man"'  (1868). 
BARTLETT,  Joseph,  an  American  wit,  poet, 
and  adventurer,  born  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  about 
1763,  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  27,  1827.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1782,  and 
began  the  study  of  law  at  Salem,  but  soon  gave 
it  up  for  a  voyage  to  England.  In  London, 
being  at  the  representation  of  one  of  Gen. 
Burgoyne's  plays  in  ridicule  of  his  countrymen, 
he  stood  up  in  the  pit  and  cried  ont,  "  Hurrah  I 
Great  Britain  beaten  by  barbers,  tailors,  and 
tinkers !  "  with  prodigious  effect.  It  was  taken 
in  good  part,  and  got  him  the  acquaintance  of 
many  of  the  "  bloods  "  of  the  day.  He  gam- 
bled, got  into  prison,  wrote  a  play  for  his  re- 
lease, and  went  upon  the  stage  himself.  From 
an  actor  he  became  a  merchant,  and,  having 
sailed  for  America  with  a  large  supply  of  goods 
on  credit,  was  shipwrecked  on  Cape  Cod.  For 
a  while  he  figured  as  captain  of  volunteers  in 
Shays's  war,  then  opened  an  office  in  Woburn, 
painting  it  black,  and  calling  it  the  "Coffin," 
to  attract  notoriety.  He  next  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1799  delivered  a  poem  on  phys- 
iognomy before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society, 
satirical  and  clever,  and  said  to  touch  upon  the 
traits  of  individuals  at  the  time.  To  the  edi- 
tion of  this  poem  published  in  1823  were  ap- 
pended a  number  of  "  Aphorisms  on  Men, 
Principles,  and  Things,"  the  results  of  his 
various  experience.  The  same  year  he  deliver- 
ed a  Fourth  of  July  oration  at  Boston,  and 
afterward  recited  a  poem  entitled  "  The  New 
Vicar  of  Bray,"  which  obtained  considerable 
celebrity.  He  attempted  the  practice  of  law 
and  of  politics  in  Maine,  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature,  and  nearly  secured  an  election 
to  congress.  He  then  practised  law  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  IL,  and  closed  his  improvident  life, 
a  burden  to  his  friends,  at  Boston. 


BARTLETT,  .Insiali,  M.  D.,  an  American  pa- 
triot and  statesman,  born  at  Amesburv,  Mass., 
in  November,  1729,  died  May  19,  1795.  He 
commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  in  1750  at 
Kingston,  and  established  a  reputation  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  angina  maligna  in  1754 
by  treatment  with  Peruvian  bark,  in  opposition 
to  the  usage  of  other  physicians.  He  received 
several  appointments  from  the  royal  governor, 
John  Wentworth,  but  was  deprived  of  them 
in  1775  for  being  a  zealous  whig.  In  1774  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  regiment 
of  militia.  Being  chosen  delegate  to  the  con- 
tinental congress,  he  was  the  first  who  voted 
for,  and  the  first  after  the  president  who  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  accom- 
panied Stark  in  1777  to  Bennington.  In  1779 
he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas,  in  1784  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  and 
in  1788  chief  justice.  He  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  called  to  adopt  the  federal 
constitution  in  1788.  In  1790  he  was  president 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1793  was  chosen  the 
first  governor  under  the  new  state  constitution. 

BARTLETT,  William,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  theological  seminary  at  Andover,  Mass., 
born  at  Newburyport,  Jan.  81, 1748,  died  there, 
Feb.  8,  1841.  He  made  a  large  fortune  in 
trade,  and  besides  liberal  contributions  in  aid 
of  the  temperance  reform,  foreign  missions,  and 
the  education  of  young  men  for  the  ministry, 
he  gave  $30,000  toward  the  foundation  of  the 
Andover  theological  seminary,  endowed  a  pro- 
fessorship, and  built  a  house  for  the  incumbent. 

BARTLETT,  William  Henry,  an  English  artist 
and  author,  born  in  London,  March  26,  1809, 
died  at  sea  in  September,  1854.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  John  Britton  the  antiquary,  and  em- 
ployed by  him  as  a  draughtsman.  He  travelled 
extensively  at  home  and  abroad,  repeatedly  vis- 
iting the  East  and  the  American  continent,  and 
engraved  nearly  1,000  plates  from  his  drawings, 
with  descriptions  written  by  himself,  by  his 
fellow  traveller  William  Beattie,  and  by  other 
hands.  The  text  of  his  "  Beauties  of  the  Bos- 
phorus"  (London,  1840)  was  furnished  by  Miss 
Pardoe,  and  that  of  "American  Scenery"  (2 
vols.,  1840)  and  of  "Scenery  and  Antiquities  of 
Ireland  "  (2  vols.,  1842)  by  N.  P.  Willis.  His 
works  on  Switzerland,  Egypt,  and  the  Holy 
Land  were  the  most  popular,  a  4th  vol.  of  his 
"Footsteps  of  our  Lord  and  his  Apostles"  ap- 
pearing in  1856.  A  brief  memoir  of  his  lii'e, 
by  Beattie,  was  published  in  London  in  1855. 

BARTOL,  Cyrns  Angnstns,  an  American  author 
and  Congregational  clergyman,  born  at  Free- 
port,  Me.,  April  30,  1813.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college  in  1832,  completed  his  theo- 
logical education  at  the  Cambridge  divinity 
school  in  1835,  and  was  settled  as  colleague 
pastor  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Lowell,  D.  D., 
of  the  West  church  in  Boston,  March  1,  1837. 
His  principal  writings  are :  "  Discourses  on  the 
Christian  Spirit  and  Life  "  (1850);  "Discourses 
on  the  Christian  Body  and  Form"  (1854); 
"  Pictures  of  Europe  "  (1855),  a  work  combining 


BARTOLI 


BARTOLOMMEO 


351 


graphic  sketches  of  travel  with  philosophical 
reflections ;  a  history  of  the  "  West  Church  and 
its  Ministers ;  "  "  Church  and  Congregation : 
a  Plea  for  their  Unity"  (1858);  "  Word  of  the 
Spirit  to  the  Church ;  "  and  "  Radical  Prob- 
•  lem  "  (1872).  He  has  also  published  a  variety 
of  occasional  and  miscellaneous  discourses  and 
essays,  besides  numerous  contributions  to  the 
leading  periodicals  of  the  day,  and  several  poet- 
ical compositions.  His  writings  are  character- 
ized by  a  remarkable  individuality  of  thought 
and  illustration,  and  a  certain  antique  quaint- 
ness  of  style.  Although  of  a  deeply  religious 
tone,  they  give  more  prominence  to  the  ethical 
and  social  element  than  to  theological  doctrine. 

BARTOLI,  Daniele,  an  Italian  author,  born  in 
Ferrara,  Feb.  12,  1608,  died  in  Rome,  Jan.  13, 
1685.  lie  entered  the  society  of  Jesus  at  the 
age  of  15,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  in  1650  to 
write  the  history  of  the  order,  and  in  1671  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  Roman  college.  His 
Istoria  della  compagnia  di  Gesti,  (5  vols.  fol., 
Rome,  1653-'63;  12  vols.,  Turin,  1825)  is  in 
five  parts,  three  relating  to  the  East,  including 
China,  Japan,  and  Mongolia,  one  to  Italy,  and 
one  to  England,  chiefly  in  the  times  of  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  He  wrote  also  Vita  e  h- 
tituto  di  S.  Ignazio  (1689),  which  has  been 
widely  circulated  in  English ;  and  L1  Homo  di 
lettere,  also  translated  into  English. 

i:\KTOI.I,  Pietro  Saiili,  known  also  as  PE- 
BtiGio,  an  Italian  engraver,  born  about  1635, 
died  in  Rome  in  1700.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nicolas  Poussin,  and  imitated  his  master's 
works  with  wonderful  fidelity.  He  excelled 
chiefly  as  an  engraver,  his  prints  of  Greek  and 
Roman  works  being  much  valued  by  Winck- 
elmann.  His  most  celebrated  designs  are  af- 
ter the  Scriptural  frescoes  of  Raphael  in  the 
Vatican.  His  St.  John,  after  Mola,  is  in  the 
Louvre,  and  his  "  Jupiter  crushing  the  Giants," 
after  Giulio  Romano,  is  at  Mantua.  He  com- 
pleted over  1,000  plates,  chiefly  etchings,  which 
have  become  very  scarce. 

litlt'l'oi.lM.  Lorenzo,  an  Italian  sculptor, 
born  at  Savignano,  near  Prato,  Tuscany,  in 
1777,  died  in  Florence,  Jan.  20,  1850.  He 
took  lessons  from  a  French  artist  in  Florence, . 
and  went  to  Paris  in  1797,  where  his  bass  relief 
of  "  Cleobis  and  Biton  "  won  a  prize  from  the 
academy.  He  became  a  great  favorite  of  Na- 
poleon, who  charged  him  in  1808  with  the 
establishment  of  an  academy  at  Carrara,  from 
which  city  he  was  expelled  after  the  over- 
throw of  the  emperor,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Elba.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  re- 
turned to  Florence,  where  he  directed  the  de- 
partment of  sculpture,  and  was  professor  in  the 
academy  of  fine  arts.  He  was  regarded  in 
Italy  as  next  to  Canova  in  eminence.  He  ex- 
celled especially  by  his  graceful  drapery,  and 
by  his  exquisite  modelling  of  the  flesh.  In  the 
Pitti  palace  at  Florence  is  his  masterwork,  a 
marble  group  representing  Charity.  Among  his 
numerous  other  works  in  that  city  are  statues 
of  the  Venus  de'  Medici  and  of  Machiavelli. 
75  VOL.  it.— 23 


At  Milan  is  his  statue  of  "Faith  in  God,"  erect- 
ed by  the  marchioness  Trivulzio  in  commemo- 
ration of  her  husband ;  in  the  cathedral  of  Lau- 
sanne is  his  monument  of  Lady  Harriet  Strat- 
ford Canning;  and  his  Bacchante  is  in  the 
duke  of  Devonshire's  collection  in  England. 
In  Paris  he  made  busts  of  Madame  de  Stael, 
Lord  Byron,  the  countess  Guiccioli,  Thiers,  and 
many  other  prominent  persons,  besides  the 
monument  of  Prince  Nicholas  Demidoff  and 
the  marble  statues  of  Arnina,  nvmph  of  the 
Arno  (1841),  and  of  "The  Nymph  with  the 
Scorpion  "  (1845). 

i:  U!  1 01.0.  or  Bartoll.  I.  Taddco  di,  an  Ital- 
ian painter  of  the  Sienese  school,  flourished 
from  1390  to  1414.  He  was  the  son  and 
grandson  of  painters.  Some  of  his  pictures  are 
at  Pisa,  Volterra,  and  Padua,  and  one  of  his 
celebrated  madonnas  is  in  the  gallery  of  the 
late  king  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria.  His  most  re- 
markable fresco  painting,  in  the  vestibule  of 
the  chapel  of  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  at'  Siena, 
representing  celebrated  men  of  antiquity,  was 
imitated  by  Perugio  in  the  exchange  at  Peru- 
gia. II.  Domenlco  dl,  nephew  and  pupil  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  painter  of  frescoes  (1440), 
from  which  Raphael  while  at  Siena  derived  a 
knowledge  of  national  costumes.  His  "Ascen- 
sion of  the  Virgin  "  is  in  the  museum  of  Berlin. 

B1RTOL09IMEO,  I'm,  an  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  BACCIO  DELLA  POBTA,  called 
also  il  Frate  and  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  San, 
Marco,  born  at  Savignano  in  1469,  died  in 
Florence,  Oct.  8,  1517.  He  studied  under 
Cosimo  Rosselli,  and  acquired  his  knowledge 
of  chiaroscuro  from  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  His 
first  works  were  of  small  size,  such  as  his  two 
cabinet  pictures  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  rep- 
resenting the  "Nativity"  and  the  "Circumcis- 
ion." In  his  fresco  of  the  "Last  Judgment,"  in 
the  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova,  he  adopted  a 
grander  style.  He  was  an  admirer  and  friend 
of  Savonarola,  whose  execution  preyed  so 
much  upon  his  mind  that  in  July,  1500,  he 
entered  the  convent  of  Prato,  and  subsequently 
that  of  San  Marco.  But  he  resumed  his  pro- 
fession in  1504,  and  became  intimate  with 
Raphael,  whom  he  instructed  in  coloring  and  the 
folding  of  draperies,  while  Raphael  taught  him 
the  rules  of  perspective.  Subsequently  he  went 
to  Rome,  to  study  the  works  of  that  master 
and  of  Michael  Angelo.  In  the  convent  of 
San  Marco  are  some  of  Fra  Bartolommeo's 
most  finished  frescoes.  One  of  his  finest  pro- 
ductions, "The  Virgin  upon  a  Throne,"  is  in 
the  public  gallery  of  Florence.  In  the  Pitti 
palace  is  his  single  figure  of  St.  Mark,  which  is 
described  by  Winckelmann  as  a  Grecian  statue 
transformed  into  a  picture.  In  the  Qiiirinal  of 
Rome  are  two  of  his  pictures,  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  The  latter  was  most  admired  by  Ra- 
phael, who  completed  it.  Other  famous  works 
of  his  are  to  be  found  in  Rome,  Naples,  Mu- 
nich, Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg ;  and  those 
removed  by  Napoleon  I.  to  the  Louvre  have 
been  restored  to  Florence.  His  rarest  per- 


352 


BARTOLOZZI 


formances  are  in  the  possession  of  the  former 
grand  ducal  family  of  Tuscany,  including  his 
last  and  one  of  his  best  works,  a  large  picture 
in  chiaroscuro  representing  the  patron  saints 
of  the  city  surrounding  the  Virgin.  His  de- 
signs came  into  possession  of  Sir  Benjamin 
West,  and  afterward  into  that  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence,  at  whose  death  they  were  sold  and 
scattered.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  new 
method  of  casting  draperies,  and  of  the  use  of 
the  wooden  figure  with  movable  joints.  The 
distribution  of  light  and  shadow  constitutes 
the  great  merit  of  his  art. 

BAKTOLOZZI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  in  Florence  in  1725  or  1730,  died  in  Lis- 
bon about  1815.  He  was  the  son  of  a  gold- 
smith, perfected  himself  in  his  art  in  Venice, 
Florence,  and  Milan,  and  in  1764  accompanied 
Richard  Dalton,  librarian  of  George  III.,  to 
England,  where  he  was  employed  in  the  royal 
academy,  and  acquired  great  celebrity,  especial- 
ly by  his  "Death  of  Chatham"  after  Copley, 
and  by  his  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  after  Sassofer- 
rato.  In  1805  he  was  called  to  Lisbon  by  the 
prince  regent  of  Portugal,  who  pensioned  him 
and  made  him  president  of  the  academy  of  fine 
arts.  He  excelled  in  every  species  of  engraving, 
and  left  a  prodigious  number  of  plates  and  etch- 
ings ;  that  of  Clythia  after  Annibnle  Carracci 
is  one  of  his  master-works,  and  other  designs 
after  the  Carracci,  the  "  Death  of  Dido"  after 
Cipriani,  and  the  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  " 
after  Guido,  are  among  his  more  renowned  pro- 
ductions. With  Bracci  he  wrote  Hemorie  degli 
antiehi  incisori  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1784-'8). 

BARTON.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  on 
the  Kansas  border,  watered  by  affluents  of  the 
Grand  or  Neosho  and  of  the  Osage  river ;  area, 
600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,087,  of  whom  19 
were  colored.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  21,436  bushels  of  wheat,  245,460  of  In- 
dian corn,  38,347  of  oats,  and  7,459  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,983  horses,  1,755  milch  cows, 
3,237  other  cattle,  3,337  sheep,  and  6,794 
swine.  Capital,  Lamar.  II.  A  W.  central 
county  of  Kansas ;  area,  900  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2.  The  Arkansas  river  intersects  the  S. 
portion,  and  its  branches,  the  chief  of  which 
is  Walnut  creek,  water  the  greater  part  of  the 
county.  Fort  Zarah  is  in  this  county,  at  the 
junction  of  Walnut  creek  with  the  Arkansas. 

BARTON',  Benjamin  Smith,  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  at  Lancaster,  Penn.,  Feb.  10,  1766, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  19, 1815.  He  was  a 
son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Barton  and  a  nephew 
of  Dr.  David  Rittenhouse.  After  his  parents' 
death,  and  after  a  course  of  general  studies  at 
York,  Penn.,  under  Dr.  Andrews,  he  studied 
medicine  and  the  natural  sciences  in  Philadel- 
phia (1782-'6),  and  in  Edinburgh  and  London 
(1786-'8),  and  took  his  medical  degree  in  Got- 
tingen  in  1788  or  1789.  Subsequently  he  prac- 
tised his  profession  in  Philadelphia,  and  be- 
came professor  of  botany  and  natural  history, 
retaining  this  position  after  the  incorporation 
of  the  college  with  the  university  in  1791.  He 


BARTON 

received  the  chair  of  materia  medica  in  1795, 
and  succeeded  Dr.  Rush  in  that  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine.  He  was  president 
of  the  Philadelphia  medical  society,  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  American  philosophical  society,  a 
member  of  many  other  American  and  European 
societies,  and  a  correspondent  of  Humboldt  and 
other  savants.  Among  his  works  are  :  "  Ele- 
ments of  Botany"  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1812-'14); 
"Collections  for  an  Essay  toward  a  Materia 
Medica  of  the  United  States"  (3d  ed.,  1810); 
Flora  Virginica  (1812) ;  and  numerous  other 
writings,  chiefly  relating  to  natural  history,  and 
on  medical,  philological,  and  archfeological  sub- 
jects.— His  nephew,  WILLIAM  P.  0.  BARTON, 
M.  D.,  succeeded  him  in  the  chair  of  botany, 
and  died  in  1856.  He  wrote  "Memoirs"  of 
his  uncle,  "Flora  of  America"  (3  vols.,  1821- 
'3),  "  Vegetable  Materia  Medica  of  the  United 
States,  or  Medical  Botany  "  (illustrated,  1817- 
'25),  and  other  works. 

BARTON,  Bernard,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London,  Jan.  31,  1784,  died  at  Woodbridge, 
Feb.  19,  1849.  He  was  a  member  of  the  soci- 
ety of  Friends,  and  a  bank  clerk  nt  Wood- 
bridge  from  1810  to  1847.  His  work  entitled 
"Metrical  Effusions"  (1812)  was  followed  by 
others,  which,  though  deficient  in  poetical 
power,  were  animated  with  tender  and  de- 
votional feeling,  and  gained  for  him  the  re- 
gard of  Southey,  Lamb,  and  Byron,  and  a 
donation  of  £1,200  from  a  reading  club  which 
he  had  established  at  Woodbridge,  besides  a 
pension  of  £100  accorded  to  him  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  through  Sir  Robert  Peel.  His 
poems  fill  8  or  9  volumes,  the  "Household 
Verses  "  being  among  his  latest  and  best  pro- 
ductions. His  sister  Maria  Hack  wrote  many 
juvenile  works,  and  his  daughter  Lucy  pub- 
lished in  1849  "  Selections  from  the  Poems  and 
Letters  of  Bernard  Barton." 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  called  the  Holy  Maid  or 
the  Nun  of  Kent,  an  English  religious  impos- 
tor, executed  April  21,  1534.  She  was  a  ser- 
vant, who  when  seized  with  nervous  fits  broke 
out  in  ravings,  of  which  her  parish  priest,  Mas- 
ters, took  advantage  in  1525  to  represent  her 
as  an  inspired  prophetess.  In  1531  she  was 
induced  by  Father  Booking  to  take  the  veil  at 
Canterbury  for  the  sake  of  additional  effect, 
he  prompting  her  to  denounce  the  reformation, 
and  especially  Henry  VIII.  on  account  of  his 
proposed  divorce  from  Queen  Catharine.  Even 
Sir  Thomas  More  and  Bishop  Fisher  of  Roches- 
ter countenanced  the  imposture  for  a  time,  and 
the  excitement  among  the  populace  became  so 
obnoxious  to  the  authorities  that  she  was  arrest- 
ed in  1533.  She  made  a  confession  of  the  con- 
spiracy at  St.  Paul's  cross  in  December.  A  bill 
of  attainder  against  her  and  her  accomplices,  in- 
cluding Masters,  Booking,  Deering  (who  wrote 
a  work  on  her  revelations  and  prophecies),  and 
two  other  persons,  was  passed  on  March  6 ; 
and  she  was  beheaded  with  them  at  Tyburn. 

BARTON,  William,  nn  American  soldier,  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  about  1747,  died  there, 


BAETOW 


BARUCH 


353 


Oct.  22,  1831.  He  was  a  lieutenant  colonel 
in  the  state  militia  when,  on  the  night  of  July 
20,  1777,  he  crossed  Narragansett  bay  with 
a  small  body  of  men,  passed  unnoticed  three 
British  frigates,  landed  between  Newport  and 
Bristol  ferry,  reached  the  house  where  the 
English  general  Prescott  was  sleeping,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  a  negro,  who  broke  in 
a  panel  of  the  door  with  his  head,  made  his 
way  into  the  room  and  took  him  prisoner. 
For  this  exploit  he  received  from  congress  the 
gift  of  a  sword,  a  commission  as  colonel,  and 
a  tract  of  land  in  Vermont.  He  retired  from 
active  service  in  August,  1778,  after  having 
been  wounded  at  Bristol  ferry,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  adopted  the 
constitution.  By  some  illegality  in  the  trans- 
fer of  a  portion  of  his  Vermont  land  Barton 
was  involved  in  difficulties,  and  for  several 
years  imprisoned  for  debt  in  Vermont  till 
1825,  when  Lafayette  paid  the  claim  against 
him.  Mrs.  C.  M.  Williams  included  a  life  of 
Barton  in  her  "  Biography  of  Revolutionary 
Heroes"  (Providence,  1839). 

BARTOW,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  former- 
ly called  Cass;  area,  714  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,506,  of  whom  4,719  were  colored.  Gold, 
copper,  lead,  iron,  plumbago,  marble,  and  lime- 
stone are  found  in  several  places.  The  surface 
is  much  diversified,  and  occupied  in  part  by 
forests  of  hickory,  pine,  elm,  and  other  trees. 
The  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad  traverses 
the  county,  and  it  is  drained  by  Etowah  river 
and  its  branches.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  136,647  bushels  of  wheat,  239,197 
of  Indian  corn,  36,284  of  oats,  and  2,833  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,045  horses,  1,682 
milch  cows,  2,552  other  cattle,  4,100  sheep, 
and  11,794  swine.  Capital,  Cartersville. 

It  UtTKAM.  I.  John,  an  American  botanist, 
born  at  Marple,  Delaware  county,  Penn.,  in 
1701,  died  in  September,  1777.  His  grand- 
father was  one  of  the  companions  of  William 
Penn.  He  himself  supported  a  large  family  by 
his  industry  as  a  farmer;  but  by  unremitted 
application  he  mastered  the  rudiments  of  the 
learned  languages,  and  made  such  proficiency 
in  botany  that  he  was  pronounced  by  Linnasus 
the  greatest  natural  botanist  in  the  world.  He 
made  excursions  through  many  regions  of  North 
America  at  a  time  when  they  were  covered 
with  forests,  and  he  was  the  first  to  describe 
particularly  their  natural  productions.  In  1 743 
he  visited  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  in 
1765  explored  the  region  of  the  river  St. 
John's  in  Florida ;  and  in  both  of  these  excur- 
sions he  collected  many  beautiful  plants  and 
trees,  which  he  sent  to  enrich  the  gardens 
of  Europe.  He  was  supplied  by  Linnaeus,  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  and  others,  with  books  and  ap- 
paratus, and  he  in  return  sent  them  specimens 
of  new  and  curious  American  plants.  He 
founded  on  the  bank  of  the  Schuylkill,  a  few 
miles  below  Philadelphia,  the  first  botanic  gar- 
den in  America,  where  he  cultivated  beautiful 
and  rare  American  and  exotic  plants.  At  the 


time  of  his  death  he  was  a  fellow  of  several 
foreign  learned  societies,  and  bore  the  title  of 
American  botanist  to  George  III.  of  England. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  observations 
during  his  travels,  and  contributed  to  the  Brit- 
ish "Philosophical  Transactions "  several  pa- 
pers on  scientific  subjects.  See  "Memorials 
of  John  Bartram  and  Humphrey  Marshall,"  by 
Dr.  William  Darlington  (Philadelphia,  1849). 
II.  William,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Kingsessing,  Penn.,  in  1739,  died  July  22, 1823. 
He  commenced  life  as  a  merchant,  but  accom- 
panied his  father  to  East  Florida  and  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  St.  John's.  In  1771 
he  returned  to  Kingsessing,  but  in  1773,  at  the 
request  of  Dr.  Fothergill  of  London,  he  made  a 
second  scientific  journey  to  Florida,  and  also  to 
the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  The  narrative  of  his 
expedition,  under  the  title  of  "  Travels  through 
North  and  South  Carolina,  East  and  West 
Florida,  the  Cherokee  Country,  &c.,"  was  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia  in  1791,  and  in  London 
in  1792,  and  again  in  1794  with  illustrations 
(French  translation  by  P.  V.  Benoist,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1801).  One  of  hisessays,  written  in  1789, 
was  published  in  1 853,  in  vol.  iii.  of  the  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Ethnological  Society," 
under  the  title  of  "Observations  on  the  Creek 
and  Cherokee  Indians."  In  1782  he  declined 
the  chair  of  botany  in  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, on  account  of  his  impaired  sight.  He 
made  known  and  illustrated  many  of  the  most 
curious  and  beautiful  plants  of  North  America, 
and  published  the  fullest  list  of  American  birds 
previous  to  Wilson,  whom  he  greatly  assisted 
at  the  outset  of  his  labors. 

BARTSCH,  Johiiiin  Adam  Bernhard  TOD,  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  born  in  Vienna,  Aug.  17,  1757, 
died  there,  Aug.  21,  1821.  He  rose  to  the 
highest  eminence  in  his  art,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  and  direc- 
tor of  the  imperial  collection  of  engravings. 
He  wrote  Le  peintre-gravcur  (21  vols.,  Vienna, 
1802-'21),  one  of  the  best  accounts  of  prints 
ever  published,  and  Catalogues  raisonnes  of 
the  works  of  Rembrandt  (2  vols.,  1797)  and 
other  great  artists.  The  catalogue  of  his  own 
productions,  comprising  over  500  prints,  was 
published  in  1818  by  his  son  FKIEDBICH  JOSEPH 
ADAM  TON  BAETSCH,  born  July  12,  1798,  who 
succeeded  him  as  director. 

BARTSCH,  Karl  Friedrlth,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Sprottau,  Feb.  25, 1832.  He  grad- 
uated at  Halle  in  1853,  was  director  of  the 
library  of  the  German  museum  at  Nuremberg 
1855-7,  and  professor  at  Rostock  1858-'71, 
when  he  succeeded  Iloltzmann  in  Heidelberg. 
He  has  written  much  on  ancient  German  and 
French  literature,  and  translated  Burns  into 
German  (1865).  Among  his  principal  works 
are  his  critical  edition  of  the  Nibelitngcnlied 
(Leipsic,  1870)  and  his  Grundrisszur  Geschichte 
der  Provenzaluchen  Literatur  (1872).  He  has 
edited  the  Germania  since  1869. 

BARCCH  (Heb.,  blessed),  the  son  of  Neriah, 
a  friend  and  amanuensis  of  the  prophet  Jerc- 


354: 


BARY 


miah,  whose  captivity  he  appears  to  have 
shared,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  Egypt. 
His  subsequent  fate  is  unknown.  He  wrote 
from  dictation  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  and 
read  them  to  the  people  from  a  window  of  the 
temple  (about  605  B.  0.);  but  King  Jehoiakim, 
being  displeased  with  the  contents,  destroyed 
the  roll,  cutting  it  with  a  penknife  and  after- 
ward burning  it.  Concealing  themselves  from 
the  persecutions  of  the  king,  Baruch  and  Jere- 
miah rewrote  the  whole  of  the  prophecies.  The 
enemies  of  Jeremiah  ascribed  to  the  latter  an 
important  influence  upon  the  prophet.  Bunsen 
regards  Baruch  as  the  author  of  the  second 
part  of  Isaiah.— One  of  the  apocryphal  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  bears  the  name  of  Baruch. 
It  follows  in  the  Septuagint  immediately  after 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah.  The  prologue  of  the 
book  states  that  it  was  read  by  Baruch  to 
Jeremiah  and  the  people  in  Babylon  by  the 
river  Sud  (Euphrates);  that  the  people  were 
brought  by  it  to  repentance,  and  sent  the  book 
with  a  letter  and  presents  to  Jerusalem.  Then 
follows  an  exhortation  to  wisdom  and  a  due 
observance  of  the  law.  Jerusalem  is  introduced 
as  a  widow  comforting  her  children  with  the 
hope  of  a  return.  The  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logians generally  defend  the  authenticity  of  the 
book,  while  most  of  the  Protestants  regard  its 
spuriousness  as  fully  proved.  The  first  portion 
of  the  book,  embracing  chap.  i.  to  iii.  8,  is,  ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  opinion  of  all  wrir 
ters,  a  translation  from  a  Hebrew  original ;  ac- 
cording to  Ewald  and  Ilitzig,  the  translation  was 
made  by  the  Alexandrine  translator  of  Jere- 
miah. The  remainder  is  believed  to  have  been 
written  by  a  Greek  author.  Ewald  thinks  it 
was  composed  between  360  and  350  B.  C. 

BARY,  Hendrik,  a  Dutch  engraver  of  the  17th 
century.  His  productions  are  remarkable 
for  neatness  of  execution,  though  inferior  to 
those  of  Cornelius  Vischer.  Among  them  are 
excellent  engravings  of  the  portrait  of  Grotius, 
of  several  Dutch  ad  mini  Is,  and  of  an  allegorical 
picture  by  Vandyke,  representing  "Summer 
and  Autumn." 

BAKYK,  Antoine  Loots,  a  French  sculptor,  born 
in  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1795.  He  perfected  his 
studies  under  Bosio  and  Gros,  and  acquired 
reputation  in  1831  by  his  group  representing 
a  tiger  and  a  crocodile,  in  M.  Thiers'  posses- 
sion. In  1848-'51  he  held  an  office  in  the 
Louvre  museum,  where  he  also  had  his  studio. 
In  1850  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  art  of  de- 
signing subjects  in  natural  history  at  Versailles, 
and  afterward  taught  in  the  Louvre  from  1854, 
and  in  the  museum  of  the  botanical  garden 
from  1856.  He  executed  allegorical  statues 
for  the  pavilion  of  the  new  Louvre;  produced 
many  works  relating  to  mythological  and  his- 
torical subjects;  statuettes  of  Gaston  de  Foix, 
Napoleon,  and  Charles  VI.  (the  last  executed 
after  his  model  by  the  late  princess  Marie 
d'Orleans);  the  "Three  Graces,"  the  "Ama- 
zon," "Angelica,"  two  of  his  daughters  (since 
dead),  and  other  fine  female  figures.  His 


BASARJIK 

works  most  admired  for  their  anatomical  and 
physiological  qualities  and  monumental  gran- 
deur are  his  bronze  groups  of  animals,  as  his 
lion  crushing  a  boar,  and  his  other  lions  in  the 
garden  of  the  Tuileries ;  his  panther  and  gazelle 
in  the  collection  of  the  duke  de  Luynes;  his 
little  bears  playing ;  his  tiger  devouring  a  goat 
in  the  Lyons  museum  ;  and  his  jaguar  feasting 
upon  a  hare,  purchased  as  a  plaster  model  by 
the  French  government  in  1850,  and  exhibited 
in  bronze  at  the  Paris  expositions  of  1852  and 
1855.  In  1833  he  became  chevalier  and  in 
1855  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor;  received 
the  gold  medal  of  honor  at  the  exhibition  of 
1855 ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  London 
exhibition  of  1862 ;  and  in  1868  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  fine  arts.  Gonon's  re- 
vival of  the  renaissance  method  of  modelling 
bronze  statues  at  the  first  casting  from  waste 
wax  (cire perdue)  is  successfully  applied  to  many 
of  Barye's  works. 

BARYTA,  or  Barytes.     See  BARIVM. 

BAS,  or  Batz,  a  small  island  of  France,  in  the 
English  channel,  a  part  of  the  department  of 
Finistere,  15  m.  N.  W.  of  Morlaix,  about  2-J  m. 
long  and  nearly  2  m.  wide ;  pop.  abont  5,000. 
It  contains  three  villages,  four  batteries,  two 
forts,  a  revolving  lighthouse,  and  a  safe  harbor 
of  refuge. 

BASALT,  the  hardest,  most  compact,  and 
heaviest  of  the  trap  rocks,  frequently  columnar 
in  structure,  the  columns  or  prisms  having 
three,  five,  or  more  sides,  regular  and  jointed. 
Some  of  the  columns  of  the  isle  of  Skye  are 
400  feet  long,  while  in  other  localities  they  do 
not  exceed  an  inch  in  length.  The  diameters 
of  the  prisms  range  from  nine  feet  to  an  inch 
across  the  face.  The  columnar  structure  is  most 
noticeable  when  the  rock  is  viewed  at  a  distance, 
as  at  the  Palisades  on  the  Hudson.  Remark- 
able examples  of  basalt  have  been  found  on  the 
N.  W.  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  at  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  Ireland,  and  Fingal's  cave,  Scot- 
land, and  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena.  Basalt 
belongs  to  the  augitic  series  of  the  igneous 
rocks  resembling  dolerite,  and  consists  of  labra- 
dorite,  augite,  and  chrysolite  in  grains  looking 
like  green  glass.  Its  specific  gravity  varies 
from  2-9  to  3'2.  Owing  to  its  hardness,  basalt 
has  been  much  used  for  pavements  and  for 
macadamizing  roads.  "When  melted  and  cooled 
rapidly  it  is  converted  into  a  kind  of  obsidian 
(volcanic  glass),  and  can  be  cast  into  ornamen- 
tal blocks  and  mouldings.  Artificial  building 
stone  was  at  one  time  made  of  it  in  England. 

BASARJIK  (Turkish,  market  town),  the  name 
of  several  places  in  European  Turkey,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  two  following. 

I.  Also   called   Hadji-Oglo-Basari,  in  eastern 
Bulgaria,  25  m.  N.  of  Varna;  pop.  about  5,000, 
mostly  Mohammedans.     The  town  contains  10 
mosques,   and    has  an  important   yearly  fair 
in  April.     It  was  captured  by  the  Russians, 
June  2,  1774,  and  again  June  3",  1810,  after  an 
obstinate  struggle  in  which  8,000  Turks  fell. 

II.  Also  called  Tatar-Basarjik,  on  the  upper 


BASCHI 


'    BASE  BALL 


355 


Maritza,  in  the  eyalet  of  Adrianoplo,  20  m.  TV. 
N.  W.  of  Philippopolis.  It  contains  4,000  or 
5,000  houses,  about  three  fourths  of  which  are 
occupied  by  Mohammedan  and  one  fourth 
by  Bulgarian  Christians.  The  town  has  18 
mosques,  5  churches,  and  a  yearly  fair  lasting 
from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  middle  of 
August.  Rice  culture  and  the  trade  in  that 
article  are  important  branches  of  industry. 
There  are  also  warm  springs  and  baths. 

BiSCIII,  Slatteo,  an  Italian  Franciscan,  foun- 
der of  the  Capuchins,  died  in  Venice  in  1552. 
He  was  a  Minorite  friar  of  the  convent  of  Mon- 
tefalcone,  when  he  declared  that  St.  Francis 
had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  and  com- 
manded him  to  introduce  into  the  order  the 
same  costume  which  the  saint  had  worn  in  life, 
namely,  a  robe  of  flannel,  of  a  chestnut  color, 
tied  with  a  cord  for  a  girdle,  a  short  flannel 
cloak,  and  a  large  hood.  Pope  Clement  VII. 
accepted  the  revelation,  and  gave  Baschi  anil 
those  who  wished  to  imitate  him  permission  to 
form  a  separate  congregation,  which  soon  took 
the  name  of  Capuchins  (capote,  a  hood).  Baschi 
met  with  much  opposition  from  his  brethren, 
and  was  for  a  short  time  imprisoned ;  but  he 
finally  became  the  first  general  of  the  Capuchin 
branch  of  the  Franciscans. 

BASCOM,  Henry  Bidleman,  D.  I  >..  LL.  I >.,  an 
American  clergyman,  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  South,  born  May  27,  1796,  in 
Hancock,  Delaware  co.,  N.  Y.,  died  in  Louisville, 
Sept.  8,  1850.  Before  the  age  of  18  he  receiv- 
ed license  to  preach,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Ohio  conference.  After  several  years  of  hard 
work  on  frontier  circuits,  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Tennessee  conference  in  181 6>  returned 
to  the  Ohio  conference  in  1822,  and  in  1823, 
through  the  influence  of  Henry  Clay,  was 
elected  chaplain  of  the  house  of  representatives 
at  Washington.  In  1824  he  was  stationed  at 
Pittsburgh,  in  1825  was  made  conference  mis- 
sionary, and  from  1827  to  1828  was  president 
of  Madison  college,  Uniontown,  Penn.  From 
1829  to  1831  he  served  as  agent  of  the  coloni- 
zation society,  and  then  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  moral  science  and  belles-lettres  in 
Augusta  college,  Kentucky,  where  he  remained 
till  1841.  He  declined  the  presidency  of  Lou- 
isiana college  and  of  the  Missouri  university  to 
accept  that  of  Transylvania  college,  Kentucky 
(1842).  He  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
protest  of  the  southern  delegates  to  the  general 
conference  against  the  action  of  the  majority 
in  the  case  of  Bishop  Andrew  (1844),  was  also  a 
member  of  the  convention  of  southern  delegates 
held  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  May,  1845,  and  drew 
up  the  report  of  the  committee  on  the  organi- 
zation of  the  church  South.  After  serving  as 
editor  of  the  "  Quarterly  Review  "  of  the  M. 
E.  church  South  (1846-'50),  and  chairman  of 
the  board  of  commissioners  to  settle  the  con- 
troversy between  the  northern  and  southern 
divisions  of  the  church,  ho  was  elected  to  the 
episcopal  office  a  short  time  before  his  death. 
His  works  (4  vols.  8vo,  Nashville,  1850  and  1856) 


comprise  sermons,  addresses,  lectures,  and  es- 
says on  infidelity,  mental  and  moral  science, 
moral  and  political  philosophy,  &c.,  and  "Meth- 
odism and  Slavery,"  a  defence  of  the  southern 
branch  of  the  church.  As  a  pulpit  orator,  Dr. 
Bascom  was  singularly  fervid  and  powerful, 
and  the  fame  of  his  eloquence  was  scarcely 
surpassed  by  that  of  any  other  public  speaker 
in  church  or  state.  His  biography  has  been 
written  by  the  Rev.  M.  M.  Henkle  (12mo,  Nash- 
ville, 1854). 

BASCOM,  John,  an  American  scholar  and  au- 
thor, born  at  Genoa,  N.  Y.,  May  1,  1827.  He 
is  a  graduate  of  Williams  college  and  of  An- 
dover  theological  seminary,  and  has  been  since 
1855  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  former  insti- 
tution. He  has  published  a  treatise  on  "Polit- 
ical Economy"  (1861);  "Treatise  on  ^Esthet- 
ics "  (1862) ;  "  Text  Book  of  Rhetoric  "  (1865) ; 
"Elements  of  Psychology"  (1869);  and  "Sci- 
ence, Philosophy,  and  Religion  "  (1871),  a  series 
of  lectures  delivered  before  the  Lowell  insti- 
tute, Boston,  in  the  winter  of  1869-'70. 

BASE,  in  chemistry,  a  term  used  with  several 
applications,  varjing  according  to  the  view 
taken  of  the  constitution  of  compounds.  As 
originally  used  in  the  exposition  of  the  dualistic 
hypothesis,  it  signified  the  electro-positive  ox- 
ide, sulphide,  &c. ;  but  in  the  new  unitary  hy- 
pothesis it  must  be  applied  to  those  electro- 
positive elements  or  compound  radicals  which 
can  be  substituted  for  the  hydrogen  of  acids. 
Alkalies  and  some  other  metallic  oxides  were 
formerly  regarded  as  comprising  all  the  strictly 
defined  bases ;  but  to  these  are  now  added  a 
large  class  of  organic  substances  existing  in 
plants,  which  with  acids  form  salts,  and  may 
be  separated  by  the  greater  affinity  of  the  acid 
for  stronger  bases.  These  vegetable  bases  or 
alkaloids  consist  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  car- 
bon, in  combination  with  a  certain  proportion 
of  nitrogen.  The  constant  presence  of  this  ele- 
ment has  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  salifi- 
able  properties  of  these  compounds  may  be  at- 
tributed to  it.  The  vegetable  bases  are  usually 
in  white  crystals.  The  few  animal  bases  or 
alkalies  are  volatile,  liquid,  and  of  oily  consis- 
tency. The  medicinal  properties  of  plants  re- 
side in  the  bases  extracted  from  them.  A  crystal 
of  aconitine  contains  the  concentrated  strength 
of  numerous  plants  of  the  monkshood ;  and  one 
of  morphia  combines  that  of  a  large  quantity 
of  opium,  as  one  of  quinine  does  of  Peruvian 
bark.  (See  ALKALI,  ALKALOID,  and  SALTS.) 

BASE  BALL,  an  athletic  game  played  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  has,  as  a  national 
amusement,  a  prominence  almost  equal  to  that 
attained  by  cricket  in  England.  It  has  reached 
its  present  importance  only  within  the  last  10 
or  15  years,  though  it  was  long  before  played 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  indeed 
probably  derived  from  an  old  English  game 
called  "rounders."  It  is  played  with  a  hard 
ball,  composed  of  yarn  tightly  wound  around 
a  piece  of  vulcanized  rubber,  and  a  round 
wooden  bat  not  more  than  42  inches  in  length. 


356 


BASE  BALL 


BASEDOW 


The  ball  must  not  weigh  less  than  5  nor  more 
than  5i  ounces  avoirdupois,  and  must  be  be- 
tween 9  and  9J  inches  in  circumference.  The 
bat  must  not  be  more  than  2J  inches  in  diam- 
eter in  the  thickest  part.— A  base  ball  ground 
should  be  a  level  area  of  fine  turf  about  600  ft. 
in  length  by  400  in  breadth,  at  one  end  of  which 
a  square  of  90  ft.  is  marked  out.  At  the  lower 
angle  of  this,  designated  as  the  homo  base,  is 
fixed  a  white  iron  plate  or  stone,  while  the 
other  angles  are  indicated  by  white  canvas 
bags  filled  with  sawdust  and  attached  to  posts, 
or  more  commonly  iron  pins,  sunk  in  the 
ground.  Nine  players  constitute  a  side,  one 
side  taking  the  bat  and  the  other  the  field. 
The  batsman  stands  at  the  home  base,  having 
the  pitcher  opposite  to  him,  at  the  distance  of 
45  ft.,  and  the  catcher  behind.  A  player  is 
also  stationed  at  or  near  each  of  the  three  can- 
vas bags,  known  as  the  first,  second,  and  third 


Left*  Field 


Centres  field 


"*  Base 


Sight  •Field 


•-f 

> 


Jiiitsman  »^}'i 


Catcher 

bases,  and  which  are  respectively  on  the  right, 
opposite  to,  and  on  the  left  of  the  batsman. 
Besides  these,  there  is  a  short  field,  called  the 
short  stop,  behind  the  pitcher,  and  a  right, 
centre,  and  left  field  at  a  considerable  distance 
in  the  rear  of  the  second  base,  the  duties  of  all 
of  whom  are  to  catch  or  stop  the  balls  and  re- 
turn them  to  the  pitcher  or  the  basemen.  The 
positions  of  the  players  as  well  as  those  of  the 
bases  will  be  understood  by  reference  to  the 
annexed  diagram.  A  captain,  who  is  gen- 
erally the  catcher,  assigns  the  places  of  the 
players  on  his  side  and  directs  the  game. 
One  or  two  definitions  must  precede  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  actual  game.  The  batsman  may 
strike  a  ball  in  two  ways,  "  fair  "  and  "  foul." 
It  is  a  fair  ball  when  it  is  struck  in  a  direction 
lying  within  the  lines  of  range  of  the  home  and 
third  base,  or  of  the  home  and  first  base  —  sup- 
posing those  lines  indefinitely  continued  in  the 
direction  of  the  field—  and  when  it  first  touches 
the  ground,  a  player,  or  any  object  within 
those  lines.  It  is  a  foul  ball  when  struck  out- 
aide  those  limits,  either  to  the  right,  left,  or 


rear  of  the  batsman. — The  actual  form  of  play  is 
as  follows :  When  the  batsman  has  struck  a 
fair  ball,  or  when  he  has  struck  three  times  nt 
any  fairly  delivered  ball  and  missed  it  each 
time,  he  must  start  for  the  first  base ;  from 
which  it  is  his  object  to  reach  in  turn,  as  he 
has  opportunity,  the  second,  third,  and  again 
the  "home."  When  he  succeeds  in  reaching 
the  home  base  without  being  put  out,  and  after 
having  successively  touched  the  first,  second, 
and  third  bases,  he  is  entitled  to  score  one  run. 
As  soon  as  each  batsman  begins  to  run  the 
bases,  he  is  succeeded  at  the  bat  by  another 
player  of  his  own  side,  the  succession  continu- 
ing until  three  players  of  the  side  are  out, 
when  the  side  goes  to  the  field,  and  their  ad- 
versaries take  their  innings.  A  player  may  be 
put  out  in  the  following  different  ways:  1, 
if  while  he  is  acting  as  batsman  a  fair  ball 
struck  by  him  be  caught  by  an  adversary  be- 
fore it  touches  the  ground ;  2,  when  a  foul  ball 
struck  by  him  is  either  so  caught,  or  caught  on 
the  first  bound ;  3,  if  a  fair  ball  struck  by  him 
is  held  by  his  adversary  on  the  first  base  be- 
fore he  reaches  that  base ;  4,  if  he  strikes  three 
times  at  fairly  delivered  balls,  misses  each  time, 
and  each  time  the  ball  is  caught  by  the  catcher, 
or  if,  after  so  striking,  the  ball  is  held  by  the 
player  on  first  base  before  he  can  reach  it;  5, 
if  while  running  the  bases  he  is  touched  by 
the  ball,  while  in  play,  in  the  hands  of  an  ad- 
versary, at  a  time  when  no  part  of  his  person 
is  touching  any  base ;  0,  if  he  wilfully  breaks 
certain  important  rules  concerning  details  of 
play,  or  attempts  to  frustrate  by  any  improper 
means  a  legitimate  attempt  to  put  him  out — by 
knocking  the  ball  from  the  hand  of  a  player,  or  in 
other  ways.  A  ball  is  said  to  be  out  of  play 
after  a  foul  stroke,  until  it  has  been  returned  to 
the  hands  of  the  pitcher.  Nine  innings  are 
played  on  each  side,  and  the  party  making  the 
greatest  number  of  runs  wins  the  game. — The 
rules  observed  throughout  the  country  in  play- 
ing the  game  are  those  agreed  upon  by  the  two 
national  associations  of  base  ball  players — one 
of  professional  players,  so  called,  and  the  other 
of  amateurs.  Representatives  of  the  different 
clubs  belonging  to  these  meet  annually  in  con- 
vention, revise  the  rules  of  play,  settle  con- 
tested points,  &c. ;  and  reference  may  be  made 
to  their  code  of  regulations,  printed  in  all  base 
ball  players'  manuals,  for  further  information 
concerning  the  details  of  the  game. 

BASEDOW,  Johann  Bernhard.  a  German  re- 
former of  education,  born  in  Hamburg  in  Sep- 
tember, 1723,  died  in  Magdeburg,  July  25,  1790. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  wig  maker,  and  a  pupil  in 
the  Hamburg  gymnasium,  where  he  was  en- 
couraged in  his  studies  by  Reimarus.  Subse- 
quently he  spent  several  years  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Leipsic  and  became  a  professor.  Rous- 
seau's Smile  having  produced  a  strong  impres- 
sion upon  his  mind,  he  came  forward  in  1768 
in  favor  of  a  thorough  reform  in  education, 
and  received  assistance  for  the  publication  of 
his  Elementancerk  (3  vols.,  1774;  translated 


BASEL 


357 


into  French  and  Latin),  with  100  of  Chodo- 
wiecki's  plates,  illustrating  natural  sciences  and 
industry.  This  became  the  model  of  many 
school  books  of  the  kind,  imparting  varied  in- 
formation in  a  cosmopolitan  and  liberal  spirit. 
Under  the  auspices  of  Prince  Francis  Fred- 
erick of  Anhalt-Dessau,  he  opened  at  Dessau 
in  1774  the  Philanthropin,  a  school  free  from 
sectarian  bias  and  from  corporal  punishment, 
and  designed  to  deliver  public  instruction  from 
mediiBval  bonds,  to  prepare  pupils  for  higher 
academical  studies  without  pedantry  or  big- 
otry, to  introduce  gymnastic  exercises,  and  to 
impart  a  knowledge  of  modern  as  well  as  of 
ancient  languages.  This  school  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  many  similar  ones,  though  Base- 
dow  himself  withdrew  from  it  in  1778.  He 
was  charged  with  not  duly  appreciating  the 
advantages  of  a  thorough  classical  and  of  an 
orthodox  religious  training;  but  he  was  never- 
theless regarded  as  a  most  effective  and  phil- 
anthropic reformer. 

BASH,  (Fr.  Basle  or 
Bale).  I.  A  canton 
of  Switzerland,  which 
since  1833  has  been 
divided  into  two  half 
cantons,  called  Basel 
City  and  Basel  Country 
(Ger.  Ba»el*tadt  and 
Baielland) ;  area  of 
both,  176  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  101,887.  It 
is  bounded  by  Alsace, 
Baden,  and  the  can- 
tons of  Aargau,  Solo- 
tliurn,  and  Bern.  The 
northern  chains  of  the 
Jura  here  descend  into 
the  plains  of  the  Rhine, 
which  are  about  700 
ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  the  highest  ele- 
vation being  3,800  ft. 
The  country  is  hilly  but 
fertile,  and  the  climate 

mild,  the  cold  northern  winds  being  intercepted 
by  the  mountains.  The  canton  has  no  lakes ; 
the  Rhine  is  the  only  considerable  river,  though 
there  are  numerous  small  streams.  Coal  and 
salt  are  the  only  minerals.  The  agricultural 
products  present  but  little  variety.  Cattle, 
hides,  butter,  cheese,  and  cherry  brandy  are 
exported.  There  are  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  iron,  copper,  steel,  silk,  linen,  leather, 
and  paper;  the  dyeing  and  bleaching  factories 
are  noted. — The  city  half  canton  has  an  area 
of  14  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  47,760,  of  whom 
34,455  were  Protestants,  12,301  Catholics,  516 
Israelites,  and  488  of  other  sects.  It  had  in 
1865  a  revenue  of  1,205,988  fr. ;  the  expendi- 
tures were  1,529,373  fr. ;  the  public  debt  was 
5,987,885  fr.,  while  the  value  of  the  public  do- 
main was  estimated  at  2,951,386  fr.  The  coun- 
try half  canton,  the  capital  of  which  is  Liestal, 
is  divided  into  four  districts  ;  area,  102  sq.  m. ; 


pop.  in  1870,  54,127,  of  whom  43,523  were 
Protestants,  10,245  Catholics,  131  Israelites, 
and  228  of  other  sects.  The  yearly  expenditure 
is  about  550,000  fr. ;  the  public  debt  in  1867 
was  824,000  fr. ;  while  the  value  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  canton  was  estimated  at  2,951,386 
fr.  The  inhabitants  of  both  half  cantons  are 
purely  Teutonic,  but  generally  speak  a  mixed 
Franco-German  dialect.  II.  A  city,  the  capital 
of  the  half  canton  of  which  it  forms  the  largest 
part,  situated  on  the  Rhine,  43  m.  N.  N. 
E.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  44,834.  It  ia 
divided  into  Great  Basel  on  the  S.  and  Lit- 
tle Basel  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  river,  con- 
nected by  a  wooden  bridge  580  feet  long. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  unimportant  forti- 
fications, and  contains  a  cathedral,  built  on 
the  spot  where  stood  the  Roman  fortress  of 
Basilia,  a  university,  a  public  library  con- 
taining paintings  by  Holbein,  the  hall  where 
the  council  of  Basel  was  held,  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings,  among  which  are  many  educa- 


tional  institutions,  toward  the  maintenance  of 
which  one-fifth  of  the  public  revenue  is  ap- 
plied. Basel  is  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  town  in  Switzerland, 
and  the  wealth  of  its  citizens  is  proverbial. 
The  ribbon  manufacture,  which  gives  employ- 
ment to  about  3,000  persons,  is  the  principal 
branch  of  industry.  There  were  formerly  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  paper  and  leather,  but 
these  have  declined  within  a  few  years,  and 
are  nearly  abandoned. — The  city  was  founded 
by  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  Basilia 
or  Basiliana.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  Germans,  and  rebuilt 
in  the  early  part  of  the  10th  century  by 
the  German  emperor  Henry  I.,  when  it  be- 
came the  residence  of  a  bishop,  and  belonged 
for  some  time  to  Burgundy,  but  after  1032  to 
the  German  empire.  The  territorial  dominion 
belonged  partly  to  an  imperial  bailiff,  partly  to 


358 


BASEL 


the  bishop,  whose  see  extended  over  other 
localities,  and  partly  to  nobles  of  the  rural 
districts  and  to  patrician  families.  The  latter 
gradually  became  sole  proprietors  until  they 
joined  the  Swiss  confederation;  the  country 
nobility  emigrated  or  were  embodied  among 
the  patricians,  and  the  bishop  emigrated  with 
his  chapter  to  Solothurn,  when  after  1519  the 
city  embraced  with  ardor  the  reformed  faith. 
Thus  the  whole  political  sway  was  left  with 
the  patricians  and  trading  corporations,  who  in 
time  became  omnipotent  over  the  peasants, 
and  reduced  them  and  the  poorer  citizens  to 
subjection,  against  which  the  latter  often  but 
in  vain  rebelled.  The  first  French  republic 
gave  social  equality  to  all  classes,  while  a  con- 
tribution of  11,000,000  francs  was  levied  upon 
the  city.  The  dissatisfaction  with  the  restora- 
tion of  the  ancient  prerogatives  of  the  privi- 
leged city  classes  led  in  1831  to  several  bloody 
battles  between  the  soldiery  of  the  city  and 
the  peasants,  until  the  Swiss  confederation  in- 
tervened and  in  1833  acknowledged  the  in- 
dependence of  the  rural  canton.  At  Basel 
was  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
French  republic  and  Prussia,  April  5,  and  that 
between  the  French  republic  and  Spain,  July 
22,  1795.  The  population  of  the  city,  which 
was  much  larger  in  the  middle  ages,  was 
in  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  greatly 
reduced  by  the  "death  of  Basel,"  or  "black 
death." 

BASEL,  Council  of,  one  of  the  ecumenical 
councils  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  Prop- 
erly speaking,  the  councils  of  Basel,  Ferrara, 
and  Florence  constitute  but  one  council,  of 
which  several  sessions  were  held  in  each  of 
these  cities,  and  which  is  usually  called  the 
council  of  Florence,  because  the  most  impor- 
tant questions  were  definitely  settled  and  the 
council  terminated  at  this  latter  city.  The 
council  during  its  sessions  at  Basel,  until  its 
transfer  to  Ferrara  in  1437,  was  acknowledged 
as  oecumenical  by  Eugenius  IV.,  and  its  de- 
crees were  confirmed  by  him,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  which  interfered  with  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  holy  see.  The  principal  reasons 
for  assembling  a  general  council  at  the  period 
referred  to  were  to  effect  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Greek  church,  and  to  reform  ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline.  The  council  was  summoned  by 
Pope  Martin  V.  to  meet  at  Basel,  March  3, 
1431.  Meanwhile  he  died,  and  Eugenius  IV. 
was  elected  to  succeed  him  on  the  very  day  of 
the  indiction  of  the  council,  and  immediately 
confirmed  the  acts  of  his  predecessor  convok- 
ing it.  On  the  day  appointed  not  a  single 
bishop,  and  but  one  abbot,  appeared  at  Basel. 
The  last-mentioned  person  went  through  the 
form  of  declaring  himself  assembled  in  oecu- 
menical council.  Five  days  afterward  four 
deputies,  together  with  the  first-named  abbot 
and  a  few  clergymen  of  the  city,  opened  the 
council  solemnly  a  second  time.  In  September 
Cardinal  Julian  Cesarini,  the  papal  legate,  ar- 
rived at  Basel,  and  sent  letters  to  different 


prelates  exhorting  them  to  come  to  the  council. 
On  Sept.  26  he  held  a  session,  at  which  it  is 
said  three  bishops  and  seven  abbots  were  pres- 
ent. The  cardinal  having  sent  an  envoy  to 
Rome  to  represent  the  state  of  things  at  Basel, 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  who  desired  to  convoke 
the  council  in  a  place  more  convenient  to  the 
Greeks,  sent  a  bull  to  his  legate  empowering 
him  to  dissolve  the  council  and  indicate  a  new 
one  at  Bologna.  Cardinal  Julian,  who  at  first 
seemed  disposed  to  dissolve  the  council,  had 
however  changed  his  mind,  and  was  desirous 
to  continue  it.  His  principal  reason  appears 
to  have  been  that  he  thought  it  would  be  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  treating  with  the 
Hussites  and  reconciling  them  to  the  church. 
He  himself  had  been  lately  in  Bohemia  on  a 
legation  from  the  holy  see,  and  was  more 
interested  in  this  matter  than  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Greek  church.  This  reason,  however,  made 
Eugenius  still  more  desirous  to  transfer  the 
council,  as  the  affair  of  the  Hussites  had  been 
once  definitely  settled  at  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, and  he  did  not  wish  it  to  be  reopened. 
His  legate,  however,  was  determined  if  pos- 
sible to  continue  the  council  at  Basel ;  and 
when  he  had  collected  a  sufficient  number  of 
prelates,  the  charge  of  provoking  a  schism  de- 
terred the  pope  from  pressing  violently  his 
own  wishes.  But  on  Dec.  11,  1431,  the  pope 
published  a  bull  dissolving  the  council  of  Ba- 
sel. The  cardinal  legate  obeyed,  and  declared 
that  he  could  no  longer  act  as  president  of 
the  council.  Nevertheless  he  exerted  himself 
in  the  most  energetic  manner  to  induce  the 
pope  to  revoke  the  bull,  as  did  also  the  small 
number  of  prelates  who  were  assembled.  In 
these  efforts  they  were  supported  by  several 
sovereigns.  After  vainly  endeavoring  to  effect 
an  amicable  transfer  of  the  council,  Eugenius 
IV.  finally  revoked  his  former  bull,  and  on 
Feb.  14,  1433,  published  another,  authorizing 
the  continuance  of  the  council  at  Basel.  Mean- 
while, however,  the  prelates  had  not  ceased  to 
continue  their  sessions,  and  to  style  themselves 
an  oecumenical  council,  although  the  approba- 
tion of  the  pope  was  withdrawn  from  them, 
and  the  cardinal  legate  had  ceased  to  preside. 
In  this  they  justified  themselves  by  the  act  of 
the  council  of  Constance  declaring  its  suprem- 
acy over  the  pope  (1415);  an  act,  however, 
which  canonists  regard  as  only  intended  to 
apply  to  contending  claimants  of  the  papacy, 
and  as  not  synodical  because  the  council  was 
only  recognized  at  the  time  by  a  part  of  the 
church.  During  the  period  of  the  suspension 
of  the  council  by  Eugenius  IV.,  the  prelates, 
who  after  a  time  increased  to  the  number 
of  80,  framed  several  decrees,  declaring  the 
superiority  of  a  general  council  to  the  pope, 
the  want  of  power  in  the  latter  to  dissolve 
or  transfer  it,  citing  Eugenius  to  appear  within 
a  certain  time,  &c.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  bull  of  transfer,  all  these  edicts  were 
revoked  by  the  council,  and  the  legitimate  ses- 
sions recommenced  under  the  presidency  of 


BASEVI 


BASHAN 


359 


the  legate.  The  declaration  of  the  superiority 
of  a  general  council  to  the  pope  was  renewed, 
however,  after  the  reconciliation,  though  the 
legate  refused  to  be  present,  or  sanction  the  act 
in  any  way.  A  number  of  decrees  of  reforma- 
tion were  framed,  which  are  all  the  acts  of  the 
council  ever  recognized  as  truly  synodical,  and 
as  such  approved  by  the  holy  see.  Great  ef- 
forts were  made  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  Greek  emperor,  though  without  suc- 
cess. Finally,  Engenius  IV.,  finding  Cardinal 
Julian,  the  principal  sovereigns,  and  the  Greek 
emperor,  altogether  disposed  to  enter  into  his 
views,  on  June  19,  1437,  dissolved  once  more 
the  council  of  Basel,  and  transferred  the  ses- 
sions to  Ferrara.  There  had  been  from  the 
outset  at  Basel  but  few  prelates  and  bishops  of 
high  rank,  and  a  great  number  of  the  inferior 
clergy,  all  of  whom  had  been  admitted  to  a 
vote  in  violation  of  the  canons.  The  cardinals 
and  the  principal  portion  of  the  prelates  of 
rank  obeyed  immediately  the  mandate  of  the 
holy  see,  and  repaired  to  Ferrara.  The  patriarch 
of  Aquileia,  the  archbishops  of  Aries  and  Pa- 
lermo, with  a  few  other  prelates,  and  several 
hundred  priests,  remained,  and  continued  the 
sessions  of  their  so-called  council,  from  this 
time  regarded  as  a  conciliabulum  or  schismat- 
ical  assembly.  They  declared  several  propo- 
sitions respecting  the  superiority  of  general 
councils  to  be  articles  of  faith,  excommunicated 
the  council  of  Ferrara,  deposed  the  pope,  and 
in  1439  elected  Amadous  VIII.,  formerly  duke 
of  Savoy,  who  took  the  name  of  Felix  V.,  and 
continued  to  bear  it  during  10  years,  after 
which  he  abdicated  it,  and  submitted  himself 
to  Nicholas  V.,  who  made  him  cardinal.  The 
council  of  Basel  continued  its  sessions  during 
all  this  period,  and  finally  the  debris  of  the 
council,  which  had  adjourned  to  Lausanne,  put 
an  end  to  itself  by  electing  the  reigning  pon- 
tiff, Nicholas  V.,  pope. 

BASEVI,  George,  an  English  architect,  born  at 
Brighton  in  1794,  died  at  Ely,  Oct.  16,  1845. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  John  Soane,  and  travel- 
led in  Greece  and  Italy.  In  1819  he  com- 
menced practice  in  London  on  his  own  account 
with  great  success.  Belgrave  square  was 
erected  from  his  designs.  He  was  joint  archi- 
tect with  Mr.  Sidney  Smirke  of  the  conserva- 
tive club  house,  St.  James's  street,  a  beautiful 
building.  His  best  and  greatest  work,  the  Fitz- 
william  museum  at  Cambridge,  was  finished 
by  Mr.  Cockerell.  While  inspecting  the  west 
bell  tower  of  Ely  cathedral,  then  being  restored 
under  his  direction,  he  fell  through  an  aper- 
ture a  distance  of  40  feet,  and  was  killed. 

II ISIIAX,  in  Biblical  geography,  the  northern 
portion  of  trans-Jordanic  Palestine,  between 
Damascene  Syria  on  the  north  and  Gilead  on 
the  south.  It  is  a  high  table  land,  and  was 
anciently  famous  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and 
for  its  oaks,  which  vied  with  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon.  Remains  of  these  forests  are  still 
seen  in  some  of  the  mountainous  districts. 
The  deep,  rich,  black  soil  on  the  plains  pro- 


duces the  same  luxuriant  pasture  as  in  ancient 
times,  and  the  flocks  and  herds  reared  there 
may  still  be  called  the  fallings  of  Bashan.  It 
was  conquered  from  the  Amorites  in  the  bloody 
battle  of  Edrei,  where  Og,  the  giant  king  of 
Bashan,  fell.  It  was  occupied  by  the  nomadic 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  Later  it  was  cap- 
tured from  Israel,  after  the  revolt  of  the  ten 
tribes,  by  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  and  afterward 
recaptured  by  Jeroboam  II.  It  was  also  the 
first  province  that  fell  before  the  Assyrian  in- 
vaders. When  the  Israelites  were  taken  cap- 
tive, the  scattered  remnants  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  who  had  settled  among  the  rocky 
passes  of  Argob  and  Ilermon,  and  in  the  des- 
ert, returned.  Henceforth  it  is  not  mentioned 
under  its  name  of  Bashan  by  any  writer,  but 
the  provinces  into  which  it  was  divided  are 
often  referred  to.  Gaulanitis  was  the  territory 
of  Golan,  the  ancient  Hebrew  city  of  refuge. 
Aurnnitis  is  the  Greek  name  of  the  Hauran  of 
Ezekiel.  Batanaaa  is  the  name  given  to  the 
eastern  mountain  range,  and  occasionally  used 
for  Bashan  in  general;  and  Trachonitis,  the 
rocky  region  of  the  north,  is  a  Greek  transla- 
tion of  the  ancient  Argob,  the  rocky.  During 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  the 
Christians  living  in  that  city  retired  to  Pella,  a 
town  of  Bashan ;  and  in  the  4th  century  nearly 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  Chris- 
tians. Heathen  temples  were  converted  into 
churches,  and  churches  were  built  in  almost 
every  town  and  village.  When  the  Saracens 
overran  Syria  these  churches  were  converted 
into  mosques ;  and  when  the  country  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  Ottomans  its  desolation  was 
completed.  The  mountains  of  Bashan,  though 
not  generally  very  steep,  are  rugged  and  rocky. 
The  remains  of  terraces  are  still  to  be  seen  on 
the  slopes,  which  give  evidence  of  past  indus- 
try, and  oaks  and  other  forest  trees  and  shrubs 
abound  here.  The  whole  mountain  range  is 
of  volcanic  origin ;  the  peaks  shoot  up  conically 
in  deep  serried  lines,  and  the  rocks  are  black. 
One  or  two  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  have 
been  seen  on  the  plain.  The  ancient  province 
of  Trachonitis,  now  Lejah,  is  a  vast  field  of  ba- 
salt in  the  midst  of  the  plain  of  Bashan.  In 
Argob,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Bashan,  30  m. 
long  by  20  broad,  Jair  is  said  to  have  taken  no 
fewer  than  60  great  and  fenced  cities.  A  late 
traveller,  Cyril  Graham,  writes :  "  We  find  one 
after  another  great  stone  cities,  walled  and  un- 
walled,  with  stone  gates,  and  so  crowded  toge- 
ther that  it  becomes  almost  a  matter  of  won- 
der how  all  the  people  could  have  lived  in  so 
small  a  place.  When  we  see  houses  built  of 
such  huge  and  massive  stones  that  no  force 
which  can  be  brought  against  them  in  that 
country  could  ever  batter  them  down  ;  when 
we  find  rooms  in  these  houses  so  large  and 
lofty  that  many  of  them  would  be  considered 
fine  rooms  in  a  palace  in  Europe  ;  and  lastly, 
when  we  find  some  of  these  towns  bearing  the 
very  names  which  cities  in  that  country  bore 
before  the  Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt,  I  think 


300 


BASHAW 


we  cannot  help  feeling  the  strongest  convic- 
tion that  we  have  before  us  the  cities  of  the 
Rephaim  of  which  we  read  in  the  hook  of  Deu- 
teronomy." Porter  visited  and  passed  by  more 
than  30  cities  and  towns,  and  saw  many  others 
dotted  over  the  plain.  In  his  description  of 
one  of  the  houses  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
he  says :  "  The  house  seems  to  have  undergone 
little  change  from  the  time  that  its  old  master 
left  it,  and  yet  the  thick  nitrous  crust  on  the 
floor  showed  that  it  had  not  been  inhabited  for 
ages.  The  walls  were  perfect,  built  of  large 
blocks  of  hewn  basalt,  without  cement  of  any 
kind.  The  roof  was  formed  of  large  slabs  of 
the  same  black  basalt,  lying  as  regularly  and 
joined  as  closely  as  if  the  workmen  had  just 
completed  them.  They  measured  12  ft.  in 
length,  18  inches  in  breadth,  and  6  inches  in 
thickness.  The  end  rests  on  a  plain  stone  cor- 
nice projecting  about  a  foot  from  each  side 
wall.  The  outer  door  was  a  slab  of  stone  4£ 
ft.  high,  4  wide,  and  8  inches  thick.  It  hung 
upon  pivots  formed  of  projecting  parts  of  the 
slab  working  in  sockets  in  the  lintel  and  thresh- 
hold;  and  though  so  massive,  it  could  be 
opened  and  shut  with  ease.  At  one  end  of  the 
room  was  a  small  window  with  a  stone  shut- 
ter. An  inner  door,  also  of  stone,  but  of  finer 
workmanship,  and  not  quite  so  heavy  as  the 
other,  admitted  to  a  chamber  of  the  same  size 
and  appearance.  From  it  a  much  larger  door 
communicated  with  a  third  chamber,  to  which 
there  was  a  descent  by  a  flight  of  stone  steps. 
This  was  a  spacious  hall,  equal  in  width  to  the 
two  rooms,  and  about  25  ft.  long  by  20  high. 
A  semicircular  arch  was  thrown  across  it,  sup- 
porting the  stone  roof;  and  a  gate  so  large  that 
camels  could  pass  in  and  out  opened  on  the 
street.  The  gate  was  of  stone  and  in  its  place." 
Some  of  these  cities  were  supplied  with  water 
from  distant  springs  by  means  of  aqueducts. 
Desolation  reigns  everywhere;  the  cities  are 
deserted,  and  the  limited  number  of  Druses 
and  refugees  who  have  settled  there  raise  no 
more  than  is  indispensable  for  sustenance,  out 
of  fcar  of  arousing  the  rapacity  of  an  arbi- 
trary government  and  attracting  the  Bedouin 
robbers.  (See  BOZRAH.)  The  principal  author- 
ities on  Bashan  are  J.  L.  Porter  ("Damas- 
cus," "The  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,"  &c.)  and 
Wetzstein  (lieiaebericht  uber  Hauran  mid  die 
Trachonen,  Berlin,  1860). 

BASUAW.    See  PASHA. 

BASHKIRS,  or  Bashknrts,  uncivilized  tribes  of 
Russia,  scattered  from  the  Caspian  to  the  boun- 
dary of  Siberia,  chiefly  W.  of  the  Ural  moun- 
tains, and  inhabiting  large  tracts  of  land  (to- 
gether about  50,000  sq.  m.)  in  the  governments 
of  Perm,  Ufa,  Orenburg,  Samara,  and  adjoin- 
ing parts ;  total  number  about  500,000.  They 
are  of  remote  Finnish  origin,  but  considerably 
mixed  with  Tartars,  and  have  their  local  or- 
ganizations of  cantons,  clanships,  yurts,  and 
villages,  though  they  have  been  under  Russian 
authority  since  their  final  subjugation  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  They  are  under 


BASIL 

the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan Tartar  mufti  of  Ufa,  and  are  nominally 
Sunnite  Mohammedans,  but  addicted  to  pa- 
ganism. They  have  many  of  the  Tartar  and 
Kirghiz  characteristics,  but  although  semi-sav- 
ages, they  are  docile  and  inoffensive.  About 
50,000  of  them  are  employed  in  the  Russian 
cavalry  service,  and  the  whole  race  are  relieved 
from  paying  taxes.  They  are  excellent  horse- 
men and  eat  horse  flesh,  and  their  horses,  fa- 
mous for  endurance,  are  highly  valued.  In  the 
war  of  1812  the  Bashkirs,  thougli  inferior  to 
the  Cossacks,  rendered  good  service.  In  the 
Crimean  war  they  were  chiefly  employed  in 
rough  work  connected  with  the  transportation 
of  provisions  and  material.  Some  of  them  re- 
side in  permanent  villages,  cultivating  the  soil, 


and  raising  cattle  and  bees ;  others  are  nomads, 
wandering  from  place  to  place  with  their  flocka 
and  herds,  which  are  numerous,  a  rich  man 
sometimes  having  2,000  sheep  and  500  head 
of  cattle.  About  400  schools  have  been  es- 
tablished among  them,  which  are  attended  by 
about  8,000  children. 

BASIL,  a  name  applied  to  various  odoriferous 
labiates,  but  especially  to  the  genus  ocymum. 
The  species  of  this  genus  number  about  40,  and 
are  chiefly  indigenous  to  the  East  Indies,  where 
some  species  are  regarded  with  superstitious 
veneration  from  their  supposed  power  as  dis- 
infectants. Basil  has  been  cultivated  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  America  as  a  garden  herb, 
useful  in  cooking  for  flavoring.  In  Mada- 
gascar the  roots  are  eaten.  A  few  species 
have  conspicuous  purplish  flowers  and  variega- 
ted foliage,  and  find  a  place  in  cultivation 
among  ornamental  plants ;  but  these  are  excep- 
tions, and  although  the  genus  is  closely  allied 
to  coJeus,  well  known  for  its  rich  foliage,  the 
species  are  usually  recommended  by  their  odor 


BASIL 


361 


and  not  by  their  appearance.  All  the  species 
are  easily  cultivated  from  seed,  and  most  of 
them  are  half  hardy  in  the  latitude  of  Boston. 


Sweet  Basil  (Ocymum  basilicum). 

BASIL,  a  Bulgarian  monk  and  physician, 
founder  of  a  religious  sect  called  Bogomiles 
(Slavic  Bog,  God,  and  milui,  have  mercy),  burnt 
alive  in  Constantinople  in  1118.  His  follow- 
ers believed  that  before  the  birth  of  Christ  God 
had  a  son  Satanael,  who  revolted,  seduced  the 
angels,  created  the  visible  universe,  and  gave 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  that  Christ  had  the  mission 
to  destroy  the  power  of  Satanael  by  consigning 
him  to  hell  under  the  name  of  Satan.  Basil 
repudiated  marriage,  favoring  a  free  intercourse 
of  the  sexes,  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection, the  books  of  Moses,  and  the  eucharist, 
abolished  baptism,  characterized  churches  as 
devilish,  denounced  priests  and  monks,  and 
would  not  recognize  any  liturgy  but  the  Lord's 
prayer.  He  condemned  all  cruelty  to  animals, 
and  objected  to  the  eating  of  meat  and  eggs. 
In  1111  the  emperor  Alexis  Comnenns  con- 
vened a  synod  for  the  condemnation  of  the 
Bogomiles ;  and  entrapping  Basil,  as  their  chief 
leader,  into  making  a  confession  of  his  faith,  he 
convened  a  second  synod  (1118),  calling  upon 
him  to  retract ;  but  he  remained  firm,  expect- 
ing, even  while  the  flames  surrounded  him, 
that  angels  would  come  to  his  rescue.  See 
Engelhardt,  Jfirchengeechichtliehe  Abhandlun- 
gen  (Erlangen,  1832). 

BASIL  I.,  or  Basiling,  surnamed  the  Macedo- 
nian, emperor  of  the  East,  born  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Macedon  about  825,  died  March  1, 
886.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  a  party  of  Bulgarians,  who  carried  him 
into  their  country  and  sold  him  as  a  slave. 
Having  obtained  his  liberty,  he  proceeded  to 
Constantinople,  where  a  monk  caused  him  to 
be  presented  to  Theophilus  the  Little,  a  relative 
of  the  emperor.  Accompanying  his  master  to 
Greece,  he  won  the  favor  of  a  rich  widow,  who 
made  him  her  heir,  and  whose  wealth  enabled 


him  to  purchase  large  estates  in  his  native  coun- 
try. He  continued  in  the  service  of  Theophilus 
till  842,  when  he  brought  himself  to  the  notice 
of  the  emperor  Michael  III.  by  vanquishing  in 
single  combat  a  gigantic  Bulgarian.  He  grad- 
ually rose  to  the  dignity  of  chief  chamberlain, 
and  repudiated  his  wife  in  order  to  marry 
one  of  the  emperor's  concubines.  He  formed 
a  conspiracy  against  Bardas,  on  whom  the  dig- 
nity of  Csesar  had  been  conferred,  caused  him 
to  be  assassinated  in  the  presence  of  Michael, 
and  soon  afterward  was  created  Augustus  and 
recognized  as  heir  apparent.  Henceforward, 
in  consequence  of  the  inebriety  and  incapacity 
of  Michael,  the  whole  administration  of  the 
government  devolved  upon  him.  The  empe- 
ror, perceiving  himself  reduced  to  a  cipher,-  be- 
came jealous  and  resolved  on  Basil's  ruin ;  but 
the  plot  was  revealed  to  Basil,  and  on  Sept.  24, 
867,  Michael  III.  was  murdered.  Basil  was 
now  proclaimed  emperor,  and  during  a  reign 
of  over  18  years  displayed  a  vigor  and  ability 
which  few  of  his  predecessors  had  equalled. 
He  removed  the  patriarch  Photius  from  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  because  of  the  religious  feuds 
which  he  had  excited  there,  and  installed  Igna- 
tius in  his  place ;  reduced  the  revolted  Pauli- 
cians  to  obedience;  compelled  the  Arabs  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Eagusa  in  872,  vanquished 
them  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  in  several  en- 
gagements, and  attempted  to  drive  them  out  of 
Italy.  His  general  Procopius  was  defeated  and 
slain  through  the  treachery  of  his  lieutenant 
Leo,  whom  Basil  accordingly  caused  to  be  mu- 
tilated and  sent  into  exile.  Basil  meanwhile 
became  jealous  of  his  own  son  Leo,  owing  to 
the  slanders  of  a  courtier;  but,  convinced  at 
the  last  moment  of  the  young  man's  innocence, 
he  restored  him  to  his  affections,  and  punished 
his  calumniator.  The  emperor  died  in  conse- 
quence of  a  wound  received  from  a  stag.  He 
made  a  collection  of  some  of  the  laws  of  the 
eastern  empire,  which  was  entitled  the  "Ba- 
silican  Constitutions,"  and  wrote  a  small  work 
on  the  moral,  religious,  social,  and  political  du- 
ties of  sovereigns,  which  he  dedicated  to  his  son 
and  successor  Leo  the  Philosopher.  This  work 
is  still  extant ;  the  best  edition  of  it  is  that 
published  in  Gottingen,  1674. — Basil  II.,  empe- 
ror of  the  East,  eldest  son  of  Romanus  II., 
born  in  958,  died  in  1025.  Romanus  had  de- 
creed that  his  infant  sons  Basil  and  Constan- 
tino should  reign  together  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  their  mother.  Immediately  after  the 
death  of  Romanus,  however,  their  mother 
married  Nicephorus  Phocas,  and  raised  him 
to  the  throne ;  and  the  brothers  did  not  suc- 
ceed to  their  inheritance  till  976.  Constan- 
tine  gave  himself  up  to  licentiousness,  and  the 
whole  administration  of  the  government  de- 
volved on  Basil.  His  reign  was  a  series  of  do- 
mestic and  foreign  wars.  He  put  down  the 
formidable  revolt  of  Sclerus,  defeated  the  at- 
tempt of  Otho  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  to  en- 
force his  claim  to  Calabria  and  Apulia  in  Italy, 
in  right  of  his  wife  Theophania,  the  sister  of 


362 


BASIL  THE  GREAT 


Basil;  and  was  repeatedly  engaged  in  war 
with  the  caliph  of  Bagdad,  from  whom  he 
made  valuable  conquests,  and  with  his  old 
allies  the  Sicilian  Arabs.  But  his  most  impor- 
tant war  was  that  which  resulted  in  the  con- 
quest of  Bulgaria.  This  war  broke  out  in  987, 
and  lasted,  with  few  intermissions,  till  1018. 
In  the  first  years  of  it  Basil  conquered  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  southwestern  division 
of  that  kingdom ;  but  in  996  Samuel,  its  king, 
overran  all  Macedonia  and  Thessaly,  laid  siege 
to  Thessalonica,  and  penetrated  into  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. During  his  homeward  march,  how- 
ever, he  was  encountered  by  Basil  on  the  banks 
of  the  Sperchius,  and  defeated.  In  999  Nice- 
phorus  Xiphias,  the  general  of  Basil,  captured 
two  of  the  most  important  strongholds  in  Bul- 
garia proper;  and  in  1002  Samuel  again  in- 
vaded Macedonia  and  Thrace,  and  even  took 
Adrianople,  but  was  driven  back  to  his  own 
kingdom.  Basil  gave  his  enemies  such  an 
overthrow  at  Zetunium  that  they  never  recov- 
ered from  the  blow.  On  this  occasion  the  em- 
peror showed  no  mercy  to  the  vanquished.  Of 
15,000  prisoners  he  ordered  the  eyes  of  all  to 
be  put  out  save  those  of  one  in  every  100,  who 
was  to  guide  his  99  unfortunate  brethren  in 
arms  to  their  native  land.  The  cries  of  these 
poor  wretches,  as  they  approached  the  camp 
of  their  countrymen,  had  an  effect  on  the  Bul- 
garian monarch  which  the  shouts  of  his  foes 
could  never  produce ;  he  fell  to  the  ground  in- 
sensible, and  expired  on  the  third  day  after. 
The  conquest  of  Bulgaria  was,  however,  not 
entirely  completed  till  1018,  when  it  became  a 
Greek  province  and  was  subjected  to  the  rule 
of  a  Greek  governor.  Basil  contemplated  the 
expulsion  of  the  Arabs  from  Sicily ;  but  in  the 
midst  of  his  preparations  for  it  he  was  seized 
with  an  illness  which  terminated  his  life.  To 
expiate  the  sins  of  his  youth,  Basil  wore  the 
hair  shirt  of  a  monk  beneath  his  imperial  robe, 
and  lived  the  abstemious  life  of  an  ascetic. 
Notwithstanding  his  incessant  wars,  he  accu- 
mulated from  his  surplus  revenue  during  his 
reign  an  enormous  fortune,  estimated  to  have 
been  equal  to  £8,000,000  sterling. 

BASIL  THE  GREAT,  a  saint  of  the  Christian 
church,  born  at  Ceesarea  in  Cappadocia  in  328 
or  329,  died  Jan.  1,  379.  His  father  and  moth- 
er were  St.  Basil  the  Elder  and  St.  Emmelia. 
His  father  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  Pon- 
tus, which  had  long  been  Christian.  He  had 
nine  brothers  and  sisters,  all  of  whom,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  their  intimate  friend  St. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  were  remarkable  for  sanc- 
tity, and  three  of  whom  are  canonized,  viz.,  St. 
Gregory  Nyssen,  St.  Peter  of  Sebaste,  and  St. 
Macrimi.  His  early  education  was  superin- 
tended by  his  father,  after  whose  death  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  Cresarea,  Constantinople, 
and  Athens.  He  excelled  in  eloquence  and 
logic,  applied  himself  also  to  philosophy,  natu- 
ral science,  medicine,  poetry,  and  the  fine  arts, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  ardent  advocates  of 
the  study  of  classical  literature  and  eloquence 


in  Christian  schools.  At  Athens  he  formed  an 
intimacy  with  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  He  re- 
turned to  Ca;sarea  in  355,  and  opened  a  school 
of  rhetoric  with  brilliant  success,  but  soon  gave 
it  up  for  the  purpose  of  embracing  a  religious 
life.  Dividing  the  principal  part  of  his  prop- 
erty among  the  poor,  he  travelled  through 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt,  to  visit  the 
most  celebrated  anchorets  and  monasteries.  In 
358  he  returned  home,  was  ordained  lector 
by  Dianius,  and  retired  to  his  grandmother's 
house  in  Pontus.  His  mother  and  sister  had 
already  founded  a  female  convent  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, on  the  bank  of  the  river  Isis,  in  which 
his  sister  was  superior.  Basil  now  founded  a 
monastery,  according  to  some  authorities  on  the 
opposite  bank,  according  to  others  at  Seleuco- 
bol,  and  in  the  course  of  time  other  affiliated 
monasteries.  He  remained  in  his  own  convent 
as  superior  for  four  years,  when  he  yielded  his 
place  to  his  brother  St.  Peter  of  Sebaste.  After 
his  election  to  the  episcopate  he  continued  to 
watch  over  these  religious  homes,  and  com- 
posed rules  and  spiritual  treatises  for  them ; 
and  the  principal  part  of  the  religious  in  the 
East  are  hence  called  Basilians.  In  359,  dur- 
ing a  famine,  he  sold  the  remaining  portion  of 
his  property  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers. 
Gregory  joined  him,  and  has  left  an  interesting 
account  of  the  life  they  led  in  common,  in  a 
little  hut  with  a  barren  garden  spot  around  it, 
where  they  found  exercise  and  diversion  in  cut- 
ting stone,  carrying  wood,  planting  flowers,  and 
making  canals  to  irrigate  the  sandy  soil.  In 
362  Basil  went  back  to  Cssarea  and  took  with 
him  a  number  of  his  religious  brethren,  it  seems, 
to  found  a  cloister.  Julian  the  Apostate  was 
now  emperor ;  he  had  been  Basil's  fellow  stu- 
dent at  Athens,  and  he  sent  a  hypocritical  in- 
vitation to  him  to  come  to  his  court.  This  in- 
vitation was  declined,  and  was  followed  by  an- 
other, which  was  accompanied  by  an  order  to 
pay  1,000  pounds  of  gold  to  the  treasurer  or  be 
dragged  through  the  city.  Basil  replied  in  a 
very  bold  and  severe  style  to  his  old  comrade, 
who  soon  afterward  found  his  death  in  the  Per- 
sian war.  In  his  35th  year  Basil  was  ordained 
priest  by  Eusebius,  the  successor  of  Dianins  in 
Csesarea,  but  for  some  reason  was  soon  dis- 
missed from  the  high  post  which  the  bishop 
had  assigned  him.  Eusebius's  conduct  met  with 
general  censure.  Basil  retired  again  to  Pontus, 
but  in  366  Eusebius  was  obliged  to  recall 
him  to  Csesarea,  to  stem  the  irruptions  which 
Arianism  was  making  under  the  auspices  of  the 
emperor  Valens.  In  870,  on  the  death  of  Euse- 
bius, he  was  elected  archbishop  of  Cajsarea. 
During  the  remaining  nine  years  of  his  life  he 
presided  over  this  important  see  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  win  the  reputation  of  one  of  the 
greatest  bishops  of  the  church.  The  whole 
city  followed  him  to  the  grave,  Jews  and 
heathen  wept  with  the  Christians  at  his  death, 
and  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  pronounced  his 
panegyric.  The  principal  efforts  of  St.  Basil 
the  Great  were  directed  to  the  defence  of  the 


BASILAN 


BASILIDES 


3C3 


divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  against  the  Arians.  On 
account  of  this  he  is  styled  by  the  general 
council  of  Chalcedon  "the  great  Basil,  the  ser- 
vant of  grace,  who  has  proclaimed  the  truth  to 
the  whole  earth."  He  is  held  in  especial  ven- 
eration in  the  Greek  church,  though  he  was  a 
strenuous  supporter  of  the  Nicene  creed.  His 
works  were  first  published  at  Basel  with  a  pref- 
ace by  Erasmus  in  1532.  The  most  complete 
edition  is  that  of  Gamier  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1721- 
'30;  reprinted  in  Paris  in  6  vols.  8vo,  1839). 

BASILAX,  an  island  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
the  largest  of  the  Sooloo  group,  separated  by 
the  strait  of  Basilan,  12  m.  wide,  from  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  the  island  of  Mindanao; 
area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  5,000.  The 
coast  abounds  with  fish ;  there  are  wild  hogs, 
deer,  and  elephants  in  the  forests.  It  is  a 
favorite  resort  of  pirates. 

BASIL!  A\  MOJiKS,  or  Monks  of  St.  Basil,  a  re- 
ligious order  founded  by  St.  Basil  the  Great, 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  When 
the  saint  retired  into  the  deserts  of  Pontus  ho 
found  there  a  vast  number  of  solitaries  whose 
manner  of  life  he  strove  to  copy.  Crowds  of 
followers  gathered  around  him,  and  so  rapidly 
did  their  number  increase  that  he  found  it  neces- 
sary to  build  a  large  monastery,  and  to  embody 
in  a  code  of  written  laws  instructions  for  their 
conduct.  These  rules  were  published  in  362,  and 
received  the  sanction  of  Pope  Liberius.  The 
new  order  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  East, 
and  it  is  said  that  before  his  death  Basil  saw 
himself  the  spiritual  father  of  over  90,000  monks. 
In  the  8th  century  they  were  treated  with  great 
severity  by  the  emperor  Constantino  Coprony- 
mns,  a  violent  iconoclast.  The  Basilian  rule 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Rufinus,  and  there- 
upon passed  into  the  West,  where  it  became 
the  basis  of  all  monastic  institutions  up  to  tho 
time  of  St.  Benedict.  Great  numbers  embraced 
it  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain ;  but,  though  calling 
themselves  by  the  common  name  of  "  monks  of 
St.  Basil,"  these  various  communities  were  in- 
dependent of  each  other  until  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  united  them  under  one  head,  and  at  the 
same  time  corrected  several  abuses  which  had 
crept  in  among  them  during  the  lapse  of  years. 
Various  causes  have  since  led  to  their  decline 
in  the  West,  but  the  order  is  still  largo  and  im- 
portant. Their  principal  monastery  is  that  of 
St.  Saviour  at  Messina.  In  Spain,  where  they 
are  very  numerous,  the  Latin  rite  is  universally 
followed;  in  Italy  and  Sicily  they  generally 
conform  to  the  ritual  of  the  Greek  church, 
with  a  few  modifications.  Most  of  the  monks 
of  the  Greek  church  in  Russia  claim  to  belong 
to  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  but  if  so  they  have 
deviated  widely  from  their  original  rule.  The 
historians  of  the  order  state  that  it  has  pro- 
duced 14  popes,  numerous  patriarchs,  cardi- 
nals, and  archbishops,  1,800  bishops,  and  11,- 
800  martyrs. 

BASILICA  (Gr.  fianOMfa  from  paoMf,  king), 
a  term  first  applied  in  Athens  to  buildings 
in  which  public  business  was  transacted,  and 


afterward  in  Rome  to  stately  edifices  of  an 
oblong  shape,  with  four  corners,  adorned  with 
Corinthian  columns,  generally  used  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  for  other  public 
purposes.  The  first  basilica  at  Rome  was  built 
by  Cato  the  Elder,  and  was  called  Portia.  The 
basilica  Julia,  built  by  Vitruvius  at  Fanum  for 
Julius  Ceesar,  was  supported  by  100  marble  pil- 
lars, embellished  with  gold  and  precious  stones, 
and  contained  1 3  judgment  seats  for  the  praetors. 
There  were  about  20  basilicas  in  Rome,  and 
one  in  every  provincial  town.  The  only  one 
of  which  considerable  remains  still  exist  is  that 
of  Trajan.  Among  the  most  celebrated  basili- 
cas were  those  at  Palestrina,  Pompeii,  and 
Peestum.  Many  of  them  became  churches, 
some  of  which  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries 
were  called  basilicas ;  and  the  term  was  also 
given  to  the  tomb  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
and  other  medireval  church-like  sepulchral 
monuments.  There  are  several  churches  in 
Rome  called  basilicas,  but  the  name  is  chiefly 
applied  in  modern  times  to  the  five  patriarch- 
al churches  of  St.  Peter,  St.  John  Lateran, 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Lo- 
renzo, the  last  two  being  without  the  walls. 
Of  the  smaller  basilicas  the  most  important  are 
those  of  Santa  Croce,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Agnes, 
and  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli. — See  Bunsen,  Die 
ehristlichen  Basiliken  Boms  (Munich,  1843), 
and  Hubsch,  Der  altchriitliche  Kirchenlau 
(Carlsruhe,  1862). 

BASILICATi,  a  province  of  S.  Italy,  situated 
chiefly  E.  of  the  main  Apennine  ridge,  and  be- 
tween it  and  the  gulf  of  Taranto,  occupying 
the  greater  part  of  ancient  Lucania ;  area,  4,122 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  509,089.  The  chief  rivers, 
the  Sinno,  Agri,  Basento,  and  Bradano,  form 
extended  valleys  bounded  by  offsets  from  tho 
Apennines,  which  latter  slope  gradually  toward 
the  sea  and  settle  into  low  plains  within  10  m. 
of  the  coast.  These  plains,  famous  in  antiquity 
as  the  plains  of  Metapontum  and  Heraclea, 
are  still  remarkable  for  their  fertility.  The  in- 
terior is  mountainous,  rugged,  and  little  visited, 
and  the  inhabitants  retain  primitive  modes  of 
life.  The  principal  tree  is  the  pine.  The  most 
extensive  forests  are  along  the  Sinno.  In 
the  most  northern  part  of  the  province,  wa- 
tered by  the  Ofanto,  is  the  volcanic  region  of 
Mount  Vultur,  which  extends  N.  and  S.  be- 
tween 15  and  20  m.,  and  is  20  m.  wide.  The 
mountain  proper  is  situated  between  Melfi  and 
Rionero,  and  is  3,000  ft.  high.  Disastrous  earth- 
quakes occurred  here  in  1851  and  in  December, 
1857.  Basilicata  is  rich  in  cattle,  silk,  wine, 
and  saffron.  Cotton  and  olive  oil  are  produced 
moderately.  The  chief  cereals  are  maize  and 
buckwheat.  It  is  divided  into  tho  districts  of 
Lagonegro,  Melfi,  Matera,  and  Potenza.  Cap- 
ital, Potenza. 

BASILIDES,  the  founder  of  a  Gnostic  sect, 
who  taught  in  Alexandria  about  the  year  120. 
Some  say  that  he  was  born  in  Egypt,  others  in 
Syria  or  Persia.  He  taught  that  the  Supreme 
Being  produced  from  himself  seven  other 


364 


BASILISCUS 


beings,  called  reons.  These  are,  Intelligence 
(Noif),  Reason  (Aoyiif),  Providence,  Wisdom, 
Power,  Peace,  and  Holiness;  these  seven,  with 
the  Supreme  Being  himself,  constituting  the 
perfect  eight  ('Oytfodf).  The  awns  Wisdom  and 
Power  produced  the  angels  of  the  first  order, 
who  produced  those  of  the  second  order,  and 
so  on  to  the  number  of  365  orders,  eacli  order 
dwelling  in  its  own  heaven.  From  Greek  let- 
ters the  numerical  value  of  which  is  365  was 
formed  the  mystical  word  Abraxas,  which  be- 
came the  symbol  of  the  sect  founded  by  Basil- 
ides.  The  seven  angels  of  the  lowest  order, 
whose  archon  or  chief  was  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews,  were  the  creators  of  the  world.  All 
human  souls  had  committed  sins  in  a  previous 
state  of  existence,  and  were  consequently  ex- 
cluded from  the  realm  of  light.  To  effect  their 
return  to  this  realm,  the  Nous  united  himself 
with  the  man  Christ  Jesus  at  the  time  of  his 
baptism;  but  the  sufferings  which  Jesus  en- 
dured were  borne  by  the  man  only,  and  were 
in  expiation,  as  all  suffering  is,  of  sins  com- 
mitted by  him  in  a  former  state  of  existence. 
Basilides  forbade  marriage  and  the  eating  of 
meat.  He  wrote  a  book  entitled  JSxegetica, 
fragments  of  which  are  still  extant,  and  several 
other  works,  among  which  is  a  gospel.  His 
followers,  the  Basilidians,  existed  as  late  as  the 
4th  century ;  but  they  soon  degenerated  from 
the  doctrines  of  their  founder,  affirming  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews  to  be  the  enemy  of  the 
world  of  light,  and  became  grossly  immoral. 

BASILIS11S,  emperor  of  the  East,  died  in 
Cappadocia  in  477.  Though  his  early  exploits 
against  the  Scythians  had  been  far  from  bril- 
liant, he  was  through  the  influence  of  his  sister, 
the  empress  Verina,  wife  of  Leo  I.,  placed  in 
command  in  468  of  the  fleet  which  sailed  from 
Constantinople  to  Carthage  against  Genseric, 
consisting  of  over  1,100  ships  and  100,000 
men.  The  expedition  safely  reached  the  coast 
of  Africa,  but  ended  disastrously.  Basiliscus, 
after  displaying  either  the  greatest  pusillanim- 
ity or  treachery,  fled  to  Constantinople  at  the 
beginning  of  the  contest,  and  hid  himself  in  St. 
Sophia  until  his  sister  had  appeased  the  wrath 
of  the  emperor.  He  was  punished  merely  with 
banishment  to  Thrace.  After  the  death  of 
Leo  I.  (474)  the  throne  devolved  on  his  infant 
grandson,  Leo  II.,  the  son  of  his  daughter  Ari- 
adne and  of  her  Isaurian  consort  Zeno.  The 
latter,  hoping  to  become  sole  ruler  after  the 
suspiciously  sudden  death  of  his  son,  was  de- 
posed by  Verina  and  Basiliscus,  and  Basiliscus 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  senate.  Dur- 
ing his  brief  administration  Constantinople  was 
partly  laid  in  ashes  (476),  the  famous  public 
library  with  over  120,000  MS.  volumes,  includ- 
ing the  48  books  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey, 
executed  in  golden  letters,  being  burned.  He 
burdened  the  people  with  taxes,  and  his  rule 
became  so  intolerable  that  Zeno  was  recalled 
and  Basiliscus  and  his  wife  and  children  were 
imprisoned  in  a  tower  in  Cappadocia,  where 
they  were  left  to  die  of  cold  and  starvation. 


BASILISK 

BASILISK  (basiliscm,  Laurent!),  a  genus  of 
saurian  reptiles  of  the  family  of  iguanidce,  in- 
habiting the  northern  parts  of  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America.  The 
genus  is  characterized  by  a  thin  triangular  fold 
of  skin  rising  vertically  from  the  occiput  and 
inclined  backward,  resembling  in  shape  a  Phry- 
gian cap;  the  external  edge  of  the  posterior 
toes  is  bordered  with  a  scaly  serrated  fringe ; 
the  back  and  tail  are  surmounted  in  the  adult 
male  by  an  elevated  crest,  supported  on  the 
spinous  process  of  the  vertebrre,  of  varying 
height,  and  serrated ;  in  one  species  this  crest 
resembles  the  dorsal  fin  of  a  fish,  while  in  the 
other  it  is  merely  a  serrated  scaly  ridge ;  be- 
tween the  dorsal  and  caudal  portions  the  crest 
is  interrupted,  and  both  are  covered  with  thin 
scales  disposed  in  series  parallel  to  the  spinous 
processes.  Under  the  neck  is  a  rudimentary 
angular  crest,  behind  which  is  a  well  marked 
transverse  fold.  There  are  5  or  6  teeth  on 
each  palatal  bone,  and  50  to  60  in  each  jaw, 
pointed  and  subconical,  or  compressed.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  iguana  by  the  absence 


Basiliscus  mitratus. 


of  femoral  pores.  The  head  is  covered  with 
small  many-sided  ridged  scales ;  the  body  above 
has  rhomboidal  ridged  scales,  arranged  in  trans- 
verse bands ;  the  ventral  scales  are  either  smooth 
or  ridged,  according  to  the  species.  The  limbs, 
especially  the  posterior,  are  very  long,  as  are 
also  the  toes,  which  are  slender  and  armed  with 
nails;  the  body  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  the 
tail  compressed  and  three  times  as  long  as  the 
trunk.  Two  species  are  described.  1.  The 
hooded  basilisk  (S.  mitratus,  Daudin)  has  the 
above-mentioned  cap  and  dorsal  crest,  and  the 
ventral  scales  smooth,  without  transverse  black 
bands  on  the  back ;  the  color  above  is  yellowish 
brown,  beneath  whitish ;  the  sides  of  the  neck 
are  leaden  brown,  and  the  throat  is  marked  by 
longitudinal  bands  of  the  same  color;  some- 
times there  is  a  white  band  bordered  with 
black  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  back ;  the 
length  varies  from  24  to  30  inches,  of  which  the 
tail  measures  about  two  thirds.  2.  The  banded 
basilisk  (B.  vittatus,  Wiegmann)  differs  from  the 
preceding  in  having  only  a  slight  serrated  crest 
along  the  back  and  tail,  the  ventral  scales 


BASILOSAURUS 


BASKET 


365 


ridged,  and  black  bands  across  the  back ;  the 
general  color  is  the  same,  with  the  exception 
of  dark  brown  spots  on  the  head,  chest,  and 
limbs,  and  6  or  7  black  bands  extending  across 
the  back  to  the  ventral  surface.  This  species 
•was  considered  by  Kaup  as  belonging  to  a 
different  genus,  which  he  called  corytJiteolus ; 
it  formed  the  genua  adieorypJiut  of  Wagler. 
Notwithstanding  its  forbidding  appearance,  the 
basilisk  is  a  perfectly  harmless  animal ;  it  feeds 
on  insects,  and  lives  principally  on  trees,  which 
it  climbs  with  great  dexterity ;  it  is  supposed 
that  the  dorsal  crest  may  serve  to  steady  its 
motions  as  it  springs  from  tree  to  tree. — The 
ancient  poets  imagined  an  animal,  which  they 
called  basilisk,  whose  breath  poisoned  the  air, 
•whose  glance  was  death,  and  whose  presence 
was  fatal  to  all  other  creatures,  including  man ; 
they  supposed  it  to  have  the  form  of  a  snake, 
and  to  be  produced  from  the  egg  of  a  cock 
brooded  upon  by  a  serpent.  The  (ziphoni  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  is  a  true  snake,  improperly 
called  basilisk  in  the  Greek  version,  and  in 
the  English  translation  cockatrice,  an  animal 
as  fabulous  as  the  ancient  basilisk. 

It \SII.OSAI  III S.     See  ZETOLODOX. 

It  ISKKKYILLK,  John,  an  English  printer  and 
type  founder,  born  in  1706,  died  in  Birming- 
ham, Jan.  8,  1775.  Previous  to  becoming  a 
type  founder  he  was  a  writing  master,  a  tomb- 
stone cutter,  and  a  successful  japanner.  He 
greatly  improved  type  founding  and  the  qual- 
ity of  printing  ink.  His  printing  has  a  rich 
purple-black  hue,  supposed  to  be  made  by  sub- 
jecting each  sheet  as  it  came  from  the  press 
to  pressure  between  heated  copper  plates.  He 
retired  in  1765,  but  his  press  continued  to 
be  highly  esteemed  in  Birmingham  until  the 
Priestley  riots  of  1791,  when  the  mob  destroyed 
the  printing  office.  His  remains  were  removed 
in  1821  to  Christ  church. 

BASKET,  a  vessel  made  by  interweaving 
twigs  or  reeds,  grasses,  leaves,  metal  or  glass 
wire,  whalebone,  or  any  similar  material. 
Baskets  differ  greatly  in  their  forms,  sizes,  and 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied,  from  the 
rudest  utensils  of  necessity  to  the  most  deli- 
cately wrought  articles  of  luxury  and  taste. 
A  breastwork  on  the  parapet  of  a  trench  is 
sometimes  formed  of  what  is  called  baskets 
of  earth  (corbeils),  which  are  so  placed  as  to 
allow  the  soldiers  to  fire  between  them,  shel- 
tered from  the  fire  of  the  enemy. — Basket 
making  is  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  ancient 
of  the  arts.  The  Romans  found  wicker  boats 
covered  with  skins  in  use  among  the  ancient 
natives  of  Britain.  Round  boats  of  wicker- 
work  covered  with  bitumen  or  skins  were 
used  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  in  the  times 
of  Herodotus ;  and  similar  boats,  about  7  ft.  in 
diameter,  are  still  used  there.  In  India  boats 
of  a  similar  form  and  construction  are  still  in 
use  in  crossing  the  less  rapid  rivers ;  they  are 
made  of  bamboo  and  skins,  requiring  only  a 
few  hours'  labor;  they  are  about  12  ft.  in 
diameter  and  4  deep,  are  navigated  with  oars 


or  poles,  or  towed  by  oxen  or  men,  and  are 
sometimes  used  to  transport  large  armies  and 
heavy  artillery.  The  ancient  Britons  manufac- 
tured wicker  vessels  with  extraordinary  skill 
and  ingenuity ;  their  costly  and  elegant  baskets 
are  mentioned  by  Juvenal  in  speaking  of  the 
extravagance  of  the  Romans  in  his  time.  The 
natives  of  South  America  make  baskets  of 
rushes  so  closely  woven  as  to  hold  liquids; 
their  manufacture  and  sale  throughout  the 
Spanish  countries  is  very  extensive.  The  na- 
tives of  Tasmania  wove  similar  water-tight 
vessels  of  leaves.  The  Caffres  and  Hottentots 
possess  equal  skill  in  weaving  the  roots  of  cer- 
tain plants.  Shields  in  ancient  times  were 
constructed  of  wickerwork,  plain  or  covered 
with  hides;  they  are  still  thus  made  among 
savage  tribes.  Wickerwork  is  now  largely 
used  for  the  bodies  of  light  carriages.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe  Holstein  wagons,  carriages 
drawn  by  two  horses  and  carrying  several 
persons,  are  made  almost  entirely  of  wicker- 
work.  In  different  parts  of  the  world,  houses, 
huts,  gates,  fences,  sledges,  and  shoes,  and 
other  articles  of  use  and  ornament,  are  formed 
by  this  ancient  and  universal  art. — In  making 
baskets,  the  twigs  or  rods,  being  assorted  ac- 
cording to  their  size  and  use,  and  being  left 
considerably  longer  than  the  work  to  be  woven, 
are  arranged  on  the  floor  in  pairs  parallel  to 
each  other  and  at  small  intervals  apart,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  longer  diameter  of  the 
basket.  Then  two  large  rods  are  laid  across 
the  parallel  ones,  with  their  thick  ends  toward 
the  workman,  who  is  to  put  his  foot  on  them, 
thereby  holding  them  firm,  and  weave  them 
one  at  a  time  alternately  over  and  under  those 
first  laid  down,  confining  them  in  their  places. 
This  forms  the  foundation  of  the  basket,  and  is 
technically  called  the  slat  or  slate.  Then  the 
long  end  of  one  of  these  two  rods  is  woven 
over  and  under  the  pairs  of  short  ends,  all 
around  the  bottom,  till  the  whole  is  woven  in. 
The  same  is  done  with  the  other  rod,  and  then 
additional  long  ones  are  woven  in,  till  the  bot- 
tom of  the  basket  is  of  sufficient  size.  The 
sides  are  formed  by  sharpening  the  large  ends 
of  enough  stout  rods  to  form  the  ribs,  and  plait- 
ing or  forcing  the  sharpened  ends  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  basket,  from  the  circumference  to- 
ward the  centre ;  then  raising  the  rods  in  the 
direction  the  sides  of  the  basket  are  to  have, 
and  weaving  other  rods  between  them  till  the 
basket  is  of  the  required  depth.  The  brim  is 
formed  by  bending  down  and  fastening  the 
perpendicular  sides  of  the  ribs,  whereby  the 
whole  is  firmly  and  compactly  united.  A 
handle  is  fitted  to  the  basket  by  forcing  two 
or  three  sharpened  rods  of  the  right  length 
down  the  weaving  of  the  sides,  close  to  each 
other,  and  pinning  them  fast  about  two  inches 
below  the  brim,  so  that  the  handle  may  retain 
its  position  when  completed.  The  ends  of  the 
rods  are  then  bound  or  plaited  in  any  way  the 
workman  chooses.  This  is  a  basket  of  the  ru- 
dest kind.  Others  will  vary  according  to  the 


366       BASUAGE  DE  BEAUVAL 


BASQUES 


artist's  purpose,  skill,  and  materials.  When 
whole  rods  or  twigs  are  not  adapted  to  the 
kind  of  work  required,  they  are  divided  into 
splits  and  skeins.  Splits  are  made  by  cleaving 
the  rod  lengthwise  into  four  parts,  by  means 
of  an  implement  consisting  of  two  blades,  cross- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles,  the  intersection 
of  which  passes  down  the  pith  of  the  rod. 
These  splits  are  next  drawn  through  an  imple- 
ment resembling  a  common  spoke-shave,  keep- 
ing the  pith  presented  to  the  edge  of  the  iron, 
and  the  back  of  the  split  against  the  wood  of 
the  implement.  The  split  is  then  passed  through 
another  implement,  called  an  upright,  to  bring 
it  to  a  more  uniform  shape.  This  consists  of  a 
flat  piece  of  steel,  each  end  of  which  has  a  cut- 
ting edge,  like  that  of  an  ordinary  chisel ;  this 
piece  is  bent  round,  and  the  edges  are  made  to 
approach  each  other  as  near  as  desired  by 
means  of  screws,  the  whole  being  fixed  into  a 
handle.  By  passing  the  splits  between  these 
two  edges,  they  are  reduced  to  any  required 
thickness.  The  implements  required  in  basket 
making  are  few  and  simple,  consisting,  besides 
those  just  mentioned,  of  knives,  bodkins,  and 
drills  for  boring,  leads  for  steadying  the  work 
while  in  progress,  and  when  it  is  of  small  di- 
mensions, and  a  piece  of  iron  called  a  beater. — 
The  splints  of  various  kinds  of  wood,  particu- 
larly certain  species  of  ash,  elm,  and  birch,  are 
extensively  employed  in  basket  work.  These 
splints  are  obtained  by  beating  logs  of  the  wood 
with  a  maul,  thus  loosening  and  separating 
the  different  layers  or  rings  into  narrow  strips. 
This  is  the  simple  and  primitive  process,  and  is 
necessarily  slow,  and  restricted  to  woods  of  a 
free  texture.  Several  machines  have  been  in- 
vented and  are  now  employed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  splints,  by  which  different  kinds  of 
wood,  prepared  by  steaming  or  otherwise,  are 
cut  or  rived  into  the  required  form.  Basket 
willow  and  osier  are  terms  commonly  applied 
to  the  species  of  salix  most  used  in  basket 
work.  (See  OSIEB.) 

BASNAGE  DE  BEAUVAL,  Jaeqnes,  a  French  au- 
thor and  diplomatist,  born  in  Rouen  in  1653, 
died  at  the  Hague  in  1722  or  1723.  He  received 
an  excellent  theological  and  classical  education, 
was  Protestant  minister  at  Eouen  from  1676  to 
1685,  and  on  the  suppression  of  the  Reformed 
church  in  that  city  was  pensioned  and  permitted 
to  go  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  had  charge  of  the 
Walloon  church  till  1709.  He  afterward  pre- 
sided over  the  same  denomination  at  the  Hague 
at  the  request  of  Heinsius,  whose  influence  also 
led  to  his  being  employed  diplomatically.  In 
1717  he  cooperated  with  the  abbe  Dubois  in  con- 
cluding a  defensive  alliance  between  the  states 
general  and  France  and  Great  Britain,  after 
which  his  confiscated  Rouen  estates  were  re- 
stored to  him.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
theological  and  other  works,  the  best  of  which 
is  his  Huttoire  des  Juifs,  depute  Jesus-Christ 
rmqrfau  present,  pour  serqir  de  supplement  d 
I  HMoire  de  Josephe  (5  volL  Rotterdam,  1706 : 
new  ed.,  Paris,  1710).  / 


BASQUE  I'ROVl.MKS.     See  BASQUES. 

BASQUES,  a  peculiar  race,  who  from  time 
immemorial  have  inhabited  both  slopes  of  the 
Pyrenees.  They  number  about  800,000,  of 
whom  about  150,000  are  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Basses-Pyrenees,  the  remainder  in  the 
Spanish  provinces  of  Navarre,  Biscay,  Guipuz- 
coa,  and  Alava.  The  last  three  provinces  are 
usually  styled  the  Basque  provinces.  From 
the  remotest  times  the  Basques  have  remained 
unsubdued  in  their  mountain  homes,  and  nei- 
ther Carthaginian,  Roman,  Gothic,  Saracen, 
French,  nor  Spanish  domination  has  been  able 
to  efface  their  distinctive  characteristics.  They 
are  of  middle  size,  compactly  built,  robust  and 
agile,  of  a  darker  complexion  than  the  Span- 
iards, with  gray  eyes  and  black  hair.  They 
are  simple,  but  proud,  impetuous,  merry,  and 
hospitable.  The  women  are  beautiful,  skilful 
in  performing  men's  work,  and  remarkable  for 


Basques. 

their  vivacity  and  grace.  The  Basques  are 
much  attached  to  dancing,  and  are  very  fond 
of  the  music  of  the  bagpipe.  The  national  dress 
is  a  red  jacket,  long  breeches,  a  red  or  brown 
sash,  a  square-knotted  neck  tie,  hempen  shoes, 
and  pointed  caps.  The  women  wear  head- 
dresses of  gay  colors  over  their  variously 
braided  and  twisted  hair.  In  the  social  rela- 
tions of  the  Basques  patriarchal  manners  and 
habits  prevail.  The  art  of  agriculture  is  but 
little  advanced,  yet  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  industry  of  the  occupants  produce  an  abun- 
dance. Among  the  Spanish  Basques  there  is 
an  almost  universal  equality  of  conditions,  the 
nobility  being  few  in  number.  There  are  few 
cities  or  villages,  but  small  houses  lie  scattered 
upon  nearly  all  the  heights.  In  their  political 
constitution,  they  are  divided  into  districts, 
each  of  which  chooses  annually  an  alcalde,  who 
is  both  a  civil  and  military  officer,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  supreme  junta,  which  meets  every 


BASQUES 


BASS 


367 


year  for  deliberation  upon  matters  of  general 
interest.  Their  rights  are  protected  by  the 
fucroa,  or  written  constitutions,  which  were 
granted  by  ancient  Spanish  kings.  In  religion 
they  are  Koman  Catholics. — Whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  and  ethnological  relations 
of  the  Basque  people,  they  have  enjoyed  an 
immemorial  reputation  for  valor  in  their  pres- 
ent seats.  They  were  the  Oantabri  of  the 
Romans,  and  are  alluded  to  by  Horace  as  a 
people  hard  to  be  taught  to  bear  the  yoke. 
The  Spanish  Basques  long  maintained  them- 
selves independent,  though  situated  between 
the  rival  monarchies  of  Navarre  and  Castile ; 
and  though  in  the  13th  century  they  were  in- 
corporated into  the  Castilian  monarchy,  they 
retained  their  old  liberties,  paid  no  taxes,  and 
enjoyed  throughout  Spain  all  the  exemptions 
of  the  nobility.  The  Spanish  constitution  of 
1812  stripped  them  of  their  long-possessed 
privileges,  which  however  they  recovered  in 
1823,  after  an  energetic  insurrection.  When, 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1833, 
Isabella  determined  to  take  their  privileges 
from  them  again,  they  embraced  with  ardor 
the  cause  of  Don  Carlos,  and  after  six  years 
of  rebellion  recognized  the  young  queen  only 
when  the  reestablishment  of  the  fueros  was 
promised  them.— The  proper  name  of  the 
Basque  language  is  Euscara  or  Esquera, 
which  degenerated  into  Vase,  Bascongada,  and 
in  the  French  provinces  into  Bascuence.  Eusk 
or  Esc  probably  signifies  sunrise  or  east,  point- 
ing to  the  original  country  of  the  Basques. 
The  people  call  themselves  Euscaldunac,  peo- 
ple of  the  language,  designating  all  strangers  as 
Erdaldunac,  people  of  foreign  language.  Some 
natives  derive  the  name  of  Bascon  from  basocoa, 
forest-dweller.  There  are  three  principal  dia- 
lects of  this  language:  the  Guipuzcoan,  the 
purest,  pleasantest,  and  most  developed  of  all, 
spoken  in  Guipuzcoa  and  Alava ;  the  Vizcayan ; 
and  the  Labortan  of  Lower  Navarre,  Labourd, 
and  Zuberoa,  which  is  softer  than  the  Viz- 
cayan. Great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among 
writers  on  everything  concerning  not  only  the 
history  but  the  language  of  this  brave,  hardy, 
industrious,  freedom-loving  people.  It  is,  how- 
ever, certain  that  the  Euscara  entirely  differs 
from  thelanguages  of  the  Indo-European  family. 
It  has  some  common  traits  with  the  Magyar, 
Osmanli,  and  other  dialects  of  the  Uralo- Altaic 
family.  This  similarity  consists  in  blending 
several  words  into  one,  especially  in  the  con- 
jugation of  verbs,  and  in  the  exclusion  of  com- 
binations like  cr,  gr,  pr,  pi,  tr,  &c.  But  there 
are  few  coincidences  of  the  roots  of  words. 
The  Euscara  is  the  primitive  language  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Spain,  who  were  called  Iberi  by 
the  classic  writers,  were  settled  in  the  whole 
peninsula,  in  a  part  of  Aquitania,  partly  in  Sici- 
ly, Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  and  traces  of  whom  are 
found  in  Italy  and  in  Thrace.  By  an  invasion 
of  a  branch  of  Celts,  in  prehistoric  times,  these 
aborigines  were  mixed  in  a  part  of  the  pen- 
insula with  the  invaders,  thus  producing  the 
76  VOL.  ii.— 24 


Celtiberi,  who  included  the  Cantabri.  Many 
writers  confound  the  latter  with  the  aborigi- 
nal Basques;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Iberia  at 
the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  were  of  three 
sorts :  the  Iberi,  the  Celtic!,  and  the  Celtiberi, 
to  whom  the  Cantabri  belonged.  The  settle- 
ments of  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Carthagini- 
ans on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  sea 
are  of  much  later  date.  The  Euscara  has  no 
words  beginning  with  r,  f,  tt ;  it  has  more 
sibilants  than  the  Greek,  viz.,  s,  z,  hard  and 
soft  ts  ;  it  is  very  rich  in  words  and  grammatic 
forms ;  it  is  full  and  well-sounding,  and  very 
perspicuous.  Its  predominant  combinations 
of  sounds  are:  ar,  man;  bae,  be,  low,  deep; 
cal,  damage ;  car,  gar,  high ;  maen,  men,  power ; 
na,  plain,  high ;  0,  high ;  se,  ce,  plain,  &c. 
Very  rare  combinations  are  ner,  and  tar,  ter. 
We  possess  the  most  valuable  grammatical  in- 
formation in  the  Vizcayan,  the  best  lexical  de- 
velopment in  the  Guipuzcoan  (Larramendi's 
Diccionario  trilingue,  Castellano,  Bascuence, 
y  Latin,  San  Sebastian,  1853),  but  scarcely 
anything  available  in  the  Labortan  dialect. — 
William  von  Humboldt  (in  Adelung's  Mithri- 
dates,  and  in  his  work  on  the  aborigines  of 
Spain,  &c.,  Berlin,  1821),  Prince  Louis  Lucien 
Bonaparte,  and  Chaho  (Dictionnaire  basque, 
Paris,  1857  et  seq.)  furnish  the  best  materials 
among  all  foreign  writers  on  the  Basque  lan- 
guage. See  also  Ticknor's  "  Spanish  Litera- 
ture," vol.  iii.,  and  Le  pays  basque,  sa  popula- 
tion, sa  langue,  ses  mceurs,  sa  litterature  et  sa 
musique,  by  Francisque  Michel  (Paris,  1857), 
who  has  also  published  a  Romancero  du  pays 
basque  (Paris,  1859). 

HAS-lllllX,  a  former  department  of  France, 
now  included  in  the  German  imperial  terri- 
tory of  Alsace-Lorraine.  (See  ALSAOB-LOE- 
EAINE.) 

BASS  (labrax),  a  family  of  sea  and  fresh-water 
fishes  of  which  there  are  many  well  known 
varieties  in  American  waters.  They  belong 
to  the  division  acanthopterygii,  or  those  having 
spinous  fins,  to  the  family  of  the  percidm,  or 
those  of  the  perch  type,  and  have  several  sub- 
genera,  as  grystes  and  centrarchus,  which  are 
the  most  remarkable.  Bass  of  various  kinds 
are  found  in  most  of  the  waters  of  the  world, 
and  are  everywhere  well  esteemed,  both  as  a 
table  fish  and  by  the  angler.  The  principal 
European  variety  is  the  labrax  lupus,  which 


European  Bass  (Labrax    lupus). 

has  by  some  writers  been  confounded  with  our 
striped  bass,  an  entirely  different  fish,  first  dis- 
tinguished by  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchill  of  New 
York.  The  following  are  the  American  varie- 


368 


BASS 


ties:  1.  The  sea  bass,  sometimes  called  bine  or 
black  bass  (centropristis  nigricans):  This  is 
purely  a  sea  species,  never  coming  into  fresh 
water.  Its  general  color  is  blue-black,  slightly 
bronzed.  The  edges  of  all  the  scales  are  of  a 
darker  color  than  the  ground,  which  gives  it 
the  appearance  of  being  covered  by  a  black 
network.  The  fins,  except  the  pectoral,  are 
pale  blue,  the  anal  and  dorsal  spotted  with  a 
darker  shade  of  the  same  color.  The  teeth  are 
set,  like  those  of  a  carding  machine,  over  all 
the  bones  of  the  mouth,  those  on  the  lips  the 
largest.  The  dorsal  fin  has  10  spines,  11  soft 
rays ;  the  pectorals,  18  soft  rays ;  the  ventrals, 
1  spine,  5  soft  rays ;  the  anal,  3  spines,  7  soft 
rays;  the  caudal  is  trilobed  and  has  18  soft 
rays.  The  weight  of  the  sea  bass  varies  from 
•J-  Ib.  to  17  Ibs.,  the  latter  very  rare.  2.  The 
striped  bass  (L.  lineatus).  This  is  the  rock  fish 
of  the  Delaware  and  Potomac.  Its  color  is  blu- 
ish brown  above,  silvery  white  below,  with  from 
7  to  9  equidistant,  dark,  parallel  stripes  of  choc- 
olate brown,  those  above  the  lateral  line  ter- 
minating at  the  base  of  the  caudal  fin,  those 
below  it  fading  away  above  the  anal  fin.  The 
teeth  are  numerous  on  the  palatal  and  maxil- 
lary bones,  and  on  the  tongue.  The  1st  dorsal 
fin  has  9  spines ;  the  2d,  1  spine,  12  soft  rays ; 
the  pectorals,  16  soft  rays;  the  ventrals,  1 
spine,  5  soft  rays;  the  anal,  3  spines,  11  soft 
rays ;  the  caudal,  which  is  deeply  lunated,  has 
17  soft  rays.  This  fish  winters  in  the  deep, 
warm,  muddy  sea  bays,  and  runs  up  the  rivers 
in  the  spring  in  pursuit  of  the  smelt,  and  to 
devour  the  shad  roe,  and  in  the  autumn  to 
spawn.  It  runs  from  the  size  of  a  smelt  up  to 
50,  60,  and  70  Ibs.  weight.  It  is  very  voracious, 


Striped  Bass  (Labrax   lineatus). 

excellent  on  the  table,  and  an  especial  favorite 
of  the  angler.  3.  The  bar  fish  (L.  notatus),  a 
variety  of  the  fish  above  described,  distinguish- 
ed from  it  by  Lieut.  Ool.  Smith  of  the  British 
army.  The  principal  distinction  is  that  the 
lines  on  the  sides  are  not  continuous,  but  are 
broken  into  spots.  4.  The  ruddy  bass  (L.  ru- 
ftu).  5.  The  little  white  bass  (L.  pallidwt). 
These  are  two  small  and  insignificant  varieties, 
not  exceeding  a  few  inches  in  length,  known 
to  anglers  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  where 


they  abound,  at  about  the  meeting  of  the  fresh 
water  and  the  tide,  as  the  river  perch  and  the 
white  perch. — We  now  come  to  the  purely 
fresh-water  species,  which  are  as  follows:  6. 
The  black  bass  of  the  lakes  (grystes  nigricans). 


Black  Bass  (Grystes  nigricans). 

Its  color  is  blue-back,  glossed  with  bronze,  and 
marked  with  darker  clouded  bandings ;  belly 
lighter  colored.  Both  jaws  are  armed  with  a 
broad  patch  of  small,  sharp,  recurved  teeth; 
the  vomer  has  also  a  patch,  and  the  palatal 
bones  a  belt  or  band  of  teeth  of  the  same  de- 
scription. The  dorsal  fin  has  9  spines;  the 
2d  dorsal,  1  spine,  14  soft  rays ;  the  pectorals, 
18  soft  rays;  the  ventrals,  1  spine,  12  soft  rays ; 
the  caudal,  16  soft  rays.  It  is  found  every- 
where west,  from  the  basin  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  tributaries  of  the  Ohio,  and  has 
lately  been  extensively  introduced  into  the  wa- 
ters of  New  York  and  New  England.  It  runs 
from  a  few  inches  in  length  to  rarely  8  Ibs. 
weight.  It  is  a  bold  biter  and  an  excellent 
fish.  7.  The  Oswego  bass  (G.  megastoma)  is 
often  confounded  with  the  species  last  described, 
but  is  entirely  distinct.  Its  principal  feature 
is  the  great  size  of  its  mouth.  It  is  a  thicker 
fish,  and  its  head  is  larger  as  compared  to  its 
size.  Color,  dark  greenish  blue,  lighter  on 
the  belly.  The  dorsal  fin  has  9  spines,  14  soft 
rays;  the  pectorals,  13  soft  rays;  ventrals,  1 
spine,  5  soft  rays;  anal,  3  spines,  11  soft  rays; 
caudal,  20  soft  rays.  It  abounds  in  the  bays 
and  river  mouths  of  Lake  Erie,  bites  well  at 
live  or  dead  minnow,  and  is  a  good  fish,  but 
inferior  to  the  last  described  variety.  8.  White 
bass  (multilineatus),  sometimes  called  white 
perch,  peculiar  to  Lake  Erie  and  the  upper 
lakes,  and  very  abundant  in  them.  In  color  it 
is  light  olive  above  and  silvery  white  on  the 
sides  and  belly,  with  numerous  longitudinal 
dark  lines,  the  numbers  varying  in  different 
specimens.  This  fish  has  not  been  scientifically 
described,  so  that  its  dental  system  and  that 
of  its  fin  rays  cannot  be  given  with  accuracy. 
It  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  fish  on  the  table, 
and  a  bold,  voracious  biter.  9.  The  grass  bass 
(centrarchus  hexacanthw),  sometimes  called 
the  roach,  also  peculiar  to  Lake  Erie,  where  it 
is  abundant  in  the  small  bays  and  at  the  river 
mouths.  In  color  it  is  spotted  or  marbled 
above,  with  dark  shades  on  a  sea-green  ground, 


BASS 


BASSANO 


369 


and  on  the  sides  with  the  same  marks  on  light 
green  or  yellow.  The  sides  of  the  head  and 
body  are  of  an  iridescent  white,  the  belly  sil- 
very white.  Like  the  preceding  fish,  it  has  not 
been  scientifically  distinguished  or  described. 
Its  anal  fin  is  said  to  be  extremely  long,  and  its 
abdomen  consequently  very  small.  Wherever 
the  large-mouthed  bass  is  found  this  fish  is 


Rock  Bass  (Centarchus  aeneus). 

plentiful.  It  rarely  exceeds  10  inches  in  length 
and  2  Ibs.  in  weight.  10.  The  rock  bass  (C. 
aeneus).  Its  color  is  dark  coppery  yellow, 
banded  with  irregular  darker  clouds  and  green 
reflections ;  fins  bluish  green ;  teeth  small,  re- 
curved, on  the  maxillaries,  vomer,  palatals, 
and  pharyngeals.  The  dorsal  fin  has  11  spines, 
12  soft  rays;  the  pectorals,  14  soft  rays;  the 
ventrals,  1  spine,  5  soft  rays ;  the  anal,  6  spines, 
11  soft  rays;  the  cau- 
dal, 17  rays.  This  fish, 
originally  peculiar  to 
the  basin  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  has  come 
down  the  Erie  canal 
and  become  common 
in  the  Hudson  river, 
where  it  is  freely  ta- 
ken. It  rarely  exceeds 
a  pound  in  weight,  but 
is  an  excellent  fish  on 
the  table,  and  affords 
admirable  sport  to  the 
angler.  11.  The  growl- 
er (grystes  salmonoei- 
de»),  generally  called 
the  white  salmon  in 
the  southern  states, 
closely  resembles  the 
black  bass  in  form,  but 
grows  larger.  It  is 
of  a  deep  bluish  green 
above,  lighter  below ;  when  young  has  25  or 
30  longitudinal  dark  bands,  which  grow  paler 
by  age.  The  dorsal  fin  has  10  spines,  14  soft 
rays;  the  pectorals,  16  soft  rays;  the  ventrals, 
1  spine,  5  soft  rays ;  the  anal,  3  spines,  12  soft 
rays;  the  caudal,  17  soft  rays.  This  also  is 
said  to  be  a  bold  biter  and  a  good  fish.  With 
this  species  ends,  so  far  as  is  yet  ascertained, 
the  list  of  the  bass  family  proper  to  American 
waters,  although  it  is  probable  that  in  the 


course  of  time  future  varieties  may  be  dis- 
covered in  the  vast  network  of  lakes  and  rivers 
which  have  not  yet  been  scientifically  explored 
through  one  fourth  of  their  extent. 

BASS,  or  Basswood.     See  LINDEN. 

BASS,  George  A.,  an  English  navigator,  died 
early  in  the  19th  century.  He  was  a  surgeon  in 
the  navy,  and  made  in  1796  with  Matthew  Flin- 
ders his  first  two  voyages  of  discovery  on  the 
coast  of  New  South  Wales  in  a  boat  only  8 
ft.  long,  which  they  called  the  Tom  Thumb. 
In  1797  the  government  despatched  him  on  a 
third  voyage,  during  which  he  discovered  in 
1798  the  strait  that  bears  his  name,  between 
Tasmania  and  New  South  Wales.  He  was  soon 
after  sent  again,  with  Flinders,  with  directions 
to  sail  around  Tasmania  and  examine  and  pro- 
ject the  coast.  His  labors  greatly  increased  the 
progress  of  colonization,  but  he  died  unhon- 
ored  and  unrequited  for  his  arduous  and  ad- 
venturous efforts.  See  "  Voyage  to  Terra  Aus- 
tralis"  (2  vols.,  London,  1814),  by  Flinders. 

BASSAJVO,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Pia- 
cenza,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Brenta,  31  m. 
N.  by  W.  of  Padua  and  15  N.  E.  of  Vicenza ; 
pop.  about  13,000.  The  fine  bridge  over  the 
Brenta  built  by  Palladio  was  swept  away  in 
1748,  and  restored  by  Ferracino.  The  old  walls 
of  Bassano  are  clad  with  ivy ;  the  sidewalks  are 
paved  with  marble  found  in  the  vicinity,  and  the 
streets  with  granite  and  other  materials.  The 
partly  ruined  castle  of  Ezzelino  in  the  centre  of 
the  town  is  now  occupied  by  the  archbishop. 


The  museum  in  the  piazza  San  Francisco  con- 
tains an  extensive  library,  a  picture  gallery,  and 
collections  of  coins  and  rare  engravings.  The 
palace  of  the  podesta  contains  frescoes  and 
statuary.  Near  the  town  are  the  villa  Rez- 
zonico,  famous  for  its  extensive  view  and  for 
works  of  art,  and  the  villa  Parolini,  with  a 
botanical  garden.  The  town  contains  a  num- 
ber of  convents;  a  gymnasium,  and  about  30 
churches,  several  of  which  have  paintings  ex- 


370 


BASSANO 


ecuted  by  the  Bassano  family.  The  Remondini 
printing  establishment,  once  the  first  in  Italy, 
is  still  of  some  importance,  and  has  paper  mills 
and  a  school  of  engraving  annexed  to  it.  The 
trade  is  considerable,  especially  in  silks.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  woollen  cloths,  straw 
hats,  and  leather.  Ezzelino  resided  here  for 
some  time.  The  town  was  fortified  and  im- 
proved by  Francis  of  Carrara,  lord  of  Padua, 
and  was  ruled  by  the  Visconti  of  Milan,  who 
in  1404  ceded  it  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  of 
which  it  became  a  separate  province  with  a 
local  administration.  In  the  16th  century  it 
suffered  during  the  war  of  the  league  of  Cam- 
bray  against  Venice.  On  Sept.  8,  1796,  Napo- 
leon, after  a  forced  march  of  two  days  from 
Trent,  annihilated  here  the  Austrian  army  un- 
der Wurmser.  Battles  were  also  fought  here 
between  the  French  and  the  Austrians  in  No- 
vember, 1796,  in  1801,  1805,  and  1813.  Na- 
poleon raised  Bassano  to  a  duchy  for  the  benefit 
of  Maret.  Canova  was  born  in  a  village  10  m. 
from  Bassano. 

BASSANO,  or  Bassan.  I.  Francesco  da  Ponto, 
the  head  of  a  school  of  painters,  called  the 
Bassans,  born  in  1475,  died  in  Bassano  in  1530. 
He  studied  in  Venice  under  Giovanni  Bellini, 
and  painted  frescoes  superior  to  those  of  his 
master.  His  best  composition  is  a  "Descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in  a  church  at  Oliero, 
near  Bassano.  He  is  called  the  elder  Bassano, 
to  distinguish  him  from  his  son.  II.  Giacomo  da 
I'mitf,  commonly  called  IL  BASSANO,  son  and 
pupil  of  the  preceding,  the  most  celebrated 
member  of  the  family,  born  in  1510,  died  in 
Venice  in  1592.  He  derived  his  principal  edu- 
cation from  the  cartoons  of  Parmigiano,  and 
in  copying  Bonifazio  and  Titian.  His  picture 
of  the  "Nativity,"  in  the  church  of  San  Giu- 
seppe at  Bassano,  is  his  masterpiece,  and  a 
celebrated  work  in  force  of  colors  and  chiaro- 
scuro. III.  Francesco,  called  the  younger,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1548,  died  in  1591.  He 
was  employed  with  Tintoretto  in  the  palace 
of  St.  Mark,  and  executed  there  several  fres- 
coes after  Paul  Veronese.  His  best  works  are 
the  fresco  ceiling  of  the  palace  of  the  doges  at 
Venice,  representing  the  capture  of  Pavia. 

BASSANO,  Hnsnes  Bernard  Maret,  duke  of,  a 
French  statesman,  born  in  Dijon,  March  1, 
1763,  died  in  Paris,  May  18,  1839.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  physician,  received  an  excellent 
education,  and  went  to  Paris  to  practise  law ; 
but  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  changed 
his  plans,  and  he  edited  the  Bulletin  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  constituent  assembly,  which 
became  the  origin  of  the  Moniteur,  the  offi- 
cial journal,  and  won  for  him  great  political 
influence.  Although  in  favor  of  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  club 
of  the  Feuillants,  he  became  in  1791  chief  of  a 
bureau  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
was  sent  in  1792  on  an  extraordinary  mission 
to  London  after  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations with  England.  Failing  in  his  nego- 
tiations with  Lord  Grenville,  he  returned  to 


BASSANTIN 

Paris,  and  losing  his  place  during  the  reign  of 
terror  he  resumed  his  editorial  connection  with 
the  Moniteur.  In  July,  1793,  he  was  appoint- 
ed ambassador  to  Naples ;  but  he  and  his  trav- 
elling companion,  the  French  envoy  to  Turkey, 
were  captured  by  the  Austrians  in  Switzerland 
and  imprisoned  in  Mantua  and  Brilnn  about 
two  years.  He  was  finally  exchanged  for  the 
daughter  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  was  received  in 
Paris  with  great  distinction  ;  but  owing  to  his 
former  opposition  to  the  Jacobins,  he  received 
no  public  employment  till  1797,  when  he  was 
sent  to  Lille  as  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  for 
the  negotiation  of  peace  with  England.  In 
1798  the  Cisalpine  republic  presented  him  with 
estates  of  the  value  of  150,000  francs  as  an 
indemnity  for  his  captivity.  Having  formerly 
lived  in  the  same  house  with  Bonaparte,  the 
latter  on  his  return  from  Egypt  greeted  him 
as  an  old  friend  and  employed  him  as  private 
secretary.  After  the  18th  Brumaire  he  became 
secretary  general  and  subsequently  secretary 
of  state,  officiating  after  the  dismissal  of  Bour- 
rienne  as  the  chief  director  of  the  home  office, 
manipulating  the  press  and  exerting  immense 
influence  over  his  master,  whom  he  accompa- 
nied in  almost  all  his  campaigns  and  assisted 
in  all  his  diplomatic  negotiations.  The  minis- 
try of  foreign  affairs  having  been  placed  under 
his  direction  in  1811,  he  signed  in  February  and 
March,  1812,  the  treaties  which  he  had  nego- 
tiated with  Prussia  and  Austria  to  secure  the 
cooperation  of  those  powers  during  the  Kus- 
sian  campaign.  Napoleon  invested  him  with 
the  duchy  of  Bassano,  with  an  annual  revenue 
of  about  50,000  francs,  besides  presenting  him 
with  a  palace  and  valuable  property  in  Paris, 
and  retaining  him  as  his  most  intimate  adviser 
even  after  he  had  removed  him  from  the  sec- 
retaryship of  state  and  the  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs.  During  the  hundred  days  he  resumed 
the  former  position,  was  made  a  peer  on  June 
2,  and  remained  by  the  side  of  the  emperor  at 
Waterloo.  During  the  restoration  he  lived  in 
exile  at  Gratz  till  1820.  Louis  Philippe  re- 
stored him  to  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1831,  and 
in  1834  he  acted  for  a  few  days  as  minister  of 
the  interior  and  president  of  the  cabinet.  He 
was  restored  in  1832  as  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy. His  interesting  correspondence  and  liter- 
ary productions  have  not  yet  been  published. — 
His  son,  NAPOLEON  JOSEPH  HTJGTJES  MARET, 
duke  of  Bassano,  born  hi  Paris,  July  3,  1803, 
was  appointed  in  1851  ambassador  to  Brussels, 
and  in  1852  senator. — A  younger  son,  Prince 
EUGENE  DE  BASSANO,  ruined  himself  in  mining 
operations  in  Algeria.  He  published  in  1848, 
with  E.  de  Solms,  Projet  de  colonisation  de 
V Algeria  par  I' association. 

BASSANTIN,  or  Bassantonn,  James,  a  Scotch 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  born  about 
1504,  died  in  1568.  He  was  a  son  of  the  laird 
of  Bassantin,  studied  at  Glasgow  and  on  the 
continent,  acquired  renown  and  some  fortune 
as  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university 
of  Paris  and  also  as  an  astrologer,  returned  to 


BASSANVILLE 

Scotland  in  1562,  and  warmly  supported  the 
earl  of  Murray.  His  principal  work  on  as- 
tronomy passed  through  several  editions,  anc 
was  translated  by  Tornsesius  from  French  into 
Latin  (Geneva,  1599).  He  had  scarcely  any 
knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  received  literary  assistance  in 
the  preparation  of  his  various  writings,  one 
of  his  treatises  being  entitled  Musica  secun- 
dum  Platonem. 

BASSANVILLE,  Anus  Lebmn  de,  countess,  a 
French  writer,  born  in  1806.  She  was  educat- 
ed under  the  direction  of  Mme.  Campan,  and 
lias  acquired  renown  by  her  numerous  school 
books,  novels,  &c.,  including  Aventures  (Tune 
epingle  (1845);  Leg  memoir es  d'unejeunejitte 
(1849) ;  De  V education  desfemmes  (1861) ;  Leg 
salons  cTautrefois,  souvenirs  intimes  (1861-'4); 
Lei  ouvrieres  illustres  (1863) ;  Let  secrets  d'une 
jeunefille  (1863);  and  Le  code  du  ceremonial, 
guide  des  gens  du  monde  (1867).  She  founded 
the  Journal  des  jeunes  filles,  edited  the  Moni- 
teur  des  dames  et  des  demoiselles  and  Le  Di- 
manche  des  families,  and  has  displayed  much 
literary  industry  in  other  directions. 

BASSEIN.  I.  The  chief  town  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of  Pegu, 
British  India;  pop.  about  3,500.  It  is  situated 
on  a  channel  formed  by  an  oifset  of  the  Irra- 
waddy,  which  is  here  called  Bassein  river,  and 
further  down  the  Negrais.  The  channel  offers 
safe  anchorage  for  the  largest  ships.  The  town 
was  captured  by  the  English  May  19,  1852. 
II.  A  decayed  town  in  the  Poona  division  of 
the  presidency  of  Bombay,  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name  (area,  35  sq.  m.),  separated  by  a 
narrow  channel  from  the  mainland  of  North 
Concan,  and  affording  a  shelter  for  shipping,  28 
m.  N.  of  Bombay.  It  was  once  a  prosperous 
place,  with  many  churches  and  other  public 
buildings,  ruins  of  which  form  the  chief  attrac- 
tion in  the  now  desolate  city. 

I!  ISSKMV  Olivier,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Val-de-Vire,  Normandy,  died  about  1418.  He 
was  a  fuller,  and  became  famous  for  his  drink- 
ing songs,  which  were  first  called  Vaux-de- 
Vire  from  the  place  of  their  origin,  whence  the 
French  word  vaudeville.  Jean  le  Houx  had 
them  printed  about  1576,  and  the  most  recent 
edition  is  by  Julien  Travers  (Avranches,  1833). 
BASSES-ALPES,  a  S.  E.  department  of  France, 
formerly  part  of  Upper  Provence,  bounded 
by  Italy  and  the  departments  of  Alpes-Mari- 
times,  Var,  Bouches-du- Rhdne,  Vaucluse, 
Drome,  and  Hautes-Alpes ;  area,  2,685  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  139,332.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Durance  and  its  tributaries.  In  density  of 
population  it  is  exceeded  by  all  the  other  de- 
partments of  France.  The  greater  part  is 
covered  by  ranges  of  mountains,  between 
which  are  fertile  valleys.  Excellent  pastu- 
rage is  found  upon  the  sides  of  the  mountains. 
Plums  are  produced  in  large  quantities  in  the 
vicinity  of  Digne,  which  are  dried  and  known 
in  commerce  as  prunes  de  Brignoles.  The  de- 
partment is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 


BASSOMPIERRE 


371 


of  Digne,  Sisteron,  Barcelonnette,  Oastellane, 
and  Forcalquier.  ^  Capital,  Digne. 

BASSES-PYRENEES,  a  department  of  France, 
bounded  S.  by  the  Pyrenees  and  W.  by  the  bay 
of  Biscay;  area,  2,945  sq.  m. ;  pop." in  1872, 
476,700.  It  was  formed  from  Beam,  Navarre, 
and  a  part  of  Gascony.  About  half  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  pastures  and  marshes ; 
forests  occupy  one  sixth;  the  rest  is  fertile. 
The  mountains  give  birth  to  numerous  tor- 
rents, the  principal  of  which  are  the  Adour, 
Bidouze,  and  Nive.  The  chief  mineral  springs 
are  those  of  Eaux-Bonnes  and  Eaux-Chaudes. 
There  is  much  industrial  and  commercial  activ- 
ity, and  an  active  trade  is  carried  on  through 
Bayonne.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondisse- 
ments of  Pan,  Bayonne,  Orthez,  Oloron,  and 
Maul6on.  Capital,  Pau. 

BASSE-TERRE.  I.  The  chief  town  of  the  isl- 
and of  St.  Christopher  in  the  British  West  In- 
dies, on  the  S.  "W.  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
river;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  well  built  and 
protected  by  three  forts.  The  trade  is  con- 
siderable. A  sandy  beach  prevents  the  near 
approach  of  laden  vessels,  and  ships  are  loaded 
and  unloaded  from  a  lighter  called  a  "Moses," 
which  is  thrown  up  in  the  lull  of  the  surf. 
II.  The  chief  town  of  the  French  island  of 
Guadeloupe,  West  Indies,  situated  in  the  W.  di- 
vision of  the  island  and  on  its  S.W.  coast;  pop. 
about  13,000.  The  former  capital,  Pointe-a- 
Pitre,  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1843, 
possessed  a  better  harbor  than  Basse-Terre, 
which  however  became  the  principal  seat  of 
commerce,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the 
producing  portion  of  the  island. 

BASSI,  Laura  Maria  Catarina,  an  Italian  scholar, 
born  in  Bologna,  Oct.  31,  1711,  died  there,  Feb. 
20,  1778.  At  the  age  of  21  she  sustained  suc- 
cessfully in  public  a  philosophical  thesis  in 
Latin  against  seven  professors,  and  received 
the  degree  of  doctor,  the  senate  appointing 
her  professor  of  philosophy.  Afterward  she 
taught  for  over  30  years  experimental  physics 
and  languages.  She  was  the  wife  of  Dr.  Giu- 
seppe Verati,  and  had  several  children. 

BASSOMPIERRE,  Francois,  baron  de,  a  French 
courtier,  born  in  Lorraine,  April  12,  1579,  died 
Oct.  12,  1646.  Henry  IV.  appointed  him  mem- 
ber of  the  council  and  commandant  of  a  regi- 
ment, and  under  Louis  XIII.  he  was  made 
marshal  and  envoy  to  Spain,  Switzerland,  and 
3reat  Britain.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  La 
Rochelle,  and  served  against  the  Huguenots  in 
)ther  places.  He  became  obnoxious  to  Riche- 
ieu,  who  sent  him  to  the  Bastile  (1631),  where 
le  was  detained  11  years  till  the  cardinal's 
death.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  Memoires  du 
marechal  de  Bassompierre  depuis  1598  jusqu'd 
son  entree  a  la  Bastille  en  1631  (Cologne,  1665). 
Previous  to  his  arrest  he  was  reported  to  have 
consigned  to  the  flames  more  than  6,000  love 
letters.  One  woman,  who  had  borne  him  a  son, 
spent  eight  years  in  lawsuits  to  compel  him  to 
marry  her ;  but  he  was  already  secretly  mar- 
ried to  the  princess  of  Conti,  Louise  de  Lor- 


372 


BASSOON 


raine,  who  died  of  grief  when  she  heard  of  his 
death.  He  was  as  fascinating  and  accomplished 
as  he  was  reckless  and  unprincipled. 

BASSOON,  a  musical  wind  instrument  made 
of  wood,  in  the  shape  of  a  long  tube,  which  is 
played  by  means  of  a  reed  through  a  bent  brass 
mouthpiece.  It  is  called  by  the  Italians  fagotto, 
because  composed  of  two  pieces  of  wood  bound 
together  like  a  fagot,  and  serves  as  the  base  to 
the  clarinet  and  oboe,  its  tone  being  closely 
assimilated  to  that  of  the  latter.  It  has  a  com- 
pass of  three  octaves,  from  double  B  flat  to  B 
flat  in  alt,  and  from  its  sweet  and  plaintive 
tone  is  an  agreeable  instrument  in  the  orches- 
tra, where  for  many  years,  however,  it  occu- 
pied a  very  subordinate  position.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Alfranio,  a  canon  of  Pavia,  in  1539, 
and  was  introduced  into  England  by  Handel 
about  1720. 

i:  ISSOK  111,  or  Basra,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, in  the  eyalet  of  Bagdad,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Shat-el-Arab,  about  70  m.  from  its  mouth 
in  the  Persian  gulf;  pop.  reduced  by  wars,  pesti- 
lences, and  inundations  from  150,000  about  1750 
to  not  much  over  4,000  in  1872.  It  is  still  an 
important  commercial  and  maritime  station. 
The  soil  of  the  surrounding  country  is  fertile, 
but  few  articles  are  cultivated  except  dates,  of 
which  immense  quantities  are  sent  to  Persia 
and  India.  Horses  are  also  exported.  Copper, 
once  exported,  is  at  present  imported,  as  well 
as  coffee,  indigo,  rice,  spices,  and  timber.  The 
English  Tigris  and  Euphrates  company  have 
had  a  station  here  since  1862.  Old  Bassorah, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  8  m.  S.W.  of  the  present 
town,  was  celebrated  as  the  chief  emporium  of 
the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  One  of  the  first  Mo- 
hammedan learned  schools  was  founded  here 
in  the  7th  century,  and  the  town  was  called 
Kubbet-el- Islam  (the  cupola  of  Islam).  In  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  it  had  already  begun 
to  decline,  the  poet  Edrisi  relating  that  he  found 
its  "7,000"  mosques  deserted.  The  present 
town  dates  from  the  17th  century,  and  was 
desolated  in  the  18th  by  wars  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Persians.  It  was  occupied  from 
1832  to  1840  by  the  Egyptians. 

BASS  ROCK,  an  island  rock  near  the  mouth  of 
the  frith  of  Forth,  Haddingtonshire,  Scotland, 
3  m.  N.  E.  of  N.  Berwick.  It  is  nearly  round, 
about  1  m.  in  circumference  and  400  ft.  high, 
composed  of  green  or  clink  stone,  traversed  by 
a  vast  cavern  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  inaccessible 
on  all  sides  except  on  the  S.W.,  where  it  is  im- 
possible to  land  in  stormy  weather.  The  pre- 
cipices rising  out  of  the  sea  give  shelter  to  great 
numbers  of  solan  geese  and  other  aquatic  birds. 
Charles  II.  purchased  the  rock  for  £4,000  as  a 
prison  for  covenanters.  A  handful  of  partisans 
of  James  II.  held  it  from  June,  1691,  to  April, 
1694,  against  all  the  forces  sent  by  William  III., 
who  had  the  fortifications  demolished  in  1701. 
In  1706  the  rock  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  Dalrymple  family,  and  they  derive  a  reve- 
nue by  letting  it  to  a  keeper,  who  sells  the 
young  geese  and  receives  fees  from  visitors. 


BAST 

BASS  STRAIT,  a  channel  between  Tasmania 
and  New  South  Wales,  about  250  m.  long  and 
140  wide.  At  the  E.  entrance  stands  Flinders 
island,  and  at  the  W.  King's  island.  It  abounds 
in  small  islands  and  coral  reefs,  which  mate- 
rially obstruct  the  navigation.  Tin  was  found 
in  one  of  the  islands  hi  1872. 

BASSCTOS,  a  tribe  or  a  political  union  of  sev- 
eral tribes  of  the  Bechuanas,  S.  Africa.  Their 
territory,  which  covers  an  area  of  about  12,700 
sq.  m.,  is  bounded  E.  by  Caffraria  and  Natal, 
N.  and  W.  by  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  S. 
by  Cape  Colony;  pop.  estimated  at  about 
100,000.  The  Bassutos  are  indebted  to  a  chief- 
tain named  Moshesh  for  improvements  in  agri- 
culture, the  introduction  of  something  like  civ- 
ilized manners,  and  the  organization  of  a  reg- 
ulated administration.  Protestant  missiona- 
ries, chiefly  those  of  the  French  societe  des  mis- 
sions evangeliques,  have  been  laboring  among 
them  since  1830,  and  have  numerous  stations. 
After  protracted  wars  with  the  Orange  Free 
State,  the  Bassutos  had  on  March  26,  1866,  to 
conclude  a  peace  by  which  a  portion  of  their 
territory  was  ceded  to  that  republic ;  the  re- 
mainder, with  about  60,000  inhabitants,  was 
on  March  12,  1868,  annexed  to  Natal, 

BASSVILLE,  or  Basseville,  Nicolas  Joan  Hngon  or 
Hnsson  de,  a  French  writer  and  diplomatist,  as- 
sassinated in  Rome,  Jan.  13,  1793.  Previous 
to  being  appointed  in  1792  as  secretary  of  le- 
gation at  Naples,  he  was  known  as  a  teach- 
er, author,  and  journalist.  He  was  sent  from 
Naples  to  Rome  for  the  protection  of  French 
commercial  interests,  and  while  there  the  con- 
vention sent  to  him  a  M.  Flotte  with  instruc- 
tions to  hoist  the  republican  flag  on  the  con- 
sular building,  and  ordering  the  French  resi- 
dents to  make  similar  demonstrations.  This 
being  resisted  by  the  mob,  a  riot  broke  out, 
during  which  Bassville  was  killed.  The  con- 
vention took  up  the  case  as  a  violation  of  in- 
ternational law,  adopted  his  son,  and  forced 
the  Roman  see  to  pay  300,000  francs  to  be  di- 
vided among  the  victims.  The  Italian  poet 
Monti  made  this  event  the  subject  of  a  pow- 
erful poem,  entitled  Basmilliana ;  and  other 
writers  have  commemorated  Bassville's  fate, 
though  he  had  much  less  to  do  with  display- 
ing the  republican  emblems  than  the  subordi- 
nate agent  Flotte. 

BAST,  or  Bass,  the  inner  bark  (endopklasvm) 
of  dicotyledonous  plants,  contiguous  to  the 
woody  circle.  It  is  the  fibrous  part  of  the  bark, 
and  consists  of  a  tissue  of  cells,  including  the 
so-called  laticiferous  vessels.  Less  frequently  it 
occurs  in  the  pith  and  leaves  of  dicotyledonous, 
and  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  monocotyle- 
donous  vegetables.  It  originates  out  of  the 
cambium  (organizing  tissue),  and  belongs  to  the 
vascular  bundle.  The  bast  cell  grows  long  at 
the  expense  of  the  surrounding  parenchyma, 
without  producing  new  cells.  The  wood  and 
bast  cells  of  monocotyledonous  plants  are  not 
easily  distinguishable.  There  are  none  in  the 
cryptogamous.  For  the  plant  itself,  as  well  as 


BAST 


BASTARD 


373 


for  technical,  medicinal,  and  other  purposes, 
the  bast  cell  is  of  the  highest  importance.  It 
conducts  sap,  serves  to  exchange  and  alter  the 
vegetable  matters,  produces  nutritious  or  poi- 
sonous or  medicative  matters,  and  is  largely 
used  in  the  fabrication  of  cloth,  ropes,  mats, 
sacks,  &c.  The  bast  cells  are  disposed  and  de- 
veloped variously  in  different  plants;  occur- 
ring in  rows,  wreaths,  more  or  less  spread 
bundles,  or  single  within  the  parenchyma.  In 
some  plants  hast  is  formed  but  once,  in  others 
every  year.  Some  are  simple,  others  branched ; 
some  primary,  others  secondary;  some  ever 
flexible,  others  changing  into  wood.  They  are 
most  developed  toward  the  outside.  While 
yonng  they  contain  a  granulary  liquid,  which 
disappears  by  the  thickening  of  their  walls. 
In  the  chelidonium  majus  this  liquid  remains 
as  yellow  milk.  The  laticiferous  cells  of  the 
apocynece,  euphorbiacece,  and  composite  (dan- 
delion, lettuce,  &c.)  are  developed  just  like  the 
fibrous  cells  of  flax.  Young  bast  cells,  when 
treated  by  a  solution  of  iodine  and  chloride  of 
zinc,  become  pale  blue,  the  older  ones  violet, 
the  full  grown  pink.  Thickened  cells  are  plain- 
ly stratified,  and  their  walls  often  become  con- 
tiguous by  the  disappearance  of  the  cavity. 
The  walls  exhibit  various  designs,  spiral  or 
other  lines,  more  or  less  constantly,  according 
to  the  variety  of  the  plants,  and  also  to  the 
treatment  by  alkali  and  acids.  By  such  treat- 
ment, and  by  the  microscope,  the  nature  of 
the  various  fabrics  made  of  bast  may  be  deter- 
mined. Thomson  and  F.  Baur  have  thus  de- 
monstrated the  sheets  around  Egyptian  mum- 
mies to  be  of  linen.  The  degree  of  decom- 
posability,  of  contraction,  of  twisting,  and  the 
length,  density,  and  form  of  the  single  cells  of 
the  bast,  vary  in  different  plants.  They  are 
very  long  in  flax,  hemp,  in  some  nettles,  spurges, 
&c. ;  very  short  in  cinchona.  Cotton  consists 
of  long  hairs,  and  not  of  bast  cells,  which  it 
very  much  resembles  otherwise.  The  bast  cells 
of  monocotyledonous  plants  are  mostly  ligni- 
fied.  The  unlignified  are  very  hygroscopic 
(water-attracting),  contain  often  chlorophyl 
(the  green  matter  of  plants),  and  more  fre- 
quently a  sort  of  milk,  which  is  condensed  into 
gum  elastic,  gutta  percha,  opium,  &c.  The 
lignified,  on  the  contrary,  conduct  sap  but  a 
short  time,  become  filled  with  air,  and  thus 
dead  for  the  plant.  No  bast  cell  has  pits,  but 
the  abietinea  have  sieve  pores  or  canals. — The 
uses  of  bast  are  manifold.  Flax  bast  is  soft, 
flexible,  seldom  with  swellings;  hemp  bast  is 
very  long,  stiffer  and  thicker  than  flax,  more 
stratified ;  nettle  (urtica  dioiea)  bast  resembles 
cotton,  has  swellings,  and  is  thicker  than  hemp. 
Branched  and  lignified  bast  cells  of  great 
beauty  are  those  of  the  mangrove  tree  (rhizo- 
phora  mangle),  and  the  secondary  ones  ofabies 
pectinnta.  Among  the  monocotyledonous  bast 
fibres,  those  of  the  New  Zealand  flax  (phor- 
mium  tenax)  are  the  most  remarkable,  being 
found  in  bundles  near  the  margin  of  leaves. 
They  resemble  hemp,  are  very  white,  some- 


times yellowish,  very  long,  and  contain  much 
lignine,  somewhat  stiff,  but  very  tough,  and  fit 
for  stout  ropes.  In  palms  a  highly  developed 
body  of  lignified  bast  surrounds  their  vascular 
bundle,  while  particular  bast  bundles  are  found 
also  in  the  bark,  leaves,  and  interior  of  the 
stem.  Of  this,  the  husk  of  the  cocoanut  is  an 
example.  A  similar  disposition  exists  in  the 
dracana  reflexa,  and  in  some  aroidea.  Every- 
body knows  the  tenacity  of  the  bast  of  the 
linden  tree,  which  is  hence  also  called  bass- 
wood.  The  Chinese  grass  cloth  is  made  of 
ramie,  Bcehmeria  puya.  Manila  hemp  comes 
from  the  mwsa  textilis ;  rice  bags  are  made  in 
India  from  antiaris  saccidora.  The  Latin  name 
of  bast,  liber,  was  used  to  signify  book,  from 
the  use  of  bast  in  ancient  times  for  writing  on. 
Our  word  book  also  means,  originally,  beech 
(fagw),  from  the  same  use  of  its  bast  before 
the  invention  of  other  materials. 

BASTARD  (old  Fr.  bastard,  of  uncertain  deri- 
vation), a  person  born  without  lawful  parentage. 
By  the  English  law  a  child  born  after  the  mar- 
riage of  its  parents,  whatever  may  be  the  time, 
is  legitimate,  unless  non-access  of  the  husband, 
who  is  otherwise  presumed  to  be  the  father, 
can  be  proved.  Birth  of  a  child  after  the  death 
of  the  husband,  if  within  a  possible  period 
of  gestation  commencing  from  a  time  ante- 
rior to  such  decease,  is  also  held  to  be  legiti- 
mate; and  this  period  has  in  some  instances 
been  allowed  of  an  extravagant  extent,  but 
is  now,  in  accordance  with  the  opinion  of 
medical  writers  as  to  the  limit  of  any  acciden- 
tal variation  from  the  accustomed  course,  fixed 
at  10  months.  To  avoid  any  question  which 
might  arise  in  cases  of  second  marriage  by  the 
widow  soon  after  the  death  of  the  husband,  it 
was  a  rule  of  the  civil  law  that  she  should  be 
prohibited  from  marrying  infra  annum  luctw 
(within  the  year  of  mourning),  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  Eoman  calendar,  was  10 
months ;  and  the  same  rule  was  adopted  by  the 
Saxons  and  Danes,  except  that  the  year  was  12 
months.  By  the  civil  and  canon  law  the  inter- 
marriage of  the  parents  after  the  birth  of  a 
child  rendered  such  child  legitimate ;  and  this 
is  the  law  of  Scotland,  France,  Holland,  and 
Germany.  The  ecclesiastics  unsuccessfully 
urged  the  parliament  of  Merton  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  to  adopt  this  rule  of  the  canon 
law ;  it  has  never  been  accepted  in  England.  A 
bastard,  by  the  English  common  law,  being  held 
to  be  nulliu»  jilius,  cannot  take  real  or  per- 
sonal estate  as  the  heir  of  either  parent,  nor 
has  he  even  the  name  of  the  father  or  mother, 
but  may  assume  it  or  any  other  name,  and  is 
known  in  law  only  by  such  assumed  or  re- 
puted name.  He  is,  however,  able  to  take  real 
or  personal  estate  by  will  or  other  conveyance, 
and  to  dispose  of  the  same  in  a  similar  man- 
ner ;  but  only  his  children  can  inherit,  and  in 
case  he  dies  intestate  without  children,  his 
real  estate  escheats  to  the  crown,  and  his  per- 
sonal estate  is  disposed  of  by  administration 
for  the  benefit  of  the  crown  or  its  grantee. 


374 


BASTIA 


The  father  at  common  law  was  not  bound  to 
provide  for  a  bastard  child,  but  by  the  statutes 
provision  is  made  for  compelling  the  father  to 
give  security  for  the  maintenance  of  a  child,  so 
as  to  prevent  its  becoming  a  charge  upon  the 
parish. — In  the  United  States  important  modi- 
fications have  been  made  in  respect  to  the 
rights  of  illegitimate  children.  In  most  of  the 
states  a  bastard  may  take  by  inheritance  as 
heir  or  next  of  kin  of  the  mother,  and  the 
mother  may  inherit  from  her  illegitimate 
child ;  but,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  common 
law  rule  that  the  intermarriage  of  the  putative 
father  and  mother  does  not  legitimate  a  child 
born  before  the  marriage  still  obtains.  The 
provisions  of  the  English  statutes  in  respect  to 
compelling  the  father  to  give  security  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  child  have  been  generally 
adopted  in  this  country,  the  object  being,  in 
general,  only  to  indemnify  the  town  or  county 
from  the  charge  of  the  child  as  a  pauper. 

BASTIA,  a  seaport  town  on  the  N.  E.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Corsica,  66  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Ajaccio;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  an  amphitheatre,  on  a  mountain ;  has 
narrow  angular  streets,  and  is  defended  by 


Bastia. 

modern  forts.  It  has  a  small  but  convenient 
harbor,  is  the  chief  commercial  citv  of  Corsica, 
and  the  seat  of  its  highest  courts.  The  in- 
habitants carry  on  a  trade  in  skins,  wine,  oil, 
wax,  and  fruits.  Bastia  was  founded  in  1380, 
by  the  Genoese,  Leonel  Lomellino.  In  1745 
the  English  took  it,  but  were  compelled  to  sur- 
render it  in  the  following  year.  In  1748  it  suc- 
cessfully defended  itself  against  the  Anstrians 
and  the  Piedmontese.  After  the  union  of  Cor- 
sica with  France,  in  1768,  the  English  held  it 
for  a  short  time,  and  in  1794,  under  Admiral 
Hood,  they  took  the  city  after  a  long  siege. 

BASTIAN,  Adolph,  a  German  traveller,  born  in 
Bremen,  June  26,  1826.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
merchant,  was  educated  as  a  physician,  and  in 
1851  went  to  Australia  as  the  surgeon  of  a  sail- 


BASTIAN 

ing  vessel.  He  travelled  in  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  the  United  States,  China,  In- 
dia, and  South  Africa,  and  afterward  made  a 
journey  through  Burmah,  Siam,  Java,  the  Phi- 
lippines, Japan,  and  China,  returning  to  Europe 
through  Asiatic  Russia.  Since  1868  he  has 
been  director  of  the  ethnographical  collection 
in  the  Berlin  museum.  In  1869  he  established 
the  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  the  organ  of  the 
Berlin  anthropological  and  ethnological  so- 
ciety. His  principal  works  are :  Die  Volker  des 
Oestlichen  Asiem  (6  vols.,  Leipsic  and  Jena, 
1866-'71) ;  Afrikanische  Reisen  (Bremen,  1 859) ; 
Der  MenscJi  in  der  Geschichte  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1860);  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Psychologic 
(Berlin,  1868);  Sprachveryleichende  Studien, 
besonders  atifdem  Gebiete  der  indoehinesischen 
Sprachen  (Leipsic,  1870);  and  Die  Rechtvcer- 
haltnisse  der  verschiedenen  VolJcer  der  Erde 
(Berlin,  1872),  a  learned  contribution  to  com- 
parative ethnology. 

BASTIAN,  H.  ( liarltim,  an  English  physician 
and  physiologist,  born  atTruro,  April  26,  1837. 
After  a  brilliant  course  of  study  he  was  admit- 
ted member  of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons  in 
1860,  in  1860-'63  was  assistant  curator  in  the 
anatomical  and  patho- 
logical museum  of  Uni- 
versity college,  Lon- 
don, and  in  1864-'6  as- 
sistant medical  officer 
to  the  Broadmoor  crim- 
inal lunatic  asylum. 
In  1866  he  became  as- 
sistant physician  and 
lecturer  in  St.  Mary's 
hospital ;  in  1867,  pro- 
fessor of  pathological 
anatomy  in  University 
college,  and  assistant 
physician  to  the  hos- 
pital ;  in  1868,  assis- 
tant physician  to  the 
hospital  for  the  para- 
lyzed and  epileptic ; 
and  in  1871  physician 
to  University  college 
hospital.  In  1871  he 
published  "The  Modes 

of  Origin  of  Lowest  Organisms,"  and  in  1872, 
"  The  Beginnings  of  Life "  (2  vols.).  He 
has  also  contributed  many  valuable  papers 
to  various  medical  and  philosophical  journals. 
Dr.  Bastian,  the  youngest  member  of  the  royal 
society,  has  gained  an  excellent  reputation  as 
a  general  pathologist,  and  is  an  authority  on 
the  pathology  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
study  of  the  microscopical  character  of  the 
blood  in  acute  diseases  led  him  to  question  ac- 
cepted views  in  regard  to  the  lowest  forms  of 
life  and  their  mode  of  origin,  and  he  has  prose- 
cuted the  investigation  of  this  subject  with 
such  zeal  and  originality  that  he  is  now  re- 
garded as  at  the  head  of  the  school  of  hetero- 
genists  or  believers  in  the  doctrine  of  sponta- 
neous generation. 


BASTIAT 


BASTILE 


375 


BASTIAT,  Frederlt,  a  French  economist,  born 
in  Bayonne,  June  29,  1801,  died  in  Rome,  Dec. 
24,  1850.  He  was  educated  for  commercial 
pursuits,  but  the  bent  of  his  mind  was  toward 
political  economy ;  and  a  large  inheritance 
left  him  in  1825  enabled  him  to  devote  himself 
to  that  study.  In  1840  he  travelled  through 
Portugal  and  Spain  ;  in  1844  he  made  his  first 
appearance  as  a  writer  in  an  article  attacking 
the  protective  system,  published  in  the  Journal 
des  economies;  in  1845  he  visited  England, 
and  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Manchester 
school,  one  fruit  of  which  was  a  work  entitled 
Cobden  et  la  ligue,  ou  V agitation  anglaisepour 
la  liberte  des  echanges  (1  vol.  8vo,  Paris,  1845); 
in  1846  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  establish- 
ment at  Bordeaux  and  at  Paris  of  a  free-trade 
association,  becoming  its  Parisian  secretary, 
and  the  chief  editor  of  the  journal  Le  libre 
ecnange.  At  this  time  he  also  came  forward 
as  one  of  the  opponents  of  the  socialists  of  his 
country,  whose  idea  of  the  omnipotence  of  the 
state  he  combated.  In  1848  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  constituent  and  then  of  the 
legislative  assembly,  but  his  health  did  not 
allow  him  to  appear  at  the  tribune.  He  gained 
a  great  reputation  by  his  controversies  with 
Proudhon.  His  labors  exhausted  him,  and  his 
physicians  ordered  him  to  Italy  in  September, 
1850.  Among  his  most  striking  works  are  the 
pamphlet  Capital  et  rente,  gratuite  du  credit 
(Paris,  1849),  and  Harmonies  economiques,  left 
incomplete  at  his  death.  The  last  is  an  at- 
tempt to  demonstrate  that  the  laws  of  econ- 
omy all  tend  concurrently  and  harmoniously 
to  the  amelioration  of  human  life.  This  work 
was  the  occasion  of  a  prolonged  controversy 
in  the  Paris  Journal  des  economistes  between 
M.  Bastiiit  and  his  friends  and  Mr.  Henry  0. 
Carey  of  Philadelphia,  who  contended  that  the 
principle  of  economical  harmony  was  a  dis- 
covery of  his  own.  An  American  translation 
of  M.  Bastiat's  "  Essays  on  Political  Economy  " 
was  published  in  Chicago  in  1869. 

BASTIDE,  Jules,  a  French  publicist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris,  Nov.  22,  1800.  The  son 
of  a  man  of  business,  he  became  a  timber  mer- 
chant after  having  studied  law,  and  participated 
in  many  revolutionary  attempts  against  Charles 
X.  He  was  one  of  the  first  French  carbonari, 
and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1830 
he  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  hoist  the 
tricolor  flag  on  the  Tuileries.  In  1832  he  was 
arrested  at  Grenoble  as  an  abettor  of  republi- 
can movements,  and  after  his  release  he  was 
the  leader  of  the  riot  which  broke  out  (June 
5)  during  the  funeral  of  Gen.  Lamarque.  He 
was  sentenced  to  death,  but  fled  to  England, 
and  on  his  surrendering  to  the  French  authori- 
ties in  1834  he  was  acquitted.  After  the  death 
of  Armand  Carrel  he  and  his  commercial  part- 
ner Charles  Thomas  became  joint  editors  of  the 
National  newspaper,  from  1836  to  1846.  In 
1847  he  and  Buchez  founded  the  Revue  natio- 
nals, and  continued  to  advocate  moderate  re- 
publican institutions  as  compatible  with  the 


Roman  Catholic  faith.  In  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  1848  he  was  secretary  general,  and 
under  Lamartine's  executive  commission  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs,  and  for  a  short  time  of  the 
navy,  being  also  a  member  of  the  constituent 
assembly.  He  remained  in  the  cabinet  under 
Cavaignac,  and  left  it  Dec.  20.  He  assisted 
in  preparing  the  second  edition  of  the  Hia- 
toire  parlementaire  de  la  revolution  franfaise, 
by  Buchez  (5  vols.,  1845-'7),  and  published  the 
first  volume  of  Histoire  de  Vasiemblee  legisla- 
tive (1847),  but  did  not  continue  this  publica- 
tion, which  was  to  have  comprised  25  volumes. 
His  more  recent  works  include  La  republique 
frangaise  et  Vltalie  en  1848  (Brussels,  1858), 
and  Ouerres  de  religion  en  France  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1859). 

BASTILE  (Fr.  la  Bastille),  the  state  prison  and 
citadel  of  Paris,  begun  in  1369  by  Charles  V., 
enlarged  in  succeeding  reigns,  and  destroyed  by 
the  people  in  1789.  Situated  at  the  gate  St. 


Antoine,  it  had  when  completed  eight  huge 
round  towers,  connected  by  curtains  of  massive 
masonry,  and  was  encircled  by  a  wide  ditch 
25  ft.  deep,  which  was  usually  dry.  This  ditch 
was  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  to  which  was 
attached  a  wooden  gallery  called  "  the  rounds," 
accessible  by  two  staircases,  and  guarded  by 
sentinels.  The  administration  of  the  Bastile 
in  the  18th  century  was  vested  in  a  governor, 
a  royal  intendant,  a  major,  a  major's  aid,  a  sur- 
geon, and  a  matron.  The  garrison  was  com- 
posed of  100  men,  commanded  by  two  captains, 
a  lieutenant,  and  sergeants.  The  cells  were  sit- 
uated in  all  the  towers,  the  walls  of  which  were 
at  least  12  ft.  thick,  and  at  the  base  30  or  40. 
Each  cell  had  an  aperture  in  the  wall,  defended 
by  three  iron  gratings,  the  bars  of  which  were 
an  inch  thick  and  so  arranged  that  although 
the  openings  in  each  grating  were  really  of  4 
inches,  only  2  inches  were  left  unobstructed. 
The  dungeons  were  19  ft.  below  the  level  of 
the  courtyard,  and  5  below  that  of  the  ditch, 


376 


BASTILE 


with  no  opening  but  a  narrow  loophole  com- 
municating with  the  ditch.  The  Bastile  could 
contain  50  state  prisoners  in  solitary  cells. 
When  a  greater  number  were  placed  within 
its  walls,  they  were  confined  in  cells  opening 
on  the  ditches  which  carried  off  the  ordure 
and  sewerage  of  the  prison,  amid  odors  insuf- 
ferable. They  were  miserably  fed,  but  this 
was  owing  rather  to  the  abuses  of  the  governor 
than  to  the  government,  which  paid  enormous 
sums  for  the  maintenance  of  the  state  prisoners. 
Benneville  asserts  that  in  his  time  Bernaville, 
who  was  then  governor,  had  a  great  number 
of  prisoners  at  all  prices,  up  to  25  francs  a 
head  per  diem,  and  that  their  daily  subsistence 
did  not  cost  him  on  an  average  20  sous.  There 
was  a  regular  tariff  of  expenses  for  the  table, 
lights,  and  washing  of  all  prisoners,  according 
to  their  rank.  Thus  a  prince  of  the  blood 
was  allowed  50  francs  a  day ;  a  considerable 
burgher,  or  an  advocate,  3  francs;  and  the 
members  of  all  the  inferior  classes,  2  francs 
and  10  sous,  the  same  being  the  rate  allowed 
for  the  guards,  wardens,  and  servants  of  the 
prison.  The  inhuman  treatment  to  which  pris- 
oners in  the  Bastile  were  subjected  has  few  par- 
allels in  the  history  of  penal  cruelty.  Put  there 
without  accusation  or  trial,  on  a  simple  lettre  de 
cachet,  allowed  no  communication  with  friends, 
their  final  fate  was  dependent  upon  the  caprice 
of  despotism  and  unknown  to  the  world. — Up 
to  the  date  of  the  accession  of  Charles  VII.  the 
Bastile  continued  to  be  merely  a  royal  fortress, 
when  it  became  a  state  prison,  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Thomas  Beaumont,  who  was  in 
command  when  in  1418  the  populace  broke 
into  its  precincts  and  massacred  the  princes  of 
the  house  of  Armagnac.  Within  the  walls  of 
this  prison  died  Charles  de  Gontaut,  sieur  de 
Biron,  marshal  of  France,  for  treason  against 
Henry  IV.  Here  also  were  imprisoned  Bas- 
sompierre,  Marshal  Richelieu,  Voltaire,  Latude, 
who  in  vain  made  an  extraordinary  escape,  and 
that  victim  of  Louis  XIV.  known  as  the  Man 
in  the  Iron  Mask,  whose  identity  has  never 
been  absolutely  established.  (See  IRON  MASK.) 
After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  the  Bastile  de- 
generated from  being  a  place  of  incarceration 
for  suspected  princes,  pretenders  to  the  throne, 
and  subjects  too  powerful  for  the  state,  into  a 
common  jail.  The  imprisonment  of  Blaizot, 
the  king's  librarian,  by  the  minister  De  Bre- 
teuil,  nominally  at  the  king's  order,  brought  to 
light  the  whole  system  of  iniquity.  Blaizot 
was  delivered,  but  De  Breteuil  was  not  pun- 
ished. On  July  14,  1789,  after  a  brief  defence 
by  Delaunay,  then  governor,  and  the  guard 
consisting  of  82  invalids  and  32  Swiss,  the  Bas- 
tile was  captured  by  the  people,  ransacked,  and 
on  the  following  day  its  towers  were  razed  and 
its  dungeons  filled  with  the  copings  of  its  battle- 
ments. Seven  persons  were  found  in  its  cells 
and  dungeons :  one,  the  count  de  Solage,  a  pris- 
oner since  his  llth  year ;  another,  Tavernier, 
who,  after  10  years  at  the  Marguerite  islands, 
had  passed  30  years  in  the  Bastile,  and  who 


BAT 

reappeared  on  his  liberation  bewildered,  with 
a  broken  intellect,  like  a  man  awaked  from  a 
sleep.  Records  of  horrors  even  worse  than  this 
were  found  inscribed  on  the  registers  of  the 
prison.  On  its  site  now  stands  the  column  of 
July,  which  was  erected  in  memory  of  the  pa- 
triots of  1789  and  1830. 

BASTION.     See  FORTIFICATION. 

BASTROP,  a  S.  central  county  of  Texas,  in- 
tersected by  the  Colorado  river;  area,  1,001 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,290,  of  whom  5,233 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  numerous 
small  affluents  of  the  Colorado,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  steamboats  during  six  months  in  the 
year.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile  and  the  sur- 
face moderately  uneven.  Lumber  is  abundant, 
and  lignite  is  found.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  356,874  bushels  of  corn,  8,728 
bales  of  cotton,  and  6,690  Ibs.  of  wool.  There 
were  6,781  horses,  1,339  mules  and  asses,  6,895 
milch  cows,  37,805  other  cattle,  1,957  sheep, 
and  19,383  swine.  Capital,  Bastrop. 

BAT,  a  mammiferous  quadruped,  whose  dif- 
ferent genera  constitute  the  order  cheiroptera. 
Its  general  form  is  disposed  for  flight ;  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  skin  is  stretched  between  the 


Common  Bat  (VesperHHo  communis). 

four  limbs  and  the  greatly  elongated  fingers  of 
the  anterior  extremities  ;  this  flying  membrane 
is  naked,  or  nearly  so,  on  both  sides ;  the 
breast  has  mammas ;  the  clavicles  are  very 
strong ;  the  forearm  is  incapable  of  rotation  in 
consequence  of  the  union  of  the  bones.  The 
bats  consist  of  two  very  distinct  groups,  charac- 
terized mainly  by  the  structure  of  the  teeth. 
The  first,  containing  the  genera  pteropw  and 
cephalotes,  is  frugivorous,  has  the  molar  teeth 
with  flattish  crowns,  obliquely  truncated  and 
longitudinally  grooved,  3  joints  in  the  fingers, 
generally  provided  with  a  nail  on  the  second 
finger,  and  the  tail  wanting  or  rudimentary. 
The  second  group,  containing  the  genera  ves- 
pertilio,  phyllostoma,  nycterig,  &c.,  has  the 
molars  with  sharp  points  like  the  true  insecti- 
vora,  showing  at  once  the  different  nature  of 
their  food.  The  skeleton  of  the  bats  combines 
a  great  degree  of  lightness  with  peculiarities 
in  the  anterior  extremities  suitable  for  pur- 
poses of  flight.  The  head  is  the  longest  in  the 
frugivorous  group  ;  in  all,  the  portion  of  the 


BAT 


377 


temporal  bone  containing  the  organ  of  hearing 
is  much  developed ;  they  all  have  canine  and 
incisor  teeth,  the  latter  varying  in  number 
from  2  to  4  in  the  upper,  and  from  2  to  6  in  the 
lower  jaw  ;  the  molars  also  vary  from  3  to  6  in 
each  jaw.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  very 
broad ;  those  of  the  back  and  loins  are  simple 
and  almost  without  spinous  processes,  and 
much  compressed  at  the  side ;  the  sacrum  is 
very  long  and  narrow  ;  the  tail,  when  present, 
is  short,  and  of  use  to  support  the  interfemoral 
membrane  and  direct  the  flight.  The  number 
of  vertebra)  in  pteropus  is  probably  less  than  in 
any  other  mammal,  being  only  24.  The  ribs 
are  remarkably  long,  as  is  the  breast  bone ;  the 
upper  part  of  the  latter  is  greatly  expanded 
laterally,  to  give  a  firm  support  to  the  very 
strong  collar  bones ;  the  front  of  the  bone  has 
also  a  crest,  like  the  keel  of  the  bird's  sternum, 
and  for  a  similar  purpose,  viz.,  the  origin  of  the 
powerful  muscles  of  flight.  As  the  collar  bone, 
so  the  shoulder  blade  is  highly  developed,  es- 
pecially in  the  active  insectivorous  bats ;  the 
arm  bone  is  very  long  and  slender ;  the  forearm 
consists  of  the  usual  two  bones,  but  the  ulna 
is  quite  rudimentary,  and  is  united  to  the  radi- 
us ;  the  latter  is  very  long  and  robust,  and  can- 
not be  rotated,  an  admirable  provision  for  an 
animal  whose  progression  requires  a  constant 
resistance  to  the  air.  But  the  most  remarkable 
modification  of  the  anterior  extremity  is  in  the 
hand  ;  the  bones  of  all  the  fingers,  except  the 
thumb,  are  extremely  elongated,  for  the  at- 
tachment of  the  flying  membrane ;  the  thumb 
is  comparatively  short,  and  provided  with  a 
hooked  nail,  by  which  the  animal  can  climb  or 
suspend  itself.  The  thigh  bone  is  of  moderate 
size,  and  so  turned  that  the  front  surface  is 
directed  nearly  backward  ;  the  fibula  is  quite 
small  and  slender,  and  has  the  remarkable  con- 
dition of  deficiency  in  its  upper  portion,  the 
usual  state  of  things  being  the  reverse.  The 
foot  is  not  developed  like  the  hand,  the  only 
peculiarity  being  a  long-pointed  btoy  process 
arising  from  the  heel,  and  enclosed  in  the  mem- 
brane between  the  legs  ;  the  toes  are  5  in  num- 
ber, nearly  equal,  and  furnished  with  hooked 
nails,  by  which  they  suspend  themselves  when 
at  rest,  with  the  head  downward.  The  seem- 
ing deformity  and  ugliness  of  the  bats  led  the 
ancients  to  consider  them  as  impure  animals  ; 
even  ancient  naturalists  display  the  grossest 
ignorance  concerning  them.  Aristotle,  Pliny, 
and  others,  considered  them  as  birds ;  these 
opinions  were  copied  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  are  even  now  entertained  by  many  per- 
sons. The  faculty  of  flight  depends  on  an 
entirely  different  organization  in  the  bird  and 
in  the  bat.  The  principal  part  of  the  bat's 
flying  membrane  is  stretched  between  the 
enormously  elongated  fingers,  and  from  them 
reflected  to  the  posterior  extremities ;  but  in 
the  bird,  the  parts  which  correspond  to  fingers 
are  so  rudimentary  that  the  hand  can  hardly 
be  said  to  exist ;  the  wings  extend  beyond  it, 
bearing  the  quills,  the  principal  part,  which 


belong  to  the  epidermic  system  ;  the  wings  in 
the  two  cases  are  in  no  respects  homologous. 
The  bat,  so  active  in  the  air,  is  very  awkward 
on  the  ground.  When  the  animal  attempts 
to  walk,  the  wings  are  shut  and  become  fore 
feet ;  the  hook  of  one  thumb  is  fixed  to  some 
object,  and  by  it  the  body  is  pulled  forward 
and  to  one  side,  the  next  step  being  by  a  simi- 
lar movement  by  means  of  the  hook  of  the 
other  thumb.  By  this  diagonal  tumbling,  the 
bats  progress  on  a  level  surface  ;  the  length  of 
the  wings  prevents  them  from  rising  from  such 
a  situation,  and  it  is  only  when  they  gain  some 
trifling  elevation  that  they  can  commence  their 
flight.  In  the  air  they  are  perfectly  free,  and 
when  desirous  of  rest  they  seek  some  dark  re- 
treat, from  the  top  of  which  they  can  hang,  head 
downward,  suspended  by  their  hind  claws ;  in 
case  of  danger,  they  have  only  to  loose  their 
hold,  when  their  wings  are  at  once  spread. 
The  diminutive  size  of  the  eyes  is  well  known, 
and  familiarly  expressed  in  the  very  common 
saying,  "  as  blind  as  a  bat."  The  insectivorous 
group,  whose  ears  are  largely  developed,  have 
very  small  eyes,  placed  almost  within  the  auri- 
cle and  concealed  by  the  hair ;  but  in  the 
fruit-eating  genera  the  eye  is  of  the  usual 
size,  as  is  also  the  ear.  The  diminutive  eye 
is  compensated  for  by  the  great  development 
of  the  organ  of  hearing ;  the  external  ear  is 
enormously  large,  in  the  pleiotm  auritus  nearly 


Long-eared  Bat  (Pleiotus   auritus). 

as  long  as  the  body ;  there  is  a  proportionate 
increase  in  the  extent  of  the  internal  ear.  The 
organ  of  smell  in  many  insectivorous  bats,  as 
the  rhinolopJiidce,  is  exceedingly  acute ;  it  is 
provided  with  folds  of  the  integument,  of 
great  size  and  the  most  grotesque  forms,  ren- 
dering their  physiognomy  like  that  which 
would  be  produced  by  a  nose  turned  inside 
out  and  complicated  by  a  hare-lip.  These 
appendages  are  found  in  the  groups  whose 
habits  lead  them  into  the  darkest  caverns, 


378 


BAT 


where  there  is  not  even  a  ray  of  light,  and 
are  intended,  by  increasing  the  delicacy  of 
the  sense  of  smell,  to  act  as  substitutes  for  eyes 
in  situations  where  vision  is  impossible.  Bats 
have  such  an  extraordinary  exaltation  of  the 
sense  of  touch,  that  Spallanzani  was  led  into 
the  belief  that  they  had  a  sixth  sense;  his 
experiments  showed  that  they  could  fly  with 
perfect  accuracy  in  the  dark,  avoiding  every  j 
obstacle,  even  after  the  eyes  were  put  out  and 
the  ears  and  nose  completely  stopped  up.  But 
Cuvier  discovered  that  this  exquisite  sense  of 
touch  resides  in  the  flying  membrane.  This 
membrane  arises  from  the  skin  of  the  flanks, 
and  consists  of  an  abdominal  and  a  dorsal 
leaflet,  united  into  an  exceedingly  thin  and 
delicate  network ;  it  includes  not  only  the 
arms  and  hands,  but  the  hinder  extremities, 
being  prolonged  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
genera,  between  the  legs,  and  spread  the  length 
of  the  tail,  forming  a  sensitive  surface  entirely 
disproportionate  to  the  size  of  the  body ;  to 
increase  its  sensitiveness,  it  is  entirely  or  nearly 
destitute  of  hair.  The  bat,  therefore,  is  made 
acquainted  with  the  distance  of  bodies  by  the 
different  modifications  impressed  upon  this 
membrane  by  the  impulse  of  the  air.  The 
only 'peculiarity  in  the  nervous  system  is  the 
large  size  of  the  spinal  cord  in  the  lower  cer- 
vical and  dorsal  region,  from  which  arise  the 
nerves  of  sensation  distributed  to  the  wings. 
In  the  nycteru,  an  African  genus,  the  skin 
adheres  to  the  body  only  at  certain  points,  and 
by  a  loose  cellular  membrane,  and  is  capable 
of  being  inflated  with  air  by  a  communication 
with  the  large  cheek  pouches;  this  inflation 
may  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  ani- 
mal resembles  a  balloon  with  head,  wings,  and 
feet.  The  mouth  of  the  bat  is  uncommonly 
large,  affording  great  facilities  for  the  capture 


at  (Vamplrus  spectrum). 

of  insects  on  the  wing.  In  the  genus  vampi- 
rus  or  pkyllostoma,  peculiar  to  America,  the 
tongue  is  provided  at  its  extremity  with  a  cir- 


cular row  of  wart-like  elevations,  forming  a 
complete  suctorial  disk ;  by  means  of  this  these 
animals  are  enabled  to  suck  the  juice  of  fruits 
and  the  blood  of  animals.  By  mistake  this 
faculty  has  been  attributed  to  some  of  the  large 
species  of  the  pteropus  of  Asia,  and  hence  have 
arisen  the  fearful  stories  of  the  fabulous  vam- 
pire, which  destroyed  people  at  night  by  suck- 
ing their  blood,  fanning  their  victims  into  un- 
consciousness by  the  flapping  of  their  wings. 
The  vampire  bat  is  a  large  South  American 
species,  of  the  genus  vampirus,  whose  natu- 
ral food  is  insects,  but  which,  if  pressed  by 
hunger,  will  suck  the  blood  of  poultry,  cattle, 
and  even  of  man ;  the  blood  is  obtained  en- 
tirely by  suction  from  the  capillary  vessels, 
and  not  through  any  wounds  made  by  the 
teeth  ;  the  stories  told  by  travellers  are  much 
exaggerated,  as  the  animal  is  harmless  and  not 
at  all  feared  by  the  natives.  The  insectivorous 
bats  have  the  simple  stomach  and  short  intes- 
tines of  the  carnivora ;  while  the  frugivorous 


Flying  Fox  or  Roussette  (Pteropus    rubricollis). 


species  have  a  complicated  stomach  and  a  long 
alimentary  canal. — Bats  are  natives  of  all  the 
temperate  and  tropical  regions  of  the  globe ; 
those  of  North  America  belong  chiefly  to  the 
vespertilionidce.  The  large  East  India  species, 
the  roussettes,  of  the  genus  pteropw,  are  exten- 
sively used  as  food.  The  fur  of  bats  is  generally 
exceedingly  fine  and  soft.  Bats  fly  to  a  consider- 
able height  and  with  great  rapidity  ;  they  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  avoiding  the  light  and 
noise  of  day ;  in  the  warm  summer  evenings 
they  sally  forth  in  search  of  prey,  and  them- 
selves fall  easy  victims  to  the  owls  and  birds 
of  night  and  to  any  snare  that  may  be  set  for 
them ;  they  pass  the  winter,  and  indeed  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  in  a  state  of  torpid- 
ity. The  cheiroptera  are  intermediate  between 
the  quadrumana  and  the  true  insectivora.  The 
galeopithecus,  or  cat-monkey,  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  presents  many  characters  of  the 


BATAK 


BATAVI 


379 


cheiroptera,  though  belonging  to  the  quadru- 
mana;  the  frugivorous  genera  approach  the 
quadrumana  in  their  teeth,  while  the  insect- 
eaters  resemble  the  true  inseotivora  in  their 
dentition  ;  we  find  the  monkey  characters  also 
in  the  free  movements  of  the  thumb,  the  deep 
divisions  of  the  fingers,  the  pectoral  situation 
of  the  breasts,  the  cheek  pouches  of  many,  and 
in  the  organs  of  generation  and  digestion.  The 
bats  differ  from  the  quadrumana  especially  in 
the  great  development  of  the  breast  bone  and 
in  the  impossibility  of  rotating  the  forearm. — 
North  America  has  the  following  bats :  Vesper- 
tilio  Noveboracensis,  V.  pruinosus,  V.  subulatus, 
V.  noctivagam,  V.  Carolinensis,  V.  monticola, 
V.  Virginianus  ;  molossus  cynocephalus,  M.fu- 
liginosus  ;  plecotus  Lecontii,  P.  Townsendi. 

It  tit  k,  a  remarkable  race  of  the  island  of  ! 
Sumatra.  They  inhabit  that  portion  called 
Batta.  or  Battas,  bounded  N.  by  Acheen  and 
S.  by  the  ancient  Malay  territory  of  Menan- 
kabow,  while  on  the  east  and  west  they  are 
hemmed  in  by  Malay  colonies,  which  confine 
them  to  the  mountainous  region  and  plateaus 
in  which  the  rivers  Ledang,  Bila,  Burumon, 
and  Batang  Gadis  have  their  sources;  area, 
20,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  350,000.  They  have 
a  written  character,  entirely  original,  forming 
an  alphabet  of  22  substantive  letters  and  5 
vowel  marks.  They  write  from  left  to  right, 
for  ordinary  purposes,  upon  polished  joints  of 
bamboo.  Their  books  are  composed  of  the 
inner  bark  of  a  species  of  palm  cut  into  long 
slips  and  folded  in  squares,  leaving  part  of  the 
wood  at  each  extremity  to  serve  for  the  outer 
covering.  Their  literary  works  are  chiefly 
rude  treatises  on  the  medical  properties  of 
plants,  chronicles,  stories  of  necromantic  feats, 
and  works  on  divination,  which  latter  they 
consult  on  all  important  occasions.  They  are 
cannibals,  eating  the  flesh  of  criminals,  prison- 
ers of  war,  and  such  others  as  may  for  any 
cause  bring  upon  themselves  the  anger  of  the 
people.  The  victim  is  attached  to  a  stake,  and 
pierced. with  kreeses  and  lances  until  death 
ensues,  when  he  is  violently  mangled  and  eat- 
en. This  degradation  of  the  dead  bodies  of 
their  enemies  is  their  highest  ideal  of  revenge 
or  retributive  justice,  as  is  shown  by  the  ex- 
treme respect  they  pay  to  the  remains  of  those 
whom  they  esteem.  Their  habits  are  of  the 
most  disgusting  character.  Their  single  gar- 
ment (sarang)  is  never  washed,  but  is  worn 
until  it  actually  falls  to  pieces ;  their  cooking 
and  household  utensils  are  simple,  and  are 
never  cleansed.  They  seem,  indeed,  to  have 
literally  no  idea  of  the  meaning  of  cleanliness. 
The  entrails  of  animals  are  considered  by  them 
the  greatest  delicacy ;  but  they  are  also  fond 
of  almost  every  kind  of  meat,  and  even  eat 
beetles  and  other  insects.  They  live  in  houses 
of  considerable  size,  each  containing  one  room, 
in  which,  however,  several  families  often  re- 
side together.  The  buildings  have  no  win- 
dows, and  only  a  few  holes  near  the  roof  to 
permit  the  passage  of  smoke  from  the  fires 


constantly  burning  on  the  floor.  The  houses 
are  raised  from  the  ground  by  posts ;  they  are 
painted  and  carved,  sometimes  with  no  small 
skill,  and  are  covered  by  thatched  roofs.  The 
entrance  is  a  small  opening  closed  by  a  kind 
of  portcullis,  and  is  reached  by  a  ladder.  Un- 
der the  house,  between  the  rows  of  posts,  is  the 
shelter  for  their  cattle  and  poultry.  The  reli- 
gion of  the  Bataks  is  simple.  They  are  pagans 
and  idolaters,  although  for  centuries  surrounded 
by  a  Mohammedan  population.  Their  deities 
have  Sanskrit  names:  Batara-Guru,  the  su- 
preme good  spirit;  Surety  a- ffuru,  his  vice- 
gerent; and  Naga-Padoha,  the  spirit  of  evil. 
In  taking  a  solemn  oath,  they  cut  the  throat 
of  a  chicken  after  the  manner  of  the  Chinese. 
They  understand  the  smelting  and  forging  of 
iron,  the  raising  of  rice  by  irrigation,  the  cul- 
ture, weaving,  and  dyeing  of  cotton,  and  have 
domesticated  the  ox,  horse,  butfalo,  and  hog. 
One  portion  of  their  territory,  Padang  Luwas 
(wide  plain),  is  a  bleak,  treeless  steppe,  over 
which  a  desiccating,  scorching  wind  blows  from 
the  west  for  months  together.  On  the  other 
hand  are  the  beautiful  and  fruitful  valleys  of 
Mandeling,  protected  N.  and  S.  by  the  lofty 
peaks  of  Barapi  and  Mali,  and  bordering  the 
banks  of  the  Batang  Gadis  (virgin  river), 
which  runs  between  the  central  mountains  of 
Sumatra.  These  high  ranges  are  covered  to 
their  summits  with  stately  woods,  which  afford 
abundance  of  good  timber.  The  Bataks  are 
divided  into  three  independent  states,  and  not 
fewer  than  40  petty  rajahships  are  enumerated. 
The  Dutch  have  obtained  access  to  a  portion 
of  their  country  on  the  western  side,  which  is 
comprised  in  what  is  called  the  Tapanooly  resi- 
dency, and  the  country  of  Menankabow  is  also 
included  in  their  possessions.  Ida  Pfeiffer  is  said 
to  have  of  all  European  travellers  penetrated 
the  furthest  into  the  territory  of  the  Batak. 

I!  1 1  t N  K  t.     See  BASHAN. 

I!  IT  t\(.  is.  I.  A  province  in  the  S.  W.  part 
of  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands ;  pop. 
247,000.  The  greater  part  of  its  surface  is 
level  and  very  fertile,  producing  coffee,  cotton, 
cacao,  indigo,  maize,  nutmegs,  pepper,  &c.  A 
portion  of  the  province  is  mountainous.  Lake 
Taal  in  its  central  part  contains  an  island,  in 
which  is  the  crater  of  a  volcano  still  active. 
In  the  midst  of  the  crater  is  a  small  lake, 
whose  waters  contain  large  quantities  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  There  are  few  manufactures. 
Cattle  are  raised  here  and  sent  to  the  market 
of  Manila.  II.  A  town,  the  capital  of  the 
preceding  province,  situated  on  a  bay  opening 
into  the  strait  of  Mindoro;  pop.  about  20,000. 
It  was  founded  in  1581,  contains  a  number  of 
handsome  buildings,  and  has  a  good  trade  with 
Manila. 

BATATAS.    See  POTATO,  and  YAM. 

BATAVI,  a  tribe  of  the  ancient  Chatti,  a  Ger- 
man nation.  At  an  unknown  period  they  emi- 
grated from  the  country  of  the  Chatti,  north 
of  Bavaria,  and  settled  on  an  island,  afterward 
called  Insula  Batavorum,  formed  by  the  Rhine, 


380 


BATAVIA 


the  Waal  (Vahalis),  the  Maas  (Mosa),  and  the 
ocean.  The  Caninefates,  another  tribe  of  the 
Chatti,  occupied  a  portion  of  the  same  island 
in  Csesar's  time.  The  Batavi,  who  were  good 
horsemen,  were  employed  as  cavalry  by  the 
Romans  in  their  campaigns  on  the  lower 
Rhine  and  in  Britain,  and  also  as  infantry.  In 
A.  D.  69  they  rose  in  arms  under  their  chief 
Claudius  Civilis  against  the  Romans,  but  though 
successful  for  a  time,  they  were  ultimately  re- 
duced to  submission.  (See  CIVILIS.)  Although 
included  in  the  Roman  empire,  they  paid  no 
taxes,  and  were  considered  rather  as  allies 
than  subjects.  They  served  as  Roman  auxil- 
iaries as  late  as  350. 

BATAVIA,  a  city  of  Java,  capital  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  in  lat.  6°  10'  8., 
Ion.  106°  50'  E.,  on  a  swampy  plain  at  the  head 
of  a  deep  bay  of  the  Java  sea,  on  the  N.  W. 


coast  of  the  island,  upon  both  banks  of  the 
river  Jacatra.  The  bay  is  protected  by  a 
number  of  islands,  and  forms  a  secure  har- 
bor. The  population  in  1832  was  118,300,  of 
whom  2,800  were  Europeans,  25,000  Chinese, 
80,000  natives,  1,000  Moors  and  Arabs,  and 
9,500  slaves;  the  present  number  is  various- 
ly stated  at  from  70,000  to  150,000,  the  dis- 
crepancy apparently  arising  from  the  differ- 
ent areas  embraced,  the  wealthy  inhabitants 
now  residing  beyond  the  limit  of  the  fortifica- 
tions, upon  several  broad  roads  running  for 
some  distance  inland.  The  local  trade  and 
handicrafts  are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese ;  the  foreign  commerce  in  those  of 
the  Dutch,  although  there  are  also  English, 
French,  German,  and  American  merchants. 
About  1,500  vessels  annually  enter  the  port, 
two  thirds  of  which  are  Dutch.  The  principal 


Bate™. 


articles  of  export  are  spices,  rice,  coffee,  sugar, 
indigo,  tobacco,  dye  woods,  and  gold  dust.  In 
1867  the  total  value  of  the  exports  was  $27,- 
227,025;  imports,  $22,439,435.  Batavia  was 
originally  laid  out  on  the  model  of  a  Dutch 
city,  with  broad  streets  having  each  a  canal  in 
the  centre.  Under  a  tropical  sun  these  almost 
stagnant  waters,  soaking  into  the  soft  soil, 
produced  malaria,  and  the  city  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  graveyard  of  Europeans;  the 
wealthy  classes  took  up  their  residence  in  the 
suburbs  which  formed  the  new  town  on  the 
heights  of  Weltevreden,  whither  the  govern- 
ment offices  were  removed.  Within  a  few 
years  canals  have  been  filled  up  and  drainage 
introduced,  so  that  the  city  is  considered  toler- 
ably healthy.  The  thermometer  ranges  from 
65°  to  90°.  The  old  town  is  mainly  inhabited 
by  natives  and  the  poorer  Chinese.  The  city 


has  a  bank  and  a  newspaper,  and  has  recently 
been  connected  with  Singapore  by  a  telegraphic 
cable  600  m.  long.  Among  the  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  are  the  Lutheran  church,  mili- 
tary hospital,  and  exchange. — Batavia  occupies 
the  site  of  the  former  native  city  of  Jacatra, 
which  was  seized  in  1619  by  the  Dutch  gover- 
nor Jan  Pieterszoon  Koen,  the  Dutch  having 
a  few  years  before  set  up  a  factory  here.  The 
capital  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India  was 
now  removed  from  Amboyna  to  this  place.  In 
1628-'9  the  allied  sovereigns  of  Bantam,  Jaca- 
tra. and  Mataram  twice  besieged  the  new  city, 
with  an  army  of  100,000  men,  but  were  repulsed. 
In  1641  there  was  a  revolt  of  the  Chinese  popu- 
lation, of  whom  12,000  were  massacred  by  or- 
der of  the  governor,  Adriaan  Valckenaer.  In 
1811  it  was  captured  by  the  English,  but  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch  after  the  peace. 


BATAVIA 


BATES 


381 


BATAVIA,  a  village,  capital  of  Genesee  coun- 
ty, N.  Y.,  30  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Rochester,  on  Ton- 
awanda  creek,  the  New  York  Central  railroad, 
which  here  joins  the  Canandaigua,  Batavia, 
and  Tonawanda  branch,  the  Batavia  and  Attica 
railroad,  and  the  Buffalo  division  of  the  Erie 
road ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,890.  It  contains  churches 
of  various  denominations,  2  banks,  and  3  news- 
paper offices.  The  state  institution  for  the 
blind,  erected  here  in  1869,  is  one  of  the  finest 
public  edifices  of  the  state. 

BATAVIAN  REPl'BLIC,  the  name  given  to  Hol- 
land after  its  conquest  by  the  French  in  1795, 
and  the  organization  of  a  republic,  May  16,  by 
the  French  faction  in  that  country.  The  new 
republic  was  obliged  to  cede  to  its  conquerors 
some  of  the  southern  portions  of  its  territory, 
included  in  which  were  the  cities  of  Maestricht 
and  Venloo,  to  pay  France  100,000,000  florins, 
and  to  receive  French  garrisons  into  its  for- 
tified places.  The  Batavian  constitution  was 
modified  in  1801  and  1805,  and  at  length  the 
legislative  body,  urged  by  Napoleon,  changed 
the  republic  into  a  kingdom,  and  offered  the 
crown  to  Louis  Bonaparte,  who,  on  June  5, 
1806,  was  proclaimed  king  of  Holland. 

BATCHIAJV,  or  Hal.jan.  one  of  the  northern 
group  of  the  Molucca  or  Spice  Islands,  in  lat. 
0°  35'  S.,  Ion.  127°  85'  E.,  between  the  islands 
of  Gilolo  and  Tawali,  separated  from  the  latter 
by  a  narrow  strait ;  area,  800  sq.  m.  A  low 
isthmus,  on  which  is  the  small  town  of  Batchian, 
connects  the  N.  and  S.  parts  of  the  island,  both 
of  which  are  mountainous,  while  the  S.  portion 
is  volcanic.  There  are  some  navigable  streams, 
alluvial  plains,  and  luxuriant  palm  forests.  The 
clove  tree  grows  wild.  The  interior  of  the 
island  is  uninhabited,  but  on  the  coast  there 
are  a  few  Portuguese,  Malays,  and  Indians 
driven  from  neighboring  islands.  Gold,  cop- 
per, and  coal  are  found  in  the  north.  The 
Dutch  extend  their  authority  over  the  island, 
but  the  government  is  administered  by  a  native 
sultan. 

BATEMAN,  Kate  Josephine,  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  7,  1843.  At 
three  years  of  age  she  made  her  d6but  upon  the 
stage  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  as  one  of  the  "Babes 
in  the  Wood"  in  a  piece  of  that  name;  and 
during  the  next  10  years,  in  company  with  her 
younger  sister  Ellen,  she  acted  with  great  suc- 
cess in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
England.  The  children  developed  remarkable 
talent,  and  in  such  juvenile  pieces  as  "The 
Gay  Couple,"  written  specially  for  them,  in- 
variably drew  large  audiences.  In  1856  Kate 
retired  from  the  stage,  but  reappeared  as  a 
star  actress  in  New  York  in  1860  in  "Evange- 
line,"  a  drama  written  by  her  mother.  In 
December,  1862,  she  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  Boston  as  Leah,  a  part  peculiarly  iden- 
tified with  her,  and  which  she  subsequently 
frequently  performed  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  In  London  it  was  repeated  211 
nights  in  1863-'4.  In  October,  1866,  she  was 
married  to  George  Crowe,  M.  D.,  of  London. 


In  1872  she  appeared  in  London  with  marked 
success  as  Medea  in  a  play  of  that  name. 

BATEJflTES.     See  ASSASSINS. 

BATES,  a  W.  county  of  Missouri,  on  the  Kan- 
sas frontier,  watered  by  the  Osage  river  and  its 
tributaries ;  area,  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
15,960,  of  whom  120  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  chiefly  rolling  prairie.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  104,533  bushels  of  wheat, 
910,266  of  Indian  corn,  168,621  of  oats,  47,118 
of  potatoes,  and  25,350  Ibs.  .of  wool.  There 
were  7,331  horses,  1,038  mules  and  asses,  5,507 
milch  cows,  11,798  other  cattle,  11,294  sheep, 
and  21,701  swine.  Capital,  Butler. 

BATES,  Barnabas,  a  promoter  of  cheap  postage 
in  the  United  States,  born  at  Edmonton,  Eng- 
land, in  1785,  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  11,  1853. 
He  came  to  America  at  an  early  age,  became 
a  Baptist  preacher  in  Rhode  Island,  and  was 
for  a  time  collector  of  the  port  of  Bristol.  In 
1825  he  established  in  New  York  the  "  Chris- 
tian Inquirer,"  a  weekly  journal.  Afterward, 
while  acting  as  assistant  in  the  post  office  at 
New  York,  he  became  interested  in  the  ques- 
tion of  cheap  postage.  He  investigated  the 
subject  for  years,  wrote,  published  pamphlets, 
and  lectured,  and  finally  effected  a  material  re- 
duction in  the  rates  of  land  postage.  He  was 
endeavoring  to  obtain  a  corresponding  reform 
in  ocean  postage  at  his  death. 

BATES,  Edward,  LL.  D.,  an  American  states- 
man and  jurist,  born  in  Goochland  co.,  Va.,  Sept. 
4,  1793,  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  March  25,  1869. 
He  emigrated  in  1814  to  Missouri  with  his 
elder  brother  Frederick,  then  secretary  of  the 
territory,  commenced  the  practice  of  law,  and 
became  eminent  at  the  bar.  He  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  legislature  of  Missouri  for  many 
years,  nnder  the  territorial  and  state  govern- 
ments, as  well  as  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  constitution  of  the  state,  and  he 
represented  the  state  in  the  20th  congress 
(1827-'9).  He  was  however  but  little  known 
out  of  his  own  state  when  the  internal  im- 
provement convention  met  at  Chicago  in  1847, 
before  which  he  delivered  an  address  which 
gave  him  a  national  reputation.  Efforts  were 
made  to  bring  him  back  to  political  life,  but  he 
would  neither  be  a  candidate  for  office  in  Mis- 
souri, nor  accept  a  place  offered  him  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Fillmore.  Mr.  Bates  was 
the  friend  of  Henry  Clay  in  1824,  and  followed 
him  in  supporting  the  administration  and  in 
advocating  the  reelection  of  Mr.  Adams.  In 
1854  he  was  an  opponent  of  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  compromise,  and  afterward  opposed 
the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the  Lecompton 
constitution.  He  presided  at  the  whig  national 
convention  at  Baltimore  in  1856,  was  strongly 
supported  as  a  candidate  for  president  in  the 
republican  national  convention  at  Chicago  in 
1860,  and  was  United  States  attorney  general 
under  the  administration  of  President  Lincoln, 
which  office  he  resigned  in  1864. 

BATES,  Joshua,  an  English  banker,  born  at 
Weymouth,  Mass.,  in  1788,  died  in  London, 


382 


BATH 


Sept.  24,  1864.  At  the  age  of  15  he  entered 
the  counting-house  of  William  B.  Gray  in  Bos- 
ton, and  by  his  remarkable  capacity  soon  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  Mr.  Gray's  father,  who 
sent  him  to  the  north  of  Europe  to  protect  his 
interests  there.  In  1826,  through  the  influence 
of  Messrs.  Baring  Brothers  and  company,  he 
formed  a  house  in  London,  in  connection  with 
Mr.  John  Baring,  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Baring, 
under  the  firm  of  Bates  and  Baring.  On  the 
death  of  Mr.  Holland  these  gentlemen  were 
both  made  partners  in  the  house  of  Baring 
Brothers  and  company,  of  which  Mr.  Bates  re- 
mained till  his  death  an  active  member.  In 
1854  Mr.  Bates  was  appointed  umpire  in  the 
English  and  American  commission  which  had 
been  arranged  by  the  two  governments  to 
settle  claims  held  by  the  citizens  of  one  coun- 
try against  the  government  of  the  other.  In 
1852  he  chanced  to  read  the  official  report  of  a 
plan  for  establishing  a  free  public  library  in 
Boston,  and  wrote  immediately  to  the  mayor 
of  Boston  offering  to  contribute  $50,000  toward 
the  scheme,  on  condition  that  the  income  of 
his  fund  should  annually  be  spent  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books  of  permanent  value,  and  that 
the  city  should  always  provide  comfortable 
accommodations  for  their  use,  both  day  and 
evening,  by  at  least  100  readers.  The  building 
was  dedicated  in  1858,  and  up  to  that  time  he 
had  given  to  the  library  between  20,000  and 
30,000  volumes  over  and  above  all  that  had 
been  purchased  by  the  resources  of  his  fund. 
Mr.  Bates  was  married  in  1813  to  Lucretia 
Augusta  Sturgis,  by  whom  he  had  one  surviving 
child,  Madame  Van  de  Weyer,  wife  of  an  emi- 
nent diplomatist  of  Belgium. 

BATH,  a  place  or  vessel  for  washing  the  body. 
Besides  the  employment  of  natural  streams  and 
bodies  of  water,  the  artificial  bath  has  been 
used  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have 
any  record.  It  is  mentioned  in  Homer,  the 
vessel  for  bathing  being  described  as  of  polished 
marble,  like  many  of  the  basins  which  have 
been  found  in  the  Roman  baths.  Even  the 
warm  bath  is  referred  to  in  the  Iliad  and  Odys- 
sey, but  it  is  spoken  of  as  effeminate.  In  the 
historical  periods  of  Greece  there  were  numer- 
ous baths  in  Athens  and  the  other  large  cities ; 
but  we  know  little  of  their  arrangement,  and 
they  appear  never  to  have  attained  the  magnifi- 
cence afterward  reached  in  Rome.  At  Rome, 
in  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war  and  of  the 
vigor  of  the  republic,  the  baths,  according  to 
Seneca,  were  dark,  small,  and  inconvenient.  It 
was  only  with  the  beginning  of  the  empire  that 
they  began  to  be  among  the  most  magnificent 
buildings  of  the  city,  the  immense  ruins  which 
still  exist  testifying  to  the  almost  unparalleled 
luxury  of  their  arrangements.  The  public  bath 
at  Pompeii  (uncovered  in  1824),  though  inferior 
in  size  and  appointments  to  those  of  the  capital, 
was  similar  probably  to  them  in  its  internal  ar- 
rangements. It  occupied  an  area  of  about  10,- 
000  sq.  ft.,  and  contained  two  distinct  bathing 
establishments,  of  which  the  smaller  is  believed 


to  have  been  appropriated  exclusively  to  the 
women.  In  the  men's  baths  is  first  a  court, 
about  60  ft.  long,  bounded  on  two  sides  by  a 


Plan  of  Pompcian  Bath. 

Doric  portico,  in  which  those  who  were  waiting 
their  turn  for  admission  to  the  thermos  might 
walk  or  repose  upon  the  benches  placed  along 
the  wall.  From  this  court  there  was  a  com- 
munication by  means  of  a  corridor  with  a  small- 
er room,  frigidarium,  in  the  walls  of  which 
holes  are  observed,  which  served  for  the  inser- 
tion of  pegs  on  which  the  clothes  of  the  bathers 
might  be  hung.  This  room  was  the  apodyte- 
rium  (the  place  where  the  clothes  were  left) 
for  those  who  intended  to  take  the  natatio,  or 
cold  bath.  From  it  another  door  opened  into 
an  apartment  in  which  was  placed  the  natato- 
rium,  or  the  piscina,  a  basin  for  the  cold  bath. 
The  piscina  itself  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
room;  it  is  of  white  marble,  circular,  12  ft.  10 
in.  in  diameter,  and  a  little  more  than  3  ft.  in 
depth ;  10  in.  below  the  lip,  and  2  ft.  4  in.  from 
the  bottom,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  marble  seat,  1 1 
in.  in  width.  The  water  was  conducted  into  the 


Ground  Plan. 


Frigidarium  in  a  Bath  at  Rome. 

basin  by  a  bronze  spout,  the  remains  of  which 
can  still  be  discerned  in  the  wall  of  the  cham- 
ber. In  the  bottom  was  an  outlet,  by  which  the 
water  could  be  let  out  and  the  piscina  cleaned, 
while  the  rim  is  furnished  with  a  waste  pipe. 
From  ihe  frigidarium  a  door  opened  into  a  simi- 
lar room,  which  appears  to  have  been  warmed 
by  a  large  portable  fireplace,  and  was  furnished 
with  bronze  seats  placed  along  the  wall.  This 


BATH 


383 


room  served  as  an  apodyterium  for  those  who 
were  to  use  the  warm  baths,  and  here  the 
bathers,  previous  to  entering  the  caldarium, 


Apodyterium  at  Pompeii 

were  rubbed  and  anointed  with  some  of  the 
immense  number  of  fragrant  oils  and  ointments 
which  were  employed  by  the  ancients.  Having 
left  his  dress  in  the  tepidarium,  the  bather 
passed  directly  into  the  caldarium.  The  floor- 
ing of  this  apartment,  which,  in  accordance 
with  the  directions  of  Vitruvius,  is  twice  as 
long  as  it  is  broad,  is  placed  upon  small  pillars 
{suspensurce),  so  that  the  heat  from  the  furnaces 
had  ready  and  free  admission  beneath  it.  The 
walls,  too,  were  hollow,  the  inner  being  con- 
nected with  the  outer  wall  by  strong  clamps 
of  iron  and  brick,  and  they  thus  formed  one 
large  flue  for  the  circulation  of  the  heated  air. 
At  one  end  of  this  room  was  placed  the  hot 


Tepidarium  at 


bath.  This  was  a  shallow  cistern  (alveui),  15 
ft.  in  length  by  about  4  ft.  <n  breadth,  and  2 
ft.  and  half  an  inch  in  depth ;  it  was  elevated 
above  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  the  bathers 
ascended  to  it  by  means  of  two  steps,  the  top 
one  serving  for  a  seat ;  on  the  inside  another 
seat  surrounded  the  whole  of  the  cistern  at 
about  half  its  depth.  The  hot  water  was  fur- 
nished by  caldrons  placed  upon  the  other  side 
of  the  wall.  At  the  end  of  the  room,  opposite 
the  alceus,  was  the  labrum,  a  huge  vase  or 
tazza  of  white  marble,  8  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
having  a  depth  internally  of  not  more  than  8 
77  VOL.  H. — 25 


in.  From  the  centre  projected  a  brass  tube, 
probably  throwing  up  cold  water.  This  was 
perhaps  received  upon  the  head  of  the  bather, 
before  he  quitted  the  heated  atmosphere  of 
the  caldarium.  Adjoining  the  caldarium  was 
placed  the  furnace  over  which  was  set  the 
caldron  for  supplying  hot  water  to  the  baths. 
The  arrangement  will  be  explained  by  the  an- 
nexed copy  of  a  fresco  discovered  in  the  baths 
of  Titus  at  Rome.  The  women's  baths  resem- 


Baths  of  Titus. 

bled  those  of  the  men,  except  that  the  different 
apartments  were  much  smaller,  and  the  ar- 
rangements less  complete. — The  great  therm® 
erected  by  the  emperors  at  Rome  were  much 
more  extensive  and  magnificent  structures. 
The  baths  of  Oaracalla  were  1,500  ft.  long  by 
1,250  ft.  broad.  At  each  end  of  the  building 
is  a  large  oblong  hall,  a,  having  on  one  of  its 
sides  a  semicircular  tribune,  b.  The  halls 
were  probably  designed  for  exercise,  as  was 
also  the  large  open  space  f  before  the  baths. 
From  the  tribunes  orators  and  poets  spoke  to 
those  assembled  at  this  favorite  place  of  resort. 
The  large  central  apartment  c  is  called  the 
pinaeotheca,  but  excellent  authorities  believe 
it  to  have  been  the  cello,  calidaria.  The  cir- 
cular apartment  e  was  the  laconicum,  or  room 
for  the  vapor  bath ;  while  the  apartment  d,  at 
the  other  side,  was  the  cello,  frig idaria.  The 
water  for  all  the  building  came  from  the  ele- 
vated reservoir  h,  passing  under  the  rows  of 
seats  g,  from  which  spectators  witnessed  the 

^liiiiiiiiiiihiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini 


Plan  of  Baths  of  Caracalla. 

athletic  exercises  below.  All  the  apartments 
of  the  bath  were  magnificently  ornamented 
with  mosaic,  and  profusely  adorned  with 


384 


BATH 


painting,  stucco  work,  and  statuary.  In  these 
immense  establishments,  the  apartments  were 
not  only  more  numerous,  but  some  of  them 
on  a  very  much  larger  scale.  Thus  the  na- 
tatorium,  or  swimming  bath,  in  the  baths 
of  Diocletian,  was  200  ft.  long  by  100  ft. 
broad,  and  it  is  calculated  that  in  the  whole 
establishment  more  than  18,000  persons  could 
bathe  at  the  same  time. — In  the  tunes  of  the 
republic  the  cold  bath  alpne  was  ordinarily 
employed,  but  later  the  hot  air  and  warm  bath 
were  likewise  generally  used.  The  order  in 
which  they  were  taken  varied  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  physicians  or  the  inclination 
of  the  bather.  Previous  to  bathing,  gentle 
exercise  was  generally  taken ;  then  it  was  rec- 
ommended that  the  bather  should  remain  in 
the  tepidarium,  or  warm  chamber,  for  a  time 
previous  to  undressing;  after  undressing  he 
proceeded  commonly  to  the  caldarimn,  and 
after  sweating  some  time  in  its  heated  atmos- 
phere, he  either  gradually  immersed  himself  in 
the  hot  water  bath,  or  had  hot  water  simply 
poured  over  the  head  and  shoulders ;  then  cold 
water  was  poured  over  the  head,  or  the  bather 
plunged  into  the  cold  piscina.  He  was  now 
scraped  with  strigiles  (small  curved  instru- 
ments, made  generally  of  bronze),  dried  and 
rubbed  with  linen  cloths,  and  finally  anointed. 
When  one  bath  alone  was  desired,  it  was  taken 
just  before  the  principal  meal;  but  the  Ro- 
mans bathed  after  as  well  as  previous  to  their 
c&na,,  and  Commodus  is  said  to  have  indulged 
in  seven  or  eight  baths  a  day. — The  Turks  and 
Arabs  have,  since  the  decline  of  Roman  civ- 
ilization, more  particularly  cherished  the  cus- 
tom of  bathing  than  any  other  nations.  The 
laws  of  Mohammed  ordain  five  prayers  daily, 
and  an  ablution  of  the  face,  hands,  and  feet 
before  each  of  them.  There  are  many  other 


Turkish  Bath. 


occasions  for  bathing,  and  the  public  hath  is  as 
sure  to  be  found  in  every  village  as  the  mosque. 
With  these  eastern  nations,  as  well  as  in 
Egypt,  public  bathing  is  a  very  complicated 
art.  The  bather,  having  left  his  dress  in  the 
reception  room,  proceeds  through  a  long  grad- 
ually warmed  passage  into  the  spacious  bath- 
ing room,  in  which  the  steam  of  boiling  wa- 
ter and  the  perfumes  of  burning  essences  are 
combined.  He  there  reclines  upon  a  kind  of 
hammock,  and  when  he  has  perspired  suffi- 
ciently, the  process  of  shampooing  and  bending 
the  joints  is  performed  upon  him.  He  then 
passes  into  an  adjoining  apartment,  where 
his  head  is  profusely  covered  with  the  foam 
of  soap,  and  his  body  with  a  kind  of  poma- 
tum. In  two  other  rooms  he  is  washed  with 
both  warm  and  cold  water,  and  he  returns 
to  the  open  air  as  he  entered,  through  a  long 
passage  the  temperature  of  which  is  gradu- 
ated.— In  India,  also,  there  are  public  baths, 
which  are  associated  with  the  practice  of 
shampooing.  The  bather  is  extended  upon  a 
plank,  and  a  vigorous  attendant  pours  hot 
water  over  him,  presses  and  bends  the  various 
parts  of  the  body,  cracks  all  the  joints,  and 
continues  this  operation  of  pouring,  pulling, 
and  pressing  for  about  half  an  hour.  He  then 
rubs  him  briskly  with  a  hair  brush,  with  soap 
and  perfumes,  after  which  the  subject  is  obliged 
by  his  fatigue  to  sleep  a  few  hours,  but  wakes 
extremely  refreshed.  The  women  in  India 
take  a  lively  pleasure  in  being  shampooed  by 
their  slaves,  and  Europeans  who  enter  upon 
the  process  with  a  sort  of  fear  describe  the 
sensation  which  results  as  delightful  and  pe- 
culiar.— The  northern  nations  have  also  their 
peculiar  usages  in  respect  to  bathing.  The 
Russian  lord  has  his  bathing  room  in  his  own 
house,  and  the  people  in  the  villages  frequent 
the  public  bath  at  a  small  expense.  The  en- 
tire operation  consists,  first,  of  a  perspiration, 
then  of  friction,  and  of  successive  ablutions  in 
hot  and  cold  water.  The  poorer  people,  how- 
ever, adopt  a  simpler  method.  They  remain 
in  the  bathing  room  only  till  they  begin  to 
perspire  freely,  and  then  rush  out  and  throw 
themselves,  perhaps  through  a  crust  of  ice, 
into  the  nearest  stream  or  pond,  thus  exposing 
themselves  suddenly  to  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature, and  tempering  themselves  as  steel  is 
tempered.  Among  the  Russians  of  Siberia, 
the  bath  is  especially  in  use  as  a  means  of  driv- 
ing off  the  effects  of  a  violent  cold  and  prevent- 
ing fever.  The  Subject  is  taken  into  the  bath 
room  and  placed  upon  a  shelf  within  an  inch 
or  two  of  a  steaming  furnace.  After  he  is  well 
parboiled  in  this  position,  he  is  drubbed  and 
flogged  for  about  half  an  hour  with  a  bundle 
of  birch  twigs,  leaf  and  all.  A  pailful  of  cold 
water  is  then  dashed  over  him  from  head  to 
foot,  the  effect  of  which  is  described  as  electri- 
fying. He  is  next  put  in  an  exhausted  condi- 
tion to  bed,  and  physic  is  administered.  It  is 
rare  that  a  fever  does  not  beat  a  retreat  after 
a  few  repetitions  of  the  bath  and  the  physic. 


BATH 


385 


Bayard  Taylor,  in  his  winter  travels  in  Lap- 
land, gives  an  account  of  similar  baths.  There 
the  bather  is  placed  on  an  elevated  platform, 
and  vapor  is  produced  by  throwing  water 
on  heated  stones  beneath. — In  Mexico,  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  vapor  or  steam  bath  is  in  use. 
The  steam,  generated  below  the  floor  of  a 


Mexican  Steam  Bath. 

small  apartment,  is  admitted  around  the  bather, 
who  reclines  on  a  low  bench. — The  Japanese 
are  constant  frequenters  of  the  bath,  though 
bathing  is  with  them  a  simple  process.  A 
large  tank  or  pond  occupies  the  centre  of  their 
bath  house,  and  men  and  women  bathe  toge- 


Japanese  Bath. 

ther.  The  warm  bath,  in  its  more  elaborate 
forms,  is  seldom  found  in  Japan. — The  use  of  the 
bath  has  not  marked  the  manners  of  the  most 
civilized  modem  nations,  as  it  did  those  of  the 
polite  nations  of  antiquity.  Yet  it  is  less  neg- 
lected now  than  formerly,  and  public  baths, 
though  they  are  not  centres  of  resort  for  the 
people,  are  found  in  all  large  cities,  and  private 
baths  are  common  in  dwelling  houses.  Turk- 
ish baths,  with  some  peculiarities  adopted  from 
the  baths  of  other  eastern  nations,  have  also 
become  popular  of  late  years  in  western  Eu- 
rope and  America,  and  are  now  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  large  city  ;  and  Russian  baths 
are  also  numerous. — Hygiene  of  Bathing.  To 
bathe,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  is  to 
surround  the  body,  or  a  portion  of  it,  for  a 
temporary  period,  by  a  medium  different  from 


that  in  which  it  usually  exists.  The  medium 
may  consist  of  air  or  vapor,  of  water,  either 
pure  or  holding  various  substances  in  solution, 
or  finally  even  of  sand  or  mud.  The  body 
may  be  wholly  or  partially  immersed  in  the 
medium,  as  in  the  ordinary  plunge  bath,  the 
foot  bath,  hip  bath,  &c. ;  or  the  medium  may 
be  poured  with  greater  or  less  force  upon  the 
body,  as  in  the  shower  and  douche  bath.  The 
temperature  of  the  medium,  as  it  is  warm,  hot, 
or  cold,  modifies  powerfully  the  effect  of  the 
bath.  In  the  present  article  we  shall  confine 
our  attention  to  the  effects  of  the  ordinary 
water  bath,  and  of  the  hot  air  and  vapor  baths. 
The  temperature  at  which  the  water  bath  may 
be  taken  varies  from  32°  to  112°  or  even  120° 
F.,  and  baths  are  ordinarily  divided  into  cold, 
warm,  and  hot,  according  to  the  sensation  they 
communicate  to  the  bather.  These  sensations, 
it  must  be  recollected,  are  no  very  accurate 
measure  of  the  true  temperature ;  the  water 
which  to  one  person  seems  warm,  to  another 
feeling  cool.  Systematic  writers  have  further 
multiplied  these  divisions;  perhaps  the  most 
convenient  among  them  is  that  proposed  by 
Dr.  John  Forbes.  He  divides  the  water  baths 
into  the  cold  bath,  from  32°  to  60°  F. ;  the 
cool,  60°  to  75° ;  the  temperate,  75°  to  85° ; 
the  tepid,  85°  to  92° ;  the  warm,  92°  to  98° ; 
the  hot,  98°  to  112°.  On  plunging  into  cold 
water  the  bather  experiences  a  shock  attended 
with  a  sensation  of  cold  that  may  amount  to 
rigor,  and  with  a  sudden  catching  of  the  breath, 
caused  by  the  contact  of  the  cold  fluid  with 
the  surface  of  the  face  and  trunk ;  in  some  per- 
sons this  spasmodic  anhelation  is  so  great  as 
entirely  to  prevent  speech.  The  surface  ap- 
pears contracted  and  shrunken,  the  superficial 
veins  become  smaller  or  disappear,  the  color 
assumes  a  bluish  tint.  After  a  short  time,  the 
duration  of  which  depends  partly  upon  the 
coldness  of  the  water,  partly  upon  the  consti- 
tutional vigor  of  the  bather,  reaction  takes 
place ;  the  chilliness  and  rigor  disappear,  and 
are  succeeded  by  a  sensation  of  warmth,  which 
diffuses  itself  over  the  whole  surface ;  the  res- 
piration becomes  tranquil,  and  there  is  a  gen- 
eral feeling  of  lightness  and  vigor.  After  a 
variable  period  the  bather  again  begins  to  suf- 
fer from  the  cold,  trembling  and  rigor  super- 
vene, the  movements  become  impaired  and 
feeble,  the  pulse  is  smaller  and  less  frequent, 
the  breathing  is  oppressed,  and  the  whole  body 
is  languid  and  powerless.  If  he  leave  the  water 
before  the  occurrence  of  the  second  period  of 
chill,  there  is  a  renewal  of  the  reaction,  a  glow 
pervades  the  surface,  the  color  returns  and  is 
heightened,  the  pulse  is  fuller  and  stronger  than 
before  the  immersion,  and  there  is  a  general 
feeling  of  buoyancy  and  vigor.  M.  Begin,  ex- 
perimenting upon  the  cold  bath,  took  nine 
baths  in  the  Moselle  under  the  ramparts  of 
Metz,  toward  the  end  of  October,  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  open  air  standing  at  from  2° 
to  6°  Reaumur  (36£  to  45$  F.).  At  the  moment 
of  immersion  there  was  a  sensation  as  if  the 


386 


BATH 


blood  were  all  driven  to  the  interior  of  the 
body,  particularly  to  the  chest ;  the  breath  was 
gasping,  interrupted,  quickened,  almost  to  suf- 
focation; the  pulse  concentrated,  small,  and 
hard ;  there  was  rigidity  of  the  tissues,  but 
without  trembling.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three 
minutes  a  feeling  of  calm  followed,  the  respi- 
ration became  deep,  the  skin  warm,  and  all  the 
movements  were  free  and  easy.  "  All  the  mus- 
cular movements  are  quick,  easy,  and  precise ; 
one  feels  as  if  the  skin  and  aponeuroses  were 
applied  more  closely  to  the  muscles,  and  that 
these  thus  held  down  acted  with  greater  force 
and  energy  than  in  their  ordinary  state.  Soon 
a  lively  redness  covers  the  surface,  a  marked 
and  pleasant  feeling  of  warmth  spreads  over 
the  skin ;  it  seems  as  if  one  swam  in  a  liquid 
raised  to  8(i°  or  98° ;  the  body  appears  to  seek 
to  expand  in  order  to  multiply  the  surface  of 
contact ;  the  pulse  is  large,  full,  strong,  regu- 
lar. Few  sensations  are  so  delicious  as  those 
felt  at  such  a  moment.  All  the  springs  of 
the  animal  machine  acquire  greater  flexibility, 
strength,  and  firmness  than  they  had  previous- 
ly ;  the  limbs  cleave  with  ease  a  fluid  which  no 
longer  offers  any  resistance ;  one  moves  with- 
out effort,  with  quickness,  and  above  all  with 
an  incredible  lightness."  In  from  15  to  20 
minutes  there  was  a  gradual  return  of  cold  and 
discomfort ;  it  was  then  time  to  leave  the  wa- 
ter. If  the  bather  still  remained,  he  was  seized 
with  chills,  and  the  difficulty  of  moving  became 
so  great  that  he  was  in  danger  of  drowning. 
On  quitting  the  water,  continues  M.  Begin, 
before  the  reaction  has  ceased,  the  transition  to 
the  cold  air  gives  no  unpleasant  sensation.  In 
despite  of  the  wind  and  the  moisture  which 
covers  the  body,  the  latter  remains  warm,  and 
the  skin  is  so  insensible  that  the  friction  of  the 
towel  is  not  perceived ;  indeed,  M.  Begin  some- 
times rubbed  off  the  cuticle  without  being 
aware  of  it.  To  endure  a  bath  of  such  a  tem- 
perature with  safety,  to  say  nothing  of  enjoy- 
ment and  benefit,  requires  a  vigorous  constitu- 
tion and  great  promptness  of  reaction.  M.  Eos- 
tan,  another  French  physician,  was  unable  to 
remain  longer  than  six  minutes  in  the  Seine  at 
a  time  when  the  water  was  43°  F.,  and  then 
reaction  only  fully  occurred  on  the  following 
night  after  many  hours  of  discomfort,  accom- 
panied by  a  painful  feeling  of  weight  about  the 
head.  Reaction  takes  place  most  promptly, 
and  a  lower  temperature  can  safely  be  borne, 
when  exercise  is  conjoined  with  bathing,  as  in 
swimming,  than  when  the  body  is  at  rest.  Salt 
water  is  more  stimulating  than  fresh,  and  ren- 
ders the  reaction  more  marked  and  of  longer 
duration ;  the  shock  of  the  waves  too,  by  ren- 
dering muscular  action  necessary  to  resist  it, 
has  a  similar  influence.  The  effects  of  the  cold 
bath,  where  it  agrees,  are  tonic  and  bracing ; 
it  stimulates  the  skin,  improves  the  appetite, 
and  renders  the  circulation  more  active  and 
vigorous.  It  hardens  the  system,  and  causes 
it  to  be  much  less  sensitive  to  vicissitudes  of 
temperature.  The  regular  employment  of  the 


cold  hath  is  the  best  protective  against  the  lia- 
bility to  take  cold  on  moderate  exposure.  Its 
beneficial  effects  depend  mainly  on  the  prompt- 
ness and  completeness  of  the  stage  of  reaction ; 
if  full  reaction  does  not  take  place,  if  the  bather 
remains  cold  and  shivering,  with  a  sense  of 
weight  about  the  head,  the  bath  is  injurious. 
It  should  not  be  taken  when  the  body  is  fatigued 
and  exhausted,  or  when  it  is  overheated  by  ex- 
ertion in  hot  weather ;  on  the  other  hand,  a 
moderate  degree  of  warmth,  or  even  a  gentle 
perspiration,  provided  there  is  no  exhaustion, 
does  not  contra- indicate  its  employment.  When 
first  employed,  it  should  be  used  but  a  few  min- 
utes until  the  bather  has  tested  his  powers  of 
resistance  and  reaction,  and  the  interval  can 
then  be  gradually  increased.  When  the  shower 
or  cold  bath  is  taken  in  the  house,  it  may  be 
used  immediately  on  rising  while  the  body  is 
still  warm  from  bed;  but  the  sea  bath  suits 
best  about  noon,  or  some  three  hours  after  the 
morning  meal.  The  presence  of  disease  of  the 
heart  or  of  the  great  blood  vessels  renders  the 
use  of  the  cold  bath  dangerous.  The  cool  and 
temperate  baths  produce  effects  similar  in  kind 
to  those  of  the  cold  bath,  but  less  in  degree ; 
they  are  the  cold  bath  of  the  invalid  and  feeble. 
Infants  and  old  persons,  as  a  rule,  bear  the  cold 
bath  badly.  Young  infants  in  particular  do 
not  react  promptly,  but  remain  cold  and  blue 
for  some  time  after  taking  a  bath ;  yet  in 
feeble  and  strumous  children  the  bath  is  one 
of  our  best  means  of  hardening  and  invigorat- 
ing the  constitution.  With  them  it  is  best  to 
commence  with  the  tepid  bath,  and  the  temper- 
ature should  gradually,  day  by  day,  be  lowered ; 
when  the  cold  bath  is  arrived  at,  it  should  be 
given  in  a  properly  warmed  apartment;  the 
immersion  should  be  sudden,  complete,  and 
continued  but  for  a  few  moments,  and  the  child 
should  immediately  afterward  be  well  and 
thoroughly  rubbed  with  dry  flannels. — The  ef- 
fect of  the  warm  bath  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the  cold  bath.  There  is  no  shock ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  temperature  is  grateful  to  the 
bather.  The  blood  is  solicited  to  the  surface, 
which  becomes  full  and  rounded.  The  cuticle 
absorbs  water  and  is  softened,  and  the  epithe- 
lial debris  are  readily  removed.  The  pulse  is 
unaffected,  irritability  of  the  nervous  system  is 
soothed,  pain  dependent  on  spasmodic  action 
or  neuralgia  is  allayed,  and  the  relaxation  of 
the  skin  extends  to  the  deeper-seated  parts. 
Its  beneficial  effects  are  especially  recognizable 
after  excessive  muscular  exercise  or  after  the 
fatigue  and  excitement  of  a  long  journey,  in 
refreshing  and  tranquillizing  the  system.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  warm  bath  exercises  none 
of  the  tonic  and  astringent  influence  which  is 
produced  by  the  cold ;  its  frequent  use  tends  to 
relax  and  debilitate,  while  it  renders  the  system 
more  sensible  to  the  variations  of  external  tem- 
perature.—The  hot  bath,  98°  to  112°  F.,  pro- 
duces at  first  an  inconvenient  and  even  painful 
sensation  of  heat ;  from  the  determination  of 
blood  to  the  surface,  it  soon  becomes  reddened 


BATH 


387 


and  swollen,  the  face  is  turgid,  the  eyes  are 
injected  ;  the  action  of  the  heart  is  increased, 
the  pulse  becomes  fuller  and  more  frequent, 
the  carotid  arteries  in  particular  beat  with  vio- 
lence ;  the  breathing  is  oppressed,  and  there  is 
a  painful  sensation  of  weight  about  the  head ; 
soon  the  parts  not  covered  by  the  water  break 
out  into  a  profuse  perspiration,  which  only 
partially  relieves  the  discomfort  of  the  patient. 
On  leaving  the  bath  the  excitement  does  not 
immediately  subside ;  the  pulse  continues  to 
beat  with  force  and  frequency,  the  extremities, 
particularly  the  lower,  remain  swollen,  and  the 
patient  perspires  abundantly,  while  the  secre- 
tion of  urine  is  diminished  ;  there  is  a  sense  of 
muscular  fatigue,  and  the  whole  system  is  re- 
laxed and  weakened.  These  symptoms,  how- 
ever, when  present,  are  to  be  attributed  to  a 
too  sudden  or  too  long  continued  action  of  the 
hot  bath.  The  best  mode  of  obtaining  its  bene- 
ficial effects,  in  ordinary  cases,  is  to  begin  with 
water  at  the  temperature  of  the  tepid  bath, 
and  gradually  raise  it  to  that  of  the  hot  bath. 
When  the  full  effect  of  this  is  produced,  and 
before  any  signs  of  exhaustion  manifest  them- 
selves, the  bather  should  leave  the  hot  water 
and  take  a  momentary  shower  or  douche  of 
cold  water,  to  be  followed  immediately  by  rub- 
bing with  the  towel.  In  healthy  persons  this 
will  usually  produce  a  moderate  and  agreeable 
reaction.  The  continued  warm  or  hot  bath, 
however,  is  sometimes  employed  intentionally 
to  produce  temporary  muscular  relaxation  in 
cases  of  dislocation  or  strangulated  hernia. — 
Besides  the  cold  and  warm  water  bath,  the 
body  may  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  air  arti- 
ficially heated  or  to  the  vapor  of  boiling  water. 
The  former,  the  laconicum,  was  habitually  em- 
ployed by  the  Romans  and  is  now  used  by  the 
Turks  and  the  Egyptians,  and  the  latter  by  the 
Russians.  The  effects  of  both,  when  the  tem- 
perature is  much  elevated,  are  at  first  highly 
stimulating.  The  beat  of  the  heart  is  increased 
in  force  and  frequency ;  the  pulse  rises  to  90, 
100,  120,  and  even  150  or  160  beats  in  a  min- 
ute ;  the  blood  is  driven  powerfully  to  the  sur- 
face, the  face  becomes  flushed,  the  eyes  injected 
and  suffused,  the  skin  turgid,  and  the  bather 
soon  breaks  out  into  a  profuse  sweat ;  if  the 
temperature  is  very  high  and  too  long  contin- 
ued, after  a  time  the  whole  mass  of  the  blood 
becomes  heated  above  its  normal  standard,  and 
this  may  be  attended  with  dangerous  or  fatal 
consequences.  Owing  to  the  free  evaporation 
from  the  surface,  the  hot-air  bath  can  be  borne 
of  a  much  higher  temperature  than  the  vapor 
bath.  The  ordinary  heat  of  the  Russian  or 
oriental  bagnio  is  from  120°  to  140°  F.,  though 
it  is  occasionally  raised  as  high  as  180°  or 
190° ;  while,  when  the  air  is  moderately  dry, 
a  temperature  of  from  250°  to  280°  F.  has 
been  borne  for  some  time  with  impunity. 
Medicated  baths  are  used  in  the  treatment  of 
diseases,  generally  those  of  a  chronic  charac- 
ter, and  may  be  either  liquid  or  vapor  baths, 
the  vehicle  being  water,  watery  vapor,  or  air. 


lying 

among  the  Alleghanies  and  bordering  on  West 
Virginia;  area,  725  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,795, 
of  whom  889  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  and  well  watered  by  the  sources  of  the 
James,  Cowpasture,  and  Jackson  rivers.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile  in  the  valleys.  There  are 
many  medicinal  springs.  The  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad  traverses  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  30,098  bushels  of 
wheat,  49,252  of  Indian  corn,  23,552  of  oats, 
and  2,790  tons  of  hay.  There  were  1,081 
horses,  1,357  milch  cows,  3,534  other  cattle, 
3,029  sheep,  and  2,380  swine.  Capital,  Warm 
Springs.  II.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Kentucky, 
watered  by  Licking  river  and  Slate  creek; 
area,  290  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,125,  of  whom 
1,702  were  colored.  The  N.  W.  portion  is  re- 
markably fertile.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
great  abundance,  and  there  are  numerous  me- 
dicinal springs.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  46,113  bushels  of  wheat,  23,092  of  rye, 
860,631  of  Indian  corn,  108,945  of  oats,  2,175 
tons  of  hay,  and  25,480  Ibs.  of  wool.  There 
were  4,178  horses,  2,199  mules  and  asses,  2,879 
milch  cows,  7,209  other  cattle,  8,343  sheep, 
and  22,405  swine.  Capital,  Owingsville. 

BATH,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  capital 
of  Sagadahock  co.,  Maine,  situated  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Kennebec  river,  4  m.  below  its 
junction  with  the  Androscoggin  at  Merrymeet- 
ing  bay,  12  m.  from  the  ocean,  and  35  m.  by  rail 
S.  of  Augusta;  pop.  in  1860,  8,076;  in  1870, 
7,371.  The  river  here  is  a  mile  wide,  with 
abundant  anchorage  and  docks,  the  tide  ris- 
ing about  12  ft.  The  city  extends  2£  m.  along 
the  bank,  and  1  m.  back.  It  is  irregularly 
laid  out,  contains  5  national  banks,  2  savings 
banks,  2  Congregational  churches,  1  Baptist, 
2  Freewill  Baptist,  2  Methodist,  1  Universal- 
ist,  1  Episcopal,  1  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Swe- 
denborgian.  There  are  19  public  schools,  at- 
tended by  1,795  pupils.  The  valuation  of 
property  in  1860  was  $5,876,993,  and  in  1870, 
$6,393,876.  One  daily  and  one  weekly  news- 
paper are  published.  The  principal  business' 
is  ship  building,  in  which  Bath  ranks  next 
after  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 
During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1871,  there 
were  built  here  48  vessels,  of  9,825  tons.  A 
large  number  of  vessels  engaged  in  commerce 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  owned  in  Bath. 
The  number  of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  in  1871  was  195,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  81,951.  As  the  river  never  freezes 
here  and  is  of  great  depth,  Bath  has  great 
advantages  as  a  commercial  port.  During 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1871,  the  imports 
amounted  to  $182,512,  and  the  exports  to 
$24,985  ;  4  American  vessels  of  2,691  and  27 
foreign  vessels  of  1,864  tons  entered  from  for- 
eign ports;  the  clearances  for  foreign  ports 
were  12  American  vessels,  tonnage  4,777,  and 
27  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  2,435.  The  entrances 
in  the  coastwise  trade  were  70,  with  an  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  42,232,  and  the  clearances  52,  of 


388 


BATH 


17,018  tons.  There  were  32  vessels  of  681  tons 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery.  The 
custom  house  is  a  granite  edifice  built  at  a  cost 
of  about  $50,000.  A  branch  of  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral railroad  connects  the  city  with  Brunswick, 
9  m.  distant ;  and  there  is  steamboat  commu- 
nication with  Boston  and  Portland.  Bath  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1780,  and  as  a  city 
in  1850. 

BATH,  a  township  and  village,  capital  of  Steu- 
ben  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Oonhocton  creek,  20  m.  N. 
W.  of  Corning ;  pop.  of  the  township  in  1870, 
6,236.  The  village  has  several  churches,  a 
bank,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  some  mills 
and  factories.  The  Buffalo  division  of  the  Erie 
railway  passes  through  the  village. 

BATH  (anc.  Aquas  Solis),  a  city  of  Somerset- 
shire, England,  106  m.  W.  of  London  by  the 
Great  Western  railway,  on  the  river  Avon,  12 


m.  above  Bristol ;  pop.  in  1871,  52,542.  Built 
chiefly  of  freestone  and  upon  the  sides  of  high 
hills,  the  city  rises  in  a  succession  of  terraces, 
circuses,  and  gardens.  It  is  a  place  of  resort 
for  invalids  on  account  of  the  hot  springs  from 
which  the  city  derives  its  name,  and  which  are 
beneficial  in  palsy,  rheumatism,  gout,  and  scrof- 
ulous and  cutaneous  affections.  Their  charac- 
ter is  alkaline  sulphureous,  with  a  slight  pro- 
portion of  iron.  There  are  three  springs  of  a 
constant  temperature  of  109°,  114°,  and  117°  F. 
The  last  named  yields  128  gallons  a  minute. 
Bath  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  fashion  and 
gayety.  In  the  last  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present  it  was  at  the  height  of  its  celeb- 
rity, but  the  opening  of  the  continent  after 
the  war  diverted  the  stream  of  visitors  toward 
the  German  spas.  The  city  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  in  Britain,  and  was  reputed  to  have 


Bath,  England. 


been  founded  before  the  Roman  invasion.  It 
was  a  station  on  the  old  Roman  road  leading 
from  London  to  Wales.  There  have  been  found 
at  and  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  Ro- 
man coins,  vases,  altars,  baths,  and  the  remains 
of  a  Corinthian  temple.  Joined  with  the  city 
of  Wells,  it  is  a  bishop's  see.  The  city  has  an 
abbey  church,  a  relic  of  an  ancient  monastery. 
There  are  well  supported  hospitals  for  general 
purposes,  and  for  the  uses  of  those  poor  who 
resort  to  the  city  for  the  sake  of  the  baths. 
Bath  has  been  the  residence  of  several  men 
of  political  distinction,  in  particular  of  Pitt 
and  Sheridan.  William  Beckford,  the  author 
of  "  Vathek,"  resided  and  died  in  Bath. 

BATH,  Earl  of.     See  PULTENKT,  WILLIAM. 

BATH,  Knights  of  the,  a  military  order  in 
Great  Britain.  This  order  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  at  the  tune  of  the  first  crusade,  but 


first  distinctly  mentioned  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.  Froissart  says  that,  at  the  coronation  of 
that  king  in  the  tower  of  London  in  1399,  46 
esquires  were  made  knights,  and  were  called 
knights  of  the  bath,  because  they  had  watch- 
ed and  bathed  during  the  night  preceding,  and 
that  they  wore  on  the  occasion  long  coats  trim- 
med with  white  fur,  and  had  white  laces  hung 
about  their  shoulders.  From  that  time  it  was 
usual  for  English  kings  to  create  knights  of  the 
bath  at  the  coronation  of  themselves  or  their 
queens,  the  birth  or  marriage  of  princes  or 
princesses,  on  the  eve  of  starting  upon  foreign 
military  expeditions,  and  after  gaining  a  battle 
or  taking  a  town.  At  the  coronation  of  Charles 
II.  68  knights  of  the  bath  were  made,  but  the 
order  was  then  neglected  and  discontinued,  till 
in  1725  George  I.  revived  it  by  letters  patent. 
He  gave  a  book  of  statutes  for  its  government, 


BATHORI 


BATHUKST 


389 


by  whicli  it  was  decreed  that  the  order  should 
consist  of  the  sovereign,  a  grand  master,  and 
36  companions.  Its  badge,  of  pure  gold,  was 
to  be  a  sceptre  of  three  united  imperial  crowns, 
from  which  grew  the  rose,  the  thistle,  and  the 
shamrock,  and  around  which  was  inscribed  the 
ancient  motto,  Trio,  juncta  in  uno.  It  was  to 
be  hung  by  a  red  ribbon  from  the  collar  ob- 
liquely over  the  right  shoulder.  The  collar 
should  contain  30  ounces  troy  weight  of  gold, 
and  be  a  complicated  arrangement  of  nine 
crowns  and  eight  roses,  thistles,  and  sham- 
rocks, the  latter  being  enamelled  in  their  prop- 
er colors  and  attached  to  the  crowns  by  gold 
knots  enamelled  white.  A  silver  star  also, 
made  to  resemble  the  badge,  and  with  a  glory 
or  rays  proceeding  from  its  centre,  should 
adorn  the  left  shoulder  of  the  knight,  being 
embroidered  upon  the  left  side  of  his  mantle. 
The  apparel  of  a  knight  of  the  bath  was  or- 
dered to  be  a  red  surcoat,  lined  and  edged  with 
white  and  encircled  by  a  white  girdle,  a  crim- 
son mantle  lined  with  white  and  fastened  about 
the  neck  with  a  cordon  of  white  silk,  a  white 
silk  hat  surmounted  by  plumes  of  white  feath- 
ers, white  boots,  red  stockings  and  breeches, 
and  a  sword  in  a  white  leather  scabbard.  In 
1815  the  number  of  the  knights  of  the  bath 
was  enlarged.  Three  denominations  and  ranks 
were  then  ordained  in  the  order:  the  first, 
consisting  of  knights  grand  crosses,  to  be  con- 
ferred only  upon  officers  who  had  reached  the 
rank  of  major  general  in  the  army  or  rear  ad- 
miral in  the  navy,  excepting  that  12  of  the 
number  might  be  appointed  for  eminent  civil 
services.  The  grand  crosses  were  distinguish- 
ed by  wearing  over  their  badge  and  star  a 
wreath  of  laurel  winding  about  an  escrol,  on 
which  was  inscribed  left  dien.  The  second 
class,  consisting  of  knights  commanders,  take 
precedence  of  all  knights  bachelors  in  the 
kingdom,  and  no  one  is  eligible  to  this  dignity 
till  he  has  reached  the  rank  of  major  general 
in  the  army  or  rear  admiral  in  the  navy,  and 
no  one  is  eligible  as  a  grand  cross  till  he  has 
first  been  a  commander.  The  third  class,  con- 
sisting of  knights  companions,  takes  precedence 
of  all  esquires  in  the  kingdom,  and  no  officer  is 
admissible  to  this  dignity  who  has  not  received 
a  medal  in  reward  for  valor,  or  been  especially 
mentioned  as  of  signal  merit  in  the  despatches 
of  his  superior  officer. 

BATHORI,  or  Bathory,  the  name  of  a  noble 
Transylvanian  family,  several  members  of 
which  have  played  a  distinguished  part  in  his- 
tory. I.  Stephen  (!STVAN),  of  the  Ecsed  branch 
of  the  family,  a  commander  under  King  Mat- 
thias Corvinns,  achieved  a  great  victory  over 
the  Turks  at  Keny6rmezo  in  1479.  II.  Stephen, 
of  the  Somly6  branch,  was  waywode  of  Tran- 
sylvania under  John  Zapolya.  III.  Stephen,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1532,  was  elected 
prince  of  Transylvania  in  1571.  He  was  after- 
ward elected  king  of  Poland,  and  crowned  at 
Cracow  in  1576.  On  this  event  he  resigned 
his  rule  over  Transylvania,  at  the  same  tim« 


recommending  his  brother  to  the  house  of 
deputies  as  his  successor.  He  died  after  a 
prosperous  reign,  in  1586.  (See  POLAND.)  IV. 
Christopher  (KmsT6F),  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, elected  prince  in  his  stead  in  1576. 
The  Jesuits  came  to  Transylvania  during  his 
reign,  and  the  education  of  his  son  was  com- 
mitted to  their  charge.  He  died  in  1581.  V. 
Siglsmand  (ZSIGMOND),  son  of  the  preceding, 
chosen  prince  before  the  death  of  his  father. 
He  was  a  weak-minded  man,  and,  having 
married  a  princess  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg, 
made  an  agreement  with  the  emperor  Ru- 
dolph II.  that,  if  he  should  die  without  issue, 
the  rule  of  Transylvania  should  be  transferred 
to  the  emperor  or  to  his  successor ;  a  compact 
which  he,  as  merely  an  elected  prince,  had  no 
right  to  make.  He  was  afterward  persuaded 
by  the  Jesuit  Simon  Genga  to  make  over  his 
principality  to  Rudolph,  on  the  promise  of  be- 
ing made  bishop  and  cardinal.  Notwithstand- 
ing some  violent  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
deputies,  one  of  whom  was  put  to  death,  this 
transfer  was  effected  in  1598,  and  Bathori  re- 
tired into  Silesia.  But,  after  waiting  several 
months  in  vain  expectation  of  the  promised 
bishopric  and  cardinal's  hat,  he  returned  to 
Transylvania,  reassumed  the  princely  office, 
and  immediately  transferred  the  same  to  his 
uncle  Andrew.  He  then  retired  into  Poland, 
but  on  the  death  of  his  brother  returned,  and 
again  assumed  the  government  of  Translyvania 
(1599).  He  was  soon,  however,  compelled  by 
the  emperor  to  resign  for  the  third  time,  and, 
having  received  from  him  a  pension  and  an 
estate,  finally  died  at  Prague,  March  27,  1613. 
VI.  Gabriel  (GABOB),  a  cousin  of  the  preceding, 
became  prince  of  Transylvania  in  1608,  was 
capricious  and  cruel,  and,  succumbing  to  a  re- 
volt, fled  to  Gross-Wardein,  where  he  was 
killed  by  some  malcontents  in  1613.  VII.  Eliz- 
abeth (EszsfiBET),  the  wife  of  a  Hungarian 
count,  notorious  and  execrated  for  her  re- 
morseless cruelty.  Believing  that  the  blood 
of  young  maidens  would  restore  freshness  and 
bloom  to  her  shrivelled  skin,  she  caused  a  great 
many  to  be  brought  to  her  castle  on  various 
pretences,  and  then,  to  obtain  the  desired 
bath,  had  them  bled  to  death  by  some  accom- 
plices. Her  horrible  practices  were  at  last 
discovered,  and  she  was  brought  to  trial.  One 
of  her  accomplices,  a  man,  was  decapitated, 
two  females,  the  chief  instruments  of  her 
crimes,  were  burned  alive,  and  the  countess 
herself  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for 
life  (1611).  She  died  in  confinement  a  few 
years  later. 

BATHERST,  a  town  of  New  Brunswick,  cap- 
ital of  Gloucester  county,  situated  on  the  most 
southern  point  of  the  bay  of  Chaleurs,  237  in. 
N.  W.  of  Halifax ;  pop.  about  2,000.  It  is  a 
port  of  entry,  and  has  considerable  trade.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  noted  for  its  ship 
building. 

BATHURST.  I.  An  E.  county  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Mac- 


390 


BATHURST 


quarie,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Laohlan;  area,  about 
2.000  sq.  m. ;   pop.  in  1871,  16,826.     It  was 
the  earliest  district  settled  on  the  "W.  side  of 
the  Blue  mountains,  through  which  a  practica- 
ble route  was  first  discovered  in  1813.    It  is  an 
excellent  grazing  country,  well  watered,  and, 
being  nearly  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  has  a  moderate  climate.     The  first  discov- 
ery of  gold  in  Australia  was  made  in  this  coun- 
ty, Feb.  12,  1851,  by  Edmund  Hargraves,  an 
Englishman  who  had  been  a  miner  in  Califor- 
nia.   II.  The  principal  town  of  the  preceding 
county,  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  gold 
region  of  the  district,  on  the  river  Macquarie, 
98  m.  W.  N.  "W.  of  Sydney ;  pop.  about  5,000. 
Two  lofty  elevations  lie  near  the  town,  Mount 
Rankin,  about  4  m.  to  the  N.  W.,  and  the -Bald 
Hill,  2  m.  to  the  8.  "W.     The  town  was  found- 
ed by  Gov.  Macquarie  in  1815,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Lord  Bathurst,  the  then  English  sec- 
retary of  state  for  the  colonies.     It  is  now  the 
finest  of  all  the  inland  towns  of  the  colony, 
and  is  built  on  a  sloping  plain  intersected  by 
a  deep  watercourse,  over  which  there  are  sev- 
eral bridges.     The  streets  are  broad,  and  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles.    Many  of  the  stores 
are  large,  well  built,  and  well  supplied  with 
goods.     The  Episcopalian,   Roman  Catholic, 
Presbyterian,    and    Methodist    churches    are 
large  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  pub- 
lic and  private  schools,  and  an  extensive  school 
of  arts.     There  are  several  good  hotels,  a  the- 
atre, and  a  large  and  well  managed  hospital. 
Bathurst  was  erected  into  a  municipality  Nov. 
13,  1862,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  an  Anglican  bishop.    In  1872  two  bi-week- 
ly newspapers  were  published  here. 

BATHURST,  a  settlement  on  the  isle  of  St. 
Mary,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa,  founded  by  the  English  in 
1816,  and  the  principal  of  the  English  estab- 
lishments in  Senegambia.  It  is  situated  only 
12  or  14  feet  above  high-water  mark,  and  is 
not  a  healthy  station,  water  being  scarce  and 
not  of  good  quality.  The  island  has  about 
3,000  inhabitants,  few  of  whom  are  Europeans. 
I!  Vllll  US!,  an  old  English  family,  prominent 
in  the  last  three  centuries.  I.  Ralph,  dean  of 
Wells,  born  at  Howthorpe  in  Northampton- 
shire in  1620,  died  June  14,  1704.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  of  which 
college  his  grandfather,  Dr.  Kettel,  was  presi- 
dent. He  took  his  degrees  of  bachelor  and 
master  of  arts  in  1638  and  1641,  studied  theol- 
ogy, and  was  ordained  in  1644.  He  delivered 
some  theological  lectures  in  1649,  which  he 
soon  afterward  published,  and  which  gained 
him  much  reputation.  But  the  troubles  of  the 
period  made  him  resolve  to  abandon  the  cleri- 
cal profession,  and  he  began  to  study  medicine, 
and  took  a  doctor's  degree  in  1654.  He  had  i 
large  practice,  and  was  made  physician  to  the 
navy.  In  conjunction  with  Dr.  Willis,  who 
like  himself  had  abandoned  the  church  for  the 
medical  profession,  he  settled  at  Oxford,  where 
he  studied  chemistry  and  several  branches  of 


BATHYBIUS 

natural  philosophy.     He  took  an  active  part  in 
;he  foundation  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1663 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Oxford  branch  of 
;he  society.     After  the  restoration  he  aban- 
doned physic  and  returned  to  the  church,  was 
made  chaplain  to  the  king  in  1663,  dean  of 
Wells  in  1670,  and  in  1691  was  nominated  to 
the  bishopric  of  Bristol,  which  he  declined. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  president 
of  Trinity  college  and  vice  chancellor  at  the 
university.     He  wrote  good  Latin  poetry.     II. 
Alleo,  first  Earl  Bathurst,  born  in  London  in 
November,  1684,  died  Sept.  16, 1775.    He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Benjamin  Bathnrst,  trea- 
surer of  the  household  to  Queen  Anne  before 
she  ascended  the  throne.    He  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1705,  and  was  called  to  the  house  of 
lords  as  Baron  Bathurst  in  1711,  in  1757  was 
made  treasurer  to  the  prince   of  Wales,  and 
on  the  accession  of  this  prince  as  George  III. 
soon   after,   declined   further  public   employ- 
ments, but  accepted  a  pension  of  £2,000  a 
year.     In  1772  he  was  created  Earl  Bathurst, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 
He  was  a  political  opponent  of  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  and  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and 
was  on  intimate  terms  with  Pope,  Gay,  Ad- 
dison,  and  Congreve.    III.  Henry,  the  only  sur- 
viving son  of  the  preceding,  born  May  2,  1714, 
died  Aug.  6,  1794.    He  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas  in  1754,  and  lord  chan- 
cellor in  1771,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Apsley, 
and  resigned  the  seals  in  1778,  having  voted 
against  the  Chatham  annuity  bill,  a  ministerial 
measure.    He  was  president  of  the  council  in 
1780,  and  in  the  Gordon  riots  was  assaulted  by 
the  mob.  IV.  Henry,  bishop  of  Norwich,  cousin 
of  the  second  Earl  Bathurst,  born  Oct.  16, 1744, 
died  April  5,  1837.    He  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester and  New  college,  Oxford,  obtained  a 
rectory  in  Norfolk,  and  then  the  rich  family 
living  of  Cirencester,  with  the  deanery  of  Dur- 
ham, and  a  canonry  of  Christ  church,  Oxford. 
In  1805  he  was  made  bishop  of  Norwich.     In 
parliament  he  strongly  advocated  Roman  Cath- 
olic emancipation,  concessions  to  the  dissent- 
ers, and  parliamentary  reform.     His  life  was 
written  by  his  eldest  son,  Dr.  Henry  Bathurst. 
V.  Henry,  second  Earl  Bathurst,  son  of  Baron 
Apsley,  born  May  22,  1762,  died  July  27,  1834. 
He  entered  the  house  of  commons,  and  was 
successively  lord  commissioner  of  the  admiral- 
ty, commissioner  for  India,  foreign  secretary, 
and  colonial  secretary.     When  the  tories  came 
into  power  in  1828  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  but  resigned  in  1830.     He  was  after- 
ward first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 

BATHURST  INLET,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  ocean, 
projecting  due  S.  about  7o  m.  out  of  Corona- 
tion gulf,  lat.  68°  N.,  Ion.  111°  W.     It  is  in 
a  direct  line  between  the  magnetic  pole  and 
Great  Slave  lake,  and  about  300  m.  from  each. 
BATIIYiim.    See  BATTHTANTI. 
BATHYBIl'S,  the  name  given  by  Prof.  Hux- 
ley to  a  very  low  form  of  the  protozoa,  found 
penetrating  in  every  direction  the  viscid  calca- 


BATHYLLUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA 


BATTERING  RAM 


391 


reous  mud  brought  up  in  sea  dredgings,  by 
Drs.  W.  B.  Carpenter  and  Wyville  Thomson, 
from  a  depth  of  about  650  fathoms  in  the  north 
Atlantic  ocean.  According  to  Huxley,  a  very 
large  extent  of  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  is 
covered  by  this  living  expanse  of  transparent 
gelatinous  or  protoplasmic  matter,  growing  at 
the  expense  of  inorganic  elements,  in  which 
are  imbedded  granular  bodies  which  he  calls 
coccoliths  and  coccospheres,  and  to  which  they 
bear  the  same  relation  as  the  spicules  of  sponges 
do  to  the  soft  parts  of  these  animals.  This 
mud  also  contains  minute  foraminifera,  the  so- 
called  globigerirue,  whose  calcareous  remains 
are  forming  a  stratum  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  considered  by  Huxley  the  same  in  char- 
acter and  mode  of  formation  as  the  chalk  of  the 
cretaceous  period.  Dr.  Wallich,  on  the  con- 
trary, regards  the  so-called  bathybius,  not  as 
an  animal,  but  as  a  complex  mass  of  slime,  with 
many  foreign  bodies  and  the  remains  of  once 
living  organisms  in  it,  and  also  with  numerous 
living  forms.  Denying  the  organic  nature  of 
bathybius,  he  maintains  that  the  coccoliths  and 
coccospheres  stand  in  no  direct  relation  to  it, 
but  are  independent  structures  derived  from 
preexisting  similar  forms,  and  that  their  nutri- 
tion is  effected  by  a  vital  act  which  enables  these 
organisms  to  extract  from  the  surrounding  me- 
dium the  elements  necessary  for  their  growth. 
Dr.  0.  W.  Gumbel  has  recently  (1872)  pub- 
lished a  paper  confirming  the  conclusions  of 
Huxley,  Carpenter,  and  Haeckel  with  regard 
to  the  organic  nature  of  the  protoplasmic  ba- 
thybius and  the  coccoliths  (discoliths  and  cya- 
tholiths),  and  their  relationship  to  each  other. 
A  similar  growth  in  fresh  water  has  been  called 
pelobiiu. 

I!  41 IM  1,1,1  S  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  a  freedman  and 
favorite  of  Maecenas,  who,  together  with  Py- 
lades  of  Cilicia,  was  preeminent  in  the  imitative 
dances  called  pantomimi.  In  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, with  Bathyllus  and  Pylades  as  principal 
performers,  pantomimes  were  brought  to  their 
highest  point  of  perfection,  but  they  afterward 
grew  more  and  more  obscene  and  demoralized. 
Bathyllus  excelled  in  the  representation  of 
comic  characters,  and  Pylades  in  tragic  per- 
sonifications. Each  had  his  school  and  disci- 
ples, and  each  was  the  head  of  a  party. 

I!  ITOk.t,  a  tribe  of  S.  Africa,  who  occupy 
two  considerable  islands  in  the  river  Leeam- 
bye,  and  the  adjacent  country  on  either  bank. 
They  formerly  held  wide  sway,  but  are  now 
for  the  most  part  subject  to  the  Barotse.  The 
Batoka  universally  knock  out  the  upper  front 
teeth  of  both  sexes  at  the  age  of  puberty.  They 
are  very  degraded,  and  addicted  to  smoking 
the  mutokwane  (cannabis  mtiva),  from  the 
effects  of  which  they  become  delirious. 

BATONI,  Pompeo  Virolamo,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  at  Lucca  in  1708,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  4, 
1787.  Some  of  his  best  works  are  at  Lisbon 
and  St.  Petersburg.  His  principal  picture  at 
Rome  is  the  "Fall  of  Simon  Magus,"  at  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli. 


BATON  ROCGE,  a  city,  capital  of  the  parish 
of  East  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  and  formerly  of  the 
state,  situated  on  a  bluff  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  129  m.  above  New  Orleans;  pop. 
in  1870,  6,498,  of  whom  3,356  were  colored. 
It  was  one  of  the  first  French  settlements, 
said  to  have  been  the  site  of  an  old  Indian  vil- 
lage. It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  large  district  de- 
voted to  the  cultivation  of  sugar  and  cotton. 
The  town  is  well  built,  contains  a  national  ar- 
senal and  barracks,  a  military  hospital,  and  the 
state  penitentiary  and  deaf  and  dumb  asylum. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Louisiana  state  university, 
which  in  1871  had  18  instructors,  184  students, 
and  a  library  of  7,000  volumes,  and  of  Baton 
Rouge  college.  It  has  one  weekly  and  two 
daily  newspapers  and  a  monthly  periodical.  In 
the  civil  war  Baton  Rouge  was  occupied  by 
federal  troops  shortly  after  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans.  On  Aug.  5,  1862,  Gen.  Williams  was 
attacked  there  by  the  confederate  Gen.  Breck- 
enridge,  and  fell,  gallantly  fighting,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  victory ;  the  ram  Arkansas,  on  the  co- 
operation of  which  the  assailants  had  counted, 
having  broken  her  engine  and  proved  a  failure. 

BATON  ROUGE,  East  and  West  See  EAST 
BATON  ROUGE,  and  WEST  BATON  ROUGE. 

i:\Tlt  \rill  l\s.    See  AMPHIBIA. 

i:\TMll\N.    See  BATOHIAN. 

BATTA.     See  BATAK. 

BATTERING  RAM  (Lat.  aries),  the  earliest 
machine  for  destroying  stone  walls  and  the  or- 
dinary defences  of  fortified  towns.  The  primi- 
tive form  of  this  instrument  was  a  huge  beam 
of  seasoned  and  tough  wood,  hoisted  on  the 
shoulders  of  men,  who  ran  with  it  at  speed 
against  the  obstacle.  The  second  step  was 
strengthening  and  weighting  the  impinging  end 
of  the  machine  with  a  mass  of  bronze,  brass, 


Battering  Rama. 

or  iron.  The  third  improvement  was  suspend- 
ing it  by  chains  or  ropes  from  a  crane  or  trivet, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  it  to  swing  some 


392 


BATTERSEA 


30  or  40  feet  to  and  fro,  under  the  impulse  of 
human  force,  as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  plane 
of  the  horizon.  When  the  impetus  was  once 
given  to  this  vast  beam  of  wood,  100  or  150 
feet  in  length,  all  that  was  requisite  was  to 
impart  to  it  such  continued  motive  force  as  to 
keep  it  in  play,  when  its  own  impetus  would 
of  course  gradually  increase ;  and  it  would  ne- 
cessarily act  with  the  force  of  its  own  natural 
weight,  multiplied  by  a  constantly  increasing 
measure  of  velocity,  upon  the  object  on  which 
it  impinged.  To  this  must  b«  added  that  the 
ram  being,  in  its  most  highly  improved  state, 
played  in  exact  time,  it  acquired  a  perfect 
vibratory  motion  itself;  and  its  blows  being 
directed  continually  on  one  spot,  at  regular 
intervals,  a  similar  vibration  was  communi- 
cated to  the  wall ;  which,  increasing  with  the 
increased  weight  of  the  blows,  a  second  wave 
being  always  put  in  circulation  from  the  centre 
of  the  attack  before  the  preceding  wave  had 
subsided,  soon  set  the  whole  mass  of  masonry 
surging  and  swaying  backward  and  forward. 
The  objections  to  it  were,  that  it  could  only 
be  used  at  close  quarters,  where  direct  access 
could  be  had  to  the  foot  of  the  fortification 
which  was  to  be  beaten  down,  by  bodies  of 
men,  who  necessarily  worked  for  the  most  part 
in  full  view,  and  exposed  to  the  missiles  of  the 
defenders  at  an  exceedingly  short  range.  The 
former  of  these  requirements  rendered  it  ne- 
cessary to  fill  up  or  bridge  over  the  moats  or 
ditches  in  front  of  the  work.  The  latter  led 
to  the  construction  of  towers  of  planking, 
covered  with  raw  hides,  of  many  stories  in 
height,  rolling  on  wheels;  in  the  lower  stage 
of  which  the  ram  was  slung  so  that  the  men 
who  worked  it  could  do  so  perfectly  under 
cover,  while  the  upper  stages  were  filled  with 
archers  and  slingers,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
overpower  the  fire  of  the  defenders.  From 
the  top  of  these  machines  a  sort  of  bridge  was 
also  contrived,  which  could  be  lowered  and 
hauled  out  with  chains  and  pulleys  so  as  to 
fall  on  the  summit  of  the  tower  or  castle  wall, 
and  give  free  access  to  the  assailants.  These 
towers,  which  were  the  last  improvement  on 
the  ram,  were  so  arranged  that  they  were  not 
only  fought  but  propelled  by  men,  either  with- 
in the  structure,  or  placed  behind  it,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  protected  by  it  from  the  shot 
of  the  enemy.  They  continued  to  be  in  use 
during  all  the  middle  ages,  and  were  still  effec- 
tive until  ordnance  was  so  much  improved 
that  it  could  be  discharged  rapidly  and  with 
correct  aim. 

BATTERSEA,  a  parish  of  Surrey,  England,  4  m. 
S.  W.  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  forming  one  of  the 
suburbs  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  10,560.  A 
wooden  bridge  over  the  Thames  connects  this 
parish  with  Chelsea,  and  a  suspension  bridge 
with  the  metropolis.  It  was  formerly  much 
occupied  by  market  gardeners,  who  supplied 
London  with  vegetables,  but  is  now  building 
up  with  villas. 

BATTERY,  Galvanlt.     See  GALVANISM. 


BATTERY 

BATTERY  (law  Lat.  lattere,  from  Saxon  latti, 
a  club),  as  defined  by  Blackstone,  the  unlaw- 
ful beating  of  another.  But  if  beating  be  here 
taken  in  its  usual  sense,  the  definition  is  not 
nice  enough ;  for  the  offence  includes  every 
unlawful  or  wrongful  touching  of  another's 
person  against  his  will  or  without  his  consent, 
whether  it  be  in  the  form  of  violence  or  of 
mere  constraint.  A  battery  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  act,  the  threat  or  attempt  of  which 
constitutes  an  assault.  (See  ASSATTLT.)  As 
every  battery  is  reached  through  an  assault, 
these  two  offences  are  often  described  by  the 
latter  word  alone,  though  the  phrase  of  the 
law,  assault  and  battery,  sometimes  used  in 
common  speech,  preserves  the  proper  legal  dis- 
tinction. Thus  the  unlawful  raising  of  the 
hand  or  of  a  weapon,  as  if  to  strike  another,  is 
an  assault ;  the  actual  infliction  of  the  threat- 
ened blow  is  a  battery. — The  law  makes  one's 
person  inviolable.  Therefore  not  only  is  a 
blow  a  battery,  but  so  also  is  spitting  upon  one, 
throwing  water  or  any  other  substance  upon 
him,  pushing  him,  or  pushing  another  person 
or  anything  against  him.  And  the  inviolabil- 
ity of  a  man's  person  extends  to  all  that  at  the 
time  pertains  to  it.  Thus  it  is  a  battery  to 
strike  one's  cane  in  his  hand,  or  the  clothes  on 
his  body,  or  a  horse  on  which  he  is  riding  so 
that  he  is  thrown.  Taking  indecent  liberties 
with  a  woman,  kissing  her  or  otherwise  touch- 
ing her  without  her  consent  or  against  her 
will,  are  also  batteries.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  injury  should  be  done  by  the  hand  of 
the  aggressor ;  for  the  offence  is  committed  not 
only  by  striking  another  with  a  stick  or  with  a 
stone  thrown  at  him,  but  also  by  urging  on  a 
dog  so  that  he  bites  him,  or  by  driving  a  horse 
over  him,  or  driving  a  wagon  against  that  in 
which  the  other  is  riding,  so  that  he  sustains 
bodily  injury.  Nor  need  the  injury  be  im- 
mediately done  by  one  to  make  him  guilty. 
This  principle  is  illustrated  by  the  cases  of 
those  who  abet  one  who  maliciously  fights  or 
beats  another,  or  of  one  who  procures  another 
to  commit  an  assault  and  battery,  or  of  a  ship- 
master who  suffers  any  one  under  his  control 
to  commit  a  battery  on  board  his  ship  upon  one 
of  his  crew  or  passengers.  It  is  immaterial 
whether  the  act  be  done  with  violence  or  in 
anger,  or  result  from  the  omission  of  that  care 
which  the  law  requires  every  one  to  exercise 
toward  others.  Thus  when  A  threw  a  lighted 
squib  among  a  crowd  of  people,  and  it  was 
thrown  from  hand  to  hand  by  several  in  their 
attempts  to  escape  it,  till  it  fell  upon  B  and 
put  out  his  eye,  it  was  held  a  battery  by  A. 
So,  one  who  rides  with  and  assents  to  the  reck- 
less and  unlawful  driving  of  another,  whereby 
a  person  is  run  over,  is  himself  guilty  of  the 
battery.  But  the  intention  may  be  material  so 
far  as  it  determines  the  character  of  the  act 
of  touching  another  without  his  permission. 
For  to  put  one's  hand  on  another  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  attracting  his  attention  is  innocent ; 
and  so  it  is  if  the  injury  was  entirely  acci- 


BATTEUX 


BATTLE  AXE 


393 


dental  and  undesigned,  not  merely  in  fact,  but 
in  view  of  that  rule  of  the  law  which  imputes 
guilty  negligence  when  there  is  lack  of  due 
care.  Upon  these  principles  one  is  guiltless 
when  his  horse  runs  without  his  fault  and  in- 
jures another.  And  if  an  officer,  authorized  to 
arrest  one,  lays  his  hands  upon  him,  or  uses  only 
necessary  force,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
arrest,  he  is  justified ;  or  if  one  is  threatened 
with  an  assault,  or  another  attempts  wrongfully 
to  deprive  him  of  his  goods,  he  may  justifiably 
use  sufficient  violence  on  the  wrong  doer  to 
protect  his  person  or  property.  But  the  use 
of  any  excessive  violence  in  such  a  case,  that 
is  to  say,  of  any  more  violence  than  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  the  threatened  injury,  is  a  bat- 
tery. The  reasonable  chastisement  of  a  child 
by  his  parent  or  his  schoolmaster  is  not  bat- 
tery ;  nor  is  the  reasonable  even  though  forcible 
restraint  of  a  lunatic  by  his  keeper,  or  the 
seizing  or  holding  of  one  who  is  about  to  com- 
mit an  assault,  or  the  wresting  of  a  weapon 
from  him. — Battery  is  a  misdemeanor  by  the 
common  law,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment ;  and  the  party  injured  may  also  have  his 
private  civil  action  for  damages. 

BATTEUX,  Charles,  a  French  writer  on  aesthet- 
ics, born  May  6,  1713,  died  July  14,  1780.  He 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  college  de  Li- 
sieux  in  Paris,  and  at  the  college  de  Navarre, 
and  subsequently  Greek  and  Latin  professor  at 
the  college  de  France.  In  his  Beaux  arts  re- 
-duits  d  un  seul  principe  (Paris,  1746),  and 
Histoire  des  causes  premUres  (1769),  he  opposed 
mannerism  and  conventionalities,  and  strove 
to  bring  art  and  philosophy  back  to  a  closer 
harmony  with  nature.  This  theory  was  op- 
posed to  the  opinions  of  many  of  his  academi- 
cal friends,  and  led  to  the  suppression  of  the 
chair  which  he  filled  at  the  college  de  France. 
In  1754  he  became  a  member  of  the  academy 
of  inscriptions  and  belles-lettres,  and  in  1761 
of  the  French  academy. 

lUTTHUXVI.  I.  Kfizmer,  count,  a  Hungarian 
statesman,  born  June  4,  1807,  died  in  Paris, 
July  13,  1854.  In  early  life  he  passed  some 
time  in  England,  and  upon  his  return  to  his 
native  country  he  joined  the  liberal  party,  he- 
came  a  member  of  the  Hungarian  diet,  and  in 
1848  took  an  active  part  in  the  national  war  in 
defence  of  the  southern  border.  After  hav- 
ing officiated  as  governor  of  various  districts, 
he  became  in  1849  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
under  the  administration  of  Kossuth,  and  sub- 
sequently shared  Kossuth's  exile  in  Turkey 
till  1851,  when  he  repaired  to  Paris.  In  that 
year  he  addressed  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
London  "Times,"  in  which  he  reflected  rather 
severely  upon  Kossuth's  character  as  a  states- 
man and  patriot.  II.  Utfos,  a  member  of  the 
same  family,  born  in  Presburg  in  1809,  shot  in 
Pestli  by  order  of  the  Austrian  government, 
Oct.  6,  1849.  He  was  a  cadet  in  the  Austrian 
army  at  the  age  of  16,  and  afterward  travelled 
extensively,  but  returned  to  Hungary  to  take 
a  part  in  the  reform  movement  of  the  time. 


He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  in 
the  diets  of  1839- '40  and  1843-'4,  and  in  1847 
was  preeminently  instrumental  in  promoting 
Kossuth's  election  to  the  house  of  deputies. 
After  the  revolution  of  March,  1848,  he  was 
prime  minister  of  the  national  administration, 
in  which  capacity  he  evinced  equal  patriotism 
and  moderation.  When  the  war  was  precip- 
itated by  the  manoeuvres  of  the  court,  he  re- 
signed and  made  some  fruitless  efforts  to  bring 
about  a  reconciliation.  At  the  opening  of  1849 
lie  was  one  of  a  deputation  from  the  Hungarian 
diet  to  make  peace  overtures  to  Windischgratz, 
who  with  the  Austrian  army  was  approaching 
Buda-Pesth.  The  Austrian  general  refused  to 
listen  to  the  proposition,  and  the  seat  of  the 
revolutionary  government  was  removed  from 
Pesth  to  Debreczin.  Batthyanyi  remained  at 
Pesth,  where  he  was  arrested  Jan.  8,  1849, 
and  on  Oct.  5  following  sentenced  by  a  court 
martial,  presided  over  by  Marshal  Haynau,  to 
die  on  the  gallows.  He  stabbed  himself  with  a 
dagger,  and  inflicted  so  many  wounds  on  his 
neck  that  he  could  not  be  hanged,  and  accord- 
ingly he  was  shot.  His  estates  were  con- 
fiscated, but  restored  to  his  family  on  the  res- 
toration of  the  Hungarian  constitution  in  1867. 

BATTLE,  a  market  town  of  Sussex,  England, 
56  m.  by  rail  S.  E.  of  London,  and  7  m.  from 
Hastings,  named  from  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
between  William  the  Conqueror  and  King  Har- 
old II.,  which  was  fought  near  the  town,  Oct. 
14,  1066.  On  the  spot  where  Harold's  banner 
had  been  planted,  William  founded  a  great  ab- 
bey, the  magnificent  gateway  of  which  still  re- 
mains. There  are  extensive  mills  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  gunpowder  in  the  vicinity  of  Battle. 

BATTLE  AXE,  an  ancient  military  weapon  of 
offence,  unused  by  the  Greeks  or  Romans,  and 
apparently  of  oriental  or  northeastern  Euro- 
pean origin.  The  Amazons  are  always  de- 
scribed as  armed  with  the  double-headed 
battle  axe,  bipennis,  and  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  Persian  host  at  Marathon  Herodotus 
mentions  the  Sacie  as  fighting  with  brazen 
shields  and  battle  axes.  Horace  speaks  of  the 
Rhseti  and  Vindelici,  barbarians  of  the  Alps, 
as  armed  from  the  remotest  times  with  Am- 
azonian axes.  The  axe  does  not,  however, 
appear  to  have  become  a  general  instrument 
of  war  until  the  descent  of  the  Teutonic  na- 
tions, all  of  whom  used  some  modification 
of  this  weapon,  which  alone  was  capable  of 
crushing  in  or  cleaving  asunder  the  linked 
steel  mail.  The  axe  of  the  Saxons,  who  were 
a  nation  of  foot  soldiers,  soon  assumed  the 
form  of  the  bill,  glaive,  or  gisarme,  which  with 
the  bow  became  the  national  weapon  of  the 
English  infantry.  The  Normans,  who  were 
especially  cavaliers,  retained  the  old  form  of 
the  battle  axe,  with  a  heavy  axe  blade  forward 
of  the  shaft  and  a  sharp  spike  behind  it,  besides 
a  point  perpendicular  to  the  handle,  which 
could  be  used  for  thrusting  at  an  enemy.  The 
battle  axe  was  carried  slung  on  one  side  of  the 
pommel  of  the  man-at-arms'  saddle,  as  was  the 


394 


BATTLE  CREEK 


mace  at  the  other;  it  was  of  great  weight, 
often  10  pounds  or  over. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  a  city  of  Calhoun  county, 
Michigan,  at  the  junction  of  Battle  creek  with 
the  Kalamazoo  river,  120  m.  W.  of  Detroit,  on 
the  Michigan  Central  and  the  Peninsula  rail- 
roads ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,838.  It  is  in  the  vicinity 
of  quarries  of  superior  sandstone,  and  contains 
a  number  of  woollen  factories,  flour  mills, 
saw  mills,  machine  shops,  4  grammar  and  19 
primary  schools,  and  several  churches.  Five 
newspapers  and  periodicals  are  published  here. 

BATU  KUAN,  Mongol  sovereign  of  Kaptchak, 
died  in  1255.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
Tushi,  about  1224,  he  received  from  his  grand- 
father Genghis  Khan  the  rule  over  the  west- 
ern conquests,  E.  and  W.  of  the  Volga,  out  of 
which  he  subsequently  organized  the  khanate 
of  Kaptchak  or  of  the  Golden  Horde.  On  the 
death  of  Genghis,  in  1227,  he  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  his  uncle  Oktai  as  great  khan, 
and  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
China,  and  at  his  command  swept  over  Russia, 
Poland,  Hungary,  and  Dalmatia.  He  fought 
Henry,  duke  of  Lower  Silesia,  at  Wahlstadt  in 
1241,  and  Bela  IV.,  king  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Sajo,  in  1242.  Bela  fled  into  Dalmatia,  whither 
Batu  followed  him  and  ravaged  that  territory, 
but  retreated  the  next  year.  He  held  Russia 
for  10  years. 

BATDTA,  Ibn,  MOHAMMED  IBN  ABDALLAH,  a 
Moorish  traveller  and  theologian,  born  at  Tan- 
gier in  1302,  died  about  1378.  He  made  ex- 
tensive journeys  between  1325  and  1353  over 
Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  China,  Tartary, 
Hindostan,  the  Maldive  islands,  the  Indian 
archipelago,  central  Africa,  and  Spain,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  the  original 
manuscript  of  which  has  not  been  discovered, 
although  supposed  to  have  been  preserved  at 
Cairo  or  at  Fez,  to  which  latter  place  he  re- 
turned after  the  completion  of  his  travels. 
Fragments  of  his  manuscript  were  epitomized 
by  Mohammed  ibn  Tazri  el-Kelbi,  and  ex- 
tracts of  this  epitome  were  made  by  another 
Moorish  admirer  of  Batuta,  named  Mohammed 
ibn  Fal.  This  "Extract  of  an  Epitome,"  as 
it  is  called,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Burck- 
hardt,  who  bequeathed  it  to  the  English  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  A  translation  of  the 
''Extract,"  by  the  Rev.'Samuel  Lee  of  Cam- 
bridge, appeared  in  1828,  in  the  publications 
of  the  oriental  translation  fund.  A  French 
version  of  Batuta's  travels  was  published  at 
Paris  in  1853,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

BATYCSHKOFF,  Constanta  MkolayeYlteh,  a  Rus- 
sian poet,  born  at  Vologda,  May  29,  1787,  died 
there,  July  29,  1855.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Petersburg,  took  part  in  the  campaign  against 
Finland  and  in  the  French  wars  of  1813-'14, 
was  some  time  librarian  in  the  public  library 
of  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  subsequently  at- 
tached to  the  foreign  office  at  home,  and  to  the 
Russian  embassy  at  Naples.  He  wrote  in  prose 
on  Russian  literature,  and  translated  Schiller's 
"  Bqde  of  Messina"  into  Russian.  He  lost  his 


BAUDENS 

mind  in  1818.  A  complete  edition  of  his  poems 
appeared  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1834,  and  in 
Smirdin's  collection  of  classic  Russian  poets. 

BAUCHER,  Francois,  a  French  teacher  of 
horsemanship,  born  at  Versailles  about  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century,  died  in  1873.  He  invent- 
ed a  system  of  equine  gymnastics,  a  portion 
of  which,  the  method  of  suppling  the  horse's 
neck  and  jaw,  has  passed  into  general  use  and 
is  adopted  by  every  skilful  trainer  of  sad- 
dle horses.  By  a  progressive  series  of  flex- 
ions the  muscles  are  made  so  supple  and  yield- 
ing that  the  animal  ceases  to  bear  or  pull 
upon  the  bit ;  while  by  the  application  of  the 
whole  system  he  comes  to  have  no  will  except 
that  of  his  rider.  Baucher  was  repeatedly  em- 
ployed by  the  French  government  to  train 
horses  for  the  cavalry  service;  but  the  refine- 
ments of  his  method  were  not  suited  to  that 
purpose.  He  had  many  partisans  in  foreign 
countries,  and  was  a  personal  favorite  with  the 
duke  of  Wellington.  He  wrote  in  defence  of 
his  system,  and  his  Methode  d?  equitation  basee 
sur  de  nouveaux  principes  (Paris,  1842;  llth 
ed.,  1859)  has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. In  the  United  States  it  has  been  pub- 
lished under  the  title  "  Method  of  Horseman- 
ship on  new  Principles"  (Philadelphia,  1852). 
BAUCIS,  in  mythology,  a  Phrygian  woman, 
who,  with  her  husband  Philemon,  entertained 
Jupiter  and  Mercury  when  they,  while  travel- 
ling in  disguise,  had  been  refused  hospitality 
throughout  their  route.  A  deluge  destroyed 
the  inhospitable  people,  but  Baucis  and  Phile- 
mon were  saved.  At  their  request  the  godg 
transformed  their  cottage  into  a  temple,  in 
which  they  could  act  as  priest  and  priestess. 
They  expressed  a  desire  to  die  together,  and 
Jupiter  changed  them  into  trees. 

BAUDELOCQUE,  Jean  Louis,  a  French  surgeon 
and  accoucheur,  born  at  Heilly,  department  of 
the  Somrne,  in  1746,  died  May  1,  1810.  He 
went  to  Paris  at  an  early  age,  studied  anatomy, 
surgery,  and  obstetrics,  and  obtained  the  first 
prize  awarded  in  the  school  of  practical  anat- 
omy. About  1771  he  was  appointed  first  sur- 
geon to  the  hospital  La  Charite,  but  after  a 
few  years  began  to  devote  himself  more  ex- 
clusively to  midwifery,  in  which  he  soon  ac- 
quired a  commanding  reputation,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the  school 
of  hygiene,  and  surgeon-in-chief  to  the  mater- 
nity hospital.  He  was  generally  recognized  as 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  obstetricians  of 
Paris,  and  was  selected  by  Napoleon  as  chief 
accoucheur  to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  practitioners  who  made 
use  of  the  forceps  as  a  means  of  delivery  in 
difficult  parturition.  His  works  are :  Principes 
de  Vart  des  accoucjiements  (Paris,  1775 ;  5th 
ed.,  1821) ;  An  in  Partu  propter  Angustiam 
Pelvis  impossibili  Symphysis  Ossium  Pubis  se- 
canda?  (1776);  and  Vart  des  accouchements 
(1781 ;  6th  ed.,  1822). 

BACDENS,  Jean  Baptlste  Lncien,  a  French  mili- 
tary surgeon,  born  at  Aire,  Pas-de-Calais,  April 


BAUDIN 


BAUER 


395 


3,  1804,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  3,  1857.  He  found- 
ed a  hospital  in  Algiers,  in  which  he  taught 
anatomy  and  surgery  for  nine  years.  He  was  in 
most  of  the  African  campaigns,  and  figures  in 
two  of  Horace  Vernet's  paintings.  In  1841  he 
became  director  of  the  Paris  military  hospital 
of  instruction,  the  Val-de-Grace.  During  the 
Crimean  war  he  was  a  memher  of  the  sanitary 
committee  of  the  army.  His  principal  works 
are :  Nouvelle  methode  des  amputations  (Paris, 
1842),  and  La  guerre  de  Crimee,  les  campe- 
ments,  les  abris,  les  ambulances,  les  Mpitaux, 
&c.  (Paris,  185T;  2d  ed.,  1862;  Ger.  transla- 
tion, Kiel,  1864). 

BAUDIN,  Nicolas,  a  French  sea  captain  and 
naturalist,  born  on  the  island  of  Re  in  1750, 
died  in  the  Isle  of  France,  Sept.  16,  1803.  He 
entered  the  merchant  navy  at  an  early  age; 
and  in  1786  went  on  a  botanical  expedition  to 
the  Indies,  sailing  from  Leghorn  under  the 
Austrian  flag,  with  a  vessel  under  his  own 
command.  His  collections  in  this  expedition, 
and  in  a  second  expedition  which  he  made  to 
the  West  Indies,  were  presented  by  him  to 
the  government  of  France,  which  promoted 
him  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  sent  him  in 
1800  with  two  corvettes  on  a  scientific  mission 
to  Australia.  Peron  accompanied  him  and 
wrote  an  account  of  the  voyage  ( Voyage  aux 
terrei  australes,  Paris,  1807). 

BAUDIN  DES  ARDENNES,  Charles,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  at  Sedan,  July  21,  1784, 
died  in  Paris  in  June,  1854.  In  1812,  as  lieu- 
tenant in  command  of  the  brig  Renard,  accom- 
panying an  expedition  of  14  sail  with  muni- 
tions from  Genoa  to  Toulon,  he  conducted  his 
convoy  safely  into  the  harbor  of  St.  Tropez, 
though  continually  pursued  by  English  cruisers ; 
but  his  flag  ship  was  immediately  after  at- 
tacked by  an  English  brig,  which  he  disabled 
after  a  desperate  conflict.  For  this  service  he 
was  made  captain  of  a  frigate.  After  the  res- 
toration he  resigned,  and  in  1816  entered  the 
merchant  service,  but  after  the  July  revolution 
reentered  the  navy.  In  1838  he  was  made 
rear  admiral,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
of  23  ships  against  Mexico.  Failing  to  effect 
an  amicable  settlement  with  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment, he  bombarded,  Nov.  27,  1838,  the 
fortress  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  which  surren- 
dered on  the  following  day.  On  Dec.  5  he 
made  an  attack  on  Vera  Cruz,  which  was 
repelled  by  the  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna, 
who  lost  a  leg  in  the  action ;  and  the  French 
were  compelled  to  reembark  and  retire  from 
Mexico.  Baudin  was  now  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  vice  admiral,  and  in  1840  was  sent 
as  military  and  diplomatic  plenipotentiary  to 
the  republic  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  intrusted 
with  the  chief  command  of  the  French  fleet  in 
the  South  American  waters.  He  was  marine 
prefect  at  Toulon  from  1841  to  1847.  In 
March,  1848,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  French  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
May  15,  when  Naples  was  threatened  by  the 
lazzaroni  and  soldiery,  the  presence  of  his  fleet 


kept  the  rioters  in  check.  In  September  the 
French  fleet,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Great 
Britain,  protected  Messina  against  the  designs 
of  Filangieri.  Baudin  was  also  successful  in 
recovering  at  Naples  and  Tunis  sums  due  to 
French  residents.  In  July,  1849,  he  withdrew 
from  active  service. 

BiUDRAIS,  Jean,  a  French  author,  born  at 
Tours,  Aug.  14,  1749,  died  May  4,  1832.  He 
began  his  literary  life  at  Paris  by  writing  Val- 
legresse  villageoise,  in  honor  of  the  dauphin's 
marriage,  1781.  He  was  a  revolutionist  and 
enemy  of  Louis  XVI.,  whose  last  testament  he 
countersigned  as  witness.  He  was  employed 
in  various  magisterial  posts  during  the  repub- 
lic and  the  consulate,  and  eventually  at  the  col- 
ony of  Guadeloupe,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  Cayenne.  He  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Napoleon,  was  removed  from  his 
office,  and  emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  passed  13  years,  living  by  manual 
labor.  His  chief  work  is  his  unfinished  Essai 
sur  Vorigine  et  les  progres  de  Vart  dramatique 
en  France  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1791). 

I!H  NKII.UIt  I .  Henri  Joseph  Leon,  a  French 
political  economist,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  28, 
1821.  He  published  essays  on  Voltaire  (1844), 
Turgot  (1846),  and  Madame  de  Stael  (1850),  and 
in  1853  a  work  on  Jean  Bodin  et  son  temps,  for 
which  the  academy  awarded  him  the  first  Mon- 
thyon  prize.  Since  1855  he  has  been  chief 
editor  of  the  Journal  des  economistes.  He  is 
also  connected  with  the  Journal  des  Debate, 
having  married  in  1866  the  daughter  of  its 
chief  editor,  M.  de  Sacy ;  and  he  was  editor-in- 
chief  of  the  Constitutionnel  in  1868  and  1869. 
In  1866  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  his- 
tory of  political  economy  in  the  college  de 
France.  He  is  a  writer  for  the  principal  cyclo- 
paedias, for  the  Revue  des  Deux-Mondes,  and 
other  periodicals,  and  is  the  author  of  many 
works  relating  to  political  economy,  moral 
science,  spiritualism,  and  the  progress  of  the 
laboring  classes  and  of  trades  unions.  His 
Manuel  d'economie  politique  (1857)  obtained 
from  the  French  academy  the  Monthyon  prize, 
and  his  Des  rapports  de  la  morale  et  de  Veco- 
nomie  politique  (1860)  received  a  prize  medal. 
Among  his  other  works  are :  fitudes  de  philoso- 
phie  morale  et  d'economie  politique  (2  vols., 
1858) ;  La  liberte  du  travail,  V association  et  la 
democratie  (1865) ;  and  Elements  d'economie 
rurale,  industrielle  et  commerciale  (1867). 

BAUER,  Anton,  a  German  jurist,  born  in  G6t- 
tingen,  Aug.  16,  1772,  died  there,  June  1,  1843. 
He  was  a  professor  in  Marburg  and  in  Gottin- 
gen,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  privy  judiciary 
councillor.  His  principal  works  are :  Lehrbuch 
des  Naturrechts  (Marburg,  1808;  3d  ed.,  Got- 
tingen,  1825);  Grundzuge  des  philosophischen 
Strafrechts  (1825);  and  Lehrbuch  des  Straf- 
processes,  a  revised  edition  of  a  previous  work 
(Gottingen,  1835;  2d  ed.,  1848). 

BAUER,  Bernard,  abbe,  a  French  priest,  born 
in  Pesth,  Hungary,  in  1829.  He  was  a  member 
of  a  wealthy  Jewish  family,  left  his  studies  t" 


396 


BAUER 


enlist  in  the  French  army  in  1848,  and  after 
an  adventurous  life  became  a  convert  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  and  joined  the  Car- 
melite order.  His  eloquence  acquired  for  him 
a  great  reputation  in  Germany  and  France ; 
and  he  hecame  honorary  canon,  apostolical 
prothonotary,  and  chaplain  at  the  Tuileries.  He 
was  a  special  favorite  of  the  empress  Eugenie, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Egypt  at  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  canal.  During  the  siege  of  Paris 
he  figured  as  chaplain  of  the  ambulances  of 
the  press,  having  under  his  orders  800  freres 
Chretiens,  dressed  as  priests,  though  not  in  holy 
orders.  He  often  showed  himself  on  horse- 
back, dressed  in  a  soutane  and  long  boots,  with 
the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  on  his 
breast,  and  an  episcopal  ring  on  his  finger.  He 
has  published  Le  Judaisme  comme  preuve  du 
Christianistne,  a  series  of  lectures  which  he 
had  delivered  in  1866  in  Vienna  and  Paris; 
Napoleon  III.  et  VEurope  en  1867,  a  political 
pamphlet  (Paris,  1867) ;  and  Le  but  de  la  vie, 
a  collection  of  his  sermons  preached  at  the 
Tuileries  (1869). 

BAUER.  I.  Hrimo,  a  German  critic  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Eisenberg,  Sept.  6,  1809.  Ed- 
ucated in  Berlin,  he  became  in  1834  a  teacher 
at  the  university  there.  He  was  then  a  Hege- 
lian philosopher  of  the  old  school.  In  1835  he 
severely  criticised  Strauss's  "Life  of  Jesus," 
proposing  to  reconcile  the  free  action  of  reason 
with  the  Christian  revelation,  which,  in  com- 
mon with  Hegel,  he  regarded  as  a  gradual  self- 
revelation  of  human  reason.  This  position  he 
abandoned  in  1839.  In  that  year  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Bonn,  but  in  1842,  on  account  of  the 
rationalistic  boldness  displayed  in  his  writings 
and  lectures,  was  deprived  of  permission  to 
give  public  instruction.  He  then  returned  to 
Berlin  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  historical 
and  critical  publications.  In  these  writings  he 
asserts  that  the  gospels,  as  well  as  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  principal  epistles  of  Paul, 
are  fictions,  written  during  the  2d  century  with 
a  view  to  account  for  the  rapid  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity at  a  time  when  the  original  history  of 
its  establishment  had  already  fallen  into  ob- 
scurity ;  that  religion  should  be  abolished,  and 
that  science  and  ethics  .of  human  reason  should 
be  substituted ;  and  that  all  attempts  at  apolo- 
gizing for  the  scientific  deficiencies  of  Christian- 
ity and  revealed  religion  in  general  are  futile. 
His  principal  works  are :  Kritik  der  evangeli- 
sehen  Geschichte  des  Johannes  (Bremen,  1840) ; 
Kritik  der  evangelischen  Geschichte  der  Synop- 
tiker  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  Leipsio,  1841-'2) ;  Kritik 
der  Evangelien  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1850-'51);  Die 
Apoetelgeschichte  (1850);  and  Kritik  der  Pauli- 
nischen  Brief e  (1850).  Of  his  minor  works  are 
to  be  mentioned  Die  Judenfrage  (Brunswick, 
1843),  in  which  he  protested  against  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  Jews,  who  according  tp  his 
views  were  first  to  emancipate  themselves  by 
abandoning  their  clannishness,  religion,  and 
trading  in  money.  His  Allgemeine  Literatwr- 
zeitung  (Charlottenburg,  1843-'4),  his  works  on 


BAUGE 

the  history  of  the  French  revolution,  on  Ger- 
man history  since  the  French  revolution,  and 
on  the  causes  of  the  futility  of  the  revolution  of 
1848-'9,  though  still  democratic  in  spirit,  were 
partly  directed  against  the  Utopian  tendencies 
of  the  revolutionary  party.  In  his  later  writ- 
ings (on  the  "Dictatorship  of  the  Western 
Powers,  1855,  on  the  "Position  of  Russia," 
1855,  Ac.)  he  evinced  a  more  and  more  de- 
cided leaning  toward  political  conservatism,  of 
which  he  has  ultimately  become  a  champion. 
II.  Edgar,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at 
Charlottenburg  in  1821.  His  pamphlet  in  de- 
fence of  his  brother  Bruno  (1842)  was  confis- 
cated, and  his  Censurinstruction,  written  du- 
ring the  preparation  of  the  trial,  was  also  seized, 
but  published  in  Bern  in  1844.  On  account  of 
his  work  Der  Streit  der  Kritik  rn.it  Kirche 
und  Stoat,  he  was  condemned  in  1843  to  im- 
prisonment in  the  fortress  of  Magdeburg  for 
four  years.  He  was  a  co-worker  with  his 
brother  in  some  of  his  publications,  and  pre- 
pared while  in  prison  Die  Geschichte  der  con- 
stitutionellen  Bewegung  im  sudlichen  Deutsch- 
land  wahrend  der  JaJire  1831-'34  (3  vols., 
Charlottenburg,  1845-'6),  and  Geschichte  des 
Lutherthums,  in  the  Bibliothek  der  deuUchen 
.Aufklarer  (5  vols.,  Leipsic,  1845-'7).  After 
his  release  in  1848  he  published  a  political  re- 
view called  Die  Parteien  (Hamburg,  1849),  and 
Ueber  die  Ehe  im  Sinne  des  Lutherthums  (Leip- 
sic, 1849);  and  in  1857  appeared  in  Leipsic  his 
Englische  Freiheit. 

BAUER,  Georg  Lorenz,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Hilpoltstein,  Aug.  14,  1755,  died  in 
Heidelberg,  Jan.  12,  1806.  He  studied  theology 
in  Altdorf,  and  was  minister  and  professor  of 
theology  in  Nuremberg,  Altdorf,  and  Heidel- 
berg. He  introduced  into  theology  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  Bible,  like  the  works  of  the  old 
classics,  must  be  interpreted  by  grammatical 
and  historical  considerations,  and  not  with 
reference  to  theological  doctrines.  He  was 
among  the  first  to  elucidate  the  dogmatic 
opinions  of  the  different  Biblical  writers,  and 
to  show  the  differences  between  them.  He 
also  shows  the  differences  between  the  opinions 
of  the  Biblical  writers  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
creed  of  the  Lutheran  church  on  the  other,  and 
was  the  first  to  write  a  systematic  exposition 
of  the  Christian  dogmas  as  they  are  contained 
in  the  Bible,  and  in  each  Biblical  book  in  par- 
ticular. Among  his  writings  are :  Hermeneu- 
tica  sacra  V.  T.  (Leipsic,  1797) ;  BiUische  The- 
ologie  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Leipsic,  1800-'2); 
Hebraische  Mythologie  des  Allen  und  Neuen 
Testaments  (Leipsic,  1802-'3).  Bauer  was  a 
distinguished  orientalist,  and  translated  the 
Arabian  history  of  Abulfaraj. 

BAUGE,  a  French  town,  department  of  Maine' 
et-Loire,  23  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Angers ;  pop.  in  1866, 
3,562.  This  town  is  celebrated  in  history  for 
a  battle  fought  between  the  English  and  the 
French  in  1421,  in  which  the  former  were  totally 
defeated  and  their  leader,  the  duke  of  Clarence, 
was  killed.  Near  this  town,  at  Baug6-le-Viel, 


BAUHBT 


BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS        397 


are  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  that  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  dukes  of  Anjou. 

BAUHLV,  Jean,  a  Swiss  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Basel  in  1541,  died  in  1613. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  botanist  Fuchs  at  Tubin- 
gen, accompanied  Conrad  Gesner  in  his  botani- 
cal excursions,  travelled  extensively  over  cen- 
tral Europe,  and  became  court  physician  to 
Duke  Ulric  of  Wurtemberg.  Bauhin  cultivated 
in  the  ducal  gardens  of  Montbeliard  a  great 
number  of  plants  then  recently  introduced  into 
Europe.  His  greatest  work  is  ffutoria  Plan- 
tarum  Nova  et  Absolutissima  (3  vols.,  Yverdun, 
1650-'51). 

I!  \Mm  VSlliilll,!:.  a  cave  in  the  Hartz,  in  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Bode,  about  5  m.  from  Blankenburg.  It  is  a 
cavity  in  a  limestone  mountain,  divided  into 
six  principal  apartments  and  several  smaller 
ones,  which  are  all  profusely  studded  with  sta- 
lactites. Fossil  bones  of  the  great  cave  bear 
and  other  animals  are  found  here.  It  was 
named  from  a  miner  who  discovered  it  in  1672. 

BAUME,  Antoine,  a  French  apothecary  and 
chemist,  born  at  Senlis,  Feb.  26,  1728,  died 
Oct.  15,  1804.  He  was  the  son  of  an  inn- 
keeper, and  received  an  imperfect  education; 
but  he  was  apprenticed  to  the  chemist  Geoffrey, 
and  was  highly  successful  in  scientific  re- 
searches. At  the  age  of  24  (1752)  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  college  of  pharmacy, 
Paris,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry.  He  established  a  manufactory 
for  the  preparation  of  acetate  of  lead,  muriate 
of  tin,  mercurial  salts,  antimonial  preparations, 
and  other  articles  for  medicine  and  the  arts, 
and  manufactured  for  the  first  time  in  France 
sal  ammoniac,  previously  imported  from  Egypt. 
He  invented  a  process  for  bleaching  raw  silks, 
devised  a  cheap  method  of  purifying  saltpetre, 
improved  the  process  for  dyeing  scarlet  in 
the  Gobelins  manufactory,  and  made  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  and 
in  the  areometer,  constructing  for  the  latter  a 
scale  which  is  still  in  use.  Acquiring  a  com- 
petence, he  abandoned  manufacturing  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  application  of  chemis- 
try to  the  arts.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  (1773),  and  a  correspon- 
dent of  the  institute  (1796).  His  works  are : 
Dissertation  mr  V  ether,  and  Plan  (Tun  cours 
de  chimie  experimental  (12mo,  Paris,  1757) ; 
Opuscules  de  chimie  (8vo,  1798)  ;  Elements  de 
pharmacie  theorique  et  pratique  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1762,  and  later  editions,  1769,  1773,  and  1818); 
Chimie  experimental  et  raisonnee  (3  vols.  8vo, 
1773);  and  several  papers  in  the  Memoires  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  in  the  Diction- 
naire  des  arts  et  metiers. 

BAU1IGARTEIV,  Alexander  Gottlieb,  a  German 
author,  born  in  Berlin  in  1714,  died  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  was  professor  of 
philosophy,  May  26,  1762.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  science  of  aesthetics  in  his  two  works: 
De  Nonnullis  ad  Poema  pertinentibus  (Halle, 
1735),  and  ^Esthetica  (2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1750- 


'58,  incomplete),  which  are  written  in  the  spirit 
of  the  Wolfian  philosophy.  Baumgarten  was 
the  first  to  attempt  a  scientific  analysis  of  the 
principles  of  beauty  in  nature  as  well  as  in  art, 
and  of  those  faculties  of  the  mind  by  which  the 
beautiful  is  recognized.  He  maintained  that 
the  mind  has  a  double  faculty  of  perception, 
the  higher  or  logical  one,  which  forms  reason- 
able notions  establishing  the  truth,  while  the 
lower  or  aesthetic  perceives  immediately,  with- 
out conscious  reasoning,  the  elements  of  beauty. 
Other  works  of  Baumgarten  are  Metaphysica, 
Ethica  Philosophica,  and  Initia  Philosophic 
Practices. 

BACMGARTE1V,  Michael,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Haseldorf,  in  Holstein,  March  25,  1812. 
He  studied  at  Kiel,  became  professor  at  Kostock 
in  1850,  and  in  1858  he  was  removed  on  account 
of  his  alleged  deviations  from  the  established 
evangelical  church,  and  tried  for  having  pub- 
lished his  vindication  (Eine  kirchliche  Krww  in 
Mecklenburg,  Brunswick,  1858),  but  acquitted. 
Since  1865  he  has  been  prominent  in  the  first 
Protestant  German  convention  at  Eisenach,  and 
as  the  most  energetic  defender  of  the  Protestant 
association.  His  writings  include  Apostelge- 
schichte,  oder  Entwickelungsgang  der  Kirche  von 
Jerusalem  bis  Horn  (2  vols.,  Brunswick,  1852; 
2d  ed.,  1859);  Die  Oeschichte  Jesu  (1859);  and 
David,  der  Konig  ohne  gleichen  (Berlin,  1862). 

BU  MGARTE\,  si-mimd  Jakob,  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Wolinirstadt,  March  14,  1706, 
died  in  Halle,  July  4,  1757.  He  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Halle,  a  follower  of  Wolf,  and  a  friend 
of  Semler,  who  after  his  death  continued  his 
AllgemeineWeltgeschichte  (prepared  from  Eng- 
lish sources,  16  vols.,  Halle,  1744-'56),  and  in 
1758  published  his  biography.  He  was  among 
the  most  influential  theologians  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. His  works  include  Auszug  der  Kirchen- 
geschichte  (3  vols.,  1743-'6),  Nachrichten  von 
einer  Hallischen  Bibliothek  (8  vols.,  1748-'51), 
and  Nachrichten  von  merkwurdigen  Buchem 
(12  vols.,  1752-'7). 

iani(.llll  l,\-n:i  vil  s.  I.  Detlev Karl  Wllhelm, 
a  German  philologist,  born  in  Dresden,  Jan.  24, 
1786,  died  May  12,  1845.  He  studied  theology 
and  classical  literature  at  Leipsic,  and  was  a 
teacher  and  rector  in  the  schools  of  Merseburg, 
Dresden,  and  Meissen,  and  a  member  of  the 
Dresden  municipal  assembly  in  1830.  As 
teacher  and  legislator  he  brought  about  many 
reforms  in  the  school  system,  and  during  the 
German  war  of  independence  he  roused  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  German  youth  by  his  patri- 
otic publications.  He  prepared  pocket  edi- 
tions of  many  classic  writers,  and  brought  out  a 
new  edition  of  Muller's  Homerische  Vorschule 
(Leipsic,  1836).  He  also  published  a  new  bi- 
ography of  Georg  Fabricius  (Leipsic,  1839), 
besides  miscellaneous,  ethical,  religious,  and 
travelling  sketches.  II.  Lndwig  Frledrlch  Otto, 
a  German  theologian,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  in  Merseburg,  July  31,  1788,  died 
in  Jena,  May  31,  1843.  He  studied  in  Leip- 
sic, and  was  over  25  years  professor  of  theol- 


398 


BAUMGARTNER 


ogy  at  Jena.  His  writings  on  the  history  of 
Christian  dogmas  made  him  prominent.  He 
was  in  many  respects  a  follower  of  Schleier- 
macher,  and  published  in  1834  Ueber  Schleier- 
macher,  seine  Denkart,  und  sein  Verdienst. 

i:  U  ill.  \i;  I  M:K.  Andreas  TOD,  baron,  an  Aus- 
trian statesman  and  savant,  born  at  Friedberg, 
Bohemia,  Nov.  23,  1793,  died  at  Hietzing,  near 
Vienna,  July  28,  1865.  Pie  studied  mathemat- 
ics, and  in  1817  became  professor  of  physical 
science  at  Olmiltz,  and  in  1823  in  the  university 
of  Vienna.  Ill  health  compelling  him  to  re- 
frain from  teaching,  he  subsequently  superin- 
tended various  manufactories  controlled  by  the 
government,  and  after  1846  he  directed  the 
construction  of  telegraphs  and  railways.  He 
was  minister  of  commerce  and  public  works 
and  of  finance  from  1851  to  1855,  and  in  1861 
became  a  member  of  the  house  of  peers.  He 
popularized  science  in  relation  to  art  and  in- 
dustry, and  his  lectures  were  collected  in  a 
volume  entitled  Mechanik  in  Hirer  Anwendung 
auf  Kumte  und  Gewerbe  (2d  ed.,  Vienna, 
1823).  His  Naturlehre  (1823 ;  8th  ed.,  1844-'5) 
and  his  contributions  to  periodicals  diffused 
much  knowledge  of  natural  science;  and  his 
Chemie  und  Geschuhte  der  ffimmelskorper 
•nach  der  Spectralanalyse  (1862),  and  Die  me- 
fhanische  Theorie  der  Warme  (1864),  contain 
his  academical  lectures  on  chemistry. — See 
Schrotter,  Freiherr  ton  Eaumgartner,  eine 
Lebensskizie  (Vienna,  1866). 

BAUMGARTNER,  GaDns  Jakob,  a  Swiss  politician 
nnd  historian,  born  at  Altstatten,  Oct.  18, 1797, 
died  in  St.  Gall  in  July,  1869.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  mechanic,  studied  law,  and  became 
prominent  as  a  leader  of  the  liberal  party  in 
St.  Gall  till  about  1841,  when  his  alliance  with 
the  ultramontanes  diminished  his  popularity, 
though  his  eloquence  and  executive  ability  led 
to  his  being  chosen  in  1843,  and  again  in 
1857-'60,  as  a  member  of  various  legislative 
bodies.  He  wrote  Die  Schweiz  in  ihren 
JTampfen  und  Umgestaltungen  von  1830  bis 
1850  (4  vols.,  Zurich,  1853-'66). 

BAUMGARTNER,  Karl  Heinrieb,  a  German  phys- 
iologist, born  at  Pforzheim,  Baden,  Oct.  21, 
1798.  He  is  a  graduate  of  Heidelberg,  and  was 
professor  of  clinics  there  from  1824  to  1862, 
when  he  published  Vermachtnisse  eines  Klini- 
kers.  He  acquired  renown  by  his  observations 
on  the  development  of  animals,  and  by  his  inves- 
tigations on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  His 
medical  works  included  Handbuch  der  speciel- 
len  KranTcheits-  und  Heilungslehre  (2  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1835 ;  4th  ed.,  1842),  and  Grundzuge 
zur  Physiologie  und  zur  allgemeinen  Krank- 
heits-  und  Heilungslehre  (1837 ;  3d  ed.,  1854). 
These  two  works  constitute  his  Dualistisches 
System  der  Medeein.  Among  his  physiological 
publications  are  Die  Embryonalanlage  dureJi 
Keimmpaltungen  (1854),  Anfange  zu  einer  phy- 
siologischen  Schopfungsgeschichte  (1855),  and 
ScMpfungsgedanken  (Freiburg,  1856-'9). 

BAIR,  Ferdinand  Christian,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Schmiden,  Wurtemberg,  June 


BAUR 

21,  1792,  died  in  Tubingen,  Dec.  2,  1860.  He 
was  educated  at  Tubingen,  became  a  clergy- 
man and  afterward  a  private  tutor,  and  in 
1817  was  appointed  professor  at  the  seminary 
of  Blaubeuern.  He  was  at  that  period  a  fol- 
lower of  Neander  and  Schleiermacher,  and 
published  Symbolik  und  Mythologie,  oder  die 
Naturreligion  des  Alterthums  (3  vols.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1824-'5),  which  won  for  him  in  1826  the 
chair  of  evangelical  theology  in  the  university 
of  Tubingen,  which  he  occupied  during  the  rest 
of  his  life.  He  became  the  founder  of  the  new 
Tubingen  school  of  theology  (see  his  letter  to 
Hase  of  Jena,  1855,  and  his  Die  Tubinger 
Schule,  1859),  which  further  developed  his  sys- 
tem of  applying  critical  tests  to  the  canonical 
writings.  He  denied  the  authenticity  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John,  and  all  the  Pauline  epistles 
except  those  to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and 
Romans.  He  drew  many  inferences  from  Hegel 
without  altogether  identifying  himself  with  the 
Hegelian  system  of  philosophy,  and  was  charged 
by  his  adversaries  with  having  converted  He- 
gelianism  into  pantheism,  and  positive  Chris- 
tian faith  into  Gnostic  idealism,  and  with  the 
subversion  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  or- 
thodox Christianity.  His  followers,  however, 
regard  him  as  the  greatest  master  mind  in  the- 
ology since  the  death  of  Schleiermacher.  His 
works  relating  to  the  New  Testament  include 
Die  Christuspartei  in  der  korinthisehen  Ge- 
meinde,  der  Gegensatz  des  paulinischen  und 
petrinischen  Christenthums  (in  'the  Tubingen 
Zeitsehriftjur  Theologie,  1835);  Die  sogenann- 
ten  Pastoralbriefe  des  Apostels  Paulus  (Stutt- 
gart, 1835;  2d  ed.,  1866-'7);  and  Paulus,  der 
Apostel  Jesu  Christi,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken, 
seine  Brief e  und  seine  Lehre  (1845).  The  last 
named  work  contains  the  general  result  of  all 
his  investigations  relating  to  St.  Paul,  and  his 
Kritische  Untersuchungen  uber  die  kanonischen 
Evangelien,  ihr  Verhdltniss  zu  einander,  ihren 
Ursprung  und  Charakter  (Tubingen,  1847), 
gives  his  researches  relating  to  St.  John,  St. 
Luke  (which  two  had  been  previously  publish- 
ed in  1844  and  1846  respectively),  St.  Mark, 
and  St.  Matthew.  His  works  on  dogma,  based 
on  historical  treatment,  comprise  Das  Mani- 
chaische  Religionssystem  (1831);  Die  christ- 
liche  Gnosis,  oder  die  christliche  Keligionsphilo- 
sophie  (1835),  from  the  2d  to  the  19th  century ; 
Die  christliche  Lehre  von  der  Versohnung 
(1838) ;  Die  christliche  Lehre  von  der  Drei- 
einiglceit  und  Menschwerdung  Gottes  (3  vols., 
1841-'3) ;  and  Lehrbuch  der  christlichen  Dog- 
mengeschichte  (Stuttgart,  1847;  3d  ed.,  1867). 
Against  the  symbolism  of  Mohler  he  published 
Erwiderung  gegen  Mahler's  neueste  Polemik 
(1834),  Gegensatz  des  Katholicismus  und  Pro- 
testantismus  (2d  ed.,  1836),  and  other  wri- 
tings. Among  his  last  and  most  extensive 
historico-ecclesiastical  productions  are  Epochen 
der  kirchlichen  Geschichtschreibung  (1852), 
and  a  history  of  the  Christian  church  to  the 
19th  century  (5  vols.,  1853-;63),  the  last  two 
volumes  of  which,  left  nearly  completed,  were 


BAUSSET 


BAVARIA 


399 


edited  by  his  son,  Professor  Ferdinand  Fried- 
rich  Baur,  and  by  E.  Zeller.  Other  posthu- 
mous works  edited  by  his  son  are  Vorlesun- 
yen  aber  neutestamentliche  Theologie  (Leipsic, 
1864),  and  Vorlesungen  uler  die  christliche 
Dogmengeschichte  (1865  et  seq.). 

BAUSSET,  Lonis  Franf  ois  de,  a  French  cardinal, 
born  at  Pondicherry  in  1748,  died  in  Paris, 
June  21,  1824.  He  was  sent  to  France  when 
young,  educated  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice, 
took  orders,  and  became  bishop  of  Alais  in 
1784.  In  1787  he  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
assembly  of  notables  at  Versailles,  and  sub- 
sequently to  the  states  general.  When  this 
assembly  undertook  to  alter  the  church  es- 
tablishment, Bausset  was  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  protest  presented  by  the  clerical  mem- 
bers. He  afterward  emigrated,  but  returned  to 
Paris  in  1792,  when  he  was  imprisoned.  He 
was  restored  to  liberty  on  the  revolution  of 
the  9th  Tbermidor.  Having  obtained  all  the 
manuscripts  left  by  Fenelon,  he  wrote  his 
biography  (Histoire  de  Fenelon,  3  vols.  8vo, 
1808-'9),  which  was  received  with  marked 
favor.  On  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons 
he  entered  the  chamber  of  peers,  was  admitted 
to  the  French  academy  in  1816,  was  created  a 
cardinal  in  1817,  then  commander  in  the  order 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  minister  of  state.  He 
also  wrote  L'ffiatoire  de  Bossuet  (4  vols.,  1814), 
and  Several  historical  memoirs. 

I!U  III V  Louis  Eugene  Marie,  a  French  phi- 
losopher and  theologian,  born  in  Paris,  Feb. 
17,  1796,  died  Oct.  18,  1867.  When  only  20 
years  old  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Strasburg,  where  he  acquired  reputation 
for  his  learning  and  eloquence.  Ordained  a 
priest  in  1828,  he  became  director  of  the  semi- 
nary. In  1830  he  resigned  his  professorship, 
but  was  eight  years  later  elected  dean  of  the 
literary  faculty  of  Strasburg,  in  which  capacity 
he  continued  till  1849.  He  then  became  su- 
perintendent of  the  college  of  Juilly,  and  was 
subsequently  vicar  general  of  Paris  and  profes- 
sor in  the  theological  faculty  of  that  city.  He 
published  Psychologic  experimental  (2  vols., 
1839),  Philosophie  morale  (2  vols.,  1840),  Con- 
ferences sur  la  religion  et  la  liberte  (1848), 
and  other  works. 

BAUTZEN  (Lusatian,  Budissiri),  a  town  of 
Saxony,  capital  of  Upper  Lusatia,  on  the  Spree, 
31  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Dresden ;  pop.  in  1871,  13,166. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  owned  in  common  by  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  two  public  libraries, 
a  hospital,  and  manufactures  of  woollen  and 
linen  cloths,  paper,  and  leather.  The  battle 
of  Bautzen  was  gained  May  20  and  21,  1813, 
by  Napoleon,  with  about  125,000  men,  over 
the  allied  Prussians  and  Russians,  numbering 
nearly  100,000.  The  engagement  began  early 
in  the  morning  of  May  20,  and  the  French 
easily  gained  possession  of  the  town,  but  Oudi- 
not  failed  in  his  attacks  on  the  left  wing  of  the 
enemy.  On  the  following  and  decisive  day 
they  captured  Preititz  and  the  heights  of 
Gleina,  while  Soult  stormed  those  of  Kreck- 
78  VOL.  it.— 26 


witz,  the  key  to  Blucher's  position.  The  allied 
monarchs,  being  now  reminded  of  their  danger 
of  being  crushed  by  Ney,  who  had  already  at- 
tacked the  right  flank  of  their  forces,  ett'ected 
a  masterly  retreat  without  losing  a  gun. 

BAUXITE.    See  ALUMINA. 

BAVAI.     See  BAVAY. 

BAVARIA  (Ger.  Bayern  or  Baiern),  a  king- 
dom of  central  Europe,  next  after  Prussia  the 
most  important  member  of  the  German  em- 
pire. Capital,  Munich.  Bavaria  consists  of 
two  parts,  separated  by  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Ba- 
den, and  Wurtemberg,  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween the  divisions  being  30  m.  The  larger  or 
eastern  division,  lying  between  lat.  47°  15'  and 
50°  35'  K,  and  Ion.  9°  and  13°  50'  E.,  is  bound- 
ed N".  by  Saxony,  Reuss,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe- Weimar,  and  the  Prus- 
sian province  of  Hesse  (Cassel);  E.  by  the 
Austrian  empire ;  S.  by  Switzerland  and  the 
Austrian  empire  ;  and  W.  by  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Baden,  and  Wurtemberg.  The  smaller  division, 
known  as  the  Palatinate  (Ger.  Pfalz)  or  Rhe- 
nish Bavaria,  lies  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
between  lat.  48°  57'  and  49°  50'  N.,  and  Ion. 
7°  5'  and  8°  30'  E.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  Rhenish  Prussia ;  E.  by  the 
Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  Baden ;  S.  by 
Alsace-Lorraine  ;  and  W.  by  Rhenish  Prussia. 
Area  since  the  peace  of  1866,  in  which  213  sq. 
m.  were  ceded  to  Prussia,  29,292  sq.  m.  The 
population  according  to  the  census  of  1871  was 
4,861,402.  The  increase  during  the  last  50 
years  has  been  nearly  25  per  cent.,  as  the 
total  population  in  1818  numbered  3,707,966. 
In  1867,  in  a  total  population  of  4,824,421, 
there  were  3,441,029  Roman  Catholics,  1,328,- 
713  Protestants,  4,839  other  Christian  sects, 
and  49,840  Jews.  The  Protestants  were  di- 
vided into  989,343  Lutherans,  3,267  Reformed, 
and  336,103  United  Evangelicals.  In  1871  the 
Roman  Catholic  population  embraced  several 
thousand  Old  Catholics.  The  number  of  per- 
sons who  emigrated  from  Bavaria  amounted 
from  1830  to  1869  to  about  288,000.  The  king- 
dom and  population  are  distributed  in  eight 
Regierungs-Bezirke  (administrative  districts), 
as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

Area  In 
iq.  m. 

Pop.,  Dec. 

31,  1646. 

Pop.,  Dec. 
31,  1855. 

Pop.,  Dec. 
1,  1871. 

1.  Upper    Bavaria  (Ober- 

6,682 

4.1  BT 
2,2S>3 

8,781 
2,702 
2,918 

8248 
8,666 

706,544 

548.709 
608,470 

467,606 
601,168 
627,866 

502.0SO 
668,436 

744,161 

654.018 
687,884 

471,906 
498,918 

538,887 

589.076 
561,576 

841,579 

602.005 
615,104 

407,960 
540,963 
588,417 

686,122 

582,888 

11.861 

2.  Lower  Bavaria  (Nieder- 

8.  Palatinate  (Pfalz)  
4.  Upper   Palatinate    and 
Ratisbon      (Oberpfalz 
und  Regensburg)  
5.  Upper  Franconia  (Ober- 
frnnken)  

6.  Middle  Franconia  (Mit- 

7.  Lower   Franconia    and 
Aschaffenbure  f  Unter- 
franken  und  A.)  
8.  Swabia  and  Neuburg.  .  . 
Army   of   Occupation   in 
France  

Total.. 

29,292 

4,604,874  4,541,666 

4,861,402 

400 


BAVARIA 


The  population  is  almost  exclusively  of  Ger- 
manic origin.  A  few  hundred  thousand  inhab- 
itants of  the  Fichtel  mountains,  who  are  of 
Slavic  descent,  have  long  since  been  fully 
Germanized ;  only  in  the  Palatinate  there  are 
ahout  3,500  Frenchmen.  Three  original  Ger- 
manic tribes  constitute  the  population :  the 
Boioarians  or  Bavarians,  between  the  Allgau 
Alps  and  the  so-called  Francouian  Jura,  and  the 
rivers  Lech,  Inn,  and  Salzach ;  the  Franconians 
or  Franks,  between  the  Franconian  Alps,  the 
Thuringian  and  Bohemian  mountains,  and  in 
the  Palatinate ;  and  a  branch  of  the  Swabians 
bordering  on  Wurtemberg.  The  Franconians 
number  about  2,500,000,  the  Swabians  500,- 
000;  the  rest  are  Bavarians. — Bavaria  is  an 
elevated  country,  hilly  rather  than  mountain- 
ous, on  the  borders  of  which  are  the  Bavarian 
Alps,  in  the  south ;  the  Bohemian  Forest,  in 
the  east;  the  Fichtelgebirge  and  the  Fran- 
conian Forest,  in  the  northeast ;  and  the 
Bhon  and  Spessart,  in  the  northwest.  The 
Bavarian  Forest,  the  Franconian  Jura,  and 
other  minor  ranges,  traverse  the  interior,  N. 
of  the  Danube.  The  Palatinate  is  traversed 
by  the  Hardt  mountains,  a  branch  of  the 
Vosges.  The  highest  point  is  the  Zugspitz, 
about  10,000  ft.,  in  the  Bavarian  Alps;  in  the 
Bohemian  Forest,  the  highest  points  arc  the 
Arber,  4,800  ft.,  and  Rachelberg,  4,750  ft. ;  in 
the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Schneeberg  is  3,480 
ft. ;  in  the  Rhon  the  highest  point  is  about  3,000 
ft ;  Donnersberg,  the  culminating  point  of  the 
Hardt  mountains,  is  about  2,200  ft. — The  riv- 
ers of  the  Palatinate  belong  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine ;  the  principal  ones  are  the  Lauter, 
Queich,  Blies,  and  Nahe.  The  rivers  of  Ba- 
varia proper  are  the  Main  and  Danube  and 
their  affluents.  The  principal  tributaries  of 
the  Main  are  the  Regnitz  and  Saale.  The 
Danube  flows  for  270  m.  through  the  centre 
of  the  kingdom,  until  at  Passan  it  enters  Aus- 
tria, being  navigable  throughout  this  distance. 
It  receives  in  Bavaria  more  than  30  consider- 
able affluents,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
Iller,  Lech,  Isar,  and  Inn  from  the  right; 
from  the  left  the  Wornitz,  Altmuhl,  Kocher, 
Kaah,  Regen,  and  Ilz.  Bavaria  has  several 
small  lakes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Chiem,  Wurm,  and  Ammer,  all  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Bavarian  Alps.  The  circuit  of  none 
of  these  exceeds  40  m.  A  corner  of  the  lake 
of  Constance  also  belongs  to  Bavaria. — The 
climate  is  for  the  most  part  healthy,  although 
the  temperature  is  variable.  It  is  colder  in  the 
winter  and  warmer  in  the  summer  than  that  of 
the  neighboring  countries.  In  the  mountains 
there  are  heavy  falls  of  snow,  and  the  Alps,  the 
Fichtelgebirge,  and  the  Bohemian  Forest  are 
distinguished  from  the  lower  land  by  the  length 
and  severity  of  their  winters.  There  are  exten- 
sive forests,  especially  upon  the  hills  and  moun- 
tain sides.  Great  quantities  of  wood  are  ob- 
tained from  these,  and  distributed  through  all 
the  surrounding  countries.  About  one  third  of 
the  forest  land  is  the  property  of  the  state;  the 


rest  is  in  private  hands.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile,  producing  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley ; 
buckwheat,  maize,  and  rite  are  also  cultivated, 
and  potatoes  are  an  important  crop.  The  hop 
thrives,  and  the  vine  flourishes  in  some  parts, 
especially  near  Lake  Constance  and  upon  the 
lower  course  of  the  Main.  Fruits,  tobacco, 
hemp,  flax,  and  licorice  are  cultivated.  But 
upon  the  whole  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
condition.  Cattle-raising  is  the  most  impor- 
tant industry  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alps ;  but, 
with  the  exception  of  sheep,  little  has  been 
done  to  improve  the  breed  of  the  domestic 
animals.  The  total  area  of  the  productive  soil 
is  27,532  sq.  m.,  of  which  12,352  sq.  m.  are 
arable  and  garden  land,  5,804  meadows  and 
pastures,  and  9,376  woodland.  The  latest  agri- 
cultural statistics  (1863)  showed  368,528  horses, 
3,185,882  horned  cattle,  2,058,638  sheep,  926,- 
522  swine,  and  150,855  goats.  The  annual 
produce  of  wine  is  estimated  at  16,218,000  gal- 
lons; that  of  raw  tobacco  at  114,676  cwt. — 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  very  con- 
siderable. Coal  and  iron  are  found  almost 
everywhere.  In  the  Palatinate  are  mines  of 
copper,  manganese,  mercury,  cobalt,  and  plum- 
bago. There  are  numerous  choice  varieties  of 
marble,  as  also  gypsum,  alabaster,  and  some 
of  the  finest  porcelain  clay  in  Europe.  Salt, 
which  is  a  government  monopoly,  is  produced 
by  evaporation  from  the  saline  springs  m  the 
S.  E.  corner  of  the  kingdom.  Still  the  mineral 
wealth  is  to  a  great  extent  undeveloped.  The 
production  of  salt  in  1869  was  977,572  cwt. ; 
of  coal,  7,347,247  cwt.;  and  of  iron  in  1868, 
961,382  tons.  The  most  important  article  of 
industry  is  Bavarian  beer,  brewed  to  the  high- 
est perfection  in  Munich,  Nuremberg,  and 
Bamberg,  and  consumed  in  vast  quantities  in 
the  country  itself.  The  kingdom  had  in  1871 
about  5,500  breweries,  which  brewed  about 
135,000,000  gallons.  The  mathematical  and 
optical  instruments  manufactured  at  Munich 
are  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world.  Nurem- 
berg is  the  great  emporinm  for  toys ;  Augsburg 
is  noted  for  the  production  of  gold,  silver,  and 
plated  ware ;  the  plumbago  crucibles  of  Passau 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world ;  and 
the  ornamental  glass  of  Bavaria  rivals  that  of 
Bohemia.  Coarse  linen  is  the  most  important 
branch  of  textile  manufactures,  the  production 
of  cotton,  woollen,  and  worsted  goods  not  being 
equal  to  the  home  consumption.  There  are 
considerable  manufactures  of  leather,  straw 
goods,  glass,  nails,  needles,  and  porcelain.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  timber,  grain, 
wine,  butter,  cheese,  and  glass,  the  annual 
value  being  about  $6,000,000.  The  principal 
imports  are  sugar,  coffee,  woollens,  silks,  cotton 
goods,  drugs,  hemp,  and  flax. — The  central 
position  of  Bavaria  gives  it  the  transit  trade 
between  North  Germany  and  Austria,  Switz- 
erland, and  Italy.  There  are  several  canals, 
the  principal  of  which,  the  Ludwig's  canal, 
constructed  by  the  government  at  a  cost  of 
§4,000,000,  unites  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 


BAVARIA 


401 


and  through  them  the  German  ocean  with  the 
Black  sea,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
works  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  1871  Bavaria  had  1,801  m.  of  railway 
in  operation,  a  comparatively  larger  number 
than  Prussia;  1,208  m.  were  state  property  or 
administered  by  the  state,  and  593  m.  belonged 
to  private  companies.  The  aggregate  length 
of  telegraph  lines  in  1870  was  3,547  m.,  and 
that  of  telegraph  wires  11,182  m. ;  the  num- 
ber of  despatches  was  838,705 ;  the  revenue 
derived  from  them,  447,690  ti.,  and  the  cost  of 
administration  302,590  fl.  The  navigation  on 
the  Danube  in  1871  employed  15  steamers  and 
more  than  2,000  sailing  vessels,  that  on  the  Inn 
about  2,000  vessels,  that  on  the  Rhine  12  steam- 
ers and  236  sailing  vessels.  In  1869  Bavaria  had 
262  savings  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
26,410,840  fl.;  the  number  of  depositors  was  249,- 
362. — The  direction  of  education  is  under  the 
control  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  with 
inspectors  who  report  to  him  on  the  condition 
of  the  schools.  All  children  whose  parents  have 
not  received  permission  to  have  them  educated 
at  home  must  attend  the  public  school  until 
they  are  14  years  old,  and  must  also  attend 
Sunday  school  two  years  longer.  Every  parish 
has  at  least  one  elementary  school ;  besides 
which  there  are  lyceums  and  other  schools  of 
a  higher  grade,  and  trade  schools,  supported 
by  the  communes,  in  which  are  taught  mathe- 
matics, mechanics,  chemistry,  drawing,  archi- 
tecture, and  other  branches.  The  course  in 
these  schools  occupies  three  years,  from  the 
age  of  12  to  15,  after  which  the  pupil  may 
enter  one  of  the  three  polytechnic  schools,  the 
course  of  which  occupies  three  more  years, 
with  another  year  for  engineers.  There  are 
three  universities,  of  which  Munich  and  Wurz- 
burg  are  Roman  Catholic,  the  latter  celebrated 
for  its  medical  faculty,  and  Erlangen  is  Protes- 
tant. The  university  of  Munich  had  in  1870, 
next  to  Berlin  and  Leipsic,  the  largest  number 
of  professors  (118)  and  students  (1,321)  of  any 
German  university.  Of  other  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning,  Bavaria  in  1870  had  8  lyceums 
(schools  of  theology  and  philosophy),  28  Gym- 
na»ien,  6  Real-Gymnasien,  84  Latin  schools, 
83  Gewerbschulen,  10  normal  schools,  and  1 
Realschule.  The  number  of  elementary  schools 
in  1866  was  8,197,  with  604,916  pupils.  The 
polytechnic  school  of  Munich,  which  was  re- 
organized in  1868,  and  which  had  in  1871,  in 
five  special  departments,  47  professors  and  805 
students,  is  the  first  in  all  Germany  as  regards 
the  number  of  students.  At  Munich  an  acade- 
my of  painting,  a  school  of  sculpture,  and  an 
architectural  academy  owe  their  establishment 
to  King  Louis  I.  The  number  of  newspa- 
pers in  1866  in  Bavaria  was  339,  of  which 
99  were  strictly  devoted  to  politics.  At  the 
head  of  them  stands  the  Augsburg  Allgemeine 
Zeitung,  which  enjoys  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation.— Rather  more  than  seven  tenths  of 
the  population  are  Roman  Catholics,  but  reli- 
gion is  entirely  free,  Protestants  and  Catholics 


|  having  the  same  rights,  and  the  sovereign  may 
j  be  either;  civil  rights  have  not,  however,  been 
extended  to  the  Jews,  or  to  one  or  two  small 
Christian  sects.  The  Catholics  have  2  arch- 
bishoprics, Munich  and  Bamberg,  6  bishoprics, 
171  deaneries,  and  2,756  parishes,  there  being 
one  clergyman  to  464  souls.  The  Protestant 
church  is  under  a  general  consistory  and  4  pro- 
vincial consistories ;  there  are  920  parishes,  and 
one  clergyman  to  1,013  souls. — Bavaria  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  the  present  constitu- 
tion having  been  framed  in  1818,  but  some- 
what modified  in  1848-'9.  The  crown  is  hered- 
|  itary  in  the  male  line.  The  executive  power 
is  vested  in  the  king,  but  is  exercised  through 
ministers  who  are  responsible  for  all  his  acts. 
The  diet  consists  of  two  houses.  The  Rewhs- 
rath  or  upper  house  is  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  the  crown  dig- 
nitaries, the  archbishops,  and  the  heads  of 
certain  noble  families;  to  these  are  added  a 
Catholic  bishop,  the  president  of  the  Protestant 
consistory,  and  a  number  of  other  members 
appointed  by  the  crown  at  pleasure ;  in  1871 
it  numbered  72.  The  lower  house  is  com- 
posed of  deputies  from  towns  and  universities 
and  various  religious  corporations.  The  rep- 
resentation (154  members  in  1871)  is  calculated 
at  one  deputy  to  31,500  persons.  The  deputies 
are  selected  by  electors  who  are  chosen  by 
popular  vote.  To  be  on  the  electoral  lists,  a 
person  must  be  25  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  10  florins.  A  deputy  must 
be  30  years  of  age,  and  have  an  assured  income 
from  the  funds,  a  trade,  or  a  profession.  Ac- 
cording to  the  treaty  of  Versailles  (Nov.  23, 
1870),  which  regulated  the  entrance  of  Bavaria 
into  the  German  empire,  the  Bavarian  troops 
constitute  two  army  corps  of  the  German  im- 
perial army.  In  time  of  war  the  two  Bavarian 
corps  number  136,617  men.  The  military  or- 
ganization is  in  all  essential  points  to  be  con- 
formed to  that  of  Prussia,  but  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  officers  and  the  management  of  the 
army  in  time  of  peace  greater  rights  have  been 
accorded  to  the  king  of  Bavaria  than  to  any 
other  German  prince.  The  public  debt  amount- 
ed in  1870  to  343,000,000  fl.  The  towns,  bor- 
oughs, and  rural  communities  had  in  1870  an 
aggregate  debt  of  27,269,235  fl.  The  budget 
of  expenditures  for  each  of  the  two  years  1872 
and  1873  was  58,629,558  fl.— The  name  Bayern 
is  derived  from  the  Boii,  supposed  by  some  to 
be  of  Celtic  origin,  who  inhabited  the  country 
before  the  Christian  era.  Others,  however, 
deny  the  Celtic  origin,  mainly  on  the  ground 
that  the  Bavarian  dialect  bears  no  trace  of  it. 
Southern  Bavaria  formed  a  part  of  the  Ro- 
man provinces  of  Rhcetia,  Vindelicia,  and  No- 
ricum.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  power  the 
people  were  governed  by  their  own  dukes, 
from  about  530  to  630,  when  the  country  be- 
came incorporated  into  the  Prankish  king- 
dom, and  embraced  Christianity.  The  Bavarians 
were  still  under  the  immediate  government 
of  their  own  dukes,  several  of  whom  revolted 


4:02 


BAVARIA 


against  their  Prankish  sovereigns.  The  last  re- 
volt, under  Thassilo  II.,  in  777,  was  effectually 
suppressed  by  Charlemagne,  whose  descendants 
ruled  Bavaria  as  kings  till  911,  when  the  Carlo- 
vingian  line  became  extinct.  From  this  time 
for  a  century  and  a  half  the  country  was  con- 
vulsed with  troubles,  partly  arising  from  inter- 
nal dissensions,  and  partly  from  contests  with 
the  Magyars,  and  later  from  the  crusades.  In 
1180  the  count  palatine  Otto  von  Wittelsbach 
became  duke,  and  his  descendants  have  gov- 
erned the  country  to  the  present  time.  One 
of  these,  Louis  the  Bavarian,  was  emperor 
of  Germany  from  1314  to  1347.  Maximilian, 
duke  of  Bavaria,  the  head  of  the  Catholic 
league  in  the  30  years'  war,  was  made  an  elec- 
tor in  1C23,  in  lieu  of  the  proscribed  elector 
palatine  Frederick.  During  the  middle  ages 
the  Franconian  part  of  Bavaria  had  become 
a  centre  of  trade,  industry,  and  art.  Augs- 
burg and  Nuremberg  rivalled  Venice,  Genoa, 
and  Milan  as  mercantile  entrepots.  The  Swa- 
bians  raised  Gothic  architecture  to  its  high- 
est perfection,  and  excelled  in  poetry.  In 
painting  the  Franconian  school  produced  Al- 
bert Durer,  Lucas  Cranach,  and  Hans  Holbein. 
The  minnesingers  and  mastersingers  had  their 
original  homes  in  Franconia  and  Swabia. 
There  originated  the  idea  of  a  confederation  of 
the  free  cities  of  Germany.  The  reformation 
found  both  stanch  adherents  and  violent  ene- 
mies in  Bavaria,  and  within  its  limits  Gustavus 
Adolphus  fought  both  Tilly  and  Wallenstein. 
The  discovery  of  America  transferred  the  seat 
of  the  world's  commerce  to  the  Atlantic  shore, 
and  resulted  in  the  decay  of  the  free  cities  of 
Franconia  and  Swabia.  Nuremberg,  which  in 
the  16th  century  had  a  population  of  100,000, 
declined  to  a  quarter  of  that  number.  It  still, 
however,  retained  much  of  its  old  industry, 
and  within  the  last  30  years  has  greatly  pros- 
pered. In  1702  the  elector  of  Bavaria  took 
sides  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France  against  Aus- 
tria, England,  and  Holland,  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession.  The  French  and  Bavarian 
forces  were  defeated  at  Blenheim  by  the  duke 
of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  in  1704 ; 
the  elector  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  em- 
pire, and  Bavaria  was  for  ten  years  governed 
by  imperial  commissioners.  In  1742  the  elec- 
tor Charles  Albert  was  chosen  emperor  by  a 
majority  of  the  electors,  and  commenced  hos- 
tilities against  Austria ;  but  the  empress  Maria 
Theresa,  aided  by  England,  defeated  him  and 
seized  the  electorate.  Maximilian  Joseph,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Charles  Albert,  was  re- 
stored to  his  possessions  upon  renouncing  all 
claims  to  the  imperial  dignity.  In  December, 
1777,  the  direct  reigning  line  became  extinct, 
and  the  succession  devolved  upon  a  collateral 
branch,  governing  the  Palatinate.  But  the 
succession  was  claimed  by  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, which  took  military  possession  of  a  part 
of  Bavaria.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia 
supported  the  elector,  and  Austria  resigned  her 
pretensions  upon  receiving  a  small  strip  of  dis- 


puted territory.     In  the  early  part  of  the  wars 
growing  out  of  the  French  revolution  Bavaria 
furnished    her  contingent   of   troops    to    the 
Austrian  army.     In  1796  Moreau  at  the  head 
of  a  French  army  entered  Bavaria  and  took 
possession  of  the  capital ;  a  separate  peace  was 
concluded,  the  elector  withdrew  his  contingent 
from  the  Austrian  army  and  fell  more  and 
more  under  French  influence;  and  when  the 
war  of  1805  broke  out  between  France  and 
Austria,  Bavaria  was  a  firm  ally  of  the  former. 
The  victories  of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz  enabled 
Napoleon  to  dictate  terms  of  peace.     He  re- 
warded his  ally   by  giving  him  considerable 
additional  territory,  and  raising  the  elector  to 
the  royal  dignity  under  the  title  of  Maximilian 
Joseph  I.     The  king,  now  the  leading  member 
of  the  Rhenish  confederation,  took  part  with 
France  in  the  war  against  Prussia,  which  was 
decided  by  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806),  and  at  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  1807,  Bavaria  pained  still  mure 
territory.     In  1809  Austria,  emboldened  by  the 
absence  in  Spain  of  a  great  part  of  the  French 
army,  declared  war  against  France.     The  Ba- 
varian troops  formed  the  main  body  of  the 
army  with  which  Napoleon  won  the  battles 
of  Eckmilhl  and  Wagram,  and  the  king  was 
rewarded  by  still  further  acquisitions  of  terri- 
tory.    The  Bavarian  troops  formed  part  of  tho 
force  with  which   Napoleon  in  1812  invaded 
Russia.     By   this  time  Bavaria,  like   all   the 
other  German  states,  had  become  weary  of  the 
French  domination.     In  1813,  when  Napoleon 
fell   back    from    Leipsic    toward   the   Rhine, 
Maximilian  declared  war  against  him,  and  en- 
deavored to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  French ; 
hut  the  Bavarian  army,  under  "\Vrede,  was  de- 
feated  at  Hanau.       From  this  time   Bavaria 
acted  vigorously  with  the  allies  against  Napo- 
leon, and  by  the  treaties  of  181 4-' 15  was  con- 
firmed   in    most  of  her  acquired   territories; 
receding,  however,  her  possessions  in   Tyrol 
to  Austria,  hut  receiving  equivalents  in  Fran- 
conia and  on  the  Rhine.     "When  the  Germanic 
confederation   was   formed   in   1815,   Bavaria 
occupied  the  third  place.     Louis  I.  ascended 
the  throne  in  1825.    Bavaria  was  little  aft'ected 
by  the  liberal  movements  of  the  next  20  years, 
but   by  1848  general  disaffection  had  arisen, 
which  reached  its  culmination  when  the  king 
fell  under  the  influence  of  Lola  Montez,  find  he 
was  forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son  Maxi- 
milian II.,  whose  reign  lasted  till  1864.     Maxi- 
milian's chief  political  aim  was  to  hold  the 
balance  of  power  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 
The  present  king,  Louis  II.  (born  Aug.  25, 1845), 
succeeded  to  the  throne  March  10,  1864.     Un- 
til recently  he  followed  the  general  policy  of 
his  predecessor.     When  in  18(ifi  the  war  broke 
out  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  Bavaria  took 
part  with   the  latter,  suffered  severe  defeats, 
and  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  separate  peace, 
ceding  to  Prussia  a  small  tract   of  territory, 
213  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of  about  34,000. 
In   1867  Bavaria  joined   the   North   German 
Zollverein.     When  the  emperor  Napoleon  de- 


BAVAY 


BAXTER 


403 


clared  war  against  Prussia  in  ]  870,  ho  counted 
upon  the  aid'or  at  least  the  neutrality  of  the 
southern  states  of  Germany ;  but  Bavaria 
speedily  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with 
North  Germany,  placing  her  whole  military 
force  at  the  disposal  of  the  Prussian  king,  and 
the  Bavarian  corps  bore  a  distinguished  part 
in  the  whole  campaign.  King  Louis  took  the 
initiative  in  the  measures  which  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  German  empire.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  year  he  wrote  to  the  king  of 
Saxony  and  several  other  princes,  urging  the 
consolidation  of  Germany  under  the  king  of 
Prussia  as  emperor.  In  becoming  a  part  of 
the  empire,  January,  1871,  Bavaria  reserved 
some  special  rights  as  to  her  domestic  autono- 
my, the  control  of  her  army,  and  representa- 
tion abroad.  The  opposition  among  the  Cath- 
olic clergy  to  the  decision  of  the  oecumenical 
council  found  in  1870  its  foremost  exponent  in 
Dr.  Dollinger,  now  rector  of  the  university  of 
Munich,  and  Bavaria  has  since  been  the  prin- 
cipal battle  ground  of  Old  Catholicism. 

BAVAY,  or  Baval,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  13  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Valen- 
ciennes; pop.  in  1866,  1,646.  The  town  occu- 
pies the  site  of  the  ancient  Bagacum  or  Baga- 
num,  the  capital  of  the  Nervii  before  the  con- 
quest of  Gaul  by  Caesar,  and  an  important  mil- 
itary post  under  the  Romans  till  the  end  of 
the  4th  century.  The  remains  of  an  aqueduct, 
an  amphitheatre,  and  ruined  fortifications  are 
among  its  many  remarkable  relics  of  the  past ; 
and  it  is  the  point  of  union  of  seven  still  existing 
Roman  roads,  called  the  Chaussees  de  Brune- 
haut.  Its  manufactures  are  glass,  earthen  and 
hardware,  iron  implements,  and  sugar. 

l!A\\m  (Malay,  tabi,  hog;  Javanese,  bavi, 
hog's  abode),  an  island  about  50  m.  N.  of  Java 
and  Madura,  in  lat.  5°  49'  8.,  Ion.  112°  44'  E. ; 
area,  42  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  35,000,  or  more 
than  800  to  the  sq.  m.  The  soil  is  of  volcanic 
formation,  like  that  of  Java,  and  equally  pro- 
ductive, and  yet  the  island  imports  annually 
from  Java  and  Bali  about  2,000  tons  of  rice  for 
the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
chiefly  fishermen  and  traders.  The  inhabitants 
speak  a  Madura  dialect,  and  are  undoubtedly 
descendants  of  colonists  from  that  island.  They 
are  a  simple,  industrious  people,  and  crimes 
against  person  and  property  are  rare.  Their 
chief  exports  are  small  horses  for  Java,  and 
tripang  for  China,  for  which  they  take  in  ex- 
change tools,  unwrought  iron,  and  coarse  do- 
mestic cloths.  The  wild  hog  is  abundant,  but 
not  a  single  carnivorous  animal  is  to  be  found 
except  the  tansgidung,  a  species  of  civet  cat. 
Hot  springs  abound,  and  here  grows  the  valu- 
able teak  tree.  There  is  a  roadstead  in  a  small 
bay  on  its  S.  coast,  near  the  town  of  Sangya- 
pura  (city  of  imagination). 

It  IU  It.  Alexandrine  Sophie  Conry  de  fhampgrand, 
baroness  de,  a  French  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  Stuttgart  in  1773,  died  in  Paris,  Jan. 
1,  1861.  She  received  lessons  in  musical  com- 
position from  Gretry.  She  married  when  still 


young  the  count  de  St.  Simon,  the  founder  of 
the  Saint  Simonian  school.  Her  husband, 
thinking  her  unfit  to  be  the  wife  of  the  first 
man  in  the  world,  sued  for  a  divorce,  which 
was  granted.  Left  to  her  own  resources,  Alex- 
andrine composed  songs  (romances),  and  after- 
ward wrote  plays  under  the  assumed  name  of 
M.  Francois.  In  1800  she  married  the  wealthy 
baron  de  Bawr,  with  whom  she  lived  for  a  few 
months  in  happy  retirement;  but  a  frightful 
accident  carried  him  off  suddenly ;  and  a  little 
later  her  fortune  having  been  lost,  she  wrote 
some  novels  and  plays  which  brought  her  both 
money  and  fame.  Some  of  her  plays  are  still 
occasionally  performed,  and  her  novels,  Le  no- 
tice, Baoul,  ou  Vfineide,  &c.,  were  successful. 

BAXTER,  Andrew,  a  Scottish  metaphysician 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1686  or 
1687,  died  at  Wittingham  in  1750.  He  was  a 
teacher  of  private  pupils,  gentlemen  of  rank, 
with  whom  he  frequently  travelled  on  the  con- 
tinent, spending  some  years  in  Utrecht.  His 
greatest  work  is  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
of  the  Human  Soul,  wherein  its  Immateriality 
is  evinced  from  the  Principles  of  Reason  and 
Philosophy"  (4to,  1730;  3d  and  best  ed.,  2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1745;  appendix,  1750).  In 
this  treatise  some  opinions  are  advanced  which 
were  more  thoroughly  argued  by  Priestley.  In 
a  later  work,  entitled  Matho,  sive  Cosmotheoria 
Puerilis  (2  vols.  8vo  and  12mo),  he  attempted 
to  simplify  questions  of  science,  and  adapt  them 
to  the  capacity  of  children.  He  left  behind 
him  many  unfinished  treatises.  As  a  student 
he  was  indefatigable,  spending  whole  nights  in 
literary  toil. 

BAXTER,  Richard,  an  English  nonconformist 
clergyman  and  theological  writer,  born  at  Row- 
ton,  Shropshire,  Nov.  12,  1615,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  8,  1691.  His  early  bias  was  toward 
religious  meditation  and  exercises  of  piety; 
and  this  bias  was  confirmed  by  his  research  in 
the  library  of  Mr.  Wickstead,  chaplain  of  the 
Ludlow  council.  A  brief  trial  of  life  at  court 
confirmed  him  in  his  determination  to  become 
a  preacher ;  and  after  a  short  interval  of  teach- 
ing, during  which  his  preparatory  studies  were 
diligently  prosecuted,  he  was  ordained  at  Dud- 
ley, at  the  age  of  23.  Two  years  later  he  be- 
came the  minister  of  the  important  town  of 
Kidderminster,  where  he  was  held  in  high  es- 
teem, notwithstanding  his  refusal  to  take  the 
ecclesiastical  oath.  In  the  civil  wars  which 
soon  after  broke  out,  he  took  sides  with  the 
parliament,  was  chaplain  in  Whalley's  regi- 
ment, and  led  for  some  years  an  unsettled  life. 
He  had  no  sympathy  with  the  assumption  of 
supreme  power  by  Cromwell,  and  advocated 
the  return  of  Charles  II.  to  his  father's  throne. 
In  return  for  his  services  to  the  cause  of  legiti- 
macy, he  was  made  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the 
restored  monarch,  and  was  offered  a  bishopric, 
which  his  conscientious  scruples  about  con- 
formity compelled  him  to  decline.  His  favor 
with  the  king,  however,  could  not  shield  him 
from  persecution.  He  was  prohibited  from 


404 


BAXTER 


preaching,  accusations  of  heresy  were  multi- 

Elied  against  him,  and  after  numerous  arrests 
e  was  brought  at  latt,  at  the  age  of  70,  before 
the  tribunal  of  Judge  Jeffreys,  on  charges  of 
sedition  and  hostility  to  the  episcopacy,  found- 
ed on  passages  in  his  ''  Paraphrase  on  the  New 
Testament."  In  the  trial  Jeffreys  was  a  pros- 
ecutor as  well  as  judge,  abusing  the  prisoner, 
insulting  his  counsel,  and  imposing  a  fine  of 
500  marks,  the  defendant  to  lie  in  prison  till 
the  fine  was  paid,  and  to  be  bound  to  good 
behavior  for  seven  years.  Unable  to  pay  the 
fine,  he  was  committed  to  the  king's  bench 
prison,  where  he  was  confined  18  months,  when 
liis  fine  was  remitted,  and  he  was  pardoned 
through  the  mediation  of  Lord  Powis.  Baxter, 
though  a  royalist  in  his  principles  and  the  ad- 
vocate of  an  established  church,  was  yet  in  his 
tastes  and  temper  sternly  puritan.  He  was  a 
foe  to  all  dissoluteness  of  life,  to  all  arbitrary 
measures,  to  every  kind  of  tyranny  and  oppres- 
sion. His  opposition  to  absolute  power  was 
uncompromising,  and  neither  fear  nor  favor 
could  bring  him  to  yield  it.  He  was  a  media- 
tor among  the  sects;  yet  his  views  were  so 
sharp  and  positive  that  he  became,  in  spite  of 
his  desire,  the  founder  of  a  school  of  theology 
which  still  continues  to  bear  his  name.  Bax- 
ter's love  for  theological  subtleties,  not  less 
than  his  restless  promptness  in  taking  hold 
of  every  subject  of  religious  concern,  involved 
him  in  perpetual  controversy.  He  had  many 
and  noble  friends,  hut  he  made  a  multitude  of 
enemies  both  in  church  and  state.  His  works, 
in  every  form,  from  bulky  folios  to  pamphlets, 
number  not  less  than  168  titles.  Most  of  them 
are  written  in  English;  yet  the  Methodut 
Theologia,  issued  in  1674,  showed  a  fair  mas- 
tery of  the  Latin  tongue.  His  treatises  on 
"Universal  Concord"  and  "Catholic  Theol- 
ogy "  failed  to  produce  that  harmony  among 
sects  which  was  the  purpose  of  their  publica- 
tion. Baxter  was  a  fearless  metaphysician ; 
yet  that  he  was  credulous  of  strange  tales,  and 
ready  to  believe  marvels,  is  shown  in  his  trea- 
tise "  Certainty  of  the  World  of  Spirits."  The 
three  works  by  which  Baxter  is  best  known 
are  his  "Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,"  his  "Call 
to  the  Unconverted,"  and  his  autobiography, 
published  five  years  after  his  death  ("  Reliquiw 
Haxteriance :  A  Narrative  of  his  Life  and 
Times,"  folio,  169H;  edited  by  Dr.  Calamy,  4 
vols.  8vo,  1713).  The  first  two  of  these  works 
have  a  popularity  which  remains  still  undi- 
minished.  Doctrinally,  these  celebrated  works 
are  more  liberal  than  his  treatises  of  divinity. 
His  works  have  been  collected  in  23  vols.  8vo, 
and  his  "  Practical  Works  "  in  4  vols.,  the  lat- 
ter many  times  reprinted. 

BAXTER,  William,  an  English  philologist  and 
archaeologist,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Llanllugan,  Montgomeryshire,  in  1650,  died 
in  London,  May  31,  1723.  He  had  few  advan- 
tages of  instruction  in  his  youth  ;  and  until  the 
age  of  18,  when  he  entered  the  Harrow  school, 
he  knew  not  a  single  letter  and  no  language 


BAYADEER 

but  his  native  Welsh.  In  a  few  years,  how- 
ever, he  was  noted  for  his  accurate  knowledge, 
not  only  of  the  ancient  dialects  of  Britain,  but 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  While  a 
schoolmaster  in  a  private  school  at  Tottenham, 
in  Middlesex,  and  afterward  in  the  Mercers' 
school  in  London,  ho  published  most  of  his 
works.  These  consist  of  a  Latin  grammar, 
(1679),  two  editions  of  Anacreon  (1695  and 
1710),  two  editions  of  Horace  (1701  and  1725), 
and  Glossurium  Antiquitatum  Britannicarmn 
(1719;  new  ed.,  1733).  After  his  death  was 
published  the  letter  A  of  a  glossary  of  Roman 
antiquities,  under  the  title  of  Reliquiae  Bax- 
teriance,  site  Guilielmi  Baxteri  Opera  post- 
huma  (8vo,  London,  1726;  new  ed.,  Gloaa- 
riwm  Antiquitatum  Somanarum,  1731). 

BAY,  an  E.  central  county  of  Michigan,  on 
Saginaw  bay,  watered  by  Rifle  river  and  nu- 
merous other  streams ;  area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  15,900.  The  Flint  and  Pere  Mar- 
quette  railroad  extends  to  Bay  City,  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  the  county,  which  is  also  traversed 
by  the  Jackson,  Lansing,  and  Saginaw  rail- 
road. Lumber  forms  the  principal  industrial 
interest  of  the  county.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  9,398  bushels  of  wheat,  1,799  of 
rye,  8,458  of  Indian  corn,  10,008  of  oats,  20,505 
of  potatoes,  and  3,538  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  478  horses,  700  milch  cows,  742  other 
cattle,  and  453  swine.  Capital,  Bay  City. 

BAYADEER  (Port,  lailadeira,  a  dancing  wo- 
man), a  professional  dancing  and  singing  girl  of 
India.  The  bayadeers,  more  commonly  called 
nautchnees,  or  nautch  girls,  are  recruited  from 
almost  every  condition  in  life,  but  the  better 
class  are  generally  from  the  families  of  mer- 
chants and  laborers.  They  are  chosen  for 
beauty,  apprenticed  to  dhyas,  themselves  su- 
perannuated nautchnees,  and  subjected  to  a 
course  of  severe  physical  training,  by  which 
they  acquire  great  suppleness  and  quickness  of 
motion,  and  graceful  carriage.  They  are  also 
taught  singing  and  various  arts  of  adornment. 
The  kite  dance,  in  which  the  bayadeer  assumes 
the  various  postures  of  one  flying  a  kite,  is 
among  the  most  famous  and  popular  of  her 
performances.  If,  as  is  frequently  the  case, 
the  nautchnee  has  been  devoted  to  the  service 
of  the  gods  from  her  infancy,  she  enters  a  tem- 
ple and  becomes  a  devadasee  or  slave  of  the 
gods,  taking  rank  according  to  the  caste  of  her 
family,  the  importance  of  the  divinity,  and  the 
endowment  of  the  temple ;  here  she  assists  at 
the  formal  services  of  the  shrine,  celebrates  in 
songs,  generally  licentious,  the  deeds  of  the 
god  or  goddess,  dances  before  the  image,  decks 
it  with  flowers,  and  attends  it  with  dances  and 
songs  when  it  is  carried  abroad  in  procession. 
Devadasees  are  excluded  from  ceremonies  of 
peculiar  solemnity,  such  as  funeral  sacrifices' 
and  suttees.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to  the 
sisterhood  of  devadasees  the  nautchnee  must 
be  under  the  marriageable  age,  and  free  from 
physical  defect.  If"  of  a  high  caste,  she  is 
confined  to  the  inner  temple,  and  as  long  as 


BAYADEEE 


BAYARD 


405 


her  charms  survive  she  serves  the  passions  of 
the  Brahmans.  Jf  she  has  children,  the  girls 
are  educated  to  bo  nautchnees  and  the  boys 
musicians.  The  devadasees  of  the  Soodra  caste 
rank  lower,  but  enjoy  more  freedom ;  when 
not  on  duty  in  the  temples  they  are  at  liber- 
ty to  go  abroad,  and  their  earnings  are  their 
own.  They  attend,  when  sent  for,  at  the 
houses  of  the  noble  and  the  wealthy,  to  assist 
with  their  songs  and  dances  at  weddings  and 
other  feasts.  The  devadasees  receive  stated 
•wages  in  money  and  rice.  The  inferior  class 
add  to  these  resources  the  fruits  of  an  infamous 
profession.  Every  temple  entertains  a  troop 
of  8,  12,  or  even  more  devadasees.  Sometimes 
the  nautchnee  becomes  a  kunchenee,  a  doomin- 
ca,  or  a  bazeegharnee,  terras  for  the  different 


Bayadeer. 

sorts  of  dancing  girls  who  wander  through  the 
country  in  troops  of  10  or  12  to  entertain 
strangers  with  music  and  dancing.  These  at- 
tend at  chooltrees  or  inns,  or  at  the  garden 
houses  of  wealthy  Hindoos;  and  in  all  the 
large  cities  of  Hindostan  there  are  sets  of  these 
nautchnees  under  the  management  of  dliyas, 
ready  to  be  hired  for  religious  or  other  pur- 
poses. The  nautch  girls  form  a  distinct  body 
in  Hindoo  society,  living  under  the  protec- 
tion of  government  and  regulated  by  the  pe- 
culiar rules  of  their  order.  Their  costume 
is  cumbrous,  cf  rich  material,  gayly  colored, 
and  consists  of  a  pair  of  embroidered  trou- 
sers, a  petticoat  containing  at  least  twelve 
breadths,  gold  or  silver  fringed,  and  a  coortee 
or  vest,  half  hidden  by  an  immense  veil  which 
crosses  the  bosom  several  times,  hanging  down 
in  front,  and  at  the  back  in  broad  ends.  The 
hands,  arms,  neck,  legs,  toes,  feet,  ears,  and 
nose  are  decked  with  gold  and  jewels,  and  the 
hair  is  braided  with  silver  ribbons  and  confined 


with  bodkins  of  beautiful  workmanship.  The 
dance  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  pantomime,  ex- 
plained with  music,  in  which  commonly  the 
old  story  of  love  and  its  troubles  is  related. 

I'.  IVU.Oi  Us,  an  Indian  tribe,  of  Choctaw 
affinity,  on  the  Mississippi,  who  with  the  Mon- 
goulachas  were  also  known  by  the  name  of 
Quinipissas.  They  are  noticed  by  early  writers 
for  their  strange  temple  in  which  divine  honors 
were  paid  to  the  opossum.  They  were  friendly 
to  the  French,  and  the  missionary  Limoges 
labored  among  them,  but  without  fruit,  as  they 
seem  to  have  been  cruel  and  treacherous. 
Tonti  in  1685,  looking  for  La  Salle,  left  a  letter 
for  him  at  the  village  of  this  tribe,  where  Iber- 
ville  found  it  in  1699.  Before  the  Natchez  war 
they  had  merged  in  other  tribes. 

BAYAMO,  an  inland  town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
Eastern  department,  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name,  situated  in  a  plain  on  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  river  Cauto,  96  in.  S.  E.  of  Puerto 
Principe;  pop.  previous  to  the  civil  war,  which 
commenced  in  1868,  about  18,000.  It  is  in  the 
main  badly  built.  It  has  a  trade  through  the 
Cauto  with  the  ports  of  Manzanillo  on  the  south- 
west and  Holguin  on  the  northeast.  The  chief 
productions  of  the  district  are  horses  and  horned 
cattle,  which  are  largely  raised. 

BAYARD.  I.  James  Asheton,  an  American  law- 
yer and  statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July 
28,  1767,  died  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  Aug.  6, 
1815.  His  ancestor,  Nicholas  Bayard,  a  French 
Huguenot,  arrived  in  this  country  in  1647  in 
company  with  his  brother-in-law  Peter  Stuy- 
vesant,  the  last  Dutch  governor  of  New  York. 
James  Bayard  was  educated  at  Princeton  col- 
lege, studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  began  prac- 
tice in  Delaware,  and  in  1796  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a  supporter  of  the  federal  adminis- 
tration. In  1801  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Adams  minister  to  France,  but  declined. 
He  was  a  leader  in  the  policy  which  resulted 
in  the  election  of  Mr.  Jefferson  as  president  by 
the  house  in  1801,  and  in  1804  was  chosen 
United  States  senator  as  successor  of  his  father- 
in-law  Gov.  Bassett,  and  remained  there  until 
selected  by  Mr.  Madison  as  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  negotiating  the  treaty  of  Ghent  in 
1813.  He  took  a  prominent  share  in  the  ne- 
gotiations, and  after  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  was  appointed  envoy  to  Russia,  but  re- 
fused tin'  appointment.  II.  Richard  Bassett,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Wilmington,  Del., 
in  1796,  died  in  Philadelphia,  March  4,  1868. 
He  waa  United  States  senator  from  1836  to  1839, 
and  again  from  1841  to  1845.  HI.  James  Ashe- 
ton, brother  of  the  preceding,  was  elected  sen- 
ator from  Delaware  in  1851,  1857,  1863,  and 
1869.  He  was  an  able  lawyer,  and  for  several 
years  was  chairman  of  the  judiciary  commit- 
tee. He  resigned  owing  to  ill  health  in  1869. 
IV.  Thomas  Francis,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Wilmington,  Oct.  29.  1828,  succeeded  his 
father  as  senator  from  Delaware  in  1869. 

BAYARD,  Jean  Franeols  Alfred,  a  French  dra- 
matist, born  in  Charolles,  department  of  Sa6ue- 


406 


BAYAED 


et-Loire,  March  17,  1T9G,  died  Feb.  20,  1853. 
In  1821  he  wrote  Une  promenade  '&  Vaucluse, 
which  was  successfully  performed  at  the  vau- 
deville theatre.  It  was  followed  by  La  reitie 
de  seize  am,  brought  out  at  the  Gymnase,  and 
received  with  great  favor.  Bayard  united  his 
labors  in  many  instances  to  those  of  M61esville, 
Carmouche,  Dumanoir,  and  Scribe,  whose  niece 
he  married  in  1827.  He  was  the  author  of 
over  200  plays.  A  complete  edition  of  bis 
works,  in  8  vols.,  containing  a  memoir  written 
by  Scribe,  was  brought  out  at  Paris  in  1856. 

BAYARD,   Pierre  dn  Terrell,   chevalier  de,  a 
French  knight,  born  at  the  chateau  de  Bayard, 
in  Dauphiny,  in  1475,  died  in  Italy,  April  80, 
1524.    He  came  of  a  martial  family :  his  great- 
great-grandfather  was  killed  at  Poitiers,  his 
great-grandfather  at  Cr6cy,  his  grandfather  at 
Montlh6ry,  and  his  father  received  many  wounds 
in  the  wars  of  Louis  XI.     As  page  to  the  duke 
of  Savoy  and  in  the  household  of  Paul  of  Lux- 
emburg, count   de  Ligny,  he  received  while 
young  his  education  in  horsemanship,  feats  of 
arms,  and  rules  of  chivalry.     At  the  age  of  18 
he  entered  the  service  of  Charles  VIII.  and 
accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  to  Naples  in 
1494-'o,  during  which  he  distinguished  himself 
by  capturing  a  stand  of  colors  in  the  battle  of 
Fornovo.     In  the  Italian  wars  of  Louis  XII.  he 
displayed  great  courage,  especially  at  the  siege 
of  Milan  (1499),  where  in  the  eagerness  of  pur- 
suit he  was  carried  by  the  press  of  fugitives  in- 
side the  gates,  but  was  liberated  with  horse  and 
armor,  without  ransom,  by  Ludovico  Sforza. 
On  one  occasion  he  alone  defended  a  bridge  over 
the  Garigliano  against  200  Spaniards  until  the 
French  army  had  effected  its  retreat.     He  was 
wounded  in  the  assault  of  Brescia,  and  carried 
to  a  house  in  the  town,  where  in  his  disabled 
condition  he  defended  the  ladies  of  the  house- 
hold against  the  brutality  of  the  soldiery.     For 
this  service  his  hostess  prevailed  upon  him  to 
accept  2,000  pistoles,  which  he  at  once  bestow- 
ed upon  her  two  daughters  as  marriage  por- 
tions.    In  the    war   with    the   English    king 
Henry  VIII.  at  Terouanne  and  Tournay,  Bay- 
ard struggled  bravely  to  sustain  the  failing  for- 
tunes of  Louis  XII.     In  the  "battle  of  the 
spurs"  at  Guinegate,  Aug.  16,  1513,  he  with 
14  men-at-arms  held  the  English  army  in  check, 
while  the  French,  who  were  retreating  panic- 
stricken,   reassembled.     Bayard   with   an  ad- 
vance force  preceded  Francis  I.  on  his  expedi- 
tion into  Italy  to  regain  Milan  and  other  con- 
quests of  his  predecessors ;  he  captured  Pros- 
pero  Colonna,  who  had  formed  an  ambush  for 
the  French,   and  on  Sept.  13  and  14,   1515, 
gained  the  battle  of  Marignano,  during  which 
he  performed  such  feats  of  valor  that  at  the 
close  of  the  contest  Francis  asked  to  be  knight- 
ed by  his  hands.     In  1522,  with  a  force  of 
1,000  men,  he  defended  the  unfortified  frontier 
town  of  Mezieres  for  six  weeks  against  the  in- 
vading army  of  the  count  of  Nassau,  which 
numbered  35.000  and  was  aided  by  strong  ar- 
tillery.    For  this  service  Bayard  received  the 


BAYBEREY 

collar  of  St.  Michael,  and  was  made  a  com- 
mander of  100  men-at-arms — a  position  until 
tnen  never  held  except  by  princes  of  the  blood 
royal.  In  1524  he  was  summoned  from  Dan- 
phiny,  over  which  he  had  been  made  lieutenant 
general,  and  given  a  subordinate  command  in 
the  army  of  Bonnivet,  which  Francis  I.  sent 
into  Italy  to  act  against  the  constable  de 
Bourbon.  Bonnivet  was  obliged  to  retreat, 
and  being  wounded  committed  the  army  to 
Bayard,  who  succeeded  for  a  while  in  checking 
the  enemy.  While  fighting  in  a  ravine  near 
the  banks  of  the  Sesia  he  was  struck  by  a 
stone  from  an  arquebuse,  taken  from  his  horse, 
and  at  his  own  request  left  seated  against  a 
tree  with  his  face  to  the  advancing  enemy, 
among  whom  he  died  after  having,  confessed 
his  sins  to  his  squire.  With  his  fall  the  battle 
ended;  the  French  lost  standards,  ordnance, 
and  baggage,  and  their  retreat  became  a  disor- 
derly flight.  Bayard  was  the  last,  as  he  was 
the  best,  example  of  the  institution  of  knight 
errantry.  He  lived  at  a  time  when  the  strict 
laws  of  chivalry  were  becoming  greatly  relaxed, 
and  when  knights  were  assuming  the  vices  as 
well  as  the  profession  of  mere  soldiers  of  for- 
tune. For  this  reason  his  loyalty,  purity,  and 
scrupulous  honor  gained  for  him  the  more 
universal  admiration,  and  the  titles  of  "the 
good  knight "  and  the  chevalier  sans  peur  et 
sans  reprocht.  According  to  original  signa- 
tures of  his  preserved  in  the  national  library, 
Paris,  the  name  should  be  spelled  Bayart. 

BAYBERRY,  or  Wax  Myrtle  (myrica  cerifera, 
Linn.),  a  low,  crooked  shrub,  3  to  8  feet  high, 
growing  in  extensive  patches  or  in  thick  clus- 
ters on  every  variety  of  soil,  usually  near  the 
seacoast,  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
bayberry  is  typical  of  the  natural  order  myri- 
cacea  of  Lindley,  related  to  the  birches,  but 
distinguished  chiefly  by  the  1 -celled  ovary, 
with  a  single  erect,  straight  ovule,  and  the 
drupe-like  nut.  This  order  embraces  three  or 
four  genera,  shrubs  or  small  trees  covered  with 
resinous  dots  and  glands,  and  alternate,  simple 
leaves,  with  or  without  stipules,  indigenous  to 
North  and  South  America,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  India.  Their  flowers  are  dioecious, 
amentacions,  naked ;  the  stamens  2  to  8,  gen- 
erally in  the  axil  of  a  scaly  bract ;  anthers  2  to 
4-celled,  opening  lengthwise ;  ovary  1-cellecl, 
ovule  solitary ;  stigmas  2,  subulate  or  else  pe- 
taloid  ;  fruit  drupaceous ;  seeds  solitary,  erect, 
the  embryo  exalbuminous.  The  bayberry  has 
an  irregular,  crooked,  seldom  erect  stem,  which 
gives  off  rough  branches  in  clusters ;  the  bark 
brownish  gray,  sprinkled  with  round  or  oblong 
white  dots ;  the  leaves  irregularly  scattered, 
often  in  tufts,  nearly  sessile,  obovate  lance- 
shaped,  abruptly  pointed,  cuneate  at  base, 
wavy,  slightly  serrate  and  revolute  at  the  edge, 
yellowish  beneath.  The  flowers  appear  in 
April  and  May,  the  barren  ones  in  short,  stiff, 
erect  catkins,  having  loose,  rhomboidal  scales 
containing  each  3  or  4  stamens;  the  fertile 
flowers  are  much  smaller  and  occur  on  a  dif- 


BAY  CITY 


BAYEUX  TAPESTRY 


407 


ferent  plant,  the  scales  imbricated,  oval,  point- 
ed, each  containing  an  ovary  with  2  subulate 
stigmas.  The  fertile  ament  ripens  into  a  branch 
of  4  to  9  dry  berries,  which  are  covered  with 
rounded  waxy  particles,  giving  out,  as  well  as 


Bayberry  (Myrica  cerifera). 

the  entire  plant,  a  fragrant  and  balsamic  odor. 
This  .species  is  especially  prized  for  its  wax 
(see  WAX),  but  seems  to  be  held  in  more  esteem 
in  Europe  than  in  America;  and  in  certain 
parts  of  France  it  has  become  perfectly  accli- 
mated.— Other  species  of  myrica  are  known 
as  the  fragrant  gales,  of  which  a  familiar  exam- 
ple is  M.  gale  (Linn.),  a  dark-colored  bush  2 
to  5  feet  high,  having  wedge  or  lance-shaped, 
scarcely  serrated,  fragrant  leaves,  and  stiff 
brown-scaled  aments  appearing  in  April,  and 
found  in  inundated  places.  A  southern  species, 
(M.  inodora,  Bartram),  a  shrub  with  whitish 
bark  and  perennial,  coriaceous,  oblong,  obtuse, 
entire  leaves,  sparingly  dotted,  is  found  on  the 
margin  of  swamps  near  the  seacoast  of  Florida. 
The  sweet  fern  (  Comptonia  atplenifolia,  Aiton), 
a  very  common  plant  in  old  and  neglected  pas- 
tures throughout  the  United  States,  also  belongs 
to  the  order  myricacece. — The  medicinal  quali- 
ties of  the  order  are  astringent  and  tonic,  as  in 
the  sweet  fern,  which  is  employed  in  diarrhoea, 
while  in  its  aromatic  bark  reside  both  benzoic 
and  tannic  acids  combined  with  a  resinous  mat- 
ter. The  roots  of  the  bayberry  are  reputed 
emetic  and  drastic.  The  sweet  gale  has  been 
used  as  a  vermifuge,  and  its  leaves  employed 
in  brewing;  it  affords  a  yellow  dye,  and  its 
stems  and  branches  are  used  in  tanning. 

BAY  CITY,  a  city  of  Michigan,  capital  of  Bay 
county,  on  the  E.  side  of  Saginaw  river,  near 
its  mouth  in  Saginaw  bay,  a  part  of  Lake 
Huron;  pop.  in  1860,  1,583;  in  1870,  7,064. 
The  city  has  9  churches,  of  which  2  are  Ger- 
man, 6  school  houses,  2  large  hotels,  and  1 
daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Within  its 
limits  are  16  saw  mills,  which  produce  daily 


about  1,000,000  ft.  of  lumber.  Most  of  these 
have  salt  wells  and  salt  factories  attached  to 
them,  which  produce  annually  from  80,000  to 
100,000  barrels  of  salt.  The  annual  export  of 
lake  fish,  white  fish,  trout,  pike,  and  herring  is 
from  50,000  to  60,000  barrels.  There  is  also  a 
large  manufactory  of  gas  and  water  pipes,  and 
one  of  buckets.  Six  lines  of  passe'nger  steam- 
boats and  more  than  1,000  vessels  touch  at  the 
port ;  and  there  is  railroad  communication  with 
Detroit,  Jackson,  and  Chicago.  Bay  City  was 
first  settled  in  1836,  was  incorporated  as  a  vil- 
lage in  1859,  and  as  a  city  in  1865. 

BAYER,  Johann,  a  German  astronomer,  born 
in  Bavaria  about  1572,  died  in  Augsburg 
about  1660.  He  was  a  Protestant  preacher, 
so  distinguished  for  ability  that  he  was  called 
Os  Protestantivm.  His  principal  work  is 
Uranotnetria  (fol.,  Augsburg,  1603),  afterward 
enlarged  under  the  title  of  Codum  Stellatum 
Christianum  (1627;  new  ed.,  Dim,  1723), 
with  an  astronomical  atlas  of  51  plates,  in 
which  the  stars  of  each  constellation  were  for 
the  first  time  designated  by  the  first  letters  of 
the  Greek  alphabet. — His  grandson,  GOTTLIEB 
SIEGFRIED  (born  in  1694,  died  in  1738),  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Eoman  antiquities  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  author  of  Museum  Sinicum, 
containing  a  Chinese  grammar,  &c.,  and  of  vari- 
ous other  philological  and  archseological  works. 

BAYEUX  (anc.  Sajocai,  or  Civitas  Bajocas- 
sium),  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Calvados,  on  the  river  Aure,  5  m. 
from  the  sea,  and  15  m.  N.  W.  of  Caen;  pop. 
in  1866,  9,138.  It  has  a  commercial  college,  a 
public  library,  a  Gothic  cathedral,  extensive 
manufactories  of  lace,  damasks,  calico,  serges, 
cotton  yarn,,  a  large  porcelain  factory,  paper 
mills,  many  tanneries,  and  dyeing  and  printing 
establishments,  and  an  important  trade  in  but- 
ter. During  the  wars  between  the  dukes  of 
Normandy  and  the  kings  of  England  with  the 
kings  of  France,  it  often  changed  masters.  It 
was  captured  by  Henry  I.  in  1106,  by  Philip 
of  Navarre  in  1356,  and  finally  retaken  from 
the  English  by  Dunois  in  1450.  During  the 
religious  wars  it  was  alternately  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Huguenots  and  the  league. 

BAYEl'X  TAPESTRY,  a  piece  of  pictorial  needle- 
work, supposed  .to  have  been  done  by  Matilda, 
wife  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  the  ladies 
of  her  court,  representing  the  events  connected 
with  the  conquest  of  England.  It  is  worked 
like  a  sampler  in  woollen  thread  of  different 
colors,  is  20  inches  wide  and  214  feet  long,  and 
has  72  divisions,  each  with  a  Latin  inscription 
designating  its  subject.  It  is  of  great  historical 
value,  since  it  not  only  exhibits  with  minute- 
ness Norman  customs  and  manners  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest,  but  pictures  events  of  which 
no  other  record  exists — among  others,  the  siege 
of  Dinan  and  the  war  between  the  duke  of 
Normandy  and  Conan,  earl  of  Brittany.  It  re- 
mained in  the  cathedral  of  Buyeux,  in  Nor- 
mandy, for  which  it  was  probably  wrought,  till 
1803,  when  by  order  of  Napoleon  it  was  taken 


408 


BAYFIELD 


to  Paris,  where  it  was  exhibited  at  the  national 
museum,  and  thence  to  other  large  towns  in 
France.  It  was  then  deposited  in  the  town 
hall  of  Bayeux,  where  it  now  remains,  pre- 
served under  glass  in  the  public  library. 

BITFIELD,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin,  on 
Lake  Superior,  including  a  number  of  islands 
in  the  lake ;  area,  about  1,450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  344.  Capital,  Bayfield. 

BAYLE,  Pierre,  a  French  philosophical  wri- 
ter, born  at  Carla,  in  the  county  of  Foix,  Nov. 
18,  1647,  died  in  Holland,  Dec.  28,  1706.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Protestant  clergyman,  and 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Puylaurens 
and  by  the  Jesuits  of  Toulouse,  under  whose 
influence  he  renounced  Protestantism ;  but  he 
soon  recanted,  and  to  avoid  persecution  took 
refuge  in  Geneva,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  He  wished 
to  devote  himself  to  science  ;  but  being  poor, 
he  served  as  a  tutor  in  several  families.  Re- 
turning to  France,  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  Protestant  university  at 
Sedan  in  1675.  There  he  wrote  an  anonymous 
pamphlet  in  defence  of  the  duke  of  Luxem- 
burg, who  was  charged  before  a  high  court  of 
councillors  of  state  with  having  made  a  com- 
pact and  holding  regular  intercourse  with'  the 
devil ;  and  soon  afterward  published  his  Cogi- 
tationea  rationales  de  Deo,  Anima  et  Malo,  in 
opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Poiret.  In  1681 
the  university  of  Sedan  was  suppressed  by 
Louis  XIV.,  and  Bayle  with  the  other  profes- 
sors removed  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  contin- 
ued his  professorship.  His  Pensees  sur  la  co- 
mete,  published  there  in  1682,  to  allay  the  fears 
revived  among  the  people  on  the  appear- 
ance of  the  comet  of  1680,  was  prohibited  in 
France  by  the  police,  but  eagerly  read.  His 
pamphlet  in  reply  to  the  Histoire  du  Cahi- 
nisme  of  the  Jesuit  Maimbourg  was  also  very 
successful,  and  was  ordered  to  be  publicly 
burned  by  the  executioner.  In  1684  Bayle 
commenced  a  literary  journal,  under  the  title 
of  Nowvelles  de  la  republique  des  lettres,  which 
was  popular,  but  led  to  many  quarrels.  On  the 
occasion  of  the  severe  measures  of  Louis  XIV. 
against  the  Protestants,  he  wrote  a  plea  for  tol- 
eration entitled  Commentaire  philosophique  sur 
lea  paroles  de  P fivangile :  "  Contrain»-les  d'en- 
trer."  For  this  Jurieu,  the  jealous  author  of  a 
rival  and  unsuccessful  answer  to  Maimbourg, 
denounced  him  as  indifferent  to  religion,  in  fact 
almost  an  infidel,  and  finally  had  him  dismissed 
from  his  professorship,  deprived  of  his  pension, 
and  at  last  in  1693  forbidden  by  the  common 
council  of  Rotterdam  to  teach  either  publicly  or 
privately.  Bayle  then  began  his  famous  and 
long  projected  Dictionnaire  hutorique  et  cri- 
tique, in  which  he  intended  to  point  out  the  er- 
rors and  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  most  im- 
portant publications  of  the  same  kind.  In  1 696 
the  first  edition  appeared  (2  vols.  folio,  Rotter- 
dam), and  had  at  once  an  immense  success. 
His  enemies,  however,  arraigned  him  before 
the  consistory  of  the  Walloon  church,  who  or- 


BAYLEY 

dered  him  to  make  many  corrections  and  alter- 
ations in  various  important  articles.  The  con- 
troversy in  this  matter  occupied  much  of  his 
time,  and  prevented  him  from  improving  as 
completely  as  he  wished  the  work  to  which  he 
had  devoted  his  life.  Bayle  has  been  called 
the  Montaigne  of  the  17th  century;  but,  with 
a  similar  tendency  to  skepticism  and  greater 
earnestness,  he  lacks  the  ease  and  grace  of  that 
writer.  He  published  the  second  edition  of  his 
Dictionnaire  in  1702,  but  the  most  valuable 
editions  are  those  of  1740,  at  Basel  and 'Am- 
sterdam, both  in  4  vols.  folio.  The  English 
edition  by  Thomas  Birch  and  Lockman  (10  vols. 
folio,  London,  1734-'41),  contains  many  addi- 
tions. The  most  recent  is  that  of  Beuchot 
(16  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1820). 

BAYLEN,  or  Ballen,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  22  m.  N.  of  Jaen;  pop.  about 
7,900.  It  commands  the  road  from  Castile  into 
Andalusia.  In  the  peninsular  war  the  French 
general  Dupont,  while  attempting  to  cross  the 
Sierra  at  this  point,  was  surrounded  by  the 
Spaniards  and  surrendered  to  Castafios,  July 
20, 1808,  with  about  18,000  troops. 

BAYLEY,  James  Roosevelt,  an  American  arch- 
bishop, grandson  of  Richard  Bayley,  M.  D., 
born  in  New  York,  Aug.  23,  1814.  He  is  a 
graduate  of  Washington  (now  Trinity)  college, 
Hartford,  and  was  for  some  time  tutor  there. 
He  studied  theology  with  Dr.  Samuel  Farmer 
Jarvis  of  Middletown,  Conn.,  was  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
and  preached  at  Harlem,  N.  Y.,  and  afterward 
at  Hagerstown,  Md.  He  then  joined  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  prepared  himself  for  the 
priesthood  at  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris,  and  was  or- 
dained in  New  York,  March  2,  1842,  by  Bishop 
Hughes.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  St.  John's  college,  Fordham,  N.  Y., 
of  which  he  was  president  in  1845-'6,  and  from 
1846  to  1853  was  secretary  to  Archbishop 
Hughes.  On  Oct.  30, 1853,  he  was  consecrated 
first  bishop  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  which  under  his 
administration  became  one  of  the  most  prosper- 
ous dioceses  in  the  United  States.  He  founded 
Seton  Hall  college  and  numerous  schools,  acad- 
emies, convents,  and  churches.  On  July  30, 
1872,  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Balti- 
more. He  has  published  a  "  Sketch  of  the  His- 
tory of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  Island  of 
New  York"  (New  York,  1853;  revised  ed., 
1869);  "Memoirs  of  Simon  Gabriel  Brute,  first 
Bishop  of  Vincennes"  (1860);  and  "Pastorals 
for  the  People." 

BAYLEY',  Richard,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Fairfield,  Conn.,  in  1745,  died  Aug.  17, 
1801.  He  studied  in  the  hospitals  of  London, 
and  in  1772  returned  to  New  York  and  com- 
menced practice,  becoming  especially  distin- 
guished in  the  treatment  of  croup.  In  1775 
he  revisited  England,  but  in  the  spring  of  1776 
returned  to  New  York  as  staff  surgeon  to  Sir 
Guy  Carleton.  He  resigned  his  commission 
in  the  army  the  next  year  and  resumed  prac- 


BAYLOR 


BAYONNE 


409 


tice  in  New  York.  His  letters  to  Dr.  Hunter 
upon  the  croup  were  published  in  1781.  In 
1787  he  gave  lectures  upon  surgery.  The  next 
year  his  collection  of  specimens  of  morbid  anat- 
omy was  totally  destroyed  by  the  "doctors' 
mob."  In  1792  he  was  professor  of  anatomy 
in  Columbia  college,  and  afterward  of  surgery. 
He  was  the  first  health  officer  of  New  York, 
and  in  1797  published  an  essay,  and  afterward 
a  series  of  letters,  on  the  yellow  fever  then  pre- 
vailing, attributing  it  entirely  to  local  causes, 
and  repudiating  the  theory  of  contagion.  He 
exerted  himself  to  obtain  the  passage  of  proper 
quarantine  laws,  in  which  he  was  finally  suc- 
cessful. He  died  of  ship  fever  contracted  in 
the  discharge  of  his  official  duties.  His  daugh- 
ter, Mrs.  Seton,  founded  the  Sisterhood  of 
Charity  in  the  United  States.  (See  SETON, 
ELIZA  ANN.) 

BAY  LOR,  an  unsettled  N.  W.  county  of  Texas, 
watered  by  the  Big  Wichita,  the  main  or  Salt 
fork  of  the  Brazos  river,  and  Antelope  creek ; 
area,  900  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  mostly  high, 
broken,  and  rocky ;  between  the  Brazos  and 
Big  Wichita  it  is  mountainous.  The  bottom 
lands  of  the  Brazos  are  rich. 

BAYLY,  Thomas  Haynes,  an  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  near  Bath,  Oct.  13,  1797,  died 
April  22,  1839.  For  a  time  he  was  a  student 
at  Oxford,  with  the  intention  of  taking  holy 
orders ;  but  inheriting  a  fortune  from  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  an  eminent  solicitor,  he  was 
prominent  in  fashionable  society  in  Bath  and 
London.  In  1831  he  met  with  a  pecuniary 
reverse  which  compelled  him  to  turn  to  ac- 
count his  talent  for  music  and  song-writing, 
and  his  general  literary  abilities,  which  had 
long  before  attracted  favorable  attention.  His 
"  Melodies  of  Various  Nations,"  with  musical 
accompaniments  arranged  and  composed  by 
himself  and  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  appeared  in 
1832,  and  attained  an  immediate  success.  In 
a  very  few  years  he  wrote  36  pieces  for  the 
stage,  several  novels  and  tales,  and  hundreds 
of  songs.  Among  his  best  known  songs  are : 
"We  met,  'twas  in  a  crowd,"  "The  Soldier's 
Tear,"  "  Oh  no,  we  never  mention  her,"  "  Why 
don't  the  men  propose?"  and  "  I'd  be  a  butter- 
fly." His  literary  works  are:  "Aylmers,"  a 
novel ;  "  Kindness  in  Women,"  a  collection  of 
tales  in  3  vols. ;  "  Parliamentary  Letters  and 
other  Poems ;  "  "  Rough  Sketches  of  Bath  ;  " 
and  "  Weeds  of  Witchery,"  a  volume  of  poems. 
After  his  death  his  widow  published  2  vols.  of 
his  poems,  with  a  biography. 

BAYNE,  Peter,  a  Scottish  author  and  critic, 
born  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1829.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  and  after- 
ward studied  theology  at  Edinburgh,  and  philos- 
ophy under  Sir  William  Hamilton.  In  1851-'2 
he  contributed  to  "Hogg's  Instructor"  a  series 
of  critical  essays  on  De  Quincey,  Alison,  Hugh 
Miller,  and  others,  which  attracted  marked  at- 
tention, and  were  especially  commended  by 
De  Quincey  and  Alison.  Their  success  de- 
termined him  to  devote  himself  to  literary  life, 


and  in  1855  he  published  "The  Christian  Life, 
Social  and  Individual,"  in  which  Hugh  Miller 
said  some  of  the  biographies  "condense  in 
comparatively  brief  space  the  thinking  of  ordi- 
nary volumes."  This  work  was  Immediately 
republished  in  Boston,  and  was  followed  by  a 
collection  of  the  essays  from  "  Hogg's  Instruc- 
tor," with  several  new  ones  written  for  this 
edition,  under  the  title  of  "Essays  in  Biogra- 
phy and  Criticism"  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1857-'8). 
In  1855  he  was  editor-in-chief  of  a  Glasgow 
newspaper,  "  The  Commonwealth ; "  but  in 
1856  he  resigned  and  visited  Germany  for 
health  and  study.  After  his  arrival  in  Berlin 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Hugh  Miller  as 
editor  of  the  Edinburgh  "  Witness,"  but  did 
not  assume  that  position  till  the  summer  of 
1857,  meantime  pursuing  his  German  studies 
and  marrying  a  daughter  of  Gen.  Gerwien  of 
the  Prussian  army.  He  has  since  published  in 
the  "  Witness "  several  extended  essays  and 
criticisms,  particularly  a  series  in  defence  of 
Hugh  Miller's  "Testimony  of  the  Rocks" 
against  an  attack  in  the  "  North  British  Re- 
view," and  these  have  been  issued  in  a  pam- 
phlet edition.  He  has  also  published  "Testi- 
mony of  Christ  and  Christianity  "  (reprinted  in 
Boston,  1862),  and  "The  Days  of  Jezebel,"  a 
historical  drama  (Boston,  1872). 

BAYONET,  a  sword-like  blade  adapted  to  be 
affixed  to  the  muzzle  of  a  musket  or  rifle  and 
used  by  infantry.  It  was  invented  in  France 
(at  or  near  Bayonne,  whence  the  name)  about 
the  year  1640.  Up  to  that  time  the  mus- 
keteers were  niixed  with  pikemen  to  protect 
them  from  a  closing  enemy.  The  bayonet  en- 
abled musketeers  to  withstand  cavalry  or  pike- 
men,  and  thus  gradually  superseded  the  pike. 
Originally  the  bayonet  was  fastened  to  a  stick 
for  insertion  into  the  barrel  of  the  musket ; 
the  socket  bayonet,  fastened  by  a  tube  pass- 
ing round  the  barrel,  was  a  later  invention. 
The  French  did  not  do  away  entirely  with  the 
pike  till  1703,  nor  the  Russians  till  1721.  At 
the  battle  of  Spire,  in  1703,  charges  of  infan- 
try were  first  made  with  fixed  bayonets.  The 
bayonet  has  been  variously  modified  in  form, 
the  better  to  adapt  it  to  its  original  purpose 
or  to  collateral  uses.  Among  recent  improve- 
ments is  the  trowel  or  spade  bayonet,  calcu- 
lated both  for  offensive  use  and  for  digging 
intrenchments. 

BAY'OME  (Basque,  "baia  ona,  good  bay),  a 
city  of  S.  W.  France,  department  of  Basses- 
Pyren£es,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nive  with 
the  Adour,  2|  m.  from  the  bay  of  Biscay,  18 
m.  from  the  Spanish  frontier,  and  113  m.  S.  S. 
W.  of  Bordeaux  ;  pop.  in  1866,  26,338.  It  is 
separated  into  three  parts,  Great  and  Little 
Bayonne  and  the  suburb  of  Pont  St.  Esprit, 
which  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Adour, 
and  is  inhabited  mainly  by  Jews,  descendants 
of  fugitives  from  Spain.  Bayonne  is  strongly 
fortified,  has  one  of  the  finest  arsenals  in  France, 
handsome  quays  and  promenades,  a  mint,  a  the- 
atre, a  seminary,  schools  of  commerce,  naval 


410 


BAYOU  SAKA 


and  commercial  docks,  chamber  and  tribunal 
of  commerce,  distilleries,  sugar  refineries,  and 
glass  works.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  with 
Spain,  and  exports  timber,  tar,  corks,  hams, 
chocolate,  liqueurs,  and  cream  of  tartar.  It 
has  a  cathedral  of  the  12th  century,  and  a  cita- 
del built  by  Vauban.  Bayonne  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  named  La- 
purdum.  Though  it  has  been  besieged  many 
times,  it  has  never  been  captured,  wherefore 
the  inhabitants  call  it  the  virgin  city.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  long  held  by  the  English 
with  Aquitaine,  but  was  surrendered  to  Charles 
VII.  in  1451.  It  was  here  that  the  notorious 
convention  between  Napoleon  and  the  court 
of  Spain  was  held  in  April  and  May,  1808,  in 
which  the  emperor  by  persuasion  and  threats 
extorted  from  Ferdinand  VII.  the  retrocession 
of  the  Spanish  crown  to  his  father  Charles  IV., 


BAZA 

and  from  the  latter  (May  5)  an  abdication  in 
favor  of  a  successor  to  be  chosen  by  Napoleon. 
This  successor  was  his  brother  Joseph. 

BAYOU  SARA,  a  village  of  West  Felieian.i 
parish,  La.,  situated  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
165  m.  above  New  Orleans ;  pop.  in  1870,  440. 
It  is  an  important  shipping  point  for  corn  and 
cotton.  A  railroad  connects  it  with  Woodville, 
Mississippi. 

BAYRHOFFER,  Karl  Tbeodor,  a  German  phi- 
losopher and  politician,  born  in  Marburg  in 
1812.  He  studied  law,  but  devoted  himself 
subsequently  to  philosophy,  on  which  subject 
he  began  to  lecture  in  1834  in  Marburg,  where 
in  1838  he  received  the  appointment  of  special 
and  in  1845  of  permanent  professor  at  the 
university.  He  advocated  the  views  of  Hegel, 
and  in  1849  published  in  the  Jahrlucher  fur 
Wiwenschaft  und  Leben  a  series  of  papers  un- 


Bayonne. 


der  the  name  of  Untersuchvngen  uber  Wesen, 
Oeschichte  und  Kritik  der  Religion,  in  elucida- 
tion of  his  views  of  the  Marburg  Lichtfreunde, 
and  of  the  other  new  religious  organization 
which  grew  out  of  the  German  Catholic  move- 
ment. He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revo- 
lutionary movements  of  1848,  and  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year  was  made  a  member  of  the 
diet  of  Hesse-Cassel,  in  which  body  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and  for  a  short 
time  president  of  the  chamber ;  but  after  the 
defeat  of  the  democratic  party  he  went  to  Paris 
and  afterward  to  America. 

BAZA  (anc.  Batti),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  51  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Gra- 
nada; pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  situated  in  a 
high  valley  near  the  river  Baza,  between  the 
Sierras  de  Baza  and  de  Javalcol,  and  has  a 
suburb  chiefly  consisting  of  caverns.  In  the 


Gothic  collegiate  church  is  the  tomb  of  its 
patron  saint,  Maximus ;  and  there  nre  several 
other  fine  churches  and  convents.  The  women 
of  Baza  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty  and 
picturesque  costume.  The  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants  is  mainly  agricultural.  A  rich  red 
wine  is  produced  in  the  vicinity  and  mixed 
with  aguardiente  distilled  from  aniseed.  Re- 
mains of  antiquity  abound  in  this  region.  The 
town  was  called  Bastiana  in  the  middle  ages 
and  Bastah  by  the  Moors,  who  captured  i 
early  in  the  8th  century,  and  under  whom  it 
became  one  of  the  most  nourishing  commercial 
emporiums  of  Andalusia,  with  a  population  of 
50,000.  It  was  taken  from  them  in  1489  by 
the  Spaniards  commanded  by  Queen  Isabella 
in  person,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months.  Some 
of  the  rude  cannon  used  by  the  Moors  are  still 
preserved  here.  In  August,  1810,  Soult  de- 


BAZAINE 


BAZARD 


411 


feated  over  20,000  Spaniards  on  the  plain  of 
Baza.  The  hot  sulphur  springs  of  Bensalema, 
near  Zujar,  at  the  foot  of  the  Javalcol  moun- 
tain, are  often  called  the  springs  of  Baza. 

BAZAINE,  Francois  Acbille,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Versailles,  Feb.  13,  1811.  He  enlisted 
as  a  private  in  1831,  became  a  lieutenant  in 
Algeria  in  1835,  captain  after  two  years'  ser- 
vice with  the  foreign  legion  against  the  Carlists 
in  Spain,  lieutenant  colonel  in  1848  after  nine 
years'  active  duties  in  Algeria  and  Morocco, 
colonel  of  the  foreign  legion  in  1850,  and  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  the  Crimean  war,  acting  as 
commander  of  Sehastopol  after  its  capture. 
He  acquired  the  rank  of  general  of  division  in 
1855,  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  Kin- 
burn.  Subsequently  he  held  the  post  of  mili- 
tary inspector  in  France.  In  the  Italian  cam- 
paign he  was  wounded,  June  8,  1859,  while 
commanding  a  division  in  the  attack  upon  Me- 
legnano,  and  he  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
battle  of  Solferino.  In  1862  he  commanded  in 
Mexico  the  first  division  of  the  French  army, 
and  by  defeating  Comonfort  compelled  the  sur- 
render of  Puebla,  May  18,  1863,  shortly  after 
which  the  French  entered  the  capital.  On  Oct. 
1,  1863,  he  succeeded  Forey  as  commander- 
in-chief,  acting  also  as  civil  administrator  of 
the  occupied  districts ;  and  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal was  conferred  on  him  in  1864.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1865,  he  captured  the  town  of  Oajaca, 
together  with  a  Mexican  army  of  7,000  men 
under  Diaz.  Though  he  persuaded  Maximil- 
ian to  issue  the  most  rigorous  decrees  against 
the  Juarists,  and  himself  relentlessly  executed 
them,  he  was  generally  believed  to  be  engaged 
in  secret  plottings  with  the  enemies  of  that 
emperor,  in  pursuance  of  personal  ambitious 
schemes.  He  married  a  rich  Mexican  lady 
whose  family  sided  with  Juarez.  In  February, 
1867,  he  withdrew  with  his  forces  from  the  cap- 
ital, declaring  Maximilian's  position  to  be  un- 
tenable, and  soon  afterward  embarked  at  Vera 
Cruz.  On  his  arrival  in  France,  though  ex- 
posed to  violent  public  denunciations,  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  senate,  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  3d  army  corps ;  and  in  October, 
1869,  after  the  death  of  St.  Jean  d'Angely,  he 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial 
guard  at  Paris.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Fran- 
co-German war  in  1870  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand near  Metz  of  the  3d  corps,  consisting  of 
four  divisions  of  infantry,  one  of  cavalry,  and 
a  strong  force  of  artillery.  After  the  defeats 
of  Worth  and  Forbach,  he  assumed  on  Aug.  8 
the  command  of  the  main  French  armies,  in 
place  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  began  his 
retreat  from  Metz  Aug.  14.  hoping  to  effect  a 
junction  with  the  army  near  Chalons  and  with 
the  new  forces  gathering  under  MacMahon. 
But  he  was  attacked  on  the  same  day,  when  still 
in  front  of  the  fortress,  and  after  the  succeeding 
bloody  battles  of  Mars-la-Tour  (Aug.  16)  and 
Gravelotte  (Aug.  18)  was  forced  to  retire  with- 
in the  fortifications,  and  soon  after  hermetically 
shut  in  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles.  He  made 


several  futile  attempts  to  break  through  the  in- 
vesting anny,  that  of  Aug.  31  to  Sept.  1  proving 
very  disastrous.  After  the  capitulation  at  Se- 
dan he  renewed  these  attempts  (Oct.  7,  8)  to 
escape  from  Metz,  and  then  tried  to  negotiate 
with  the  Germans  at  Versailles  through  his 
adjutant,  Gen.  Boyer,  and  in  the  interest,  it 
was  thought,  of  the  deposed  dynasty ;  but  he 
was  compelled  on  Oct.  27  to  surrender  to 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  with  his  entire  force 
of  173,000  men,  including  3  marshals,  3  com- 
manders of  corps,  40  generals  of  division,  100 
brigadier  generals,  and  6,000  other  officers,  who 
by  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  all  became  pris- 
oners of  war,  Bazaine  himself  being  permitted 
to  join  the  ex-emperor  at  Cassel.  After  the 
preliminary  treaty  of  peace  he  removed  to  Ge- 
neva in  March,  1871.  Having  been  charged 
with  treason  by  Gambetta,  he  defended  him- 
self in  his  Rapport  sommaire  sur  let  operations 
de  Varmee  du  Rhin  du  13  aout  au  29  octobre. 
He  was  placed  under  arrest  May  14,  1872,  but 
his  trial  had  not  taken  place  up  to  June,  1873. 

BAZALCETTE,  Joseph  William,  an  English 
civil  engineer,  of  French  extraction,  born  in 
1819.  He  studied  in  London  under  Sir  John 
McNeil,  and  eventually  became  engineer  to  the 
metropolitan  commission  of  sewers,  and  en- 
gineer-in-chief  to  the  metropolitan  board  of 
works.  He  executed  the  main  drainage  works 
of  London,  and  planned  the  improved  drainage 
of  many  localities  at  home  and  abroad.  Among 
his  great  achievements  are  the  works  connected 
with  the  Thames  embankment. 

BAZANCOIRT,  Cesar  de,  baron,  a  French  writer, 
born  in  1810,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  25,  1865.  Un- 
der Louis  Philippe  he  was  director  of  the  library 
at  Compiegne,  and  wrote  numerous  novels  and 
a  "History  of  Sicily  under  Norman  Domina- 
tion "  (2  vols.,  1846).  Under  Napoleon  III.  he 
became  the  official  historian  of  the  Crimean 
and  Italian  campaigns.  His  works  on  those 
subjects  (each  2  vols.,  1857  and  1859-'60)  passed 
through  many  editions.  He  also  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  the  French  expeditions  to  China  and 
Cochin  China  (2  vols.,  1861 -'2),  and  a  work  on 
fencing  (Le»  secrete  de  Vepee,  1861). 

BAZARD,  Aniiiud,  a  French  carbonarist  and  St. 
Simonian,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  19, 1791,  died  at 
Courtray,  July  29,  1832.  In  1818  he  became 
the  principal  editor  of  IS Aristarque,  an  opposi- 
tion journal.  When,  on  the  assassination  of 
the  duke  of  Berry  in  1820,  the  freedom  of  the 
press  was  restricted,  he  published  many  pam- 
phlets to  diffuse  liberal  opinions  among  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  at  the  same  time  he  founded  the  lodge 
of  les  amis  de  la  verite,  pursuing  his  political 
purposes  under  the  cover  of  freemasonry.  Aid- 
ed by  Dugied  and  Joubert,  he  organized  carbo- 
nari societies,  which  soon  numbered  200,000 
members.  He  took  part  in  the  many  conspira- 
cies which  tended  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Bourbon  monarchy.  On  the  discovery  of  the 
Beford  military  plot  he  was  outlawed,  but 
escaped.  He  afterward  became  one  of  the  first 
disciples  of  St.  Simon,  and  in  1825  one  of  the 


412 


BAZEILLES 


contributors  to  the  Producteur.  In  1828,  when 
the  St.  Simonians  commenced  expounding  their 
doctrines  in  public  meetings,  Bazard  was  with 
Enfantin  their  acknowledged  head.  He  wished 
to  confine  the  doctrines  to  strictly  philosophical 
theory,  and  quarrelled  with  Enfantin,  who  pro- 
posed to  convert  them  into  a  religious  creed 
rejecting  the  ties  of  marriage.  In  1831  he  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  charging  Enfantin  and  his 
followers  with  planning  a  new  social  order 
founded  upon  corruption,  licentiousness,  and 
bad  faith.  He  at  the  same  titne  proclaimed 
himself  chief  of  the  new  St.  Simonian  hie- 
rarchy ;  but  the  great  majority  of  the  St.  Si- 
inonians  adhered  to  Enfantin. 

I!  \Z  KIM.KS,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ohiers  and  the  Givonne,  half  a  mile  from  the 
Meuse,  and  2  m.  S.  of  Sedan;  pop.  in  1866, 
2,048.  It  had  cloth  manufactories  and  iron 
works.  At  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Se- 
dan (Sept.  1,  1870)  the  village  was  wholly  de- 
stroyed by  the  Bavarians,  who  charged  the  in- 
habitants with  having  fired  from  their  houses 
on  the  wounded  Germans  and  the  physicians. 
In  1872  it  was  already  in  great  part  restored. 

IM/IV  I.  Antoine  Pierre  Ernest,  a  French 
physician,  born  at  St.  Brice,  Feb.  20,  1807. 
Like  many  of  his  ancestors,  he  early  adopted 
the  medical  profession,  and  has  been  since  1847 
physician  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Louis  and  pro- 
fessor of  dermatology.  His  principal  works 
relate  to  diseases  of  the  skin  and  to  syphilis, 
and  a  second  edition  of  his  Ltfom  theoriques 
et  cliniquet  sur  la  syphilis  et  les  syphilides  was 
published  in  1867.  II.  Antoine  Pierre  Lonls,  a 
French  philologist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  March  26,  1799,  died  in  January,  1863. 
He  was  professor  of  Chinese,  translated  many 
works  from  that  language,  and  in  1856  pub- 
lished Grammaire  mandarine,  ou  principes  ge- 
neraux  de  la  langue  ehinoise  parlee. 

BDELLIUM,  a  gum  resin  obtained  from  the 
amyrit  commiphora  of  India  and  Madagascar, 
and  the  Senegal  variety  from  the  Heiidelotia 
Africann.  Its  color  is  brownish  red.  The 
fracture  is  dull  and  wax-like.  It  burns  with  a 
balsamic  odor,  and  resembles  myrrh  in  taste, 
smell,  and  medicinal  properties.  It  is  some- 
times, but  rarely,  used  for  plasters,  and  is  also 
administered  internally. 

BEACH,  Moses  Yale,  an  American  mechanic 
and  editor,  born  at  Wallingford,  Conn.,  Jan.  7, 
1800,  died  there,  July  19,  1868.  At  the  age 
of  14  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  cabinet-maker 
at  Hartford,  but  purchased  his  freedom  in  his 
18th  year.  After  failing  in  the  cabinet  business 
at  Northampton,  Mass.,  he  removed  to  Spring- 
field and  endeavored  to  manufacture  a  gun- 
powder engine  for  propelling  balloons.  The 
attempt  was  unsuccessful.  He  next  undertook 
to  open  steam  navigation  on  the  Connecticut 
river  between  Hartford  and  Springfield,  but  the 
ruinous  state  of  his  affairs  obliged  him  to  cease 
operations  while  his  steamer  was  on  the  stocks. 
Mr.  Beach  soon  after  devised  a  rag-cutting  ma- 


BEAD 

chine,  which  was  adopted  in  paper  mills.  lie 
next  removed  to  Ulster  county,  N..Y.,  where 
he  became  concerned  in  an  extensive  paper  mill. 
In  1835  he  acquired  an  interest  in  the  "Sun" 
newspaper  in  New  York,  the  pioneer  of  the 
penny  press,  of  which  he  soon  made  himself 
sole  proprietor.  In  1857  he  retired  from  busi- 
ness and  took  up  his  residence  in  Wallingford. 
BEACONSFIEL1),  a  market  town  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, England,  23  m.  W.  by  N.  of  London ; 
pop.  in  1871,  2,926.  It  is  situated  on  high 
ground,  where  once  there  was  a  beacon.  The 
remains  of  Edmund  Burke  are  deposited  in  the 
parish  church;  and  the  churchyard  contains 
a  monument  to  the  poet  Waller,  who  owned 
the  manor.  Beaconsfield  gave  the  title  of  vis- 
countess to  the  wife  of  Benjamin  Disraeli. 

BEAD  (A.  S.  bead,  prayer ;  Dan.  fiede,  to  pray), 
a  small  perforated  body,  usually  globular,  made 
of  various  materials,  and  used  as  an  ornament 
or  to  number  prayers.  Beads  are  worn  in  the 
form  of  a  chain  by  stringing  them  together. 
The  wearing  of  beads  for  ornaments  is  of  very 
great  antiquity.  The  Egyptians,  besides  wear- 
ing them,  adorned  their  mummies  with  them. 
The  Egyptians,  and  probably  the  Phoenicians, 
made  glass  beads  more  than  3,000  years  ago. 
The  Old  Testament  often  refers  to  the  wearing 
of  beads,  as  in  Canticles :  "  Thy  cheeks  are 
comely  with  rows  of  jewels,  thy  neck  with 
chains  of  gold,"  chains  in  this  passage  signify- 
ing perforated  articles.  Beads  made  of  marine 
shells  were  used  from  remote  traditional  times 
by  the  New  England  Indians  as  a  currency, 
under  the  name  of  wampum,  and  were  also  worn 
in  a  belt,  called  wampumpaque.  Schoolcraft 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  discovery  of 
beads  of  various  forms  and  materials  in  Isle 
Ronde,  Lake  Huron.  Necklaces  and  bracelets 
made  of  beads  of  metals,  shells,  teeth,  coral, 
seeds  of  plants,  and  other  materials,  are  de- 
scribed by  nearly  all  travellers  among  prim- 
itive peoples.  Beads,  principally  of  glass,  but 
of  other  materials  also,  are  in  common  use 
among  the  tribes  of  Africa  as  a  currency,  and 
are  carried  there  in  great  quantities  by  travel- 
lers. In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  beads,  in 
the  form  of  chaplets,  are  used  in  saying  the 
rosary,  a  series  of  prayers  to  the  Blessed  V  irgin. 
"  St.  Cuthbert's  beads  "  was  the  name  given  to 
a  chaplet  of  beads  made  from  the  joints  of 
the  stems  of  fossil  encrinites.  (See  ROSARY.) 
The  worshippers  of  the  grand  lama  use  a  string 
of  beads  in  their  religious  ceremonies.  The 
Chinese  chaplet  contains  108  beads,  and  is  worn 
as  a  necklace ;  some  of  the  beads  denote  the 
rank  of  the  wearer.  The  Mohammedans  use  a 
chaplet  of  beads,  wh'ich  they  count  with  their 
fingers  while  reciting  the  99  qualities  of  God 
mentioned  in  the  Koran. — Murano,  a  small 
island  near  Venice,  and  Birmingham,  England, 
are  the  principal  seats  of  the  manufacture  of 
glass  beads.  They  are  made  from  tubes,  which 
are  cut  into  pieces  of  the  desired  length,  the 
sharp  edges  being  then  rounded  by  fusing, 
either  with  the  blowpipe  or  by  the  application 


BEAGLE 


BEAM 


413 


of  heat  in  some  other  mode.  At  Murano  a 
mixture  of  fine  sand  and  charcoal,  to  prevent 
the  pieces  from  fusing  together,  is  stirred  with 
them,  when  they  are  agitated  in  a  red-hot  iron 
pan  which  rounds  them.  The  core  of  sand  is 
then  easily  removed. 

BEAGLE,  a  small,  well  proportioned  hound, 
not  more  than  10  or  11  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulder,  with  long  pendulous  ears,  smooth 
hair,  and  color  either  black  or  dark  brown  with 
white  spots,  or  pure  white,  or  white  with  black 
and  tan  ears  and  eye  patches.  By  careful  breed- 
ing the  animal  has  been  reduced  in  size,  and 
the  smallest  are  known  as  lapdog  beagles.  It 


Beagle. 

is  distinguished  for  its  fine  scent  and  perseve- 
rance. Formerly  it  was  a  favorite  in  England 
for  hare  hunting ;  its  small  size  and  slow  but 
sure  movements  prolonged  the  pleasure  of  the 
chase,  and,  though  distanced  at  first,  its  per- 
severance made  it  sure  of  killing  the  hare  at 
last.  The  chase  with  beagles  could  be  followed 
on  foot.  In  this  sport,  however,  the  beagle  is 
now  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  harrier. 

BEALE,  Lionel  S.,  an  English  physiologist, 
born  in  London  about  1825.  He  graduated  at 
the  university  of  London  in  1851,  and  is  profes- 
sor of  general  physiology  and  morbid  anatomy 
at  King's  college.  He  established  in  1857  the 
"Archives  of  Medicine,"  contributed  actively 
to  the  "  Lancet "  and  other  periodicals,  and  has 
written  "  How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope  " 
(3ded.,  1866);  "Microscopism  in  its  Application 
to  Medicine"  (3d  ed.,  1867) ;  "Kidney  Diseases, 
Urinary  Deposits,  &c."  (3ded.  enlarged,  1868); 
"  Protoplasm,  or  Life,  Matter,  and  Mind  "  (en- 
larged ed.,  1870) ;  "  Disease  Germs,  their  Sup- 
posed Nature"  (1870);  "  Physiological  Anat- 
omy; "  "Anatomy  of  Man,"  &c. 

BEALE,  Mary,  an  English  artist,  born  in  Suf- 
folk in  1632,  died  Dec.  28,  1697.  She  be- 
came noted  as  a  portrait  painter  in  1672,  for 
the  beauty  of  her  coloring,  which  she  had  at- 
tained by  copying  the  paintings  of  Correggio, 
Vandyke,  and  others.  She  studied  with  Sir 
Peter  Lely,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the 
bishop  of  Chester,  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  and 
other  distinguished  persons.  She  worked  in 


oils,  water  colors,  and  crayons,  and  received 
largo  prices  for  her  pictures.  Her  husband 
was  a  painter  and  color-maker,  but  had  no  rep- 
utation as  an  artist.  Mrs.  Beale  was  well  edu- 
cated, and  wrote  some  poetical  pieces. 

BEAM  (Sax.  learn,  a  tree),  in  architecture,  a 
piece  of  timber  or  iron,  long  in  proportion  to 
its  breadth  and  thickness,  used  either  to  sup- 
port a  superincumbent  weight,  or  to  bind  to- 
gether the  parts  of  a  frame  as  a  tie,  by  resist- 
ance to  extension,  or  to  hold  them  apart  as  a 
strut,  by  resistance  to  compression.  The  term 
is  applied  particularly  to  the  largest  piece  of 
timber  in  a  building,  that  which  lies  across  the 
walls  and  supports  the  principal  rafters.  Im- 
portant improvements  have  been  introduced 
within  a  few  years,  in  various  departments  of 
practical  construction,  by  the  use  of  iron 
beams,  especially  in  the  building  of  fire-proof 
structures  and  bridges.  Prior  to  their  intro- 
duction the  only  method  of  securing  safety 
from  fire  was  by  massive  and  cumbersome 
constructions  of  masonry.  This  system  of 
groined  arches  involves  great  loss  of  room,  the 
most  solid  foundations  and  heavy  walls  and 
piers  to  sustain  their  weight  and  thrust,  and 
often  an  inconvenient  arrangement  and  divi- 
sion of  the  interior  of  the  edifice.  It  is  not 
only  not  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  business, 
but  its  expense  is  such  as  to  preclude  its  use 
for  ordinary  warehouses,  offices,  and  dwellings. 
The  introduction  of  cast-iron  beams  and  light 
segmental  arches  to  some  extent  obviated  these 
inconveniences ;  but  experience  has  shown 
that  wrought  iron  is  much  better  adapted  to 
resist  transverse  strains,  and  the  testimony  of 
eminent  engineers  and  architects  is  unanimous 
in  preferring  it  for  this  purpose,  as  both  more 
trustworthy  and  more  economical  than  cast 
iron.  The  first  instance  on  record  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  building  with  cast-iron  beams  is 
that  of  a  fire-proof  cotton  mill  erected  in  Man- 
chester by  Boulton  and  Watt,  in  1801.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  after  the  elaborate  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  in  1830,  upon  the 
strength  and  properties  of  cast  iron,  that  the 
best  form  of  section  was  determined,  or  that 
iron  beams  were  used  for  spans  exceeding  14 
feet.  He  found  the  resistance  of  cast  iron  to 
compression  to  be  about  six  times  as  great  as  its 
resistance  to  extension,  and  that  equal  strength 
could  be  obtained  with  half  the  weight  of  ma- 
terial formerly  used,  by  giving  the  proper  pro- 
portions to  the  parts  subjected  to  these  re- 
spective strains.  Much,  however,  was  still  to 
be  desired  on  the  score  of  security  and  econ- 
omy, and  numerous  accidents  have  justified 
the  general  want  of  confidence  in  beams  of  cast 
iron,  unless  great  precautions  are  observed  in 
casting  them  and  properly  proportioning  their 
parts ;  and  even  when  these  precautions  are 
observed,  and  iron  of  good  quality  is  selected, 
security  can  be  obtained  only  by  making  the 
most  ample  allowances  for  unequal  shrinkage 
in  cooling,  and  for  hidden  imperfections  not 
apparent  on  the  surface,  or  to  be  detected  only 


414 


BEAM 


by  the  most  careful  examination.  Other  ob- 
jections to  cast-iron  beams  are,  that  they  are 
liable  to  fail  without  warning,  especially  it'  sub- 
jected to  concussion,  and  to  be  broken  by  the 
frequent  application  and  removal  of  loads 
much  less  than  the  permanent  load  they  would 
sustain  with  safety.  By  a  system  of  testing, 
in  some  cases,  defective  beams  may  be  de- 
tected ;  but  in  others,  the  load  applied  in  the 
test  itself  may  so  weaken  the  beam  that  it  may 
afterward  fail  with  a  load  much  less  than  that 
employed  in  the  test,  especially  if  it  is  to  be 
subjected  to  concussion  or  repeated  deflections, 
even  though  small  in  amount.  The  successful 
construction  in  1849  of  the  tubular  bridges 
over  the  Conway  and  Menai  straits  was  one 
of  the  earliest  applications  of  wrought-iron 
beams,  and  on  the  most  gigantic  scale.  The 
laws  and  the  amount  of  the  resistance  of 
wrought  iron  to  the  various  strains  to  which 
it  is  subjected  in  its  application  to  beams  were 
first  determined  by  the  most  careful  and  elab- 
orate experiments,  and  the  superiority  of 
wrought  iron  for  this  purpose  clearly  demon- 
strated. By  means  of  the  data  thus  obtained, 
Mr.  Stephenson  was  enabled  successfully  to 
carry  out  his  conception  of  using  for  the 
bridges  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway 
tubular  beams  of  sufficient  strength  and  rigid- 
ity to  permit  the  passage  of  the  heaviest  rail- 
way trains  at  the  highest  speed.  These  appli- 
cations of  wrought-iron  beams  on  the  grand- 
est scale  have  been  followed  by  their  more 
modest,  but  even  more  useful  application  to 
fire-proof  buildings,  whereby  at  the  same  time 
perfect  security  and  a  material  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  fire-proof  constructions  have  been  at- 
tained. Wrought  iron  is  an  elastic  material 
of  fibrous  structure.  Its  ultimate  strength  of 
resistance  to  extension  is  greater  than  to  com- 
pression ;  but  when  these  strains  do  not  exceed 
about  one  half  its  ultimate  strength,  it  offers 
equal  resistance  to  either  strain.  Within  these 
limits  the  amount  of  the  extension  or  compres- 
sion which  it  undergoes  is  about  half  that  of 
cast  iron  for  equal  loads ;  but  the  amount  of  its 
extension  or  compression  before  rupture  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  cast  iron.  A  wrought- 
iron  beam  will  thus  be  more  rigid  than  one  of 
cast  iron,  with  any  load  that  will  in  practice  be 
permanently  applied  to  it ;  but,  unlike  the  lat- 
ter, by  its  excessive  deflection  when  overloaded, 
•will  give  warning  of  danger  before  rupture  can 
take  place.  This  characteristic  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  beams  which  may  be  subjected  to 
impact,  as  the  falling  of  a  heavy  weight,  the 
resistance  of  the  beam  being  in  proportion  not 
only  to  its  strength,  but  also  to  the  amount  of 
deflection  that  it  will  undergo  before  rupture. 
The  various  processes  of  forging,  rolling,  &c., 
to  which  wrought-iron  beams  are  subjected  in 
their  manufacture,  will  cause  any  serious  defect 
to  be  detected.  They  can  be  used  for  much 
greater  spans  than  beams  of  cast  iron,  and  it  is 
often  an  important  consideration  to  dispense 
with  columns  or  division  walls,  when  large 


rooms  are  required. — For  wrought-iron  beams 
the  most  advantageous  forms  are  the  double- 
flanged  or  I  beam,  and  the  box  or  tubular 
beam.  Unlike  those  of  cast  iron,  the  flanges 
or  horizontal  sides  are  usually  of  equal  area. 
When  lateral  deflection  cannot  take  place,  there 
is  little  difference  in  respect  to  strength  be- 
tween these  forms,  the  single  vertical  web  of 
the  one,  and  the  horizonttil  flanges  projecting 
from  it,  being  respectively  the  equivalents  of 
the  two  vertical  and  of  the  two  horizontal  sides 
of  the  other.  For  floor  beams  the  I  form  is  ordi- 
narily employed.  It  is  not  only  more  economical, 
but  has  the  great  advantage  of  allowing  the  ma- 
terial of  which  the  flooring  between  the  beams 
is  formed  to  rest  upon  its  lower  flanges,  thus 
saving  space,  and  surrounding  and  protecting 
the  beams  from  the  effects  of  fire.  In  the  tubular 
beam  not  only  do  its  upper  and  lower  sides  con- 
tribute to  its  lateral  stiffness,  but  the  vertical 
sides  resist  lateral  flexure  in  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  tube,  exactly  as  the  horizontal 
sides  resist  vertical  flexure  in  proportion  to  its 
depth,  while  in  the  I  beam  lateral  stiflness  is 
due  principally  to  the  flanges.  A  vertical 
load  upon  a  beam  is  sustained  by  the  resistance 
of  its  fibres  to  the  forces  of  compression  and 
extension.  A  body  subjected  to  compression, 
as  a  column,  if  its  length  be  great  in  compari- 
son •with  its  lateral  dimensions,  will  fail  by 
bending  under  a  load  much  less  than  would  be 
required  to  crush  the  material  if  the  column 
were  maintained  in  the  direct  .line  of  strain. 
The  tendency  of  a  body  subject  to  compression 
to  yield  by  flexure  being  in  proportion  to  the 
square  of  its  length,  while  the  vertical  strength 
of  a  beam  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  its  length 
simply,  it  may  often  happen  that  the  limit  of 
strength  of  a  beam  will  be  not  its  vertical  but  its 
lateral  stiffness ;  and  hence  in  some  cases,  as  for 
girders  without  lateral  supports,  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  use  the  tubular  form,  while  for  floor 
beams  which  are  secured  from  lateral  deflection 
by  the  filling  in  between  them,  the  I  form  is 
preferable.  Wrought-iron  beams  of  either  form 
may  be  made  by  riveting  together  plates,  angle 
bars,  T  bars,  or  other  shapes ;  the  rivets  should 
always  be  fastened  while  hot,  in  order  that 
their  contraction  in  cooling  may  draw  the  parts 
closely  together. — The  manufacture  of  solid- 
rolled  beams  has  effected  a  further  important 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  fire-proof  construction. 
This  manufacture  was  first  introduced  in  this 
country  by  the  Trenton  iron  company,  at  their 
works  in  Trenton,  N.  J.  These  beams  have 
been  adopted  by  the  various  departments  of 
the  government  of  the  United  States  in  the 
construction  of  the  many  custom  houses,  marine 
hospitals,  and  other  public  buildings  erected 
since  their  introduction,  to  the  entire  exclusion 
of  the  system  of  groined  arches  and  also  of  riv- 
eted beams,  except  in  cases  where  the  latter 
are  used  because  solid-rolled  beams  of  sufficient 
size  cannot  be  obtained.  This  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  construction  has  also  led  to  the  erection 
of  many  fire-proof  banking  houses,  warehouses, 


BEAM 


415 


manufactories,  &c.,  and  the  system  is  rapidly 
coming  into  general  use.  For  filling  in  between 
the  beams  for  tire-proof  floors  various  systems 
have  been  adopted.  In  France,  where  fire- 
proof construction  with  iron  beams  is  exten- 
sively used,  the  filling  in  is  generally  a  concrete 
of  refuse  materials  and  plaster  of  Paris.  Beams 
of  the  I  form  are  placed  2|  or  3  feet  apart ; 
their  ends  are  built  in  the  walls  and  secured  by 
anchors ;  no  beams  are  placed  immediately  at 
the  walls  parallel  with  the  beams.  The  beam 
next  each  wall  is  connected  to  it,  and  each 
beam  connected  with  the  one  next  adjoining, 
by  inter-ties  of  round  or  square  iron  of  about 
half  a  square  inch  in  sectional  area,  and  placed 
•2$  or  3  feet  apart ;  the  inter-ties  pass  through 
holes  near  the  centre  line  of  the  beams,  and  are 
provided  with  a  head  at  one  end  and  riveted 
up  at  the  other  after  they  are  put  in ;  the  ends 
that  are  built  into  the  walls  are  bent  to  form 
anchors.  Smaller  rods  parallel  with  the  beams, 
and  7  or  8  inches  apart,  are  suspended  from 
the  inter-ties,  the  ends  of  the  rods  being  bent 
up  so  as  to  hook  over  the  inter- ties,  while  the 
rods  themselves  are  on  a  level  but  little  above 
that  of  the  bottom  of  the  beams ;  or  the  inter- 
ties  may  be  supported  upon  the  lower  flanges 
of  the  beams  and  be  bent  up  at  the  ends  so  as 
to  hook  over  the  upper  flanges,  and  the  smaller 
rods  parallel  with  the  beams  be  laid  upon  the 
inter-ties.  A  flat  centring  is  placed  against  the 
bottoms  of  the  beams,  and  broken  bricks  or 
other  refuse  materials  suitable  for  concrete  are 
put  upon  the  centring ;  and  plaster  of  Paris 
being  poured  in,  the  whole  mass  soon  becomes 
sufficiently  set  to  allow  the  centring  to  be  re- 
moved, and  the  concrete  to  be  sustained  by  the 
iron  framework  between  the  beams.  In  some 
cases  the  plaster  concrete  fills  up  the  whole 
space  between  the  beams,  and  flooring  tiles  are 
laid  directly  upon  it ;  in  others  the  depth  of 
the  concrete  is  less  than  that  of  the  beams,  and 
wooden  strips  are  laid  across  the  beams  per- 
pendicular to  their  length,  to  which  ordinary 
flooring  boards  are  nailed.  A  finishing  coat 
of  plaster  put  directly  on  the  concrete  forms 
the  ceiling  below.  Hollow  potteries  placed 
upon  the  iron  latticework,  with  the  interstices 
filled  with  plaster,  are  frequently  used  instead 
of  concrete.  A  very  light  and  superior  floor 
is  thus  made,  and  the  rigidity  of  the  whole 
system  considerably  increased. — The  use  of 
plaster  for  the  filling  in  between  the  beams  has 
not  been  adopted  in  England  or  America,  be- 
cause of  the  greater  cost  and  inferior  quality 
of  the  plaster  that  can  be  obtained.  The  sys- 
tem known  as  that  of  Fox  and  Barrett  has 
been  used  extensively  in  England.  Light  strips 
of  wood  with  narrow  spaces  between  them  are 
supported  on  the  bottom  flanges  of  the  beams, 
and  reach  from  beam  to  beam.  On  these  strips 
is  spread  a  layer  of  coarse  mortar,  which  is 
pressed  down  between  them.  Concrete,  made 
with  cement,  is  filled  in  between  the  beams, 
and  a  tile  or  wooden  floor  is  laid  immediately 
upon  it.  A  rough  and  a  finishing  coat  of  plas- 
79  VOL.  ii.— 27 


ter  are  put  directly  on  the  cement  to  form  the 
ceiling  below.  Floors  have  also  been  made  by 
the  use  of  arched  plates  of  wrought  iron  or  of 
corrugated  sheet  iron  supported  upon  the  lower 
flanges  of  the  beams,  with  a  filling  of  con- 
crete above  the  arched  plates  or  corrugated 
iron  on  which  the  floor  is  laid.  The  sys- 
tem of  light  segmental  brick  arches  spring- 
ing from  the  lower  flanges  of  the  beams  and 
levelled  up  with  concrete  is  that  most  gen- 
erally employed  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. It  is  more  strictly  fire-proof  than  any 
other,  and  much  more  economical  than  the  use 
of  arched  plates  or  corrugated  sheet  iron,  and, 
except  in  France,  where  plaster  is  cheap,  than 
the  French  system.  The  weight  of  the  floors 
themselves  forms  a  much  greater  part  of  the 
total  load  to  be  carried  by  the  beams  than  in 
the  lighter  French  system ;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  the  arches  and  concrete  add  materially 
to  the  strength  and  rigidity  of  the  beams,  not 
only  by  preventing  lateral  deflection,  but  by 
adding  to  some  extent  the  resistance  to  com- 
pression of  so  much  of  the  arches  or  concrete 
as  is  above  the  neutral  line  to  that  of  the  upper 
parts  of  the  beams,  whereby  they  become  in 
fact  an  integral  part  of  the  beams  themselves. 
Long  beams  should  be  supported  in  the  middle 
of  their  length  by  wooden  scantlings  until  the 
cement  of  the  arches  or  concrete  is  set,  in  or- 
der to  get  the  full  advantage  of  this  additional 
resistance.  The  arches  should  have  a  rise  of 
not  less  than  one  inch  to  the  foot  of  span,  and 
are  generally  the  width  of  a  brick  in  thickness, 
unless  the  span  exceeds  6  or  8  feet,  when  they 
should  be  8  inches  at  the  soffit  and  4}  inches 
at  the  crown.  If  a  wooden  flooring  is  to  be 
used,  wooden  strips  parallel  with  the  beams 
are  laid  in  the  concrete  filling  above  the  arches, 
to  which  the  flooring  can  be  nailed.  To  form 
the  ceiling  below  the  beams,  wooden  strips 
may  be  secured  to  the  lower  flanges  of  the 
beams,  to  which  ordinary  furring,  lathing,  and 
plastering  can  be  nailed ;  or  the  plaster  may 
be  put  directly  upon  the  arches,  so  as  to  show 
the  system  of  construction,  and  thus  with  suit- 
able mouldings  a  good  architectural  effect  can 
be  obtained.  Any  inequality  in  the  thrust  of 
the  arches  on  the  beams  is  counteracted  by 
the  tie  rods  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the 
beams  connecting  them  together.  The  load  to 
be  sustained  by  the  floors  of  dwellings,  offices, 
and  buildings,  other  than  manufactories  and 
buildings  for  the  storage  of  heavy  goods,  is  or- 
dinarily assumed  at  150  Ibs.  per  square  foot. 
The  weight  of  the  beams,  arches,  concrete,  &c., 
forming  the  floor,  will  ordinarily  be  about  75 
Ibs.  per  square  foot,  leaving  75  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  for  the  variable  load.  This  is  as  great  a 
load  as  can  be  brought  upon  a  floor  by  a  crowd 
of  people.  For  wrought-iron  floor  beams  the 
actual  or  safe  working  load  should  not  produce 
a  greater  •  strain  than  12,000  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  of  section  at  the  part  of  the  beam  which 
is  subjected  to  the  greatest  strain  by  the  action 
of  the  load.  In  the  following  part  of  this 


±16 


BEAM 


BEAN 


article  the  term  "  safe  load  "  will  mean  the  load 
corresponding  to  that  strain.  The  safe  load 
will  be  less  than  one  third  of  the  ultimate  or 
breaking  strength  of  the  beam,  thus  allowing  a 
sufficient  margin  of  strength  to  insure  safety. 
The  deflection  of  floor  beams  should  not  ex- 
ceed ^  of  an  inch  for  each  foot  of  span.  If 
the  depth  of  the  beam  is  not  less  than  jL  of 
the  span,  the  deflection  will  be  within  that 
limit  for  the  safe  load.  For  spans  for  which 
a  greater  depth  than  15  inches  is  not  required, 
solid-rolled  beams  are  ordinarily  used,  and  for 
greater  spans  riveted  beams. — The  following 
table  gives  the  dimensions,  weights  per  yard, 
and  coefficients  to  determine  the  safe  loads  for 
rolled  wrought-iron  beams  of  the  sizes  most 
used  in  this  country  : 


DIMENSIONS  OP  BEAM 

1 

6 

«- 

6  1 

IN  INCHES. 

& 

-  a 

JJ! 

™   . 

•^  *  • 

»•£ 

.-  if 

'5  'C 

us 

1  1 

1- 

I  • 

' 

•gf 

i| 

1* 

J»J 

£ 

13 

15 

0-6 

6-75 

200 

74SOOO 

12  tt. 

882 

15 

0-5 

5 

160 

,V.l.  urn 

11 

705 

12 

0-6 

5-5 

170 

511,000 

10 

885 

12 

0-47 

4-8 

125 

877,000 

10 

645 

10 

0-47 

5 

185 

860.000 

11 

608 

10 

0-88 

4'5 

105 

286,000 

11 

555 

9 

0-57 

4-5 

125 

268,000 

8 

535 

9 

0-88 

4 

85 

IMMiOO 

'  8 

485 

9 

0-8 

8-5 

70 

152,000 

8 

829 

8 

0-88 

4-5 

80 

168,000 

9 

566 

8 

0-8 

4 

65 

185,000 

8 

428 

7 

0-33 

8-5 

60 

102,000 

6 

817 

6 

08 

8-5 

50 

76,800 

6 

824 

6 

0-25 

8 

40 

(i-'.finn 

6 

289 

5 

0-81 

8 

40 

49,100 

5 

261 

5 

0-25 

2-75 

80 

88,700 

4 

218 

4 

0-81      i     8 

87 

80,800 

4 

268 

4 

0-25 

2-75 

80 

I1II.1IIO 

4 

215 

The  safe  load,  uniformly  distributed  over  the 
span,  when  the  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends, 
and  lateral  deflection  is  presented  by  the  filling 
between  the  beams,  will  be  found,  in  pounds, 
by  dividing  the  coefficient  given  in  the  table 
by  the  span  estimated  in  feet.  If  the  span  be 
less  than  that  given  in  the  column  headed 
"Limitation  of  coefficient,"  the  load  should 
nevertheless  not  exceed  the  safe  load  for  that 
span,  in  order  that  the  shearing  strain  upon 
the  stem  shall  not  exceed  the  safe  limit.  The 
deflection  at  the  middle  of  the  span,  for  the 
safe  distributed  load  as  given  by  the  above 
rule,  will  he  found  by  dividing  the  square  of 
the  span,  estimated  in  feet,  by  70  times  the 
depth  of  the  beam,  estimated  in  inches ;  and 
for  any  less  load,  it  will  be  proportionally  less. 
If  the  beam  is  free  to  deflect  laterally,  the 
coefficient  given  in  the  table  must  be  modified, 
to  allow  for  the  increased  strain  brought  upon 
the  beam,  as  follows:  multiply  the  coefficient 
by  the  number  given  in  the  column  headed 
"  Correction  for  lateral  resistance,"  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  sum  of  that  number  and  the 
square  of  the  span  estimated  in  feet.  The 
strength  of  various  forms  and  dimensions  of 
riveted  beams  may  be  determined  by  the  or- 
dinary formulas  for  the  strength  of  materials. 


BEAN,  the  seed  of  leguminous  plants  of  three 
genera,  ftiba,  pJiaseoliu,  and  dolic/ios,  of  which 
the  fat/a  vulyaris  furnishes  the  different  varie- 
ties of  the  common  bean  cultivated  for  food 
throughout  the  world.  It  originated  in  the 
East,  is  said  to  be  still  found  wild  in  Persia, 
and  has  been  known  and  cultivated  in  all  ages. 
The  French  kidney  bean  (haricot)  is  tlie  seed  of 
the  phaseolus  vulgaru  ;  and  in  India  and  South 
America  species  of  dolicTios  are  raised,  such  as 
the  sword  bean  of  India  (D.  ensiformis)  and 
the  Lima  bean  (the  latter  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  United  States),  and  furnish  an  important 
item  of  food.  The  common  bean  is  either  a  run- 
ning vine,  trained  on  frames,  bushes,  or  poles, 
or  a  bushy  shrub  growing  one  or  two  feet  high, 
and  requires  a  rich,  well  prepared  soil,  which 
it  does  not  exhaust,  and  in  which  it  grows 
rapidly  and  luxuriantly.  It  bears  a  pod  con- 
taining several  oblong,  rounded  seeds,  which 
are  used  when  soft  and  green,  or,  when  dry, 
ground  into  meal  or  softened  by  soaking  in 


Kidney  Bean  (Phaseolus  vulparls). 

water  and  boiling  or  baking.  Beans  are  highly 
nutritious,  containing  84  per  cent,  of  nutri- 
tious matter,  while  wheat  has  but  74  per  cent. 
For  horses  this  food  is  more  nourishing  than 
oats.  Baked  beans  are  a  healthful,  strength- 
ening, and  favorite  dish  throughout  the  north- 
ern states,  especially  in  rural  regions ;  and 
in  France  and  in  the  United  States  several  va- 
rieties are  cooked  and  eaten  with  the  green 
pods,  while  French  beans  and  pods  are  cut  up 
and  salted  for  winter  use  in  Germany  and  Hol- 
land. The  garden  and  field  beans  brought  to 
market  have  a  variety  of  names,  among  which 
the  Lima,  Windsor,  dwarf,  and  kidney  are 
favorites. — In  ancient  times  beans  were  used 
as  ballots,  white  for  affirmative  and  black  for 
negative.  Ovid  gives  a  description  of  an  im- 
portant ceremony,  in  which  the  master  of  a 
family,  after  washing  his  hands  three  times, 
throws  black  beans  nine  times  over  his  head, 
with  the  words  "I  redeem  myself  and  family 


BEAN   GOOSE 


BEAR 


417 


by  these  beans."  Pythagoras  urged  abstinence 
from  beans,  and  the  Egyptian  priests  considered 
the  sight  even  of  beans  to  be  unclean. — The 
name  bean  is  also  applied  to  the  fruit,  berry,  or 
product  of  such  plants  as  the  castor,  coffee 
tree,  tamarind,  vanilla  vine,  and  some  others. 

BEAK  GOOSE.     See  GOOSE. 

BEAR  (ursua).  "The  family  of  bears  are 
classed,"  says  Robert  Mudie  in  his  "Glean- 
ings from  Nature,"  "among  those  carnivorous 
animals  which  are  plantigrade,  or  walk  upon 
the  soles  of  their  feet.  They  differ  from  the  j 
more  typical  carnivora  in  many  respects.  In 
the  first  place,  they  do  not  confine  themselves 
to  animal  food,  but  eat  succulent  vegetables, 
honey,  and  other  substances  which  are  not  J 
animal ;  in  the  second  place,  they  do  not  kill 
the  animals  which  they  eat  in  what  may  be 
called  a  business-like  manner,  by  attacking 
them  in  some  vital  part,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
hug  or  tear  them  to  death ;  and  in  the  third 
place,  those  of  them  that  inhabit  the  cold  cli- 
mates, which  are  their  appropriate  places  of 
residence,  often  hibernate  during  the  winter, 
or  some  part  of  it,  which  is  never  done  by  the 
characteristic  carnivora.  There  are  bears  in 
almost  all  latitudes,  from  the  equator  to  the 
pole;  but  those  which  inhabit  the  warmer  lat- 
itudes are  tame  and  feeble  as  compared  with 
the  natives  of  the  cooler  ones,  and  therefore 
we  must  regard  them  as  being,  in  their  proper 
home  and  locality,  animals  of  the  colder  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  whole  genus  has  in  fact  a 
polar  rather  than  an  equatorial  character,  and  ! 
may  thus  be  considered  as  geographically  the 
reverse  of  the  more  formidable  of  the  strictly 
carnivorous  animals — the  lion  and  tiger  in  the 
eastern,  and  the  jaguar  in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere. These  are  all  tropical  in  their  homes, 
habitually  ardent  in  their  temperaments,  and, 
though  they  can  endure  hunger  for  considerable 
periods,  they  feed  all  the  year  round,  and  thus 
have  no  season  of  repose.  The  bears,  again,  arc 
seasonable  animals,  retiring  during  the  winter, 
and  coming  abroad  in  the  spring.  But  it  is  not 
from  the  storm  that  the  bears  retire ;  it  is  from 
the  cold  serenity — the  almost  total  cessation  of 
atmospheric  as  well  as  of  living  action — which 
reigns  during  the  polar  winter ;  the  storm  is  ! 
both  seedtime  and  harvest  to  the  bears.  Dur- 
ing its  utmost  fury  they  range  the  wilds  and 
forests,  accompanied  by  the  more  powerful  owls 
and  hawks,  which,  like  the  bears,  are  equally 
remarkable  for  their  strength  and  their  impene- 
trable covering.  At  those  times  many  of  the 
smaller  animals  are  dashed  lifeless  to  the  earth 
by  the  storm,  or  shrouded  in  the  snow,  and  upon 
these  the  bears  make  an  abundant  supper — a 
supper  of  days,  and  even  of  weeks — before  they 
retire  to  their  long  rest.  So  also,  when  the 
storm  begins  to  break,  they  find  a  plentiful  col- 
lection of  the  carcasses  of  such  animals  as  have 
perished  in  the  snow,  and  been  concealed  from 
sight  and  preserved  from  putrefaction  under 
it." — The  polar  bear  (U.  maritimm)  is  the 
largest,  strongest,  most  powerful,  and,  with  a  ; 


single  exception,  the  most  ferocious  of  bears. 
Its  distinguishing  characteristics  are  the  great 
length  of  its  body  as  compared  with  its  height ; 
the  length  of  the  neck ;  the  smallness  of  the  ex- 
ternal ears ;  the  large  size  of  the  soles  of  the 
feet ;  the  fineness  and  length  of  the  hair  ;  the 
straightness  of  the  line  of  the  forehead  and 
the  nose  ;  the  narrowness  of  its  head,  and  the 
expansion  of  its  muzzle.  It  is  invariably  of  a 
dingy  white  hue.  The  size  varies  considerably. 
Capt.  Lyon  mentions  one  8  ft.  7  in.  long,  weigh- 
ing 1,500  Ibs.  The  domestic  habits  of  these 
powerful  animals  are  not  much  understood,  and 
whether  they  hibernate  or  not  is  not  very  well 
ascertained,  although  it  is  believed  that  the 
male  at  least  is  not  dormant  so  long  as  the 
land  bears  of  the  north.  The  admirable  work 
of  Dr.  Kane  seems  to  place  it  in  doubt  whether 
either  sex  absolutely  hibernates,  as  we  find 
she  bears  with  their  cubs  visiting  his  winter 
quarters  during  the  midnight  darkness.  The 
pairing  season  is  understood  to  be  in  July  and 
August ;  and  the  attachment  of  the  pair  is 


Polar  or  White  Bear  (Ursus  maritlmus). 

such,  that  if  one  is  killed  the  other  remains 
fondling  the  dead  body,  and  will  suffer  itself 
to  be  killed  rather  than  leave  it.  The  same 
wonderful  affection  of  the  female  for  her  cubs 
has  been  noticed,  from  which  neither  wounds 
nor  death  will  divide  her ;  and  all  the  arctic 
navigators,  from  Dr.  Scoresby  to  Dr.  Kane, 
have  recorded  their  sympathy  with  and  regret 
for  the  poor  savage  mothers,  vainly  endeavor- 
ing to  persuade  their  dead  cubs  to  arise  and  ac- 
company them,  or  to  eat  the  food  which  they  will 
not  themselves  touch,  although  starving.  The 
habits  of  the  polar  bear  are  purely  maritime ; 
and  although  their  system  of  dentition  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  other  bears,  their  food, 
from  necessity,  is  wholly  animal.  The  polar 
bear  is  comparatively  rare  in  menageries,  as  it 
suffers  so  much  from  the  heat,  even  of  our 
winters,  and  from  the  want  of  water,  that  it  is 
not  easily  preserved  in  confinement. — The  next 
bear  in  all  respects  to  the  polar  species,  and 
superior  to  him  in  ferocity  and  tenacity  of  life, 
is  the  grisly  bear  (U.  horribilu)  of  America. 
This  powerful  animal,  which  is  to  the  Ameri- 
can fauna  what  the  Bengal  tiger  is  to  that  of 


418 


BEAR 


Hindostan  and  the  lion  to  that  of  central  Africa, 
is  of  comparatively  late  discovery,  having  been 
first  distinguished  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  in  their 
western  explorations.  Its  geographical  range 


his  race.  It'  it  be  not  certain  that  he  will  vol- 
untarily attack  a  human  being,  it  is  certain 
that  if  attacked  he  will  pursue  the  assailant  to 
the  last,  nor  quit  the  conflict  while  life  remains. 
He  is  also  the  most  tenacious  of  life  of  all  ani- 
mals. One  shot  by  Gov.  Clarke's  party,  after 
receiving  ten  balls  in  his  body,  four  of  which 
passed  through  his  lungs  and  two  through  his 
heart,  survived  above  20  minutes,  and  swam 
half  a  mile,  before  succumbing  to  his  wounds. 
The  cave  bear  (U.  spelaus),  larger  than  the 
grisly  bear,  lived  in  the  caverns  of  Europe  in 
the  post-tertiary  epoch. — The  European  brown 
bear  (U.  aretos)  and  the  American  black  bear 
{U.  Americanvs)  are  closely  allied,  and  are 
very  similar  in  habits,  although  the  former  is 
fiercer  and  more  sanguinary,  especially  as  he 


Grisly  Bear  (Ursus  horribtlis). 

is  from  the  great  plains  west  of  the  Missouri, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  through 
Upper  California  to  the  Pacific  ocean.  Its 
characteristics  are  strongly  marked  and  clear. 
"  The  line  of  its  forehead  and  muzzle  is  straighter 
than  in  any  other  species ;  and  its  claws,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  fore  feet,  are  much  more 
produced  and  far  more  crooked,  though  its 
general  habit  is  not  that  of  a  climber.  The 
snout  is  black  and  movable,  the  central  furrow 
being  distinct ;  the  lips  are  partially  extensile  ; 
the  eyes  very  small,  having  no  third  eyelid, 
and  the  irides  being  of  reddish  brown.  The 
ears  are  short  and  rounded,  and  the  line  of  the 
forehead  thence  to  the  eyes  is  a  little  convex, 
but  it  continues  straight  to  the  point  of  the 
snout.  The  hair  on  the  face  is  very  short,  but 
on  the  body  generally  it  is  long  and  very 
thickly  set.  The  hair  in  the  adult  is  a  mixture 
of  brown,  white,  and  black.  The  tail  is  short, 
and  in  the  living  animal  completely  hidden  by 
the  hair.  On  the  fore  paws  the  claws  are 
rather  slender,  but  long,  as  well  as  crooked 
and  sharp  at  the  tips,  though  the  sharpness  is 
rather  that  of  a  chisel,  by  being  narrowed  at  the 
edges,  than  a  point.  This  structure  gives  the 
tips  of  them  great  additional  strength,  and  ac- 
counts for  the  severe  gashing  wounds  which 
are  inflicted  by  their  stroke.  The  soles  of  the 
hind  feet  are  in  great  part  naked,  and  the  claws 
on  them  are  considerably  smaller  than  those 
on  the  fore  paws,  though  much  more  crooked ; 
and  their  trenchant  points  form  very  terrible 
lacerating  instruments  when  the  animal  closes 
with  its  enemy  in  hugging.  They  are  sufficient 
to  tear  the  abdomen  even  of  a  large  ani- 
mal to  shreds,  while  the  fore  paws  are  at  the 
same  time  compressing  the  thorax  to  suffoca- 
tion." The  grisly  bear  is  the  most  savage  of 


Black  Bear  (Ursus  Americanus). 

grows  old,  when  he  will,  though  rarely,  attack 
men,  particularly  if  he  have  once  tasted  human 
blood.  They  are  both  excellent  climbers,  pas- 
sionately fond  of  honey,  great  devourers  of 
roots,  green  wheat,  and  in  America  green  maize, 
and  especial  enemies  to  hogs  and  young  calves. 
The  brown  bear  is  distinguished  by  the  promi- 
nence of  his  brow  above  the  eyes,  which  is  ab- 
ruptly convex,  with  a  depression  below  them  ; 
the  black  bear,  by  the  regular  convexity  of  its 
whole  facial  outline,  from  the  ears  to  the  muz- 
zle. The  latter  never  attacks  man  except  in 


Cinnamon  Bear  (Ursus  occidentalis). 


BEAR 


419 


self-defence,  and  then  only  when  hard  pressed 
and  cornered.  The  flesh  of  the  black  bear  is 
very  good,  resembling  pork  with  a  peculiar 
wild  or  perfumed  flavor. — The  cinnamon  bear 
{U.  occidentalia)  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
mere  variety  of  the  black  bear,  whose  place  it 
takes  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  It 
receives  its  name  from  the  yellowish  red  color 
of  the  fur.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  California, 
and  often  descends  from  the  upper  sierras  into 
the  valley  villages  in  winter  in  search  of  food ; 
though  very  fond  of  berries  and  nuts,  it  occa- 
sionally takes  a  calf,  pig,  or  sheep ;  it  is  savage 
if  attacked  or  wounded. — The  Asiatic  or  sloth 
bear  (  U.  labiatus,  so  called  from  its  long  lips)  is  a 


Asiatic  or  Slc.th  Bear  (Ursus  lablatua). 


timid,  inoffensive  creature  ordinarily,  though  it 
will  fight  fiercely  when  wounded,  or  in  defence 
of  its  young.  It  inhabits  the  high  and  moun- 
tainous regions  of  India,  burrows  in  the  earth, 
feeds  on  ants,  rice,  and  honey,  and  lives  in 
pairs,  together  with  its  young,  which  when 
alarmed  mounts  the  back  of  the  parent  for 
safety.  It  is  called  sloth  bear  from  the  eden- 
tate character  of  the  jaws,  from  the  early  loss 


alluded  to  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  When 
young  it  is  grayish  brown,  becoming  nearly 
white  when  old ;  the  hair  is  long,  somewhat 
curled,  forming  a  mane  upon  the  shoulders, 
and  near  the  skin  surrounded  by  a  soft  fur. 
It  is  gentle  in  disposition,  a  vegetable  feeder, 
and  is  found  now  in  the  mountains  of  Pales- 
tine.— Three  or  four  other  species  of  bears, 
principally  Asiatic,  have  recently  been  distin- 
guished, but  all  of  very  inferior  interest  to  those 
above  specified,  and  one  at  least  of  extremely 
doubtful  authenticity  as  a  distinct  species. 
This  is  the  Siberian  bear  ( U.  collaris),  so  nearly 
identical  with  the  common  black  bear  as  to 
be  distinguished  from  it  only  by  a  white  or 
grizzly  collar  encircling  its  shoulders  and  breast, 
and  is  probably  a  mere  casual  variety.  It  is 
said  to  be  peculiar  to  Siberia.  The  spectacled 
bear  {U.  ornatws)  is  a  native  of  the  Chilian 
Andes.  Its  fur  is  smooth,  shining,  and  black, 
with  the  exception  of  a  pair  of  semicircu- 
lar marks  over  the  eyes,  whence  its  name, 
and  the  fur  on  its  muzzle  and  its  breast,  which 
is  of  a  dirty  white  color;  little  or  nothing  is 


Syrian  Boar  (Ursus  Isabellinus). 

of  the  incisor  teeth,  and  the  filling  up  of  the 
sockets. — The  Syrian  bear  (U.  Isabellimu)  is 
interesting  chiefly  because  it  is  the  one  often 


The  Spectacled  Bear  (Ursus  ornatus). 

known  of  its  habits.  The  Thibetan  bear  or 
Isabel  bear  (U.  Tibetamts)  is  characterized  by 
the  shortness  of  its  neck  and  the  straightness 
of  its  facial  outline.  Its  color  is  black,  with  a 
white  under  lip,  and  a  white  mark  in  the  shape 
of  a  letter  Y,  the  stem  lying  on  the  middle  of 
the  breast,  with  arms  diverging  upward  on  the 
shoulders.  It  is  a  small-sized,  harmless,  and 
purely  vegetable-eating  animal.  The  Malayan 
sun  bear  (helarctos  Malayanus)  is  small,  jet 
black,  with  a  lunar  white  mark  on  its  breast,  and 
a  yellowish  muzzle.  It  has  a  long,  slender,  pro- 
trusive tongue,  unlike  that  of  other  bears.  It  is 
perfectly  inoffensive,  feeding  on  honey  and  the 
young  shoots  of  the  cocoanut  trees,  of  which  it 
makes  extreme  havoc.  When  domesticated  it 
becomes  exceedingly  tame,  is  sagacious,  intel- 
ligent, and  affectionate,  and  will  not  touch 
animal  food.  The  Bornean  bear  (H.  euryspi- 
liix)  differs  from  the  above  by  having  a  large 
orange-colored  patch  on  the  chest.  It  does  not 


420 


BEAR 


exceed  four  feet  in  length,  and  has  the  long, 
slender,  protrusive  tongue  of  the  species  last 
described,  fitting  it  especially  to  feed  on  honey, 
which,  with  fruits  and  vegetables,  is  its  sole 


-  Malayan  Sun  Bear  (Helarctos  Malayanus). 

food. — There  has  always  existed  a  doubt  as  to 
the  existence  of  any  species  of  bear  in  Africa. 
Pliny  mentions  that  in  the  consulship  of  M.  Piso 
and  M.  Messala,  61  B.  0.,  L.  Domitius  Aheno- 
barbus  exhibited  100  Nuinidian  bears,  and  as 
many  Ethiopian  hunters,  in  the  circus ;  hut  at 
the  same  time  he  asserts  that  there  are  no  bears 
in  Africa.  Herodotus,  Virgil,  Juvenal,  and  Mar- 
tial all  speak  of  Libyan  bears  as  well  known 
animals.  Ehrenberg  and  Forskal  both  speak 
of  a  black  plantigrade  animal  called  by  the  na- 
tives kawai  or  Jcarrae,  with  a  long  muzzle, 
which  they  both  saw  and  hunted,  but  in  vain. 
It  is,  however,  a  good  rule  in  natural  history 
to  adopt  no  animal  on  hearsay,  or  until  a 
specimen  is  produced.  On  this  view  it  must 
be  held  that  there  is  no  African  bear  until  one 
shall  be  produced  and  described ;  although  there 
is  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be. — Bear- 
baiting  with  mastiffs  was  formerly  a  favorite 
and  even  royal  amusement  in  England  ;  and 
the  readers  of  "  Kenilwortli  "  will  remember 
the  characteristic  scene  in  which  Sussex  is 
represented  as  pleading  before  Elizabeth  the 
cause  of  the  bear  warden  against  the  stage 
players,  Raleigh  defending  the  latter,  and  quot- 
ing the  passage  of  Shakespeare  personifying  the 
queen  as  "a  fair  vestal  throned  in  the  west," 
on  which  she  suffers  the  bear  ward's  petition 
to  drop  unheeded  into  the  Thames.  In  the 
north  of  Europe  the  brown  bear  is  hunted  in 
the  winter  with  snow  shoes,  and  shot  without 
the  aid  of  dogs.  In  the  west  and  southwest 
of  the  United  States,  the  bear  is  systematically 
chased  with  packs  of  hounds  bred  for  the  pur- 
pose— a  cross  generally  of  the  large  slow  fox- 
hound with  the  mastiff;  and  the  sport  is  highly 
exciting,  and  by  no  means  devoid  of  danger, 
when  Bruin  turns  to  bay,  and  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  go  in  with  the  knife,  to  close  quar- 
ters, in  order  to  save  the  lives  of  the  hounds. 


BEARD 

BEAK,  Great  and  Lesser  (ursa  major  and 
minor),  two  constellations  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  former  in  the  latitude  of  45° 
N.  never  passes  below  the  horizon.  The  most 
remarkable  stars  in  it  are  a  group  of  seven 
(marked  by  astronomers  with  the  first  seven 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet),  which  have 
been  called  the  "  wagon,"  "  Charles's  wain," 
and  the  "  dipper."  Four  of  them  are  arranged 
in  an  irregular  quadrangle,  constituting  the 
body  of  the  "dipper,"  while  the  other  three 
are  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  and  form  the 
handle.  Two  of  the  stars  in  the  body  of  the 
dipper  range  nearly  with  the  north  star,  and 
are  therefore  called  the  "  pointers."  Mizar,  in 
the  handle,  is  a  double  star.  Benetnash  is  a 
brilliant  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  according 
to  some  maps;  in  others  it  is  set  down  at  1£. 
— The  Lesser  Bear  has  in  it  a  cluster  somewhat 
resembling  the  dipper  in  Ursa  Major,  but  has 
no  stars  larger  than  the  third  magnitude.  Nei- 
ther of  these  constellations  has  any  resemblance 
to  the  figure  of  a  bear,  and  Max  Miiller  is  of 
opinion  that  the  Greeks,  by  whom  they  were 
first  called  after  that  animal,  applied  to  them 
the  term  Ap/crof  (bear)  by  a  corruption  of  their 
original  Sanskrit  name  arkshas,  "the  bright 
stars." 

BEARD,  the  hair  which  grows  on  the  chin 
and  lower  parts  of  the  human  face.  That  por- 
tion which  is  found  on  the  upper  lip  is  gener- 
ally distinguished  as  the  mustache,  while  that 
upon  the  sides  of  the  face  is  known  by  the 
name  of  whisker.  Although  the  beard  is  ordi- 
narily only  seen  on  the  male  adult,  it  appears 
occasionally  in  certain  exceptional  cases  on  the 
faces  of  women  and  children.  Full  beards 
were  cultivated  among  eastern  nations  in  early 
j  times,  and  have  always  been  regarded  by  them 
;  as  a  badge  of  dignity.  The  fact  that  the  ancient 
'  Egyptian  pictures  frequently  represent  the  hu- 
man male  figure,  especially  when  of  a  king  or 
dignitary,  without  the  beard,  would  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  it  was  a  mark  of  rank  in  Egypt  to 
be  devoid  of  that  appendage.  In  ancient  India, 
Persia,  and  Assyria,  however,  the  beard  was 
allowed  to  grow  long,  and  was  always  esteemed 
a  symbol  of  dignity  and  wisdom.  The  Turks 
let  the  beard  grow  in  full  luxuriance,  while 
the  Persians  cut  and  trim  that  upon  the  chin 
and  the  sides  of  the  face,  according  to  fashion 
or  caprice.  In  Turkey  it  is  considered  an  in- 
famy to  have  the  beard  cut  off,  and  the  slaves 
of  the  seraglio  are  shaved  as  a  mark  of  their 
servile  condition.  Previous  to  the  reign  of 
Alexander  the  Great  the  Greeks  wore  beards, 
but  during  the  wars  of  that  monarch  they  com- 
menced shaving,  the  practice  having  been  sug- 
gested, it  is  said,  by  Alexander  for  the  purpose 
of  depriving  the  enemy  of  an  opportunity  of 
catching  the  soldiers  by  the  beard.  The  fash- 
ion thus  begun  continued  until  the  reign  of 
i  Justinian,  when  long  beards  again  became  cus- 
tomary. The  year  300  B.  C.  is  given  as  the 
time  about  which  the  Romans  commenced  the 
|  practice  of  shaving,  and  Scipio  Africanus  was, 


BEARD 


421 


according  to  Pliny,  the  first  of  the  Romans 
who  daily  submitted  to  the  razor.  The  antique 
busts  and  coins  prove  that  the  Roman  emperors 
shaved  until  the  time  of  Hadrian,  who  is  said 
to  have  let  his  beard  grow  to  conceal  an  ugly 
scar.  The  philosophers,  however,  from  the 
earliest  periods  seem  to  have  affected  the  full- 
grown  beard,  it  being  esteemed  by  them,  as 
among  the  Greeks,  a  symbol  of  wisdom.  All 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe  wore  beards 
at  the  earliest  period  of  which  any  record  ex- 
ists. The  fashion,  however,  seems  to  have 
varied  with  them  subsequently  at  different 
times.  The  Lombards  or  Longobards  derived 
their  name  from  the  practice  of  going  unshaved. 
We  learn  from  Tacitus  that  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans cultivated  the  beard  from  its  first  growth 
until  they  had  killed  an  enemy  in  battle,  and 
from  Julius  Caesar  that  the  Britons  merely 
allowed  the  mustache  to  grow.  Until  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  the  Anglo-Saxons  all 
wore  beards  without  distinction,  but  then  the 
clergy  were  compelled  by  law  to  shave.  The 
English  princes  were  in  the  habit  of  wearing 
mustaches  till  the  conquest  of  William  I.,  and 
they  felt  it  to  be  a  very  great  indignity  when 
the  conqueror  compelled  them  to  cut  them  off, 
in  accordance  with  the  Norman  fashion.  The 
practice  and  precepts  of  'the  Christian  fathers, 
who,  like  the  Jewish  rabbis,  denounced  sha- 
ving as  a  violation  of  the  law  of  God,  made  the 
wearing  of  the  beard  during  the  early  medias- 
val  centuries  a  distinguishing  fashion  of  the 
continental  kings,  nobles,  and  dignitaries.  Roy- 
al personages  were  in  the  habit  of  weaving 
gold  with  the  beard,  or  ornamenting  it  with 
tags  of  that  metal.  Of  long  beards,  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  was  that  of  a  German  artist 
of  the  name  of  John  Mayo,  who  was  called 
John  the  Bearded ;  it  reached  the  ground 
when  he  stood  up,  and  he  was  consequently 
obliged  to  tuck  it  into  his  girdle.  Till  the  sep- 
aration of  the  Greek  from  the  Latin  church, 
which  began  in  the  8th  century,  the  popes, 
emperors,  nobles,  and,  except  in  England,  the 
priests  had  scrupulously  abstained  from  the 
use  of  the  razor.  Leo  III.,  to  distinguish  him- 
self from  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  re- 
moved his  beard.  Thirty  years  later  Gregory 
IV.,  pursuing  the  same  system,  enjoined  penal- 
ties upon  every  bearded  priest.  In  the  12th 
century  the  prescription  which  required  all  the 
clergy  to  shave  their  faces  was  extended  to  the 
laity,  and  even  to  monarchs.  Godefroi,  bishop 
of  Amiens,  refused  the  offerings  of  any  one  who 
wore  a  beard.  A  preacher  directed  his  elo- 
quence against  King  Henry  I.  of  England  be- 
cause he  wore  a  beard,  and  the  monarch  yield- 
ed. Frederick  Barbarossa  offered  a  similar 
example  of  resignation.  The  confessor  of  Louis 
VII.  of  France  refused  him  absolution  till  he 
submitted  to  lose  his  beard.  This  was  not  long 
kept  up.  In  the  13th  century  Pope  Honorius 
III.,  in  order  to  conceal  a  disfigured  lip,  allowed 
his  beard  to  grow,  and  inaugurated  anew  the 
fashion,  which  became  prevalent  in  Europe  in 


the  age  of  Francis  I.  The  right  of  the  clergy 
to  wear  their  beards  was  then  again  disputed. 
Francis  imposed  a  heavy  tax  upon  every 
bearded  bishop,  and  in  1561  the  college  of  the 
Sorbonne  decided,  after  mature  deliberation, 
that  a  beard  was  contrary  to  sacerdotal  mod- 
esty. In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  there  were 
various  styles,  distinguished  as  the  pointed 
beard,  the  square  beard,  the  round  beard, 
the  aureole  beard,  the  fan-shaped  beard,  the 
swallow-tailed  beard,  and  the  artichoke-leaf 
beard.  In  England,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  the  beard  was  worn  generally  by 
those  of  higher  rank,  and  was  trimmed  in  a 
style  more  or  less  distinctive  of  each  class. 
The  fashion  of  wearing- the  beard  declined  under 
the  Stuarts,  and  at  the  restoration  there  was 
no  hair  worn  upon  the  face  but  the  mustache, 
j  which,  however,  was  luxuriantly  cultivated  by 
the  courtiers  and  gallants  of  those  days.  The 
decline  of  the  beard  in  France  dates  from  Louis 
XIII.,  and  in  Spain  from  the  accession  of  Philip 
V.  The  Russians  retained  their  beards  until 
Peter  the  Great  returned  from  his  western 
tour,  when  one  of  his  first  edicts  toward  the 
compulsory  civilization  of  his  people  had  refer- 
ence to  the  beard.  He  taxed  this  appendage, 
and  afterward  ordered  all  those  he  found 
bearded  to  have  the  hair  plucked  out  with  pin- 
cers or  shaven  with  a  blunt  razor.  Thus  the 
practice  of  shaving  became  almost  universal 
in  Europe  until  a  comparatively  recent  period. 
France  was  the  first  to  return  to  the  old  fash- 
ion of  wearing  the  beard,  and  England  was  the 
last. — The  practice  of  wearing  the  beard  is  ad- 
vocated by  many  physicians  for  hygienic  rea- 
sons, as  protecting  the  throat  from  cold  and 
damp. 

BEARD.  I.  James  II..  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1815.  In  early  in- 
fancy he  was  removed  to  Painesville  in  north- 
ern Ohio,  where  at  the  age  of  14  he  be- 
gan to  paint  portraits,  after  having  received 
only  four  lessons  from  a  travelling  artist.  He 
subsequently  practised  portraiture  in  many 
parts  of  Ohio,  and  finally  settled  in  Cincinnati, 
where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Henry  Clay, 
Gens.  Harrison  and  Taylor,  and  other  public 
men,  of  most  of  whom  he  painted  portraits. 
For  many  years  he  was  esteemed  the  leading 
artist  in  his  peculiar  walk.  In  1846  he  pro- 
duced his  first  original  picture,  "  The  North 
Carolina  Emigrants,"  which  was  exhibited  and 
sold  in  New  York,  and  at  once  established  his 
reputation  as  a  genre  painter.  Among  his 
other  pictures  are  "The  Long  Bill"  and  "The 
Land  Speculator;"  and  his  latest  work,  "Out 
all  Night,"  has  been  engraved  in  London.  Of 
late  years  he  has  devoted  himself  principally  to 
composition  and  the  painting  of  domesticated 
animals.  His  works  are  characterized  by  nat- 
ural force  and  simplicity,  with  correct  draw- 
ing, and  a  keen  sense  of  humor.  II.  William 
H.,  an  American  painter,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Painesville,  Ohio,  about  1824. 
At  21  years  of  age  he  took  up  portrait 


422 


BEAR   LAKE 


BEATON 


painting,  and  about  1850  opened  a  studio  at 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  soon  after  began  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  genre  and  animal 
painting.  After  acquiring  a  considerable  local 
reputation  he  visited  Europe  in  1858-'60,  and 
in  the  latter  year  settled  in  New  York.  He  is 
noted  for  the  production  of  a  series  of  works 
conceived  in  a  vein  of  grotesque  humor,  in 
which  bears,  apes,  and  other  animals  enact 
scenes  from  the  drama  of  human  life.  Promi- 
nent among  these  are  his  "  Bears  on  a  Bend- 
er," "  Court  of  Justice,"  "  Dance  of  Silenus," 
"Bear  Dance,"  and  "Watchers."  In  some  of 
his  pictures  the  comic  element  predominates ; 
others  are  almost  entirely  satirical. 

BEAR  LIKE,  Great,  a  body  of  water  in  North 
America,  between  lat.  65°  and  67°  N.  and  Ion. 
117°  and  123°  W.,  200  ft.  above  the  sea,  irreg- 
ular in  shape,  with  an  area  estimated  at  about 
14,000  sq.  m.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  150 
in.,  and  greatest  breadth  120  m.  Its  chief  sup- 
ply is  from  the  Dease  river ;  its  outlet  is  Bear 
Lake  river.  The  lake  water,  which  is  very 
clear,  and  appears  of  a  light  blue  color,  has 
been  sounded  to  the  depth  of  270  ft.  without 
bottom,  and  abounds  in  fish,  particularly  the 
herring-salmon.  The  second  land  expedition 
under  Franklin,  in  1825,  wintered  at  the  S.  W. 
extremity  of  the  lake,  and  built  Fort  Franklin, 
afterward  one  of  the  Hudson  Bay  company's 
stations.  Simpson,  Richardson,  and  others, 
journeying  from  Canada  to  the  Arctic  ocean, 
have  passed  this  point.  The  lake,  which  is 
4°  S.  and  23°  W.  of  the  magnetic  pole,  as  deter- 
mined by  Ross  in  1831,  is  the  basin  of  a  water- 
shed 400  m.  in  diameter. 

BEAR  LAKE  RIVER,  the  outlet  at  the  S.  W. 
extremity  of  Bear  lake,  runs  S.  W.  70  m.  and 
joins  Mackenzie  river  in  lat.  64°  59'  N.,  about 
500  m.  from  the  mouth  of  that  river  in  the 
Arctic  ocean.  The  breadth  of  Bear  Lake 
river  is  not  less  than  450  ft.  except  at  a  point 
35  m.  from  the  lake,  where  "  the  Rapid  " 
descends  3  m.  through  high  rock  walls.  The 
depth  of  the  stream  is  from  one  to  three  fath- 
oms, and  the  current  is  6  m.  an  hour.  It  re- 
ceives in  its  course  several  small  branches. 

BEAR  MOUNTAIN,  in  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Dau- 
phin co.,  Penn.,  750  ft.  high,  is  near  a  valley 
of  the  same  name,  having  rich  deposits  of 
anthracite  coal,  and  belongs  to  the  first  or 
southern  coal  district  of  Pennsylvania. 

BEARN,  formerly  a  province  of  S.  W.  France, 
bordering  on  Spain,  now  forming  the  eastern 
and  larger  part  of  the  department  of  Basses- 
Pyren6es.  It  is  mountainous  and  well  watered, 
and  excellently  adapted  for  raising  cattle  and 
horses.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  primi- 
tive inhabitants,  the  Beneharni.  The  bulk  of 
the  present  population  is  of  Basque  descent, 
still  speaking  the  Basque  tongue,  and  under- 
standing very  little  French  ;  the  people  are  en- 
ergetic, industrious,  and  freedom-loving.  Beam 
was  a  part  of  ancient  Aquitania,  and  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Visigoths,  and  afterward  of 
the  Franks.  Its  first  feudal  possessor,  Centul- 


1ns,  is  mentioned  in  the  9th  century,  and  his 
descendants  ruled  it  to  the  close  of  the  13th 
century,  when  it  came  into  possession  of  the 
counts  of  Foix  by  marriage,  and  by  the  female 
line  of  this  house  into  the  hands  of  the  kings  of 
Navarre,  by  the  last  of  whom,  Henry  IV.,  it 
was  united  with  France,  tin  nigh  the  act  of  an- 
nexation was  not  finally  accomplished  till  1620. 
BEAR  RIVER.  I.  A  stream  in  Utah  territory, 
400  m.  long,  which  rises  in  a  spur  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  about  75  m.  E.  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
flows  first  N.  W.  into  Idaho  territory,  where  it 
makes  a  sharp  bend  and  returns  by  a  S.  S.  W. 
course  into  Utah,  and  falls  into  Great  Salt 
lake.  At  the  bend  of  the  river  in  Idaho, 
about  45  m.  from  Lewis  river,  are  the  Beer  and 
Steamboat  springs,  highly  impregnated  with 
magnesia  and  other  mineral  substances.  The 
valley,  which  is  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  through 
most  of  its  extent  is  narrow,  but  portions  of  it 
-  are  described  by  Fremont  as  extremely  pictu- 


resque.    II.  A  river  in  California,  which  rises 


on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  runs  V. 
and  S.,  forming  the  boundary  for  some  distance 
between  Yuba  and  Placer  counties,  and  unites 
with  Feather  river,  31  m.  below  Marysville. 

BEAS,  or  Be; pasha  (anc.  the  upper  Hyphasig), 
a  river  of  the  Punjaub,  in  western  India.  It 
rises  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  13,200  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  flows  into  the 
Sutlej  at  Endreesa,  lat.  31°  10'  and  Ion.  75°  4'. 
Its  length  is  about  250  m.  In  the  winter  it  is 
fordable  in  most  places,  but  in  summer  has 
been  known  to  be  740  yards  wide  and  have  a 
swift  current  at  a  distance  of  20  m.  from  its 
confluence  with  the  Sutlej. 

BEASLEY,  Frederick,  an  American  divine,  born 
near  Edenton,  N.  C.,  in  1777,  died  at  Elizabeth- 
town,  N.  J.,  Nov.  2,  1845.  In  1801  he  was 
ordained  deacon  in  the  Episcopal  church,  and 
j  was  successively  rector  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and 
i  in  Baltimore,  Md.  He  was  from  1813  to  1828 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  published  in  defence  of 
the  philosophy  of  Locke  a  "Search  of  Truth 
in  the  Science  of  the  Human  Mind  "  (1822). 
After  retiring  from  the  university  he  took 
charge  of  a  church  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where 
he  wrote  an  answer  to  the  doctrinal  views  of 
Dr.  Channing.  From  1836  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment at  Elizabethtown. 

BEATIFICATION,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  an  act  of  the  pope  whereby  a  deceased 
person  is  declared  blessed  previous  to  being 
canonized  as  a  saint.  The  person  must  have 
had  a  reputation  for  sanctity  and  supernatural 
gifts,  and  before  the  decree  is  pronounced  a 
long  and  minute  investigation  is  made  into  his 
or  her  merits,  and  this  cannot  be  completed 
till  50  years  after  death.  In  early  times  the 
decree  of  beatification  was  pronounced  by 
bishops,  but  in  1170  that  right  was  reserved 
to  the  holy  see  by  Alexander  III.,  and  has  been 
held  by  it  ever  since. 

BEATON,  Beton,  Beatonn,  or  Bfthune,  David, 
a  Scottish  statesman  and  ecclesiastic,  born  in 


BEATON 


BEAUCE 


423 


1494,  assassinated  at  St.  Andrews,  May  28,  ; 
1546.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews  and 
at  Paris,  and  received  from  his  uncle,  James 
Beaton,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  the  rec- 
tory of  Campsie  and  the  abbacy  of  Arhroath. 
He  was  ambassador  to  France  1519-'25,  be- 
came a  favorite  of  James  V.,  and  was  appoint- 
ed lord  privy  seal  in  1528.  In  1533  he  was 
sent  to  France  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  marriage 
between  James  and  Magdalene,  daughter  of 
Francis  I.,  and  again  after  her  death  in  1537  to 
bring  over  Mary  of  Guise.  Francis  I.  made 
him  bishop  of  Mirepoix,  and  the  following  year 
procured  for  him  from  Pope  Paul  III.  the  rank 
of  cardinal.  In  1539  he  succeeded  his  uncle  ; 
in  the  primacy  of  Scotland  as  archbishop  of  i 
St.  Andrews.  He  at  once  began  a  vigorous 
persecution  of  the  reformers  in  Scotland,  com- 
pelled many  suspected  persons  to  recant,  and 
two  men,  Norman  Gourlay  and  David  Straiton, 
were  burned  near  Edinburgh.  Soon  afterward 
Beaton  was  appointed  by  the  pope  legate  A  la- 
tere.  After  the  sudden  death  of  King  James 
(Dec.  13,  1542),  leaving  as  his  successor  the 
infant  Mary,  five  days  old,  Cardinal  Beaton 
conceived  the  idea  of  seizing  the  government, 
and  with  the  aid  of  a  priest,  Henry  Balfour,  | 
is  said  to  have  forged  a  will  for  the  king,  nomi- 
nating himself  regent  with  three  of  the  nobility 
as  his  assistants.  This  will  was  proclaimed 
at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh  a  few  days  after  the 
death  of  the  king,  and  the  cardinal  took  pos- 
session of  the  regency.  But  the  earl  of  Arran, 
who  had  prospective  claims  to  the  succession, 
called  an  assembly  of  noblemen,  who  set  aside 
Beaton  and  put  Arran  in  his  place.  The  car- 
dinal, however,  had  the  support  of  the  queen 
dowager  and  of  powerful  friends ;  and  after  a 
brief  imprisonment  he  was  released  and  made 
lord  high  chancellor  (December,  1543),  and  soon 
succeeded  in  making  the  weak  Arran  his  tool. 
The  English  invasion  which  soon  followed  was 
successfully  opposed,  and  during  the  succeed- 
ing peace  the  regent,  by  the  advice  of  Beaton, 
endeavored  to  strengthen  the  Scottish  connec- 
tion with  France.  Fully  established  in  the 
civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  administration  of 
affairs,  the  cardinal  renewed  his  persecution 
of  reformers,  hanging,  drowning,  and  burning 
several  of  them.  In  1546  he  burnt  George 
\Vishart,  the  most  eminent  preacher  among 
the  reformers,  and  sent  to  the  stake  several  of 
his  followers.  His  enemies,  seeing  no  other 
hope  of  relief  from  these  persecutions,  re- 
solved upon  his  death.  Early  in  the  morning 
of  May  28,  1546,  several  conspirators  entered 
the  cardinal's  bedchamber  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews.  The  assassins  were  Norman  Leslie, 
Peter  Carmichael,  and  James  Melville,  who 
charged  him  with  his  wicked  life,  and  especially 
liis  murder  of  George  Wishart,  and  struck 
him  down  with  daggers  and  a  stag  sword.  As 
he  fell,  he  cried  out,  "  Fie,  fie !  I  am  a  priest ; 
all's  gone."  Cardinal  Beaton  lived  luxurious- 
ly, and  was  scandalously  licentious.  He  is  said 
to  have  written  an  account  of  his  embassies, 


and  other  works.  He  was  eminently  success- 
ful in  diplomacy. 

BEATRICE  PORTINARI,  the  object  of  the  poet- 
ical devotion  of  Dante,  born  about  1266,  died  in 
1290.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Falco  Porti- 
nari,  a  noble  Florentine,  and  is  represented  as 
possessing  remarkable  graces  of  person  and  of 
mind.  The  poet  first  met  her  at  a  social  party 
when  she  was  but  nine  years  of  age,  and  was 
at  once  so  affected  that  he  became  almost 
speechless.  The  story  of  his  love  is  recounted 
in  the  Vita  Nuova,  which  was  mostly  written 
after  her  death.  Dante  saw  little  of  Beatrice 
during  her  lifetime,  but  she  grew  in  his  mind 
and  imagination  to  be  the  embodiment  of  divine 
truth,  and  in  this  character  she  appears  in  the 
Divina  Commedia.  She  was  married  before 
1287  to  Simone  del  Bardi,  a  citizen  of  Florence. 

BEATTIE,  James,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in 
Kincardineshire,  Oct.  25,  1735,  died  in  Aber- 
deen, Aug.  18,  1803.  He  obtained  a  scholar- 
ship at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  and  in 
1758  became  one  of  the  masters  in  the  Aber- 
deen grammar  school,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  the  head  master.  In  1760  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  Marischal  col- 
lege. In  1765  he  published  a  poem,  "  The  Judg- 
ment of  Paris,"  which  gained  no  celebrity.  The 
work  which  won  him  the  greatest  fame  was  an 
"Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Immutability  of 
Truth,"  designed  as  a  reply  to  Hume,  which 
was  translated  into  several  languages,  and  pro- 
cured for  its  author  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
the  university  of  Oxford,  and  a  private  confer- 
ence with  George  III.,  who  granted  him  a 
pension  of  £200.  While  in  London  he  became 
intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Dr.  Porteus,  and 
other  distinguished  literary  characters.  His 
famous  poem  "  The  Minstrel "  appeared  in 
parts  from  1771  to  1774.  In  1783  he  publish- 
ed "Dissertations,  Moral  and  Critical,"  and  in 
1786  "The  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion," written  at  the  request  of  the  bishop  of 
London.  In  1 790  he  published  the  first  volume, 
and  in  1793  the  second,  of  his  "  Elements  of 
Moral  Science  ;  "  subjoined  to  the  latter  was  a 
dissertation  against  the  slave  trade.  His  last 
publication  was  an  account  of  the  life,  writ- 
ings, and  character  of  his  eldest  son,  James 
Hay  Beattie. 

BEADCAIRE,  a  commercial  town  of  France, 
department  of  Gard,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone,  12  m.  E.  of  Nimes ;  pop.  in  1866,  9,395. 
It  is  opposite  Tarascon,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  suspension  bridge,  and  is  near  the 
junction  of  railways  to  Avignon,  Marseilles, 
Cette,  and  Alais,  by  Nimes.  It  has  consider- 
able trade  in  grain,  flour,  and  wine,  and  an  annual 
fair  in  July,  established  in  1217  by  Raymond  VI., 
count  of  Toulouse,  which  was  formerly  the  larg- 
est in  Europe.  The  canal  de  Beaucaire,  opened 
in  1773,  connects  the  town  with  Aigues-Mortes. 

BEAUCE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  the  province  of 
Quebec,  Canada,  bordering  on  Maine;  area, 
1,150  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  27,253.  Its  great- 
est length  is  about  45  m.,  and  its  greatest  width 


424 


BEAUCHESNE 


about  30  m.  It  is  traversed  by  the  river  Chau- 
diere,  and  watered  by  several  of  its  branches. 
Chief  town,  St.  Joseph. 

lil  tl  ( III  >M  .  Aldde  Hyaeinthe  dn  Bois  de,  a 
French  author,  born  at  Lorient,  March  31, 
1804.  He  belongs  to  an  ancient  Breton  family, 
became  in  1825  prominently  connected  with 
the  department  of  fine  arts,  and  in  1827  with 
the  court  of  Charles  X.  Since  1853  he  has 
been  connected  with  the  archives,  which  ena- 
bled him  to  collect  materials  for  his  principal 
work,  Louis  XVII.,  sa  vie,  son  agonie  et  so, 
mart  (2  vols.,  1852 ;  4th  ed.,  1866),  and  which  ; 
with  the  sequel,  Vie  de  Hme.  £l'isabeth  and  Le 
livre  des  jeunes  meres,  poems  (1858;  2d  ed., 
1860),  received  a  prize  from  the  academy.  He 
is  also  the  author  of  Souvenirs  poetiques  (1830; 
3d  ed.,  1834),  &c. 

i;i:  \l  ( I.KKK.  Topham,  one  of  Dr.  Johnson's 
favorite  friends,  born  in  1739,  died  March  11, 
1780.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Lord  Sidney 
Beauclerk.  third  son  of  the  first  duke  of  St. 
Albans,  the  son  of  Charles  II.  by  Eleanor 
Gwynn.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  his  con- 
versational talents  so  much  charmed  Johnson 
that  when  the  "  Literary  Club  "  was  founded 
he  was  one  of  the  nine  original  members.  When 
he  went  to  Italy  in  1762,  Johnson  wrote  to  his 
friend  Baretti  warmly  commending  Beauclerk 
to  his  kindness.  In  1765  he  accompanied 
Johnson  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge.  He  seduced 
Lady  Diana  Spencer,  wife  of  Viscount  Boling- 
broke  and  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
in  1768,  and  married  her  immediately  after  she 
was  divorced. 

BEAUFORT.  I.  An  E.  county  of  North  Car- 
olina, bordering  on  Pamlico  sound  and  inter- 
sected by  Pamlico  river,  which  is  navigable  by 
vessels  drawing  8  ft.  of  water ;  area,  about 
1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,011,  of  whom 
4,632  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and 
the  soil  sandy  or  marshy.  Tar  and  turpentine 
are  produced  in  large  quantities.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  179,994  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  102,626  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,987 
bales  of  cotton,  and  59,206  Ibs.  of  rice.  There 
were  706  horses,  2,469  milch  cows,  4,338  other 
cattle,  2,883  sheep,  and  16,730  swine.  Capital, 
Washington.  II.  A  county  forming  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  South  Carolina,  bounded  N. 
E.  by  the  Combahee  river,  S.  E.  by  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  and  separated  on  the  S.  W.  from 
Georgia  by  the  Savannah  river;  area,  1,540 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  34,359,  of  whom  29,050 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  the  Broad, 
Coosawhatchie,  and  New  rivers,  which  are  all 
navigable  by  small  vessels.  On  the  coast  are 
several  islands,  the  principal  of  which  are  Port 
Royal,  St.  Helena,  and  Hilton  Head,  producing 
sea  island  cotton.  The  Charleston  and  Savan- 
nah railroad  traverses  the  county.  The  sur- 
face is  low,  the  soil  sandy  and  alluvial.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  285,532  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  118,036  of  sweet  potatoes,  7,486 
bales  of  cotton,  and  9,069,130  Ibs.  of  rice. 
There  were  1,721  horses,  1,304  mules  and  asseg, 


BEAUFORT 

4,219   milch   cows,  4,903   other   cattle,   1,921 
sheep,  and  16,583  swine.     Capital,  Beaufort. 

BEAUFORT.  I.  A  town  and  port  of  entry,  cap- 
ital of  Carteret  county,  North  Carolina,  at  the 
mouth  of  Newport  river,  a  few  miles  from  tin- 
sea,  llm.  N.  W.  of  Cape  Lookout,  and  130  m. 
S.  E.  of  Raleigh;  pop.  in  1870,  2,430,  of  whom 
1,242  were  colored.  It  is  accessible  by  steam- 
boat from  Albemarle  sound,  and  has  a  commo- 
dious and  well  sheltered  harbor,  considered 
the  best  in  the  state.  On  Bogue  point,  at  its 
entrance,  is  Fort  Macon.  There  is  an  exten- 
sive trade,  chiefly  in  turpentine  and  rosin. 
II.  A  town  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of  Beau- 
fort county,  South  Carolina,  on  Port  Royal  isl- 
and, and  on  an  arm  of  Broad  river  communi- 
cating with  Port  Royal  entrance  on  the  one 
hand  and  St.  Helena  sound  on  the  other,  about 
16  m.  from  the  sea,  and  48  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Charleston;  pop.  in  1870,  1,739,  of  whom 
1,273  were  colored.  It  has  a  spacious  harbor, 
with  24  feet  of  water  on  the  bar,  and  is  a  fa- 
vorite summer  resort.  It  has  some  foreign 
trade,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Beaufort  was 
occupied  by  the  United  States  forces  Dec.  6, 
1861,  having  been  abandoned  by  the  confede- 
rates after  the  naval  fight  at  Hilton  Head. 

BEAUFORT.  I.  A  town  of  Anjou,  France, 
in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  16  m.  E. 
of  Angers ;  pop.  in  1866,  2,629.  Among  the 
various  manufactures,  those  of  sail  cloth  are 
the  most  famous.  Beaufort  became  a  county 
in  the  13th  century,  and  came  into  possession 
of  King  Ren6  in  the  15th.  The  ancient  castle 
of  Beaufort  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 

i  lish  house  of  Lancaster  at  the  close  of  the  13th 
century,  and  gave  the  title  to  the  natural  and 
afterward  legitimatized  children  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  to  whom  the  lineage  of  the  present 
English  dukes  of  Beaufort  is  traced.  II.  The 
French  dukes  of  Beaufort  originated  from  Ga. 
brielle  d'Estrees,  mistress  of  Henry  IV.,  who 
became  duchess  of  Beaufort  from  an  estate  of 
that  name  in  Champagne,  which  belonged  to 
her  family.  III.  The  Belgian  dukes  and  counts 
of  Beaufort  or  Beauffort  trace  their  title  to  the 
beginning  of  the  llth  century,  and  to  a  castle 
of  that  name  in  Namur. 

BEAUFORT,  Sir  Franels,  an  English  hydrogra- 
pher,  born  at  Collon,  county  Lowth,  Ireland, 
in  1774,  died  in  Brighton,  Dec.  17,  1857.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  of  French  extrac- 
tion; entered  the  navy  in  1787;  served  as  mid- 
shipman under  Admiral  Cornwallis ;  was  under 
Howe  in  the  naval  battle  off  Brest,  June  1, 1794: 
became  lieutenant  in  1796,  and  commodore  in 
1800,  in  reward  for  his  services  at  the  battle  off 
Malaga,  where  he  was  wounded.  He  acquired 
scientific  reputation  by  his  hydrographic  labors 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  in  1811-'!  2,  and 
published  "  Karamania,  or  a  Brief  Description 

i  of  the  South  Coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  the 
Remains  of  Antiquity"  (London,  1817),  which 

;  has  proved  very  useful  to  later  explorers. 
Wounded  in  a  conflict  with  Turkish  pirates 
in  1812,  while  on  his  way  to  Syria,  he  was 


BEAUFORT 


425 


obliged  to  return  to  England,  where  subse- 
quently lie  drew  up  many  maps,  and  was  hy- 
drographer  of  the  admiralty  from  1832  to 
1855.  Geographical  and  maritime  explorations 
were  greatly  promoted  by  his  labors,  and  he 
was  a  prominent  fellow  of  the  royal  society, 
rnd  member  of  the  astronomical  and  geograph- 
ical societies,  and  a  commissioner  of  the  pilot 
service.  He  became  honorary  rear  admiral 
in  1846,  and  was  knighted  in  1848. 

BEAUFORT,  Franfois  de  Venddme,  duke  of,  son 
of  Cesar  de  Vendome  and  grandson  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  born  in  Paris  in  January,  1616, 
died  June  25,  1669.  He  served  with  some 
distinction  during  the  30  years'  war,  and  med- 
dled in  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars  against 
Cardinal  Richelieu.  In  consequence  of  this 
last  affair  he  was  obliged  to  seek  a  refuge  in 
England.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV., 
the  queen  regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  showed 
him  great  favor,  which  he  repaid  with  in- 
solence. Implicated  in  a  plot  against  the 
life  of  Mazarin,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
chateau  of  Vincennes.  Escaping  in  1648,  he 
joined  the  Frondeurs,  became  extremely  pop- 
ular with  the  Parisian  populace,  and  was 
called  the  king  of  the  markets.  He  killed 
his  brother-in-law,  the  duke  of  Nemours,  in  a 
duel,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  his  seconds, 
Hericourt,  was  killed  by  the  marquis  de  Vil- 
lars,  a  second  of  Nemours.  Becoming  tired  of 
civil  war,  he  made  his  peace  with  the  court ; 
and,  Louis  XIV.  having  taken  into  his  hands 
the  reins  of  government,  Beaufort  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  navy.  In  1664 
and  1665  he  successfully  led  attacks  against  the 
corsairs  of  Africa;  in  1666  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  fleet  which  was  to  join  the  Dutch  in 
the  war  against  England;  and  in  1669  he 
went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Venetians,  then 
besieged  by  the  Turks  in  the  island  of  Candia, 
where  he  was  killed  in  a  sally. 

BEAl'FORT,  Henry  of,  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  about  1370,  died  at  Winches- 
ter, April  1 1, 1447.  He  was  a  legitimatized  son 
of  John  of  Gaunt  by  his  mistress,  afterward 
his  third  wife,  Lady  Catharine  Swynford,  who 
hud  been  governess  in  his  family,  and  he  was  a 
half  brother  of  Henry  IV.  He  studied  in  Ox- 
ford and  Aix-la-Chapelle,  became  bishop  of 
Lincoln  in  1397,  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Oxford  in  1399,  bishop  of  Winchester  as  suc- 
cessor of  William  of  Wyckham  in  1404,  and 
lord  chancellor  in  the  parliaments  of  1404-'5 
and  on  other  occasions.  Subsequently  he  was 
appointed  cardinal  of  St.  Ensebius  by  Pope 
Martin  V.,  whose  election  he  had  promoted, 
and  who  made  him  legate  d  latere  in  England 
for  raising  a  crusade  against  the  Hussites. 
The  pope's  good  will,  however,  was  lost  by  his 
alleged  appropriation  of  the  funds  for  the  cru- 
Kade  toward  the  expenses  of  the  war  with 
France.  He  was  president  of  the  court  which 
sentenced  Joan  of  Arc  to  death.  The  wealth 
amassed  in  the  see  of  Winchester  enabled  him 
to  advance  nearly  £30,000  to  his  nephew 


Henry  V.,  and  over  £10,000  to  the  infant 
Henry  VI.,  who  was  brought  up  under  his 
care.  After  the  death  of  Henry  V.  in  1422, 
and  during  the  minority  of  Henry  VI.,  when 
the  duke  of  Gloucester  became  regent  in  the 
absence  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Beaufort 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency,  a 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  Gloucester 
and  Beaufort  disturbed  the  public  tranquilli- 
ty, embarrassed  England  in  her  conflict  with 
France  for  over  20  years,  and  well  nigh  culmi- 
nated in  civil  war,  Bedford  and  others  vainly 
attempting  to  reconcile  the  two  rivals.  A 
court  of  arbitration  effected  an  apparent  recon- 
ciliation, but  Beaufort  took  umbrage  at  the 
terms  of  their  decision,  resigned  the  chancel- 
lorship, and  went  with  Bedford  to  France. 
He  escorted  Henry  VI.  on  his  coronation  in 
Paris  in  1429,  and  induced  parliament  to  put 
an  end  to  Gloucester's  regency,  after  which  he 
became  so  omnipotent  that  Gloucester  put  him- 
self at  the  head  of  a  formidable  opposition, 
renewing  former  and  bringing  forward  new 
charges  affecting  his  integrity,  questioning  the 
legal  compatibility  of  his  cardinal's  hat  with 
his  episcopal  functions,  and  making  his  posi- 
tion so  untenable  that  Beaufort  could  only 
sustain  himself  by  bills  of  indemnity  from  par- 
liament (1432  and  1437)  exempting  him  from 
punishment  for  his  alleged  crimes.  Eventu- 
ally he  wreaked  his  revenge  on  Gloucester 
by  having  him  indicted  for  treason  at  St. 
Edmundsbury,  and  arrested.  The  duke  was 
found  dead  on  the  day  appointed  for  his  vindi- 
cationj  and  though  no  signs  of  violence  were 
detected  upon  his  body,  it  was  not  believed 
that  he  came  to  a  natural  end,  and  Beaufort, 
who  died  about  five  weeks  afterward,  way 
generally  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death. 
Shakespeare,  in  the  "  Second  Part  of  King 
Henry  VI.,"  represents  the  cardinal  as  having 
died  in  an  agony  of  remorse  and  despair.  He 
bequeathed  his  property  to  charitable  purposes, 
endowed  the  still  existing  hospital  of  St.  Cross 
at  Winchester,  and  was  buried  in  the  chantry 
of  Winchester  cathedral  which  bears  his  name. 

BEAUFORT,  Henry  Charles  Fltzroy  Somerset,  8th 
duke  of,  an  English  soldier  and  politician,  born 
in  Paris,  Feb.  1,  1824.  He  studied  at  Eton, 
and  became  successively  aide-de-camp  to  Wel- 
lington, Hardinge,  and  the  duke  of  Cambridge, 
retiring  from  active  service  in  1861  as  lieuten- 
ant colonel.  He  was  a  tory  member  of  par- 
liament for  Gloucestershire  from  1846  to  1853, 
when  on  the  death  of  his  father,  who  had  ex- 
ercised great  political  influence  by  his  immense 
wealth,  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage. 

BEAUFORT,  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond 
and  of  Derby,  born  at  Bletsoe,  Bedfordshire,  in 
1441,  died  in  1509.  She  was  a  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Somerset,  great-grandson  of  Edward 
III.,  and  was  married  to  the  earl  of  Richmond, 
half  brother  to  Henry  VI.,  by  whom  at  the  age 
of  18  years  she  had  one  son,  afterward  king  of 
England  under  the  title  of  Henry  VII.  After 
[  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Richmond  she  married 


426 


BEAUGENCY 


successively  Sir  Henry  Stafford,  a  connection 
of  the  ducal  house  of  Buckingham,  and  Thomas 
Lord  Stanley,  afterward  earl  of  Derby,  but 
had  issue  by  neither  of  these  marriages.  She 
was  celebrated  for  her  devotion  and  charity. 
By  her  bounty  two  colleges,  Christ's  and  St. 
John's,  were  endowed  at  Cambridge,  and  a 
professorship  of  divinity  established  in  each ; 
but  the  endowments  were  subsequently  re- 
covered by  Henry  VIII.  as  her  heir  at  law. 
She  translated  the  "  Mirroure  of  Golde  to  the 
Sinfull  Soul,"  from  a  French  translation  of  the 
Speculum  Aureum  Peccatorum,  and  the  4th 
book  of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ." 

BEAUGENCV,  an  old  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Loire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire, 
15  m.  S.  W.  of  Orleans;  pop.  in  1866,  5,039.  ' 
In  1152  a  council  was  held  here  which  divorced 
King  Louis  VII.  from  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  who  [ 
soon  became  the  wife  of  Henry  Plantagenet, 
then  heir  apparent  of  the  crown  of  England. 
Beaugency  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls, 
flanked  with  towers  and  bastions,  and  protect- 
ed by  a  powerful  castle,  the  ruins  of  which  still  ', 
remain.    The  kings  of  France  had  a  palace  here 
in  the  14th  century.    On  Dec.  8,  1870,  the  Ger- 
man troops  under  the  grand  duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg, after  a  successful  fight  at  Meung  on  the 
7th,  defeated  here  the  French  army  of  the  Loire 
under  Gen.  Chanzy,  who,  on  the  evacuation  of 
Orleans,  thus  vainly  endeavored  to  cover  Tours. 
l!l-:\l  IIAKVVIS.     Alexandra,     vicomte     de,     a 
French    general,  born  in  the  island  of  Mar- 
tinique in   1700,  guillotined  in  Paris,  July  23, 
1794.     He  was  major  in  a  regiment  of  infantry 
when  lie  married  Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pa- 
gerie,  who  became  after  his  death  the  wife  of 
Bonaparte.     He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
American  war,  under  the  command  of  Count 
Rochambeau.     In  1789  he  was  elected  deputy 
to  the  states  general  by  the  nobles  of  Blois, 
and  was   among  the   first  of  his  order  who 
.joined  the  tiers-etat.     He  was  twice  president 
of  the  national   assembly,  and   occupied   the 
chair  when  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  was  made 
known.     A  little  later  he  joined,  as  a  general 
of  division,  the  army  of  Oustine  on  the  Rhine, 
.and  was  accused  of  causing  the  surrender  of 
Mentz  by  his  inaction,  for  which  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 
1:1: H  II  \KN  US.  Eugene  de,  duke  of  Leuchten- 
berg  and  prince  of  Eichstadt,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding and  stepson  of  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
born  in  Paris,  Sept.  3,  1781,  died  in  Munich, 
Feb.  21,  1824.     He  served  in  Brittany  under 
Gen.  Hoche,  who  had  been  his  father's  friend, 
and  in  1795  went  back  to  Paris,  and  called  on 
Gen.  Bonaparte  to  obtain  from  him  his  father's 
sword,   which  had   been  taken  away  on  the 
disarming  of  the  sections  subsequent  to  the 
13th  Vendemiaire.   Bonaparte  at  once  granted 
his  request,  and  soon  received  a  visit  of  thanks 
from  Mme.  Beauharnais,  whom  he  married  in 
1796.     In   1798  Eugene   followed   Bonaparte 
to  Egypt,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Acre. 
He  returned  to  France  with  Bonaparte,  was 


BEAUHARNAIS 

appointed  to  a  captaincy  in  the  consular  guards, 
and   after    the   battle   of   Marengo  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  major.     On  the  establishment 
of  the  empire  he  became  a  prince  and  colonel 
general  of  the  chasseurs;  in  1805  state  arch- 
chancellor,  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  viceroy  of  Italy.     On  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage  with  Augusta  Amelia,  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  Napoleon  invested  him  with 
the  title  of  prince  of  Venice,  and  proclaimed 
him  "his  adopted   son,  and  heir  apparent   to- 
the  crown  of  Italy."     He  was  then  only  24 
years  old,  hut  showed  at  once  great  prudence 
and  discretion.     The  Italian   army  was  reen- 
forced,  and  soon  ranked  among  the  best  troops 
of  the  great   empire;  the   fortresses  and   the 
coasts  were  put  in  a  state  of  defence,  uniform 
laws  promulgated,  facilities  for  public   educa- 
tion increased,  beggary  suppressed  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  asylums  for  the  poor,  and  the 
cathedral  of  Milan   completed.     All  this  was 
accomplished   without    any    addition    to    the 
taxes ;  never  were  the  fiscal  charges  so  mode- 
rate, and  yet  in  1813  the  public  treasury  had 
a  surplus  of  92,000,000  livres,  Italian.     When 
the  fourth  Austrian  war  broke  out,  he  was 
defeated  by  the  archduke  John  in  the  battle 
of  Sacile,  April  16,  1809;   but  he  soon  took 
his  revenge  on  the  banks  of  the  Piave,  where 
he  inflicted  on  the  Austrians  a  loss  of  10,00ii 
soldiers   and    15   pieces  of   cannon.     Eugene 
pursued  them  into   Carinthia,  defeated   them 
in   several   encounters,  and  joined   the   great 
French  army  in  the  plains  of  Austria.     Then 
he  invaded  Hungary,  and  gained  on  June  14, 
near   Raab,  a  victory   over  Archduke    John, 
,  whose  army  was  one  third  stronger  than  hi.* 
j  own.     Three  weeks  later  he  took  an  important 
part  in  the  battle  of  Wagram.     When  his  mo- 
ther was  divorced  from  Napoleon,  Eugene  as. 
state  arch-chancellor  was  obliged  to  announce 
the  event  to  the  senate.    In  1812  he  command- 
ed one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  army  which 
invaded  Russia,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Borodino.     During  the  retreat  from 
Moscow  he  was  noted  for  his  self-possession, 
firmness,  and  intrepidity,  and  the  retreat  he  con- 
ducted from  Posen  to  Leipsic,  as  commander- 
in-chief  after  the  departure  of  Murat,  has  been 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
war  operations  on  record.     Before  leaving  the 
army   he  contributed  much  to  the  victory  of 
Liitzen.     Then  he  repaired  to  Italy,  where  in 
less  than  three  months  a  new  army  amounting 
to  50,000  soldiers,  was  organized,  and  all  the 
fortresses  were  prepared  for  defence.     He  de- 
fended Italy  bravely  against  the  allied  forces, 
but  was  finally  forced  to  yield,  and  retired  to 
the    court    of   his  father-in-law   in    Bavaria. 
There   he  received,  with  the   principality  of 
Eichstadt,  the  title  of  duke  of  Lenchtenberg 
and  first  peer  of  the  kingdom.     He  left  two 
sons  and  four  daughters.     The  eldest  daughter, 
Jos6phine,    married    Oscar,  king  of  Sweden ; 
the     next,    Eugenie    Hortense,   married     the 
prince  of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen ;    and   the 


BEAUIIARNAIS 


BEAUMANOIR 


427 


third,  Am61ie  Auguste,  became  the  wife  of  ] 
l)om  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil.  Of  the  two  sons,  the 
elder,  Auguste  Charles,  the  first  husband  of 
Queen  Maria  of  Portugal,  died  March  28,  1835 ; 
and  the  younger,  Maximilian  Joseph,  who  in 
1839  married  the  grand  duchess  Maria,  daugh- 
ter of  Czar  Nicholas,  died  Nov.  1,  1852. 

Itl.U  II  tlt\  tis.  Fanny,  the  familiar  name  of  ; 
MARIE  ANNE  FRANQOISE  MOUCHARD,  comtesse 
de    Beauharnais,    a    French   writer,    born   in 
Paris  in  1738,  died  there,  July  2,  1813.     Her  ; 
father  was  receiver  general  in  the  province  of 
Champagne.      She  was   married   in   1753    to  i 
Count  de  Beauharnais,  uncle  of  Alexandre,  but 
soon  separated  from  him  and  took  up  her  resi- 
dence in  Paris.      Here  she  devoted  herself  to 
literary  pursuits,  and  made  her  rooms  the  ren- 
dezvous of  many  of  the  most  prominent  writers 
of  the  day.     Her  own  writings,  however,  met 
with  little  success.     Among  them  are  several 
comedies,  which  failed  in  the  theatres,  a  his- 
torical novel,  and  many  poems. 

i:  i;  II  II  IK\  I  is.  Francois,  marquis  de,  a  French 
royalist,  brother  of  Alexandre  Beauharnais,  born 
at  La  Rochelle,  Aug.  12,  1756,  died  March  4, 
1846.  He  was  a  member  of  the  states  general. 
In  1792  he  formed  a  plan  for  the  flight  of  the 
royal  family ;  but  having  failed  in  his  attempt, 
he  left  France  and  was  appointed  major  gene- 
ral under  the  prince  of  Conde.  He  was  re- 
called to  France  on  the  occasion  of  his  daugh- 
ter's marriage  with  M.  de  Lavalette,  and  ap- 
pointed director  general  of  the  post  office, 
and  in  1805  ambassador  to  Etruria  and  after- 
ward to  Spain ;  but  Napoleon  being  dissatis- 
fied with  his  services  in  Spain,  he  was  recalled 
and  sent  into  exile  at  Sologne.  He  returned 
to  Paris  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  was  made  a  peer. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Hortense  Engenle,  wife  of  Louis 
Bonaparte  and  queen  of  Holland,  born  in  Paris, 
April  10, 1783,  diedat  Arenenberg,  Switzerland, 
Oct.  5, 1837.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Alexandre 
Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  afterward  wife  of 
Napoleon.  On  Jan.  3, 1802,  in  compliance  with 
the  wish  of  Napoleon,  she  became  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Louis.  The  union  was  not  a  happy  one. 
When  her  husband  was  made  king  she  went 
to  Holland  with  great  reluctance.  Louis  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  his  son  in  1810,  and  she  was 
appointed  regent ;  but  the  emperor  soon  after 
annulled  this  arrangement,  and  united  Holland 
with  the  empire.  After  her  return  to  Paris 
Hortense  lived  apart  from  her  husband,  al- 
though the  emperor  would  not  allow  them  to 
be  divorced,  and  is  said  to  have  led  a  dissolute 
life.  Among  her  reputed  lovers  were  the 
count  of  Flahaut,  for  whom  she  composed  the 
popular  air  Partant  pour  la  Syrie,  and  Admi- 
ral Verhuel,  a  Dutch  naval  officer,  to  whom  is 
frequently  attributed  the  paternity  of  Napoleon 
III.  After  the  divorce  of  Josephine,  Hortense 
remained  on  intimate  terms  with  Napoleon, 
and  had  considerable  influence  with  him.  She 
alone,  of  all  the  Bonaparte  family,  remained  in 
Paris  on  the  restoration.  After  Waterloo  she 


lived  successively  in  Augsburg,  in  Savoy,  and 
at  her  castle  of  Arenenberg,  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Constance,  in  Switzerland,  where  she  de- 
voted herself  to  the  education  of  her  children. 
In  1831  her  sons  Napoleon  Louis  and  Louis  Na- 
poleon (the  future  emperor)  became  involved  in 
the  insurrectionary  movements  in  Italy,  and  the 
elder  died  at  Forli.  After  that  she  returned  to 
Paris,  and  was  considerately  treated  by  Louis 
Philippe.  She  passed  several  years  again  in 
Switzerland,  hut  was  called  from  her  retire- 
ment in  1836  by  the  arrest  of  Louis  Napoleon 
at  Strasburg.  She  interceded  for  him,  and 
after  his  exile  to  the  United  States  returned  to 
Switzerland,  where  she  was  much  admired  for 
her  talents  and  benevolence. 

lit:\l  II  tit  VMS.  a  S.  W.  county  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  Canada,  bounded  N.  W.  by 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  including  Grand  island; 
area,  200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  14,759.  The 
Beauharnois  canal,  connecting  Lake  St.  Louis 
with  Lake  St.  Frangois,  runs  through  the  N. 
border,  and  the  Chateaugay  river  along  the  S. 
E.  border.  The  chief  staples  are  oats,  wool, 
and  dairy  products.  Chief  town,  Beauharnois, 
on  Lake  St.  Louis,  18  m.  S.  W.  of  Montreal. 

BEAt'JOLAIS,  a  subdivision  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Lyonnais,  France,  forming  now 
the  northern  part  of  the  department  of  the 
Rh6ne,  and  a  small  part  of  that  of  the  Loire. 
After  having  formed  an  important  separate 
barony,  it  came  in  1400  into  possession  of 
the  ducal  house  of  Bourbon,  was  confiscated 
in  1523  from  the  great  constable  de  Bourbon 
and  united  to  the  crown  by  Francis  L,  but  sub- 
sequently given  back  to  a  nephew  of  the  con- 
stable. In  1626  it  came  by  marriage  to  the 
house  of  Orleans,  in  whose  possession  it  re- 
mained until  the  revolution.  It  is  noted  for  its 
fine  vineyards.  Its  capital  was  Beaujeu. 

BEAUMANOIR,  Jean,  sire  de,  a  French  knight, 
born  in  Brittany,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century.  He  was  the  friend  and  com- 
panion in  arms  of  Du  Guesclin,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  civil  wars  of  Brittany, 
fighting  on  the  side  of  Charles  of  Blois  against 
John  of  Montfort  and  the  English.  While  in 
command  of  the  castle  of  Josselin  in  1351  he 
challenged  Bemborough,  the  English  com- 
mander at  Ploermel,  to  meet  30  French 
knights  with  30  Englishmen  at  a  place  between 
the  two  castles  known  as  Midway  Oak.  On 
the  first  onset  the  English  excelled  their  adver- 
saries; but  Bemborough  having  been  killed, 
the  French  renewed  the  struggle,  and  won  the 
victory.  This  combat  was  long  known  as  the 
battle  of  the  thirty.  At  the  battle  of  Auray, 
in  1364,  Beaumanoir  was  taken  prisoner. 

BEAIiMANOIR,  Philippe  de,  a  French  jurist 
born  in  Picardy,  died  in  1296.  In  1280  ho 
was  bailitF  of  Clermont  in  Beauvaisis,  which 
town  was  in  the  hands  of  Robert,  son  of 
Louis  IX.  and  the  head  of  the  Bourbon  fami- 
ly. It  was  according  to  directions  from  this 
prince  that  he  digested  and  committed  to 
writing  the  traditional  law  regulations  of  the 


428 


BEAUMARCHAIS 


country.  This  book,  La  coutume  de  Beauvoi-  \ 
»w,  is  one  of  the  most  viiluable  monuments 
of  French  law  during  the  middle  ages.  It 
greatly  contributed  to  reforming  the  excesses 
of  the  feudal  system,'  and  enforcing  the  para- 
mount power  of  the  monarch. 

BKAl  MARdlAIS,   Pierre   Angustin  Caron  de,  a 
French  dramatic  author  and  speculator,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  24,  1732,  died  there,  May  19,  1799. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker  named  Caron, 
and  received  his  early  education  at  a  private  ] 
school,   which  he    left  when  only   13,   after 
having  shown  remarkable  precocity.     His  fa- 
ther desired  him  to  study  watchmaking ;  but 
he  neglected  his  work  to  devote  himself  to 
inusic,  for  which  he  had  an  absorbing  taste,  and 
further  annoyed  his  father  by  his  somewhat  dis- 
solute habits.    Threatened  with  severe  punish- 
ment, however,  he  devoted  himself  for  a  time  to 
his  trade,  and  almost  immediately  achieved  a 
great  success  by  the  invention  of  an  improved 
escapement,  which  secured  him  the   appoint- 
ment of  watchmaker  to  the  court,  then  estab- 
lished at  Versailles.     Caron,  now  only  about 
23  years  of  age,  attracted  much  attention  in 
the  court  circle  to  which  he  was  admitted,  and 
acquired  by  his  ability,  personal  beauty,  and 
gallantry  a  position  entirely  disproportionate 
to  his  rank.     In  1755  an  old  government  offi- 
cial, Franquet,  with  whose  young  wife  Caron 
had  long  stood  in  questionable  relations,  died ; 
and  the  young  watchmaker  not  only  married  : 
his  widow,  but  succeeded  through  court  influ- 
ence to  his  office.     Less  than  a  year  after  her 
marriage,  Mme.  Caron  died  after  a  very  short 
illness ;  and  her  husband's  many  enemies  took 
advantage  of  the  rapidity  with  which  her  death 
followed   that  of    Franquet   to   bring  against 
Caron   an  accusation  of  poisoning,  which  he 
promptly  disproved,  but  which  was  afterward 
several  times  revived  in  the  less  tangible  form 
of  a  rumor,  and  formed  a  favorite  court  scandal. 
In  1757  Caron  assumed  the  name  of  Beaumar- 
chais ;  but  he  had  no  legal  right  to  his  title  of 
nobility  till  1761,  when  he  purchased  a  com- 
mission  as   secretary  to  the  king,  a  sinecure 
which  conferred  noble  rank  on  its  possessor. 
He  still  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  music, 
especially  to  playing  the  harp,  in  which  instru- 
ment he  made  several  improvements.     His  skill 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  princesses  Ade- 
laide and  Victoire,  daughters  of  Louis  XV., 
and  he  at  once  became  a  great  favorite  with 
them.     Succeeding,  through  the  influence  thus 
acquired,  in  advancing  certain  schemes  of  the 
rich  contractor  Duverney,  the  latter  admitted 
him  to  a  share  in  his  profitable  mercantile  ven- 
tures, which  probably  first  gave  him  the  passion 
for  speculation  that  was  afterward   a  distin- 
guishing feature   of  his  life.     He  now  began 
the  rapid  accumulation  of  a  fortune,  and  by 
way  of  further  advancement  he  purchased  a 
second  office,  that  of  vice  president  of   the 
tribunal  de  chatties.     In   1764  Beaumarchais 
went  to  Madrid  where    he    had    mercantile 
schemes  in  progress ;  but  his  visit  is  principally 


noteworthy  on  account  of  his  revenge  <>n 
Clavijo,  the  Spanish  writer,  who  had  broken  a 
promise  of  marriage  made  to  his  younger  sister. 
He  not  only  compelled  him  to  apologize,  but 
succeeded  in  having  him  removed  from  his 
position  at  court,  and  prevented  by  decrei- 
from  ever  again  holding  any  office  under  the 
crown.  Goethe's  drama  of  Clavigo  lias  made 
this  incident  one  of  the  most  famous  in  the  life 
of  Beaumarchais.  In  April,  1768,  he  was  mar- 
ried at  Paris  to  a  rich  widow,  Mme.  Leveque. 
Just  before  this  marriage  he  had  made  his  first 
important  literary  venture,  in  bringing  out  his 
play  of  Eugenie,  but  had  met  with  no  success. 
In  1770  he  received  a  still  greater  rebuff  in  the 
failure  of  a  second  drama,  Les  deux  amis.  In 
the  same  year  his  second  wife  died,  and  the 
old  stories  of  poisoning  were  revived  against 
him.  Duverney,  the  financier,  also  died  in 
1770,  just  after  making  a  most  advantageous 
contract  with  Beaumarchais.  The  contractor's 
heir  contested  this,  and  Beaumarchais  found 
himself  suddenly  involved  in  a  maze  of  law- 
suits. He  carried  on  the  legal  conflict  for  seven 
years,  and  won,  after  making  some  remarkable 
displays  of  oratorical  power  and  wit,  which 
rendered  him  famous  even  outside  of  France. 
It  was  during  this  memorable  time,  too,  that 
he  found  leisure  to  produce  his  Barbier  de 
Seville,  written  in  1772,  and  played,  after 
several  refusals  from  different  managers,  in 
January,  1775.  No  sooner  had  he  extricated 
himself  from  the  troubles  just  recounted  than 
he  became  involved  in  a  bitter  quarrel  with  the 
duke  de  Chaulnes,  his  rival  in  the  affections  of 
an  actress,  who  succeeded  in  having  him  ille- 
gally imprisoned  for  a  time.  Counsellor  Goez- 
mann  had  charge  of  his  case,  and,  as  the  custom 
was,  Beaumarchais  sent  Mme.  Goezmann  a  pres- 
ent of  money,  which  she  promised  to  return  in 
case  her  husband's  report  on  the  matter  should 
be  adverse  to  him.  It  so  happened,  but  she 
returned  only  a  part  of  the  gift.  Beaumar- 
chais preferred  an  accusation  of  venality  against 
Goezmann,  and  an  extraordinary  trial  ensued,  in 
which  the  accuser  developed  a  most  remark- 
able power  of  satire,  eloquence,  and  skill,  and, 
though  he  did  not  gain  his  end,  made  himself 
for  a  time  the  best  known  man  in  Paris.  Two 
other  somewhat  scandalous  trials  followed,  for 
Beaumarchais  no  sooner  escaped  one  difficulty 
than  he  rushed  into  another.  All  this  time  he 
was  involved  in  speculations :  among  them, 
one  for  the  sale  of  timber  from  the  forest  of 
Chinon  (just  before  Duverney's  death),  and 
one  for  supplying  arms  and  munitions  to  the 
Americans,  in  their  contest  with  England.  As 
early  as  1775  he  had  submitted  to  the  king  a 
memorial  in  which  he  insisted  that  the  French 
government  ought  to  assist  the  Americans, 
giving  as  his  deliberate  opinion  that  they 
would  prove  unconquerable.  Beaumarchais 
passed  a  part  of  the  year  1775  in  England  as 
an  agent  of  the  French  ministry,  had  interviews 
with  Arthur  Lee,  and  was  in  the  most  intimate 
relations  of  correspondence  with  Vergennes. 


BEAUMARCHAIS 


BEAUMELLE 


429 


His  secrecy,  his  sagacity  in  interpreting  a  hint 
from  a  minister  without  forcing  him  to  com- 
mit himself  even  verbally,  his  quickness  of  per- 
ception, and  his  social  attractions,  made  him 
a  convenient  instrument.  His  papers  served 
to  fix  the  wavering  purpose  of  the  king,  and 
when  Maurepas,  the  chief  minister,  hesitated, 
Beaumarchais,  by  letters,  representations,  and 
adroit  flattery,  assisted  to  bring  him  to  the  de- 
cision which  his  own  love  of  ease  would  have 
shunned.  The  French  cabinet  consented  to 
help  Beaumarchais  in  his  plans  to  furnish  the 
colonies  with  arms  and  ammunition.  For  that 
purpose  they  secretly  advanced  to  him  1,000,000 
livres,  an  equal  sum  being  furnished  by  Spain, 
and  delivered  to  him  arms  and  ammunition 
from  the  public  arsenals,  on  the  condition  that 
he  would  pay  for  or  replace  the  same.  Beau- 
marchais, under  the  firm  of  Roderique  Hortalez 
and  Co.,  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  1777  for- 
warded three  of  his  own  ships,  carrying  200 
pieces  of  ordnance,  25,000  muskets,  200,000 
Ibs.  of  gunpowder,  and  other  ammunition.  He 
had  also  engaged  more  than  50  officers,  who 
sailed  on  board  the  Amphitrite,  his  largest 
ship ;  and  among  the  number  were  La  Rouerie, 
Pulaski,  and  Steuben,  who  so  powerfully  aided 
in  the  success  of  the  American  troops.  This 
first  fleet  safely  arrived  at  Portsmouth,  and  in- 
spired the  colonists  with  renewed  hope.  Sev- 
eral other  ships  were  sent  out  during  the  same 
year,  and  about  the  month  of  September  Beau- 
marchais's  disbursements  amounted  to  more 
than  5,000,000  francs.  Congress,  being  under 
the  impression  that  these  supplies  were  gra- 
tuitously furnished  by  the  French  government, 
under  a  disguised  form,  neglected  to  make  re- 
mittances to  Beaumarchais,  who  found  himself 
in  embarrassed  circumstances,  from  which  he 
was  relieved  by  the  French  government  ad- 
vancing him  another  million  of  francs.  The 
forwarding  of  supplies  was  continued,  and  to- 
ward the  beginning  of  1779  no  less  than  10  ves- 
sels sailed  at  once,  but  few  of  them  reached 
their  destination.  At  that  time  the  United 
States  were  indebted  to  Roderique  Hortalez 
and  Co.,  or  rather  Beaumarchais,  to  the  amount 
of  more  than  4,000,000  francs.  Although  con- 
gress did  not  hesitate  to  acknowledge  its  obli- 
gations toward  the  French  firm,  the  settlement 
of  so  large  an  indebtment  met  with  many  diffi- 
culties, and  it  was  not  till  1835  that  the  final 
balance  of  about  800,000  francs  was  paid  to  the 
heirs  of  Beaumarchais.  The  transaction,  far 
from  having  been  profitable  to  the  latter,  as 
it  has  been  frequently  asserted,  resulted  in 
losses,  which  he  was  enabled  to  withstand 
through  government  aid  and  some  more  suc- 
cessful speculations.  In  an  interval  of  his  occu- 
pations, he  produced  in  April,  1784,  his  Manage 
de  Figaro.  Its  production  was  vehemently 
opposed  by  the  court,  and  the  fact  that  it  was 
played  at  all  was  a  remarkable  triumph  for  its 
author,  to  say  nothing  of  its  popular  success. 
In  1785  he  had  a  quarrel,  famous  at  the  time 
from  the  notoriety  and  caustic  writings  of  both 


parties  to  it,  with  Mirabeau,  on  the  questions 
connected  with  the  introduction  of  water  into 
Paris — an  enterprise  in  which  he  was  largely 
interested.  This  ended  with  only  a  war  of 
words.  In  1787  he  produced  Tarare,  another 
play  which  failed  utterly,  but  which  Beaumar- 
chais afterward  claimed  he  had  written  in 
sympathy  with  the  growing  signs  of  the  revo- 
lution, in  his  Requete  a  MM.  leg  representants 
de  la  commune  de  Paris,  1790.  The  events  of 
1789  found  him  just  finishing  a  magnificent 
house  not  far  from  the  Bastile,  and  about  to 
begin  what  he  hoped  would  be  for  him  a  period 
of  quiet.  He  expressed  sympathy  with  the 
ends  of  the  revolution,  but  did  not  enter  with 
enthusiasm  into  the  means  taken  to  attain 
them.  For  a  time  it  seemed  that  he  would 
succeed  in  keeping  apart  from  public  affairs; 
but  his  apparent  apathy  regarding  much  that 
happened,  and  a  sale  of  arms  to  Holland,  con- 
ducted by  him  solely  as  a  speculation,  but 
used  against  him  by  his  enemies,  threw  him 
into  disfavor,  and  finally  caused  him  to  leave 
the  country.  Soon  after,  and  while  he  was  in 
England  and  Holland,  his  enemies  caused  his 
name  to  be  enrolled  in  the  list  of  emigres  and 
his  property  to  be  confiscated.  After  many 
endeavors  he  finally  succeeded  in  gaining  per- 
mission  to  return  to  France,  but  could  not 
recover  his  wealth,  though  he  constantly  peti- 
tioned the  directory  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life  to  restore  it.  On  the  morning  of  May 
19,  1799,  Beaumarchais  was  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  having  been  seized  during  the  night  by 
an  attack  of  apoplexy. — Of  the  plays  written 
by  Beaumarchais,  the  Barliier  de  Seville,  the 
Mariage  de  Figaro,  and  La,  mere  coupable 
form  a  trilogy,  being  parts  of  a  dramatic  story, 
and  properly  standing  in  the  order  named. 
Lea  deux  amis  and  Tarare  are  distinct  dramas. 
All  these  works,  with  perhaps  the  exception 
of  Les  deux  amis,  are  principally  devoted  to 
exceedingly  witty  attacks  on  the  old  regime, 
and  to  the  promulgation  of  ideas  called  revo- 
lutionary at  the  time  of  their  publication.  Be- 
sides dramas,  Beaumarchais  wrote  many  able 
arguments  and  pamphlets  connected  with  his 
suits  at  law,  and  a  celebrated  justification  of 
his  conduct,  addressed  to  the  convention,  and 
called  Met  six  epoques.  He  prepared,  at  enor- 
mous expense  and  great  loss  to  himself,  a  com- 
plete edition  of  the  works  of  Voltaire.  His 
own  works  were  published  by  Gudin  de  la 
Brenellerie  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1809,  and  6  vols., 
1821-'7);  and  memoirs  of  his  life  have  been 
written  for  that  edition  and  as  a  separate  work 
by  Cousin  d'Avallon  ( Vie  privee,  publique 
et  litteraire  de  Beaumarchais,  Paris,  1802). 
See  also  Beaumarchais  et  son  temps,  Etudes 
*ur  la  societe  franfaise,  &c.,  by  Louis  Leonard 
de  Lomenie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1856 ;  2d  ed.,  1858). 
Ill  \MI Kl.l.i:.  Lanrent  Angllviel  de  la,  a  French 
author,  born  at  Valleraugue,  department  of 
Gard,  Jan.  28,  1726,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  17, 
1773.  He  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
Copenhagen,  and  while  there  wrote  Meg  pen- 


430 


BEAUMONT 


teen.  Something  in  this  work  greatly  displeased 
Voltaire,  and  when  La  Beaumelle  returned  to 
France  he  was  arrested  at  his  instigation,  and 
confined  for  six  months  in  the  Bastile.  Re- 
stored to  liberty,  he  wrote  a  very  witty  pam- 
phlet in  answer  to  an  attack  directed  against 
him  by  Voltaire  during  his  captivity,  in  the  sup- 
plement to  the  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  his  Me- 
moires  pour  senir  A  PhMoire  de  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  which  was  published  in  1756,  and 
received  with  marked  favor.  He  was  arrested 
a  second  time,  and  confined  again  for  more  than 
a  year  in  the  state  prison,  where  he  made  a 
translation  of  Tacitus.  Some  time  afterward 
his  warfare  with  Voltaire  was  renewed,  and 
La  Beaumelle  displayed  such  tact,  energy,  and 
wit,  that  he  sometimes  got  the  better  of  his 
powerful  rival.  At  last,  in  1770,  he  obtained 
permission  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he  received 
an  appointment  as  assistant  in  the  royal  library, 
and  afterward  a  pension.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  engaged  on  an  edition  of  Voltaire's 
works,  with  notes,  of  which  only  one  volume, 
the  ffenriade,  was  finished.  Voltaire  caused 
it  to  be  suppressed,  but  there  is  an  edition  by 
Freron,  with  changes  (1775). — His  son,  VICTOR 
LAURENT  SUZANNE  MO!SE  (born  in  1772,  died 
in  Rio  Janeiro  in  1831),  served  as  colonel  of 
engineers  in  the  army  of  Dom  Pedro,  and 
published  an  interesting  pamphlet  on  the  Bra- 
zilian empire,  besides  several  tracts  on  the  war 
with  Spain. 

BEAUMONT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Meuse,  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Sedan ;  pop.  1,306.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  battle  fought  in  its  neigh- 
borhood Aug.  30,  1870,  between  the  French 
forces  under  Marshal  MacMahon  and  the  Ger- 
man army  under  the  crown  prince  of  Saxony ; 
the  object  of  the  German  commander  being  to 
prevent  the  junction  of  the  marshal's  troops 
with  those  of  Marshal  Bazaine,  then  shut  up  in 
Metz.  The  battle  opened  with  the  surprise 
and  rout  of  the  French  fifth  corps,  in  front  of 
Beaumont.  Two  other  corps  were  soon  en- 
gaged. After  a  severe  struggle  the  Prussians 
took  the  town,  and  drove  their  opponents 
across  the  Meuse,  entirely  defeating  them.  By 
this  victory  the  great  end  was  gained  of  ena- 
bling the  Prussian  crown  prince  to  reenforce 
with  his  command  the  corps  under  the  prince  of 
Saxony ;  a  combination  so  strong  as  to  compel 
the  immediate  surrender  of  the  French  at  Sedan. 
BEAUMONT,  Elie  de.  See  ELIE  DE  BEAUMONT. 
BEAUMONT,  Sir  George  Howland,  an  English 
patron  of  art,  born  at  his  family  seat  in  Leices- 
tershire, Nov.  6,  1753,  died  Feb.  7,  1827.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  subsequently  de- 
voted himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  study  of 
painting  and  to  the  collection  of  works  of  art. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  discover  and  en- 
courage the  genius  of  Wilkie,  some  of  whose 
finest  works  were  painted  for  him.  He  was 
instrumental  in  establishing  the  British  national 
gallery,  and,  as  an  inducement  to  parliament  to 


BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER 

purchase  the  celebrated  Angerstein  collection 
for  that  purpose,  presented  16.  of  his  best  pic- 
tures to  the  collection. 

BEAUMONT,  Sir  John,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  1582,  died  in  1628.  He  was  the  elder 
brother  of  Francis  Beaumont,  the  dramatist, 
and  published  first  a  poem  on  Bosworth  Field, 
and  then  a  small  volume  of  poems,  remarkable 
for  their  high  moral  tone.  lie  also  wrote  a  poem 
called  "The  Crown  of  Thorns,"  in  8  books, 
which  is  lost.  Winstanley,  in  his  "  Honor  of 
Parnassus,"  describes  Sir  John  Beaumont  as 
one  of  "the  great  souls  of  numbers." 

BEAUMONT,  William,  a  surgeon  in  the  U.  8. 
army,  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  in  1796,  died  in 
St.  Louis,  April  25,  1853.  He  is  principally 
noted  for  his  discoveries  regarding  the  laws  of 
digestion  resulting  from  his  experiments  upon 
the  body  of  Alexis  St.  Martin.  In  1822  Beau- 
mont was  stationed  at  Michilimackinac,  Mich- 
igan. On  June  6  St.  Martin,  a  young  man  18 
years  of  age,  in  the  service  of  the  American  fur 
company,  was  accidentally  shot,  receiving  the 
whole  charge  of  a  musket  in  his  left  side,  from 
a  distance  of  about  one  yard,  which  carried 
with  it  portions  of  his  clothing,  fractured  two 
ribs,  lacerated  the  lungs,  and  entered  the  stom- 
ach. Dr.  Beaumont  restored  him  in  a  year  to 
good  health,  with  his  former  strength  and 
spirits,  though  the  aperture  in  his  body  was 
never  closed.  In  1825  Dr.  Beaumont  com- 
menced a  series  of  experiments  upon  the 
stomach  of  St.  Martin,  studying  its  operations, 
secretions,  the  action  of  the  gastric  juices,  &c. ; 
these  experiments  he  renewed  at  various  in- 
tervals until  his  death,  his  patient  during  so 
many  years  presenting  the  remarkable  spec- 
tacle of  a  man  enjoying  good  health,  appetite, 
and  spirits,  with  an  aperture  opening  into  his 
stomach  through  which  the  whole  action  of 
the  organ  might  be  observed.  The  result  of 
his  experiments  was  published  by  Dr.  Beau- 
mont in  1833.  He  was  thus  the  first  who  ac- 
tually obtained  the  gastric  juice  in  the  human 
subject,  and  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  its 
chemical  properties  and  digestive  powers. 
Previous  to  his  time  R6aumur  in  1752,  Stevens 
in  1777,  and  Spallanzani  in  1787  had  given 
evidence  to  show  that  digestion  must  be  ac- 
complished in  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  sol- 
vent fluid,  and  some  experimenters  had  even 
detected  certain  of  the  ingredients  of  this  fluid. 
But  Dr.  Beaumont  first  obtained  the  gastric 
juice  in  considerable  quantity,  and  showed 
that  it  had  the  power,  outside  the  body,  at 
proper  temperatures,  of  liquefying  and  dissolv- 
ing various  articles  of  food.  St.  Martin  is  still 
living  (1872)  in  Oakdale,  Mass. 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER,  two  English 
dramatists  and  poets,  whose  names  are  in- 
separably connected  by  the  fact  that  they 
produced  their  wTorks  jointly,  and,  without 
indicating  the  parts  written  by  each,  publish- 
ed them  under  their  united  names. — FRANCIS 
BEAUMONT,  born  at  Gracedieu,  Leicestershire, 
about  1585,  died  in  1615.  He  was  the  son  of  a 


BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER 


BEAUREGARD 


431 


judge  of  the  common  pleas,  and  a  member  of  a 
family  which  had  held  important  state  offices 
for  several  generations.  In  1697  he  entered 
Oxford,  and  on  taking  his  degree  became  a 
student  of  law  in  the  Inner  Temple.  But  he 
neglected  his  profession  for  literary  pursuits, 
in  which  he  became  almost  immediately  as- 
sociated with  Fletcher.  Of  Beaumont's  per- 
sonal history  there  is  little  record.  He  married 
(in  1613,  it  is  believed)  Ursula,  daughter  of 
Henry  Isley,  of  Sundridge,  Kent,  and  had  two 
daughters,  who  appear  to  have  survived  him. 
He  died  when  not  quite  30  years  old,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster.  The  idea  hinted  at  in 
an  epitaph  written  by  Bishop  Corbit,  and  in  a 
stanza  by  Beaumont's  brother,  that  he  had 
caused  his  early  death  by  too  great  literary 
labor,  seems  a  very  probable  one  when  we 
consider  the  long  list  of  works  to  each  of 
which  he  must  have  contributed  very  largely. 
The  only  writings  which  he  is  believed  to  have 
produced  alone  are  the  "  Masque  of  the  Inner 
Temple  and  Gray's  Inn,"  and  the  minor  poems 
in  the  collection  of  his  and  Fletcher's  works, 
with  one  exception,  Fletcher's  "  Honest  Man's 
Fortune,"  accompanying  the  play  with  the  same 
title. — Jonjr  FLETCHER,  born  in  1576,  died  in 
London  in  1625.  He  was  the  son  of  Richard 
Fletcher,  a  prominent  ecclesiastic  who  was  dean 
of  Peterborough,  and  afterward  successively 
bishop  of  Bristol,  Worcester,  and  London. 
He  received  his  education  at  Cambridge,  but 
of  his  personal  history  after  his  graduation 
almost  nothing  is  known.  No  record  of  his 
marriage  has  been  found,  and  as  he  lived  as  a 
bachelor  with  his  friend  Beaumont  until  the 
latter  took  a  wife,  at  which  time  Fletcher  was 
nearly  40,  there  is  a  fair  presumption  that  he 
died  unmarried.  The  slight  clues  we  possess 
to  his  story  seem  to  show  that  he  spent  most 
of  his  life  in  London,  among  a  company  of 
literary  men  who,  as  was  apparently  the  case 
with  him  also,  wrote  for  bread,  and  assisted 
each  other  in  both  pecuniary  and  literary  mat- 
ters, forming  a  kind  of  brotherhood.  Allusions 
in  Beaumont's  "Letter  to  Ben  Jonson"  show 
that  he  and  Fletcher  were  among  the  circle 
of  wits  of  the  famous  Mermaid  tavern. — The 
collected  works  of  the  two  poets  consist,  be- 
sides the  writings  named  above  as  attributed 
to  Beaumont  exclusively,  of  52  plays.  Of 
these  Fletcher  is  considered  by  good  authorities 
to  have  written  18  unaided,  probably  either 
before  Beaumont  joined  him  or  after  the  lat- 
ter's  death.  The  chief  among  those  which 
were  the  joint  productions  of  the  two  friends 
are  "  The  Maid's  Tragedy  "  (represented  about 
1610,  and  often  considered  the  best  of  all  their 
dramas),  "King  and  No  King,"  and  "Phi- 
laster."  Of  those  considered  the  sole  work  of 
Fletcher,  "The  Faithful  Shepherdess"  is  es- 
pecially famous  for  the  grace  and  delicacy  of 
its  verse.  The  plays  are  somewhat  disfigured 
for  modern  readers  by  the  licentious  language 
which  the  time  of  their  production  permitted  ; 
but  they  abound  in  strong  and  beautiful  con- 
80  VOL.  ii.— 28 


ceptions,  and  in  examples  of  a  literary  style 
which  has  been  held  superior  to  that  of  Ben 
Jonson,  and  has  even  given  rise  to  an  inge- 
niously defended  theory  that  Shakespeare  aided 
in  composing  two  or  three  of  the  dramas. 

BEAOIONT  DE  LA  UttN  M Kit i:.  Gnstave  Angnste 
de,  a  French  advocate  and  writer,  born  in  the 
department  of  Sarthe,  Feb.  16,  1802,  died  at 
Tours,  March  2,  1866.  In  1831  he  was  sent 
with  Alexis  de  Tocqueville  to  the  United  States 
to  make  inquiry  into  the  penitentiary  system ; 
and  the  result  of  their  visit  was  a  report,  Du 
systeme  penitentiaire  aux  Etatt-  Unis  et  de  son 
application  en  France.  Besides  this  work, 
Beaumont  produced  a  kind  of  novel,  Marie,  ou 
de  Vezclavage  aux  fitaU-  Unix,  which  has  been 
translated  and  reprinted  in  this  country.  In 
1839  he  published  L'lrlande  politique,  sociale 
et  religieme,  which  was  rewarded,  as  well  as 
the  preceding  work,  with  the  Monthyon  prize 
of  the  French  institute.  In  1840  Beaumont 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  sided 
with  the  so-called  dynastic  opposition,  and  fa- 
vored electoral  reform  in  1847.  In  the  con- 
stituent assembly  in  1848  he  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  on  foreign  affairs.  Gen.  Cavai- 
gnac  appointed  him  ambassador  to  England, 
which  position  he  resigned  on  the  election  of 
Louis  Napoleon  as  president.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislative  assembly,  where  he  did  not 
play  a  conspicuous  part,  and  after  the  coup 
d'etat  of  December,  1851,  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment. In  1836  he  married  his  cousin,  a  grand- 
daughter of  Gen.  Lafayette. 

ISKAI'MC,  an  old  town  of  Burgundy,  France, 
department  of  C6te  d'Or,  23  m.  S.  S.  W.  of 
Dijon,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  which  produces  ex- 
cellent wine;  pop.  in  1866,  10,907.  Its  most 
remarkable  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  founded  by  Duke  Henry  of  Bur- 
gundy in  976,  and  the  hospital,  founded  by 
Chancellor  Rollin  in  1443.  Before  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes  Beaune  was  among 
the  leading  manufacturing  cities  of  eastern 
France;  it  still  produces  cloth,  cutlery,  leather, 
vinegar,  casks,  &c.,  but  its  actual  importance 
is  mostly  derived  from  its  wine  trade,  which  is 
considerable.  It  was  anciently  fortified.  Ear- 
ly in  1871  the  town  was  repeatedly  occupied 
by  the  Germans  under  Gen.  Von  Werder. 

BEAUNE-LA-ROLANDE,  a  village  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Loiret,  on  the  road  leading 
from  Montargis  to  Pithiviers,  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  forest  of  Orleans ;  pop.  in  1866, 
1,962.  On  Nov.  28,  1870,  a  battle  was  fought 
here  between  the  10th  German  army  corps, 
belonging  to  the  army  of  Prince  Frederick 
Charles,  and  the  French  army  of  the  Loire, 
under  Aurelle  de  Paladines.  The  latter,  who 
were  the  assailants,  sustained  a  loss  of  7,000, 
and  fell  back  to  their  fortified  lines  before 
Orleans. 

BEAURECARD,  Pierre  Gnstave  Tontant,  an  Amer- 
ican general,  born  near  New  Orleans  about 
1817.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
In  the  Mexican  war  he  earned  the  brevet  rank 


432         BEAUREPAIRE-ROHAN 

of  captain  at  Contreras  and  Chnrnbusco,  and 
of  major  at  Chapultepec,  where  he  was  twice 
wounded.  In  1853  he  was  made  captain  in 
the  corps  of  engineers.  From  1849  to  1860 
he  was  stationed  mainly  at  New  Orleans, 
where  he  had  the  general  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  mint,  custom  house,  and  ma- 
rine hospital,  as  well  as  of  the  engineering 
operations  on  the  lower  Mississippi  and  the 
gulf.  In  January,  1861,  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  military  academy  at  West 
Point ;  but  in  less  than  a  month  he  resigned 
his  commission  in  the  army,  and  received  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general  from  the  southern 
confederate  government.  He  conducted  the 
attack  upon  Fort  Sumter,  and  was  afterward 
sent  to  Virginia,  where  he  virtually  com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run ;  Gen.  J.  E. 
Johnston,  who  outranked  him,  having  just 
come  upon  the  field,  and  adopting  his  plan 
of  operations.  In  the  spring  of  1862  he  was 
sent  to  the  west  as  second  in  command  of  the 
department  of  Tennessee.  Gen.  A.  S.  John- 
ston having  been  killed  early  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  or  Pittsburgh  Landing,  April  6,  Beau- 
regard  took  the  command,  and  gained  a  con- 
siderable success ;  but  the  next  day,  Gen.  Buell 
having  in  the  night  joined  Gen.  Grant,  he  was 
worsted  and  forced  to  abandon  the  field.  He 
retired  to  the  fortified  position  at  Corinth, 
which  he  strengthened  and  held  against  Gen. 
Halleck  to  the  end  of  May.  His  health  soon 
after  failing,  he  was  for  a  time  relieved  from 
active  service,  but  was  afterward  placed  in 
command  at  Charleston,  which  he  successfully 
defended  throughout  the  year  1863,  repelling 
the  attacks  under  Gen.  Gillmore  and  Admiral 
Dahlgren.  In  1864,  when  Grant  was  ap- 
proaching Richmond,  Beauregard  held  Peters- 
burg until  the  arrival  of  Lee  at  Richmond, 
speedily  checking  the  advance  of  Gen.  Butler. 
In  the  autumn  of  1864  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  the  west,  and  made 
strenuous  but  unavailing  efforts  to  prevent 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  After  the  close 
of  the  war,  in  which  he  attained  the  highest 
rank  in  the  confederate  service,  that  of  full  gen- 
eral, he  took  up  his  residence  at  New  Orleans. 

l!i:U  KKI'UltK-KOIIAX,  Henri  dt,  a  Brazilian 
traveller,  of  French  origin,  born  in  Picardy 
about  1818.  He  explored  Paraguay  in  1845-'6, 
visited  Bonpland  at  Borja,  and  published  De- 
tcrippdo  de  uma  viagem  de  Cuyaba  ao  Bio  de 
Janeiro  (Rio,  1846).  Promoted  in  1850, to  the 
rank  of  major  of  engineers,  and  charged  by 
the  government  with  the  exploration  of  cen- 
tral Brazil,  he  has  since  published  several  new 
works  on  the  geography  and  history  of  parts 
of  that  empire. 

l!i:  II  soiilti:.  lame  it,  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Niort  in  Poitou  in  1659, 
died  in  Berlin  in  1738.  He  studied  theology  at 
the  academy  of  Saumur,  and  was  ordained  by 
the  synod  of  Londun  in  1683.  He  assumed 
the  charge  of  the  Calvinist  church  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Indre,  and  was  obliged  to  close  his  place 


BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPEE 

of  worship  upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes  in  1085,  but  continued  to  hold  meet- 
ings of  his  congregation  at  his  own  house  until 
threats  of  imprisonment  compelled  him  to  leave 
France.     He  took  refuge  in  Holland,  where  ho 
was  appointed  private  chaplain  to  the  princess 
of  Anhalt-Dessau,  a  daughter  of  the  dowager 
princess  of  Orange.     On  the  death  of  the  hus- 
band of  his  patroness,  he  changed  his  residence 
to  Berlin  in  1694,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of 
a  French  Protestant  church  there,  and  in  1707   • 
a  member  of  the  consistory,  a  position  which 
he  held  till  his  death.     He  also  acted  for  many 
years  as  inspector  of  the  French  schools  and 
churches  of  the  city.     He  was  the  principal 
contributor  to  the  BMiotheqve  allemande,  be- 
gun in  1720,  of  which  50  volumes  were  pub- 
lished, and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Jour- 
nal d'Allemagne,  de  Suisse  et  du Nord  (new  ed., 
2  vols.  8vo,  the  Hague,  1741-'3).     He  wrote  a 
"  Defence  of  the  Doctrines  of  the  Reformers  " 
(1694);  an  unfinished  history  of  the  reforma- 
tion  (Berlin,    1785;   translated  into  English, 
1802)  ;  with  L'Enfant,  a  French  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  (Amsterdam,  1718),  and 
two  volumes  of  commentaries  upon  it.    Among 
his  numerous  historical  and  theological  works 
of  less  importance  are  his  Histoire  de  Maniekee 
et  du  Manicheisme  (Amsterdam,  1734-'9),  and 
Supplement  d  Phistoire  des  ffmeites  (Lausanne, 
1745).     His  sermons  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished after  his  death  (3d  ed.,  4  vols.,  Lausanne, 
1758). 

lilM  II  ill's-i;i:ui'l!K.  (linrlps  Franfols,  a 
French  hydrographer,  born  at  Neuville-au- 
Pont,  near  Ste.  Menehould,  in  1766,  died  in 
1854.  He  studied  engineering  and  geography 
at  the  depot  of  marine  charts  and  plans,  of 
which  his  cousin  Buache  was  the  chief.  At 
the  early  age  of  19  he  was  made  a  government 
engineer,  and  received  a  commission  to  revise 
the  charts  of  the  "  Neptune  of  the  Baltic."  He 
was  rapidly  promoted,  and  in  1791  acted  as  first 
hydrographer  to  the  expedition  sent  out  un- 
der D'Entrecasteaux  to  search  for  La  P6rouse. 
He  made  a  very  accurate  and  valuable  set  of 
charts  of  all  the  regions  visited  by  the  fleet. 
On  his  return  in  1796  he  completed  his  Atlas 
de  la  Baltique,  begun  some  time  before,  and 
at  the  order  of  the  government  prepared  a 
general  hydrographic  chart  to  be  used  by  the 
French  expedition  then  about  to  circumnavi- 
gate the  globe.  He  was  now  promoted  to  the 
position  of  assistant  to  the  chief  of  the  marine 
department,  and  for  six  years  constantly  labored 
in  connection  with  the  surveys  undertaken  by 
this  branch  of  the  service.  He  made  during 
this  period  many  of  the  most  valuable  of  the 
French  charts — among  them  those  of  the  E. 
coast  of  the  Adriatic.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  institute.  In  1811  he  made 
valuable  hydrographic  surveys  of  the  coast 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  ;  and  the  German 
engineers  recognized  his  service  to  science  by 
making  him  in  1816  a  member  of  the  royal 
society  of  Gottingen.  In  1814  he  was  ap- 


BEAUTY 


BEAVER 


433 


pointed  chief  of  his  department.  In  1815  he 
made  a  complete  survey  of  the  coasts  of  France, 
one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  his  life.  The 
works  above  named  are  those  by  which  he  is 
best  known ;  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  de- 
voted to  their  constant  revision  and  improve- 
ment, and  to  the  duties  of  his  department.  He 
also  edited  Le  pilote  francais,  the  sixth  vol- 
ume appearing  in  1844.  He  was  called  in  Eng- 
land "the  father  of  hydrography." 

BEACTY.     See  ^ESTHETICS. 

BEAUVAIS  (anc.  Casaromagwi),  a  city  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Oise,  sit- 
uated on  the  Therain,  40  m.  N.  by  "W.  of  Paris; 
pop.  in  1866,  15,307.  When  the  Romans  in- 
vaded Gaul,  it  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Bello- 
vaci.  It  became  early  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
the  holder  of  which  was  one  of  the  12  peers  of 
France  under  the  Oapetian  kings.  The  English 
made  an  unsuccessful  assault  on  the  city  in 
1433,  but  they  held  the  surrounding  country, 
and  it  was  Pierre  Cauchon,  bishop  of  Beau- 
vais,  who  pronounced  the  sentence  of  death 
upon  Joan  of  Arc.  In  1472  the  city,  being  be- 
sieged by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy, 
was  courageously  defended  by  its  inhabitants, 
among  whom  a  woman,  Jeanne  Lain6,  cele- 
brated under  the  name  of  Jeanne  la  Hachette, 
distinguished  herself  by  her  intrepidity.  Her 
statue  was  set  up  in  the  city  in  1851.  The  an- 
cient ramparts  have  been  partly  levelled  and 
converted  into  promenades.  The  cathedral  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  France,  and  ite  choir  is  a 
masterpiece  of  Gothic  architecture ;  the  church 
of  St.  Etienne  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  re- 
naissance style,  and  contains  famous  sculptures 
and  stained  windows.  The  abbey  church,  prior 
to  the  revolution,  contained  statues  of  all  the 
Merovingian  kings.  The  city  has  important 
manufactures,  especially  in  silks,  carpets,  and 
tapestries. 

BEACVAIS,  Charles  Theodore,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  Orleans,  Nov.  8,  1772,  died  in 
Paris  in  1830.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  pri- 
vate, rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  adjutant  gen- 
eral, went  to  Egypt  with  Bonaparte,  but  re- 
signed on  account  of  some  disagreement  with 
his  chief,  and  while  returning  to  France  was 
made  prisoner  by  a  corsair  and  taken  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  was  detained  for  18 
months.  He  reentered  the  army  in  1809, 
served  in  Spain,  was  afterward  sent  to  the 
Rhine,  commanded  at  Bayonne  in  1815,  and 
was  dismissed  on  the  second  return  of  the 
Bourbons.  He  then  d«voted  himself  to  liter- 
ary pursuits,  compiled  a  popular  publication, 
Victoires  et  eonquetes  Ae»  Franfais  (28  vols., 
1817  et  ieq.),  and  edited  the  Correspondence 
ojficielle  et  confidentielle  de  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte avec  lea  court  etmngeres  (7  vols.  8vo, 
1819-'20). 

1:1:  VI  \  U  ,  de,  an  ancient  French  family  of 
Anjou. — RENE  aided  Duke  Rene  of  Anjouinthe 
conquest  of  Naples,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Benevento  in  1266. — Louis  co- 
operated in  the  reconquest  of  Normandy  from 


the  English,  1449-'50,  and  died  in  1462.— BEB- 
TEAND,  who  died  in  1474,  was  one  of  the  coun- 
sellors of  Charles  VII.  and  Louis  XI.,  and  was 
frequently  employed  in  diplomatic  missions. — 
RENE  FEANQOIS,  born  in  1664,  was  bishop  of 
Tournay,  and  during  the  siege  of  that  city  by 
Prince  Eugene  was  distinguished  for  his  char- 
ity. He  was  president  of  the  states  of  Langue- 
doc  over  20  years,  and  patronized  many  learn- 
ed publications  relating  to  that  part  of  France. 
He  died  Aug.  4,  1739. — CHARLES  JUSTE,  born 
at  Luneville,  Sept.  10, 1720,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Prague  in  1742,  and  in 
various  subsequent  engagements,  especially  at 
Corbach  in  1760.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  academy,  governor  of  Provence,  and  mar- 
shal, and  was  for  five  months  in  1789  a  member 
of  the  cabinet  of  Louis  XVI.  He  died  May  2, 
1793. 

BEAUVOIS,  Ambrolse  Marie  Francois  Joseph  Pall- 
sot  de.  See  PALISOT. 

BEAl'ZEE,  Nicolas,  a  French  grammarian,  born 
in  Verdun,  May  9,  1717,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  23, 
1789.  Declining  employment  under  Frederick 
the  Great,  he  succeeded  Dnmarsais  in  prepar- 
ing grammatical  articles  for  the  great  Encyclo- 
pedie,  which,  together  with  those  of  Marmon- 
tel,  were  separately  published  in  1789  (3  vols., 
Liege),  under  the  title  of  Dictionnaire  de  gram- 
maire  et  de  litterature.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  professor  at  the  royal  military 
school  in  Paris.  His  most  important  work  is 
Grammaire  generale  (2  vols.,  1767;  new  ed., 
1819).  Among  his  other  works  are  translations 
of  Sallust  (1770)  and  of  the  "  Imitation  of  Jesus 
Christ  "(1788). 

BEAVER  {castor,  Cuv.),  a  fur-bearing  amphib- 
ious animal,  of  the  rodent  or  gnawing  order 
(rodentia).  The  beaver  has  the  head  com- 
pressed, with  an  unbroken  line  of  profile  from 
occiput  to  muzzle;  2  large  incisors  and  8 
molars  in  each  jaw,  with  large  and  powerful 
muscles  regulating  the  movements  of  the  in- 
ferior jaw  ;  eyes  disproportionately  small  and 
vision  of  short  range ;  ears  small,  but  hearing 
very  acute ;  sense  of  smell  powerful ;  body 
short  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  broad, 
heavy,  and  clumsy ;  length  when  full  grown, 
from  tip  of  nose  to  end  of  tail,  3  ft.  6  or  8  in. ; 
weight  from  30  to  60  Ibs. ;  color  reddish  (in 
some  localities  yellowish)  brown,  in  rare  instan- 
ces black,  and  a  few  albinos  or  white  beavers 
have  been  found.  The  fore  feet  of  the  beaver 
are  digitigrade,  and  the  hind  ones  plantigrade. 
The  paws  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  animal, 
and  compared  with  the  hind  feet ;  in  swim- 
ming they  are  not  used,  and  are  folded  under 
the  body ;  but  they  are  capable  of  some  rotary 
movement,  which  enables  the  beaver  to  handle 
and  carry  sticks,  limbs  of  trees,  mud,  and 
stones,  and  to  use  his  paws  as  hands  while  sit- 
ting up  or  walking  on  his  hind  legs.  The  hind 
legs  are  the  propelling  power  in  swimming, 
and  the  feet  are  fully  webbed  to  the  roots  of 
the  claws.  The  most  conspicuous  organ,  the 
tail,  is  from  10J  to  11-J  in.  long,  6$  in.  broad, 


4:34 


BEAVER 


nearly  flat,  straight,  and  covered  for  the  length 
of  9  or  10  in.  with  black  horny  scales,  and  is  at- 
tached by  strong  muscles  to  a  posterior  projec- 


Beaver. 

tion.  The  common  error  that  the  tail  is  the 
beaver's  trowel  is  confuted  by  the  fact  that  the 
animal  always  uses  mud  and  soft  earth  as  mor- 
tar ;  but  it  serves  as  a  pounder  to  pack  mud 
and  earth  in  constructing  lodges  and  dams,  is 
used  in  swimming  as  a  scull,  elevates  or  de- 
presses the  head,  turns  the  body,  assists  in  div- 
ing, and  by  striking  a  powerful  blow,  the  re- 
port of  which  can  be  heard  at  the  distance  of 
a  half  mile,  it  gives  an  alarm ;  while  the  strong 
muscles  enable  the  beaver  when  standing  erect 
to  use  the  tail  as  a  prop.  Beavers  are  mono- 
tremes,  and  dissection  is  necessary  to  distin- 
guish the  sex.  The  female  brings  forth  from  2 
to  6  young  in  May,  and  weans  them  in  6  weeks. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  from  12  to  16  weeks, 
and  the  beaver  lives  from  12  to  15  years. 
Water  is  the  natural  element  of  the  beaver, 
and  its  movements  on  land  are  awkward  and 
slow.  For  commercial  purposes,  besides  its 
fur,  the  beaver  furnishes  castoreum,  a  secretion 
used  in  medicine  as  an  anti-spasmodic,  and  its 
flesh  is  much  esteemed  as  food  by  trappers  and 
Indians. — The  beaver  is  social,  pairs  and  brings 
up  a  family  to  maturity,  and  sometimes  two  or 
more  families  inhabit  the  same  pond.  The 
common  supposition  that  beavers  live  in  vil- 
lages or  colonies  is  erroneous.  All  the  inhabi- 
tants may  assist  in  constructing  or  repairing 
the  common  dam,  but  each  family  has  its  own 
lodge  and  burrows,  and  lays  in  its  own  supply 
of  provisions  for  the  winter.  As  their  work  is 
carried  on  by  night,  little  is  actually  known  of 
their  method  except  from  the  examination  of 
what  they  effect.  They  only  build  dams  when 
they  have  chosen  the  site  of  their  settlements 
on  running  streams  which  do  not  afford  a 
sufficient  depth  of  water  to  be  secure  against 
freezing  in  winter ;  and  this  they  do  by  cutting 
down  trees,  invariably  up  stream  of  the  place 
selected  for  their  weir,  so  that  the  current 
may  bear  them  down  toward  the  site.  The 
trees  which  they  thus  cut  down  with  their 
fore  teeth  are  often  five  or  six  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Where  the  current  is  gentle,  the  dam 
is  carried  horizontally  across ;  but  where  the 


water  runs  swiftly,  it  is  built  with  an  angle  or 
convex  curve  up  stream.  These  materials  rest 
on  the  bottom,  where  they  are  mixed  with 
mud  and  stones  by  the  beavers,  and  still  more 
solidly  secured  by  the  deposit  of  soil  carried 
down  by  the  stream,  and  by  the  occasional 
rooting  of  the  small  willow,  birch,  and  poplar 
trees,  which  they  prefer  for  their  work,  in  the 
soil  at  the  bottom.  Their  houses  or  lodges, 
seldom  made  to  contain  more  than  four  old  and 
six  or  eight  young  beavers,  are  very  rudely 
built ;  sticks,  stones,  mud,  and  all  the  materials 
used  in  constructing  the  dam,  are  piled  horizon- 
tally, with  no  method  beyond  that  of  leaving  a 
cavity  in  the  centre.  There  is  no  driving  in  of 
piles,  wattling  of  fences,  and  mud  plastering, 
as  described ;  and  when  leaves  or  grass  are  in- 
terwoven, it  is  done  casually,  not  to  bind  the 
mortar,  as  men  apply  hair  for  that  purpose. 
The  beaver  conveys  the  materials  between  his 
fore  paws  and  chin,  arranges  them  with  his 


Beaver  Lodges  and  Dam. 

fore  feet,  and  when  a  portion  is  placed  as  he 
wishes  it,  he  turns  about  and  gives  it  a  slap 
with  his  tail.  In  the  breeding  season,  and  in 
early  summer,  the  beavers  do  not  live  in  their 
houses,  nor  in  communities,  but  only  become 
gregarious  in  the  winter,  and  when  preparing 
for  it.  They  begin  to  build  ordinarily  in  the 
latter  part  of  August,  although  they  sometimes 
fell  their  timber  earlier  in  the  summer;  but 
their  houses  are  not  finished  and  plastered  un- 
til late  in  the  season,  when  the  freezing  of  the 
mud  and  water  as  the  material  is  laid  on  adds 
much  to  the  security  of  the  beavers  against  the 
wolverene  or  glutton,  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  man,  is  their  worst  enemy.  The  food 
of  the  beaver  consists  of  the  bark  of  the  aspen, 
willow,  birch,  poplar,  and  alder,  of  which  it 
lays  up  in  summer  a  stock  for  the  winter, 
on  the  bank  opposite  its  lodges ;  but  unless 
compelled  by  necessity,  it  avoids  the  resinous 
evergreens,  such  as  the  pine  and  hemlock. 
The  beaver  is  easily  domesticated,  and  be- 


BEAVER 


435 


comes  very  tame. — The  habitat  of  the  Amer- 
ican beaver  formerly  extended  from  the  Arctic 
sea  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  they  were  found 
in  the  greatest  number  near  Hudson  bay, 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  at  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mississippi,  and  on  the  Yukon, 
Mackenzie,  Frazer,  and  Sacramento  rivers. 
During  the  colonial  period  beavers  were  abun- 
dant in  New  England,  New  York,  to  some 
extent  in  the  Canadas,  and  on  the  margins  of 
rivers  throughout  the  south;  they  are  still 
seen,  but  rarely,  in  Maine,  New  York,  and  Vir- 
ginia. Colonization,  which  the  beaver,  hunted 
for  its  fur,  in  no  small  degree  induced  in  some 
regions,  contracted  its  habitat ;  later  trapping 
and  hunting  has  completely  exterminated  the 
animal  in  regions  where  it  once  was  abundant, 
and  it  is  now  found  only  in  the  Hudson  Bay 
territory,  in  the  Canadas,  in  upper  Michigan, 
on  the  upper  Missouri,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Washington,  Nevada,  California,  and  Oregon. 
The  colonists  and  the  Indians  pursued  the 
beaver  hunt  with  such  rapacity  as  to  extermi- 
nate the  animal  in  regions  within  reach,  and  as 
early  as  1700  beaver  skins  were  no  longer  ex- 
ported from  New  England,  New  York,  and  the 
middle  states.  Settlement  and  hunting  at  the 
west  have  driven  beavers  within  a  narrower 
circle ;  and  the  hunter's  ingenuity  in  traps  and 
scent  baits,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  habits  of 
the  animal,  soon  results  in  the  capture  of  nearly 
every  beaver  in  the  hunted.region.  The  trap- 
ping season  begins  in  November  and  ends  in 
March,  but  the  hunt  is  pursued  throughout  the 
year,  in  spring,  summer,  and  fall  on  the  dams, 
and  in  winter  through  the  ice.  A  trapper 
manages  from  50  to  70  traps  in  a  circuit  of  30 
or  40  miles ;  and  on  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Su- 
perior an  Indian  family  of  four  good  trappers 
will  take  from  75  to  150  bearers  in  a  season. 
Of  late  years  the  substitution  of  silk  for  fur  for 
hats,  and  the  consequent  decline  in  the  value 
of  the  skins,  have  caused  a  relaxation  of  the 
hunt  and  some  increase  in  the  numbers  of  the 
animal  on  the  upper  Mississippi  and  around 
Lake  Superior.  A  regulation  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  company  compels  an  interval  of  five  years 
in  a  beaver  district  after  a  season's  hunt  before 
trapping  is  resumed ;  but  it  is  not  possible  for 
,  the  beaver  to  recover  its  former  numbers  in 
any  region.  There  was,  however,  an  increased 
activity  in  trapping  and  in  the  trade  in  1871, 
occasioned  by  use  of  the  fur  in  Russia  and  on 
the  continent  for  trimmings  for  ladies'  wear, 
and  for  men's  gloves  and  collars ;  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1872,  there  was  an  advance  of  35  per  cent, 
over  the  prices  in  1871.  The  extent  of  this  fur 
trade  may  be  estimated  from  the  following  sta- 
tistics :  In  1624  the  Dutch  West  India  company 
began  the  trade  in  America  by  exporting  from 
New  Amsterdam  400  skins ;  from  1025  to  1635, 
81,183  skins  were  exported ;  in  1743  the  Hud- 
son Bay  company  exported  150,000  skins;  du- 
ring the  years  1854,  1855,  and  1856  this  com- 
pany sold  in  London  627,655  beaver  skins,  a 
portion  of  the  first  sales  being  the  accumulation 


of  previous  years.  In  1871  the  London  sales 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  company  were  124,538 
skins,  but  probably  the  entire  sales  abroad 
were  150,000  skins,  to  which  must  be  added 
25,000  skins  in  the  United  States,  making  the 
production  for  the  year  in  the  United  States, 
at  Hudson  bay,  and  on  the  Columbia  river, 
175,000  skins.  From  January  1  to  March  6, 
1872,  the  Hudson  Bay  company  sold  in  three 
auctions  in  London  35,510  skins.  During  the 
Dutch  occupation  of  New  Amsterdam  pelts 
were  worth  about  $2  25,  and  were  used  as  part 
of  the  currency ;  in  1820  on  the  upper  Mis- 
souri beaver  skins  were  worth  $7  and  $8  per 
pound ;  in  the  same  locality  in  1862  they 
brought  $1  25,  and  in  1868  $2  per  pound.  In 
1872  the  price  in  London  was  from  10*.  to  34*. 
per  skin,  according  to  color  and  size,  and  $4 
gold  for  the  best  skins  in  the  United  States ; 
for  cub  skins  3*.  to  4«.  sterling.  The  large 
skins  weigh  from  1|  to  2  Ibs. — The  European 
beaver  was  once  found  in  the  British  islands, 
in  all  parts  of  the  continent,  in  Siberia,  and 
in  Asia  Minor.  It  is  now  extinct,  except  in 
rarely  found  solitary  pairs  on  some  of  the 
rivers,  such  as  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Danube, 
and  in  Siberia.  The  European  is  a  larger  ani- 
mal than  the  American  beaver,  with  a  paler- 
colored  fur;  and,  though  probably  not  a  dis- 
tinct species,  its  habits  are  difi'erent.  It  is 
solitary,  not  gregarious,  and  generally  lives  in 
burrows  instead  of  constructing  lodges  and 
dams. — See  "  The  American  Beaver  and  his 
Works,"  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan  (8vo,  Phila- 
delphia, 1868). 

BEAVER.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
bordering  on  Ohio,  and  intersected  by  the 
Ohio  and  Beaver  rivers ;  area,  650  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  36,178.  The  soil  near  the  streams 
is  remarkably  fertile.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
and  in  some  places  covered  with  extensive  for- 
ests. Bituminous  coal  and  limestone  are  abun- 
dant. The  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chi- 
cago, and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Cleveland  rail- 
roads traverse  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  174,508  bushels  of  wheat, 
59,800  of  rye,  414,233  of  Indian  corn,  532,625 
of  oats,  21,540  of  barley,  193,425  of  potatoes, 
30,224  tons  of  hay,  936,107  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
421,907  of  wool.  There  were  5,882  horses, 
7,901  milch  cows,  6,702  other  cattle,  98,300 
sheep,  and  12,092  swine.  Capital,  Beaver.  II. 
A  S.W.  county  of  Utah,  bordering  on  Nevada, 
and  intersected  by  Sevier  river;  area,  about 
3,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,007.  The  Wah- 
satch  mountains  lie  along  the  E.  border,  and  a 
portion  of  Preuss  lake  is  in  the  N.  W.  part. 
There  is  some  good  farming  land,  and  deposits 
of  iron,  lead,  and  silver  are  found,  and  have 
been  somewhat  mined.  Capital,  Beaver  City. 

BEAVER,  Philip,  an  English  navigator  and 
philanthropist,  born  Feb.  28,  1760,  died  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  April  5,  1813.  He  served 
in  the  royal  navy  during  the  war  of  the  Amer- 
ican revolution,  and  after  the  peace  organized 
an  association  to  found  a  colony  in  Africa  for 


436 


BEAVER  HEAD 


cultivating  the  soil  by  free  labor  and  civilizing 
the  negroes.  He  left  England  April  13,  1792, 
with  three  ships  and  275  white  colonists,  for 
Bulama  island,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  The 
expedition  proved  a  failure.  Within  four  months 
more  than  a  third  of  the  colonists  had  died  by 
fever,  and  more  than  half  the  survivors  returned 
to  England.  Beaver  himself,  though  often  pros- 
trated by  fever,  persevered  in  the  enterprise ; 
but,  unable  to  revive  the  spirit  of  the  colonists, 
he  departed  with  them  for  Sierra  Leone,  Nov. 
29,  1793,  and  in  May,  1794,  reached  England 
with  only  one  of  his  original  companions.  The 
shareholders  of  the  association,  in  spite  of  their 
losses,  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal  for 
his  disinterested  and  resolute  conduct.  He  pub- 
lished a  narrative  of  his  experiences  entitled 
"  African  Memoranda."  Subsequently  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Abercrombie  in  Egypt 
in  1801,  and  in  the  capture  of  the  Isle  of  France 
in  1810.  In  1813  he  cruised  in  the  Indian  ocean 
in  command  of  the  frigate  Nisus. 

BEAVER  HEAD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Montana 
territory,  separated  on  the  S.  and  W.  from 
Idaho  by  the  Eocky  mountains  and  bounded 
N.  by  the  Big  Hole  mountain;  area,  4,250  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  722.  Affluents  of  Jefferson 
river,  one  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Missouri, 
take  their  rise  in  this  county.  The  surface  is 
very  mountainous.  The  county  contains  three 
quartz  mills  for  the  production  of  gold  and  a 
saw  mill.  Capital,  Bannock. 

BEAVER  INDIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Chipe- 
wyans,  belonging  to  the  Athabascan  family. 
They  inhabit  a  beautiful  district  on  the  Peace 
river,  and  are  allied  with  the  Mauvais  Monde. 
Their  dialect  differs  somewhat  from  the  Chipe- 
wyan.  They  are  gay,  improvident,  and  given 
to  gambling. — A  tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family, 
called  in  early  French  accounts  Amikouek  or 
Beaver  Indians,  lay  north  of  Manitouline  island 
on  the  banks  of  Lake  Huron.  They  were  also 
called  Nez  Perces,  a  name  subsequently  given 
to  an  Oregon  tribe. 

BEAVER  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  Lake  Michigan, 
near  its  N.  extremity,  and  having  one  island 
of  considerable  extent  (40  sq.  m.),  called  Big 
Beaver.  After  their  expulsion  from  Nauvoo,  a 
dissenting  branch  of  the  Mormons  established 
themselves  there  under  Joseph  Strang. 

BEAZLET,  Samuel,  an  English  architect  and 
author,  born  in  London  in  1786,  died  at  Tun- 
bridge  castle,  Kent,  Oct.  12,  1851.  He  erected 
three  great  theatres  in  London,  two  in  Dublin, 
and  three  in  the  provinces,  besides  remodelling 
several,  and  supplying  drawings  for  theatres  in 
India,  Belgium,  and  Brazil.  He  wrote  over  a 
hundred  dramas,  and  two  novels,  "  The  Rou6  " 
and  "The  Oxonians." 

BF.BEER1NE,  or  Bebeeria,  an  alkaloid,  having 
the  formula  CssH^NO,,  obtained  from  the  be- 
beeru  bark  or  bark  of  nectandra,  Rodiei.  This 
tree  belongs  to  the  family  lauracea,  and  inhab- 
its Guiana  and  neighboring  regions  of  South 
America.  The  alkaloid  is  also  found  in  the 
luxus  gempernirent  or  common  box.  The  im- 


BEBUTOFF 

pure  sulphate,  which  is  commonly  used,  occurs 
in  small  dark  brown  translucent  scales.  It  is 
supposed  to  resemble  quinia  in  its  properties, 
and  has  been  used  in  the  same  class  of  diseases. 
In  antiperiodic  power  it  probably  ranks  among 
the  vegetable  bitters  as  next,  though  far  infe- 
rior^to  quinia. 

BEBIAN,  Roth  Ambroise  Angnste,  a  French 
teacher  of  deaf  mutes,  born  on  the  island  of 
Guadeloupe  in  1789,  died  there  in  1834.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant  and  the  godson 
of  the  abbe  Sicard,  under  whose  direction  he 
qualified  himself  for  his  task.  He  published  in 
1817  an  Essai  sur  leg  sour  ds-mtt  eta  et  sur  le 
langage  naturel,  and  afterward  became  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  royal  institution,  where  he  excited 
so  much  jealousy  by  his  zeal  for  reform  that  he 
was  induced  in  1825  to  resign  and  return  to 
Guadeloupe.  Among  his  writings  are :  Mimo- 
yraphie,  ou  Essai  d'ecriture  mimique  (1822), 
and  Manuel  d'emeignement  pratique  (1827). 
The  academy  awarded  him  a  prize  for  his  Eloge 
historique  de  Vable  de  Vfipee. 

BEBl'TOFF,  Vasili  Oslpovlfrh,  prince,  a  Rus- 
sian soldier,  born  in  1792,  died  in  Tiflis,  March 
22,  1858.  His  family,  originally  Armenians, 
acquired  distinction  in  Georgia.  He  joined  the 
army  of  the  Caucasus  in  1809,  served  in  1812 
against  the  French,  and  subsequently  took  part 
in  the  subjugation  of  a  part  of  Daghestan.  In 
1825-'7  he  was  governor  of  Imeretia,  and  in 
1828  fought  bravely  against  the  Turks  under 
Paskevitch ;  and  he  was  made  major  general 
for  storming  Akhaltzikh  and  holding  that  for- 
tress in  March,  1829,  for  ten  days,  against  supe- 
rior Turkish  forces,  until  relieved  by  Muravieff. 
Appointed  governor  of  the  new  Russian  prov- 
ince of  Armenia,  he  concluded  in  1835  a 
boundary  treaty  with  Persia,  and  was  in  1838- 
'40  a  member  of  the  Transcaucasian  administra- 
tion in  Tiflis.  In  October,  1846,  he  defeated 
Shamyl;  and  in  November,  1847,  he  became 
president  of  the  Transcaucasian  administrative 
council.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  army  of  ob- 
servation on  the  frontier,  and  by  routing  the 
Turks  near  Kadiklar,  Dec.  1, 1853,  he  prevent- 
ed their  invasion  of  Russian  Armenia.  He 
achieved  a  decisive  victory  near  Kuruk-Dereh, 
Aug.  5,  1854,  over  Zarif  Pasha  with  40,000  , 
men,  an  army  more  than  twice  as  large  as  his 
own ;  but  failing  to  follow  up  his  advantage, 
he  was  superseded  in  1855  by  Muravieff,  and 
detailed  for  the  covering  of  Georgia,  where,  on 
hearing  of  Omar  Pasha's  arrival  in  Mingrulia, 
he  lost  no  time  in  forcing  him  to  retreat.  In 
1856  he  succeeded  Muravieff  as  commander-in- 
chief  until  the  arrival  of  Bariatinsky.  He  was 
made  general  of  infantry  in  January,  1857. — 
Two  of  his  brothers  fell  on  the  battlefields  of 
the  Caucasus.  His  third  brother,  DAVID,  fought 
under  Paskevitch  in  Poland  and  Hungary,  and 
before  Silistria  as  commander  of  the  Caucasian 
cavalry  regiment,  became  lieutenant  general  in 
1856,  and  was  military  commander  of  Warsaw 
from  1861  till  his  death  there,  March  23,  1807. 


BECCAFICO 


BECERRA 


437 


BECCAFICO  (ltd.,  fig-pecker),  the  gyhia  Jior- 
tensis,  a  singing  bird  which  feeds  upon  insects, 
figa,  currants,  and  other  fruits.  It  belongs  to 
the  order  of  syhiadce  (warblers),  and  is  found 
in  some  English  and  even  Scotch  counties,  but 
chiefly  in  southern  Europe.  It  has  a  voice 
like  a  nightingale,  lurks  shyly  in  the  thickest 


Beccaflco  (Silvia  hortcnsis). 


foliage,  and  flies  with  singular  grace.  It  was 
eaten  with  much  delight  by  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, and  still  is  one  of  the  most  delectable 
morceaux  on  Italian,  Grecian,  and  French  ta- 
bles, especially  in  Venice.  An  annual  feast 
made  on  beccaficos  is  called  beccqficata.  The 
term  beccafico  is  applied  in  continental  Eu- 
rope, rather  indiscriminately,  to  different  kinds 
of  sylvan  warblers,  when  they  are  fat  and  in 
condition  for  the  table. 

BECCAFU9II,  or  Meeherlno,  Domenieo,  an  Italian 
artist,  born  at  Siena  in  1484,  died  in  Genoa, 
March  18, 1549,  or  according  to  Lanzi  after  1551. 
He  began  life  as  a  shepherd,  amusing  himself 
in  drawing  figures  of  his  flock  upon  the  sand. 
Beccafumi,  a  patron  of  art,  was  struck  by  his 
talent,  and  attended  to  his  education ;  and  he 
adopted  the  name  of  his  benefactor,  though  he 
occasionally  used  his  real  name  of  Mecherino. 
He  studied  in  Venice  and  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  to  Siena  he  executed  bronze  statues  and 
bass  reliefs.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  the 
mosaic  pavement  of  the  Siena  cathedral. 

BECCARIA,  Cesar*  Bonesana,  marquis  of,  an 
Italian  jurist  and  economist,  born  in  Milan, 
March  15,  1738,  died  there,  Nov.  28,  1794. 
He  attended  the  Jesuits'  college  in  Parma  and 
afterward  studied  philosophy  and  mathematics. 
Under  the  patronage  of  Count  Firmian,  gov- 
ernor of  Lombardy,  he  established  a  literary 
society  in  Milan  and  a  periodical,  II  Gaffe 
(1764-'o),  in  which  he  published  (1764)  his  Dei 
delitti  e  delle  pene,  which  was  revised  by  him 
and  by  Pietro  Verri  (2  vols.,  Venice,  1781), 
and  translated  into  English  ("  Crimes  and  Pun- 
ishments," Edinburgh,  1798),  German,  French, 
and  other  languages.  This  essay,  which  urged 
the  abolition  of  capital  punishment  and  the 
torture,  established  his  fame  as  the  originator 
of  a  more  humane  system  of  penal  jurispru- 


dence, and  wrought  important  reforms  al- 
most everywhere,  though  in  his  own  coun- 
try he  was  at  first  depreciated.  Voltaire 
wrote  a  commentary  on  it  under  the  title  of 
Un  avocat  de  Besancon,  and  subsequently  Bec- 
caria  visited  him  and  D'Alembert.  The  cor- 
respondence of  Baron  Grimm  attests  the  great 
popularity  of  Beccaria's  views  in  France. 
Kant  commended  them,  but  the  most  learned 
disquisition  on  the  subject  is  by  Cesare  Cantu 
(Florence,  1862).  Catharine  II.  adopted  Bec- 
caria's suggestions  in  the  Russian  code,  and 
offered  him  an  office,  which  he  declined  in  order 
to  accept  the  professorship  of  political  and  ad- 
ministrative sciences  especially  created  for  him 
at  Milan  in  November,  1768.  His  opening  dis- 
course, "On  Commerce  and  Public  Adminis- 
tration," was  translated  into  French  by  An- 
toine  Comparet  (1769).  In  1771  he  became 
a  member  of  the  supreme  economic  council, 
and  on  the  abrogation  of  this  body  he  was 
transferred  to  the  magistracy,  and  placed  in 
1791  on  the  committee  for  the  reform  of  the 
civil  and  criminal  code.  He  promoted  reforms 
in  trade,  currency,  and  statistics,  and  urged  the 
adoption  of  uniformity  in  weights  and  measures. 
His  lectures  on  political  economy  have  been 
published  under  the  title  of  Elementi  di  eco- 
nomist pubblica,  in  the  collection  of  the  Scrittori 
elnssici  italiani  di  eeonomia  politica.  The 
best  complete  edition  of  his  works,  including 
his  Jiieerehe  intorno  alia  natura  dello  stile,  is 
by  Villari  (Florence,  1854). 

BECCARIA,  Glambattista,  or  Giovanni  Battlsta, 
an  Italian  electrician,  born  at  Mondovi,  Oct. 
3,  1716,  died  in  Turin,  May  27,  1781.  He 
entered  the  religious  order  of  the  Piarists  in 
1732,  and  always  remained  a  member  of  it. 
He  became  professor  of  experimental  physics  at 
Palermo  and  afterward  at  Rome,  and  in  1748  at 
Turin.  Subsequently  he  was  tutor  of  the  prin- 
ces de  Chablais  and  de  Carignan,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  Turin.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
treatise  DelP  elettricismo  naturale  e  artificiele 
(Turin  1753),  which  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Franklin  (London,  1771).  His  most 
remarkable  experiments  and  theories  relate  to 
the  limited  conducting  power  of  water,  to  the 
electrification  of  the  air  and  smoke,  to  the  ve- 
locity of  electricity,  to  its  influence  in  reducing 
metals,  and  to  various  phenomena  connected 
with  storms  and  atmospherical  magnetism. 
The  "  Philosophical  Transactions  "  of  the  royal 
society  of  London,  of  which  he  was  made  a 
fellow  in  1755,  contain  his  letter  to  Franklin 
(1760)  entitled  "Experiments  in  Electricity," 
and  other  -papers  in  Latin.  At  the  sugges- 
tion of  Boscovich,  he  was  commissioned  in 
1759  to  measure  the  length  of  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Turin. 
This  work,  which  was  not  regarded  as  very 
accurate,  he  completed  in  1768,  and  published 
an  account  of  it  in  1774  (Oradus  Taurinensis). 

BECERRA,  Caspar,  a  Spanish  sculptor  and 
fresco  painter,  born  at  Baeza  in  1520,  died  in 
1570.  He  studied  under  Michel  Angelo  at 


438 


BECHER 


Rome,  and  on  his  return  to  Madrid  executed 
several  works  in  fresco  for  the  palace,  and 
adorned  many  churches.  His  masterwork  is  a 
statue  of  the  Virgin. 

BKC1IEK,  Johann  Joachim,  a  German  chemist, 
born  in  Spire  in  1625,  died  in  London  in  Octo- 
ber, 1682.  In  spite  of  adverse  circumstances, 
he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  medicine,  physics, 
and  chemistry,  became  professor  at  Mentz,  and 
in  1660  imperial  councillor  at  Vienna  and  first 
physician  to  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  He  en- 
deavored to  promote  industry  and  a  spirit  of 
enterprise  in  Vienna,  but  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  court,  and  after  many  unfor- 
tunate experiences  in  various  places  he  ended 
his  life  in  London.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
Physica  Sulterranea,  (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1669),  establishing  a  close  relation  between 
chemistry  and  medical  science,  and  on  his 
founding  the  theoretical  basis  of  chemistry. 

BECHSTEIN,  Johann  MatthSns,  a  German  orni- 
thologist and  forester,  born  in  Waltershausen, 
Saxe-Gotha,  July  11, 1757,  died  in  1822.  Hav- 
ing visited  the  most  celebrated  hunting  grounds 
of  Germany,  he  opened  at  Kemnate  a  school  of 
forestry,  and  became  in  1800  the  director  of 
the  Saxe-Meiningen  academy  of  forestry.  His 
principal  works  are  Gemeinniitzige  Naturge- 
schichte  Deutschlands  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1789- 
'95;  2ded.,  1801-'9),  and  Naturgeschichte  der 
Stubenwgel  (4th  ed.,  Halle,  1840). 

i:i:<  II I  V\ A  (singular,  Mochuana,  from  cTmana, 
free,  and  a  personal  prefix),  a  people  of  S.  Africa, 
inhabiting  an  extensive  territory  on  both  sides 
of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  divided  into  nu- 
merous tribes.  Their  complexion  is  a  coffee- 
colored  brown,  that  of  the  Barolong  tribe  be- 
ing the  lightest.  They  are  of  medium  size, 
symmetrically  built,  and  have  the  crisped  wool- 
ly hair  of  the  negro.  They  are  of  a  gentle  dis- 
position. Slavery  hardly  exists  among  them. 
They  are  rich  in  sheep  and  goats,  but  less  so  in 
horned  cattle.  They  have  some  notion  of  deity, 
but  have  no  religions  rites,  though  monkeys, 
snakes,  and  crocodiles  are  sometimes  worship- 
ped. They  affirm  that  they  originally  sprang 
from  a  cave,  which  is  still  pointed  out  in  the 
Bakoni  country,  and  where  the  footmarks  of  the 
first  man  may.be  still  seen  in  the  rocks.  Their 
faith  in  the  supernatural  power  of  a  class  of 
wizards  termed  rain-makers,  one  of  whom  at 
least  is  found  in  every  tribe,  they  share  with 
the  other  peoples  of  southern  Africa.  Polyg- 
amy exists  to  an  unlimited  extent,  and  circum- 
cision is  a  general  practice.  Missionaries  have 
obtained  access  to  several  of  the  most  western 
tribes,  and  by  their  influence  the  women,  who 
formerly  performed  all  the  agricultural  work, 
have  been  relieved  from  the  heavier  tasks.  The 
government  of  the  Bechuana  is  both  monarchi- 
cal and  patriarchal,  and  of  a  mild  character. 
Every  tribe  has  its  chief  or  king,  who  resides 
in  the  largest  town,  and  is  held  sacred  by  rea- 
son of  his  hereditary  authority.  Under  these 
chiefs  are  the  heads  of  particular  districts  and 
villages,  and  again  under  these  are  the  cost,  or 


BECK 

wealthy  men,  who  form  the  aristocracy.     Tho 
power  of  the  princes  is  very  great,  but  is  limit- 
ed by  the  general  assembly,  called  the  picho, 
of  the  subordinate  chiefs. — The  Bechuana  for- 
merly extended  S.  as  far  as  the  Orange  river,  but 
were  driven  back  by  the  Hottentots.     At  a  re- 
cent period  the  Caffresmade  an  incursion  from 
the  east  deep  into  the  Bechuana  territory,  and 
devastated  the  country,  destroying  cities,  many 
of  which  had  a  population  of  20,000.     More 
recently   the   Boers    have  founded   establish- 
ments, including  the  Orange  River  Republic, 
within  the  Bechuana   territory.     Among  the 
most  important  and  best  known  of  the  Bechu- 
ana tribes  are  the  Bassuto,  which  is  the  most 
southerly  of  them,  occupying  a  table  land  to  the 
west  of  the  Drakenberg  mountains,  partially 
civilized  and  Christianized ;  the  Batlapi,  among 
whom  missionaries  have  had  the  greatest  suc- 
cess, dwelling  in  a  parched  region,  almost  des- 
titute both  of  wood  and  water,  on  the  borders 
of  the  Kalahari  desert;  the  Barolong,  dwelling 
to  the  north  of  the  preceding,  formerly  power- 
ful, but  now  scattered  and  almost  extirpated 
by  the   Caflfres;   the    Bangwaketse,   dwelling 
still  further  to  the  north,  in  a  fine  and  fertile 
valley,  who  were  formerly  wealthy,  but  have 
sufiered   severely  from  the  incursions  of  the 
Cafires ;  the  Bahurutse,  dwelling  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  foregoing,  in  one  of  the  finest  districts 
of  S.  Africa,  who  had  considerable  industry  in 
agriculture  and  raising  cattle,  till  they  were 
driven  by  the  Caffres  from  their  country,  which 
in  1837  was  seized  by  the  Boers;  the  Batoana, 
dwelling  on  the  N".  coast  of  Lake  Ngami,  the 
remnant  of  the  former  powerful  tribe  of  Ba- 
mangwato ;   the  Bakwains,  who   occupy  the 
fine  hilly  regions  along  the  rivers  Notuani  and 
Mariqua ;  and  the  Balaka,  who  are  not  of  Be- 
chuana stock,  but,  like  the  Bushmen,  live  scat- 
tered among  various  tribes,  and  are  generally 
despised.     Under  the  name  of  Bakalahari,  the 
Balaka  dwell  in  great  numbers  in  the  Kalahari 
desert.    The  Bayeye,  who  dwell  upon  the  bor- 
ders of  Lake  Ngami,  are  also  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Bechuana. — The  fullest  information 
concerning  the   tribes  of   southern  Africa  is 
contained  in  the  "Travels'  and  Researches" 
of  Livingstone. 

BECK,  or  Beet,  David,  a  Dutch  portrait  paint- 
er, one  of  the  ablest  pupils  of  Vandyke,  born 
in  1621,  died  at  the  Hague  in  1656.  He 
painted  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  Charles 
I.  of  England  exclaimed,  "  Faith,  Beck,  I  be- 
lieve you  could  paint  riding  post."  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden  employed  him  in  painting 
the  portraits  of  European  sovereigns,  and  chief- 
ly her  own  portrait.  He  travelled  extensive- 
ly, and  while  sick  in  Germany  he  was  thought 
dead  and  prepared  for  the  grave,  but  revived 
and  was  gradually  restored  to  life.  His  subse- 
quent death  was  ascribed  to  poison. 

BECK,  Karl,  a  German  poet,  born  at  Baja,  Hun- 
gary, May  1,  1817.  He  is  the  son  of  a  Jewish 
merchant,  studied  in  Pesth,  Vienna,  and  Leip- 
sic, and  has  since  1848  chiefly  resided  in  Vienna. 


BECK 


BECKER 


439 


Hia  first  poems  appeared  in  1838  and  1839,  and 
his  reputation  was  established  hy  his  novel  in 
verse,  Janko,  der  ungarisclie  Eosshirt  (Leipsic, 
1842).  Among  his  principal  succeeding  works 
are:  Lieder  vom  armen  Mann  (Berlin,  1846); 
Aus  der  Helrnath  (Dresden,  1852);  Mater  Dolo- 
rosa  (Berlin,  1853) ;  Jadwiga  (Leipsic,  18C3)  ; 
and  Elegieen  (Vienna,  1869).  He  wrote  a 
drama  entitled  Saul  (Leipsic,  1841),  not  adapted 
for  the  stage.  Many  of  his  works,  especially 
Janko,  are  remarkable  for  their  delineation 
of  Hungarian  characteristics.  A  collection  of 
his  poems  (Gesammelte  Gedichte,  Berlin,  1844) 
has  passed  through  many  editions. 

BECK.  I.  Tbeodorie  Romeyn,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11, 
1791,  died  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov.- 19,  1855.  He 
was  a  graduate  of  Union  college  (1807),  began 
his  medical  career  in  Albany,  prepared  in  1813 
a  systematic  report  on  American  minerals,  be- 
came in  1815  professor  of  the  institutes  of  med- 
icine and  lecturer  on  medical  jurisprudence 
in  the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  of 
western  New  York,  and  was  principal  of  the 
Albany  academy  from  1 81 7  to  1 848.  In  addition 
he  was  professor  in  the  Fairfield  medical  college, 
1826-'40,  and  in  the  Albany  medical  college, 
1840-'54.  He  was  president  of  the  New  York 
State  medical  society  in  1829,  founder  and  for 
some  time  president  of  the  Albany  institute, 
and  one  of  the  managers  of  the  New  York  state 
lunatic  asylum  from  the  time  of  its  foundation, 
and  its  president  in  1854.  His  statistical  pub- 
lications relating  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  had  a 
powerful  effect  in  influencing  the  state  legisla- 
ture to  provide  for  their  education.  He  edited 
the  "  American  Journal  of  Insanity  "  (1 849-'53), 
wrote  extensively  for  scientific  periodicals,  and 
published  with  his  brother  a  celebrated  work 
on  the  "  Elements  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  " 
(1823 ;  7th  ed.,  with  notes  by  Dr.  Dunlap  and 
Dr.  Darwell,  London,  1842 ;  10th  ed.,  2  vols., 
Albany,  1850).  II.  John  Brodbead,  an  Ameri- 
can physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Schenectady,  Sept.  18,  1794,  died  in  Rhine- 
beck,  N.  Y.,  April  9, 1851.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Columbia  college  (1813),  practised  in  New 
York,  and  was  in  1822  one  of  the  founders  and 
for  seven  years  the  chief  editor  of  the  "  New 
York  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal."  In  1826 
he  became  professor  of  materia  medica  and  bot- 
any in  the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons, 
and  afterward  exchanged  the  chair  of  botany  for 
that  of  medical  jurisprudence,  which,  together 
with  that  of  materia  medica,  he  filled  till  his 
death.  He  cooperated  with  his  brother  in  his 
"Elements  of  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  and 
published  "Medical  Essays"  (1843),  "Infant 
Therapeutics"  (1849),  and  "Historical  Sketch 
of  the  State  of  Medicine  in  the  Colonies" 
(1850).  III.  Lewis  C.,  an  American  naturalist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,  1798,  died  in  Albany,  April  21, 
1853.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  college 
(1817),  and  professor  successively  of  botany  in 
the  Rensselaer  institute  at  Troy  (1824-'9),  of 


botany  and  chemistry  in  the  Vermont  academy 
of  medicine,  of  chemistry  and  natural  history 
in  Rutgers  college,  and  of  chemistry  in  the 
Albany  medical  college.  In  1837  he  was  ap- 
pointed mineralogist  in  the  geological  survey 
of  New  York.  He  published  works  on  botany, 
chemistry,  adulterations,  the  "  Mineralogy  of 
New  York"  (4to,  1842),  &c. 

BECKER,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Minnesota ;  area, 
1,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  308.  The  Red 
river  of  the  North  has  its  source  in  Elbow  lake, 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  county.  Detroit  lake, 
in  the  S.  W.  part,  empties  into  the  Red  river, 
and  White  Earth  lake,  in  the  N.  part,  into  Wild 
Rice  river.  Buffalo  river,  also  a  branch  of  the 
Red,  drams  the  W.  part,  while  the  S.  E.  corner 
is  watered  by  affluents  of  the  Crow  Wing  river. 

BECKER.  I.  (.oil fried  Wilbelm,  a  German  phy- 
sician and  writer,  born  in  Leipsic,  Feb.  22,  1778, 
died  there,  Jan.  17,  1854.  He  translated  some 
of  Cooper's  novels,  and  Le  mie  prigioni  of 
Silvio  Pellico.  By  his  literary  labors  he  ac- 
cumulated $40,000,  to  which  bis  son  Karl  Ferdi- 
nand added  a  house  of  the  value  of  $7,000,  ap- 
propriating the  whole  amount  to  the  establish- 
ment of  an  educational  and  charitable  institu- 
tion for  the  blind  at  Leipsic.  II.  Karl  Ferdinand, 
a  German  musician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Leipsic,  July  17,  1804.  He  studied  the 
piano,  harmony,  and  composition  under  Fried- 
rich  Schneider,  and  at  the  age  of  14  made  his 
first  public  appearance  as  a  pianist.  Soon  after 
this  he  turned  his  attention  specially  to  the 
organ,  and  became  professor  of  the  organ  and 
of  harmony  at  the  Leipsic  conservatory.  He 
has  published  several  pieces  for  the  piano,  not 
of  great  value,  and  made  important  collections 
of  chorals ;  but  he  is  better  known  as  a  writer 
on  musical  art  than  as  either  a  composer  or 
compiler.  He  contributed  largely  to  musical 
journals,  among  others  to  the  Ccecilia,  edited 
by  Gottfried  Weber,  the  Eufonia,  the  Tagellatt, 
and  the  Zeitgenossen.  Finally,  when  Robert 
Schumann  established  his  New  Zeitechrift  fur 
Mmik,  Becker  became  one  of  its  most  constant 
contributors.  He  has  published  Rathgeberfur 
Organisten  (Leipsic,  1828);  Systematiich-chro- 
nologische  Dantellung  der  musikalischen  Lite- 
ratur  (1836) ;  Die  Hausmusik  in  Deuttchland 
in  dem  16.,  17.  und  18.  Jahrhundert  (1840) ; 
an  index  of  musical  works  published  during 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries  (Die  Tonwerke  des 
16.  und  17.  Jahrhunderts,  1847);  Die  Ton- 
kiimtler  des  19.  Jahrhunderts  (1849),  &c. 

BECKER,  Karl  Ferdinand,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Liser,  near  Treves,  April  14, 1775, 
died  at  Offenbach,  Sept.  5,  1849.  Ho  was  ed- 
ucated at  Hildesheim,  taught  there  from  1794 
to  1799,  subsequently  studied  and  practised 
medicine,  and  was  a  surgeon  in  the  army.  '  In 
1823  he  established  a  school  at  Offenbach.  In 
his  writings  on  comparative  philology  lie  fol- 
lowed logical  and  philosophical  principles,  in 
opposition  to  the  school  of  philologists  who 
base  their  investigations  chiefly  upon  historical 
and  ethnological  development.  His  grammars 


440 


BECKER 


and  manuals  of  the  German  language  passed 
through  many  editions. 

BECKER,  Karl  Friedrieh,  a  German  historian, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1777,  died  there,  March  15, 
1806.  He  studied  in  Berlin  and  Halle,  became 
a  teacher,  and  published  Weltgeschichle  fur 
Kinder  und  Kinderlehrer  (9  vols.,  Berlin, 
1801-'5).  Woltmann  added  to  this  series  a  10th 
volume,  and  A.  Menzel  two  more ;  and  Adolf 
Schmidt's  edition  of  1860-'67  contains  20  vol- 
umes, including  Arnd's  Geachichte  der  letzten 
merzig  Jahre  and  its  continuations  to  1867. 
The  same  author's  Qeschichte  der  Jahre  1867- 
1871  (1st  vol.,  1872)  is  also  to  serve  as  a  sup- 
plement. Becker's  original  nine  volumes  con- 
tinue to  be  the  most  popular  part  of  the  work, 
especially  among  juvenile  readers.  Equally 
attractive  for  the  young  are  his  three  volumes 
of  Erzahlungen  aus  der  alien  Well  (Halle, 
1801-'3  ;  4th  vol.  by  Giinther,  1842,  containing 
Die  Perserkriege  ;  9th  and  revised  ed.  by  Eck- 
stein, 1857). 

BECKER,  Rndolf  Zartiarias,  a  German  author, 
born  at  Erfurt,  April  9,  1752,  died  March  28, 
1822.  He  studied  theology  at  Jena,  and  be- 
came a  teacher  and  journalist  at  Dessau,  and 
eventually  at  Gotha,  where  the  wide  circula- 
tion of  his  writings  led  him  in  1797  to  estab- 
lish a  publishing  house.  Over  500,000  copies 
of  his  Nolh-  und  Hulfsbuchlein,  oder  lehrreiche 
Freuden-  und  Trauergesehichte  des  Dorfes 
Mildheim  (Gotha,  1787-'98),  were  sold  within 
a  few  years  in  Germany  and  in  foreign  trans- 
lations. He  made  a  valuable  addition  to  Ger- 
man art  by  his  edition  of  Hoktchnitte  alter 
deulscher  Meitler  (1808-'16).  In  1814  ap- 
peared Becker's  Leiden  und  Freuden  in  sieben- 
eehnmonatlicher  franzosweher  Oefangenschaft, 
a  narrative  of  his  imprisonment  by  the  French 
(1811-'13)  on  account  of  his  alleged  conspiracy 
against  Napoleon. 

BECKER.  I.  WUhelm  Gottlieb,  a  German  ar- 
chaeologist, born  at  Oberkallenberg,  Nov.  4, 
1753,  died  in  Dresden,  June  3,  1813.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  was  a 
teacher  in  Dessau,  and  became  professor  at 
the  Dresden  art  academy  (Ritterakademie)  in 
1782,  director  of  the  gallery  of  antiquities  and 
of  the  numismatic  museum  in  1795,  and  of 
the  green  vaults  in  1805.  He  edited  the  En- 
comium MoricB  of  Erasmus  {Lob  der  Narrheit, 
Basel,  1780),  and  published  the  works  of  Hol- 
bein (Berlin,  1781).  His  principal  works  are : 
Augwteum,  Dresdens  antike  Dcnkmiiler  ent- 
haltend  (2  vols.,  Dresden,  1805-'9 ;  new  and  en- 
larged ed.,  1832-'7,  with  162  engravings),  and 
an  illustrated  work  on  the  coins  of  the  middle 
ages  in  the  Dresden  numismatic  museum  (Leip- 
sic, 1813).  II.  Milliclm  Adolf,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Dresden  in  1796,  died  in  Meis- 
sen, Sept.  30,  1846.  He  was  professor  of 
classical  archaeology  at  the  university  of  Leip- 
sic. His  Qallm  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1863) 
and  Charicles  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1854)  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  the  Rev.  Frederick 
Metcalfe,  with  notes  (London,  1844  and  1854). 


BECKET 

In  these  works  the  life,  manners,  and  customs 
of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  are  admi- 
rably depicted,  accompanied  by  learned  and 
elaborate  excursuses.  His  principal  work  is 
HandlnicJi  der  romischen  Alterthumer,  com- 
pleted after  his  death  by  Marquardt  (5  vols., 
1843-'64). 

BECKET,  Thomas  a,  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  in  London  about  1117,  assassi- 
nated in  Canterbury,  Dec.  29,  1170  His  fa- 
ther, Gilbert  Becket,  a  native  of  Rouen,  was 
of  Norman  and  not  of  Saxon  blood,  and  his 
mother,  generally  represented  as  a  Saracen 
convert  to  Christianity,  was  probably  actually 
born  at  Caen.  Thierry  and  other  writers 
who  picture  Becket  as  a  champion  of  the  Sax- 
ons against  the  Normans,  are  not  sustained  by 
later  critics,  who  find  no  mention  of  him  in 
that  character  by  contemporary  authorities; 
and  the  contest  had  moreover  then  become  one 
of  class  and  not  of  race.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth  his  father  was  established  in  London 
as  a  merchant,  and  Becket  grew  up  with  the 
feelings  of  an  Englishman  of  the  respectable 
middle  class.  He  was  educated  at  Merton 
abbey,  Surrey,  and  at  Oxford,  London,  and 
Paris.  "While  employed  in  the  office  of  his  fa- 
ther, who  was  sheriff'  of  London  and  acquaint- 
ed with  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
the  latter  enabled  him  to  study  law  in  Bologna 
and  in  Auxerre,  and  presented  him  on  his  re- 
turn to  England,  after  he  had  taken  deacon's 
orders,  with  the  livings  of  St.  Mary  le  Strand 
and  Otterford,  Kent.  He  next  employed  him 
in  missions  to  Rome,  in  one  of  which  he  suc- 
cessfully negotiated  for  the  restoration  of 
the  legatine  power  of  the  see  of  Canterbury. 
The  archbishop  now  appointed  him  archdeacon 
of  Canterbury,  provost  of  Beverley,  and  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln  and  St.  Paul's.  In  1158 
Henry  II.  made  him  lord  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, in  which  capacity  he  had  to  discharge 
all  the  functions  which  now  devolve  upon  the 
different  members  of  the  cabinet,  besides  offi- 
ciating judicially.  He  was  fond  of  the  chase, 
and  as  conspicuous  on  the  battlefield  as  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  state.  The  valor  which  he 
displayed  as  a  commander  by  the  side  of  the 
king  in  France  led  to  his  being  made  tutor 
of  his  young  son  Henry,  whose  marriage  with 
Margaret  of  France  he  negotiated.  Intimately 
associated  with  the  king,  he  yet  refrained  from 
joining  in  his  excesses ;  and  though  as  chancel- 
lor and  as  a  soldier  he  threw  off  his  clerical 
character  and  was  addicted  to  stateliness  and 
display,  his  morals  were  exemplary  and  he  was 
by  no  means  irreligious.  So  powerful  became 
his  influence  over  Henry  that  in  1162,  on  the 
death  of  Theobald,  the  king  pressed  his  election 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury ;  and  some  authorities 
ascribe  to  Henry  the  intention  of  making  Becket 
ruler  in  England  as  viceroy,  while  he  was  him- 
self to  rule  as  king  in  France.  He  was  the  first 
native  Englishman  who  held  the  archbishopric 
of  Canterbury,  and  having  been  ordained  as 
priest,  he  was  consecrated  with  great  pomp  as 


BECKET 


primate  of  all  England.  He  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  royal  master  by  relinquishing 
the  chancellor's  office,  which  the  king  wanted 
him  to  retain ;  and  he  was  deprived  of  the 
archdeaconry,  which  Becket  wished  to  keep 
along  with  the  archbishopric.  Becket  now 
became  as  austere  and  sturdy  as  a  prelate  as 
he  had  been  brilliant  and  courtier-like  as  a 
statesman ;  and  he  acquired  great  renown  and 
popularity  as  a  fearless  champion  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  church,  and  incidentally  of 
the  people,  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
crown  and  the  nobility.  It  has  been  alleged 
that  his  qualities  fitted  him  better  for  the 
court  and  the  camp  than  for  the  church  ;  but 
it  was  only  through  the  latter  that  one  of  his 
origin  could  in  his  day  have  risen  so  high. 
He  began  to  make  his  influence  felt  in  1163  at 
the  council  of  Rheims,  where  he  lodged  com- 
plaints against  English  laymen  for  tampering 
with  ecclesiastical  rights  and  property.  He 
claimed  from  the  crown  Rochester  castle  as 
belonging  to  the  church,  and  this  and  other 
bold  steps  broke  off  his  friendly  relations  with 
the  government  and  the  nobility.  His  opposi- 
tion to  the  famous  constitutions  presented  at 
Clarendon  in  1164  became  the  signal  of  bitter 
feuds  between  him  and  the  king.  The  privi- 
lege for  which  he  contended  related  to  the  de- 
livery of  the  most  helpless  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple from  the  grasp  of  the  royal  courts,  and  to 
the  trial  of  their  cases  by  the  milder  ecclesiasti- 
cal jurisdiction.  One  of  the  Clarendon  constitu- 
tions, forbidding  the  ordination  of  villeins  with- 
out the  consent  of  their  masters,  was  particu- 
larly obnoxious  to  the  people,  with  whom  he 
rose  in  favor  in  the  same  degree  that  he  lost 
ground  with  the  court.  Henry  II.  withdrew 
his  son  from  his  tutorship,  and  Becket  took  a 
solemn  vow  to  resist  the  Clarendon  constitu- 
tions, but  at  length  was  compelled  to  recognize 
them  at  the  request  of  the  pope,  who  absolved 
him  from  the  violation  of  his  pledge.  Henry 
nevertheless  continued  hostile  to  him ;  and  to 
escape  from  his  persecutions,  he  fled  from  Eng- 
land, but  was  driven  back  by  stress  of  weather. 
Charging  him  with  a  breach  of  allegiance  on 
account  of  this  attempt  to  desert  his  post,  the 
king  had  him  tried  by  a  parliament  at  North- 
ampton ;  and  Becket,  overwhelmed  with  pen- 
alties, despoiled  of  his  property,  and  deserted  by 
all  but  the  common  people,  fled  in  disguise,  em- 
barking from  Sandwich  for  Gravelines.  Henry 
confiscated  the  revenues  of  his  see  and  made 
unavailing  eftbrts  to  have  him  expelled  from 
Flanders  and  France.  Becket  spent  nearly 
two  years  unmolested  in  the  Cistercian  abbey 
of  Pontigny  in  Burgundy ;  and  although  the 
king  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome  for  the  vindica- 
tion of  his  course,  Becket,  after  resigning  his 
see  into  the  hands  of  the  pope,  was  immedi- 
ately reinstated  by  his  holiness,  and  his  cause 
was  also  taken  up  by  the  king  of  France. 
Becket's  boldness  increasing  with  his  success, 
the  king  struck  his  name  from  the  liturgy,  ex- 
pelled 400  of  his  relatives  from  England,  and 


made  it  a  criminal  offence  to  correspond  with 
him  or  to  hold  intercourse  with  him  in  any  way. 
The  pope  having  confirmed  Becket's  legatine 
power  or  primacy  of  all  England  except  the 
see  of  York,  the  archbishop  attempted  to  awe 
the  church  and  state  into  submission  to  his 
and  the  pope's  will,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
restrained  only  by  the  illness  of  the  king  from 
having  him  excommunicated.  The  efforts  of 
the  pope  and  the  French  monarch,  and  several 
personal  interviews  between  the  king  and  the 
archbishop,  all  proved  unavailing  to  effect  a 
reconciliation ;  and  the  strife  increased  in  bit- 
terness when  Henry  II.  had  the  coronation  of 
I  his  son  Henry,  a  prerogative  of  the  primate, 
performed  by  the  archbishop  of  York.  The 
latter  and  his  assistant  bishops  were  consequent- 
ly suspended  by  the  pope  at  Becket's  request. 
In  1170,  however,  a  reconciliation  took  place 
at  Freitville,  a  border  town  in  Touraine,  and 
the  king  restored  to  him  his  see  and  all  its 
privileges.  On  his  return  to  England,  the  peo- 
ple gave  him  an  enthusiastic  reception ;  but  he 
speedily  revived  the  old  feud  by  publishing  the 
suspension  of  the  archbishop  of  York.  The 
king,  who  was  in  Normandy,  taunted  his  at- 
tendants for  their  remissness  in  revenging  him 
on  the  overbearing  prelate.  This  incited  Re- 
ginald Fitzurse,  William  de  Tracy,  Hugh  de 
Moreville,  and  Richard  Brito,  four  barons  of 
the  court,  to  undertake  the  task.  They  met 
Dec.  28, 1170,  at  the  castle  of  Ranulph  de  Broc, 
near  Canterbury,  accompanied  by  a  body  of 
armed  men.  The  next  day  they  had  a  stormy 
interview  with  the  archbishop  in  his  palace, 
and  on  the  same  evening  invaded  the  cathedral 
during  the  vesper  service.  Becket  prevented 
all  opposition  to  their  ingress  by  declining,  as 
he  said,  "to  convert  a  church  into  a  castle," 
and  implored  his  assailants  to  spare  everybody 
except  himself.  They  attempted  to  drag  him 
out  of  the  church  so  as  not  to  desecrate  it  by 
bloodshed ;  but  while  manfully  wrestling  with 
De  Tracy,  Becket  received  a  blow  which  in- 
flicted a  slight  wound  upon  him,  and  which 
shattered  the  arm  of  his  faithful  crossbearer, 
Edward  Grimes.  The  archbishop  then  kneeled 
at  the  altar,  when  the  other  three  barons  gave 
him  the  deathblow  and  his  brains  were  scat- 
tered on  the  floor.  The  murderers  fled  from 
the  wrath  of  the  people  to  Knaresborough  and 
then  to  Rome,  whence  the  pope  sent  them  as 
penitents  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  king  of  Eng- 
land barely  escaped  from  being  excommunicated 
by  the  pope,  who  ordered  the  cathedral  to  be 
closed  for  one  year.  In  1172  Alexander  III. 
canonized  Becket  as  Saint  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury. His  remains  were  deposited  in  1221  by 
Henry  III.  in  a  rich  shrine,  which  became  a 
resort  of  pilgrims  (described  in  Chaucer's 
"  Canterbury  Tales  "),  the  scene  of  alleged  mir- 
acles, and  of  periodical  festivals.  Henry  VIII. 
after  the  reformation  despoiled  the  shrine  of 
its  precious  treasures,  and  had  the  saint's  name 
struck  out  of  the  calendar  and  his  bones  burnt 
and  scattered.  Not  a  vestige  remains  of  the 


442 


BECKFORD 


magnificent  shrine,  and  the  cathedral  itself  was 
partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1872,  the  interior 
of  the  eastern  part  of  it,  known  as  Becket's 
crown  or  corona,  having  been  only  recently 
finished. — The  most  important  contemporary 
Latin  biographers  of  Becket  were  Edward  Grim, 
Roger  of  Pontigny,  William  Fitz-Stephen,  Alan 
of  Tewkesbury,  Herbert  of  Bosham,  and  an 
anonymous  writer  whose  MS.  was  found  in 
the  library  of  Lambeth  palace  and  reproduced 
by  Dr.  Giles.  Gamier  de  Pont  Sainte  Max- 
ence,  who  was  acquainted  with  Becket's  sister 
Mary,  abbess  of  Barking,  published  a  French 
biography  in  verse  at  the  close  of  the  12th 
century.  Lord  George  Lyttelton  (1764-7) 
and  Joseph  Berington  (1790),  in  their  historical 
works  on  Henry  II.,  were  the  most  important 
English  writers  on  the  subject  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. Southey's  "  Book  of  the  Church  "  (1824 ; 
new  ed.,  1869)  contains  an  attractive  biography 
of  Becket.  Lei  deux,  chanceliers  d'Angleterre, 
by  Ozanam,  appeared  in  Paris  in  1836.  The 
"Remains"  of  R.  H.  Froude  (4  vols.,  1838-'9) 
was  followed  by  two  editions  of  Dr.  Giles  from 
the  Latin  (8  vols.,  Oxford,  1845  ;  5  vols.,  1848), 
and  by  his  better  known  English  "Life  and 
Letters  of  Thomas  a  Becket"  (2  vols.,  1846). 
Dean  Stanley's  "  Historical  Memorials  of  Can- 
terbury" (1855;  5th  cd.,  1869)  gives  a  minute 
narrative  of  the  martyrdom  and  the  posthumous 
history  of  Thomas  in  the  chapter  on  the  shrine. 
Dean  Milman's  "  History  of  Latin  Christianity  " 
contains  in  the  3d  and  last  volume  (London, 
1854)  a  full  account  of  the  Becket  or  Thomasian 
controversy,  and  this  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  authorities.  The  German  work,  Der 
Heilige  Thomas  und  sein  Kampffur  die  Frei- 
heit  der  Kirche,  by  Buss  (Mentz,  1856),  was 
followed  in  London  in  1859  by  "The  Life  and 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  Becket,"  &c.,  by 
«john  Morris,  canon  of  Northampton,  and  by 
"Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  Biog- 
raphy," by  James  Craigie  Robertson,  canon 
of  Canterbury.  Edward  A.  Freeman's  essay 
on  "  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  and  his  Biog- 
raphers," in  his  "  Historical  Essays"  (London, 
1871),  throws  new  light  on  Becket's  life,  re- 
futes the  fallacies  of  Thierry  and  of  other 
writers,  and  reveals  the  religious  bias  of  the 
different  biographers.  A  "Life  of  Thomas  a 
Becket,"  translated  from  an  Icelandic  saga,  is 
in  course  of  publication  under  the  auspices  of 
the  master  of  the  rolls  (London,  1872). 

BECKFORD.  I.  William,  an  English  politician, 
born  in  the  West  Indies  in  1690,  died  at  Font- 
hill,  Wiltshire,  June  21,  1770.  He  became  a 
member  of  parliament  in  1746  for  Shaftesbury, 
and  afterward  for  the  city  of  London,  and  was 
the  friend  and  supporter  of  Wilkes.  Succes- 
sively alderman,  sheriff,  and  twice  lord  mayor 
of  London,  he  acquired  celebrity  in  1770  by 
volunteering  manly  remarks  to  George  III. 
while  presenting  an  address  of  the  city  of 
London  remonstrating  against  parliament, 
against  the  king's  former  unfavorable  reply  to 
the  popular  grievances,  and  demanding  the  re- 


moval of  the  cabinet.  The  speech  concluded 
thus :  "  Permit  me,  sire,  to  observe  that  who- 
ever has  already  dared,  or  shall  hereafter  en- 
deavor, by  false  insinuations  and  suggestions, 
to  alienate  your  majesty's  affections  from  your 
loyal  subjects  in  general,  and  from  the  city  of 
London  in  particular,  is  an  enemy  to  your 
majesty's  person  and  family,  a  violator  of  the 
public  peace,  and  a  betrayer  of  our  happy  con- 
stitution, as  it  was  established  at  the  glorious 
revolution."  The  excitement  produced  by  his 
boldness  preyed  upon  his  mind  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  he  died  soon  afterward.  His  statue 
was  placed  in  Guildhall,  and  his  speech  to  the 
king  engraved  on  the  pedestal.  As  he  was  a 
man  of  limited  culture,  it  was  believed  that 
John  Home  Tooke,  who  claimed  the  author- 
ship of  the  speech,  had  either  prepared  it  before 
or  revised  it  after  its  delivery.  II.  William,  an 
English  romancer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1760,  died  May  2,  1844.  He  inherited  a  vast 
fortune",  estimated  as  yielding  over  £100,000 
annually,  and  he  claimed  lineal  descent  from 
the  royal  dynasties  of  Scotland  and  from  other 
illustrious  ancestors.  The  great  earl  of  Chat- 
ham, his  father's  friend,  was  his  sponsor  and 
the  promoter  of  his  education.  The  precocity 
of  his  mind  was  revealed  in  1780  by  the  publi- 
cation of  a  satirical  work  against  artists  ("  Bi- 
ographical Memoirs  of  Extraordinary  Paint- 
ers"). He  was  in  Paris  in  1778,  where  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Voltaire,  and  travelled 
extensively  till  1783,  when  he  .married  Lady 
Margaret  Gordon,  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Aboyne,  who  bore  him  two  daughters,  the 
eldest  of  whom  married  Col.  (afterward  Lieut. 
Gen.)  James  Orde,  and  the  younger  became 
duchess  of  Hamilton.  He  was  a  member  of 
parliament  at  difterent  periods,  and  acquired 
literary  celebrity  by  his  romance  of  "  Vatliek, 
an  Arabian  Tale,"  written  in  French.  An 
English  version  was  published  by  an  anony- 
mous author  without  his  consent  in  1780,  pre- 
vious to  the  issue  in  1787  at  Lausanne  of  his 
original  edition  in  French  (UHutoire  dit  calif e 
Vathek),  which  was  so  perfect  in  style  and 
idiom  that  many  regarded  it  as  the  work  of  a 
Frenchman.  North  in  his  "  Memoir  of  Beck- 
ford  "  says  that  "  Vathek  "  is  "  the  finest  of 
oriental  romances,  as  '  Lalla  Rookh '  is  the 
finest  of  oriental  poems ; "  and  Lord  Byron 
said  that  "  as  an  eastern  tale  even  '  Rasselas  ' 
must  bow  before  it.  His  happy  valley  will  not 
bear  a  comparison  with  the  hall  of  Eblis."  He 
displayed  his  fastidious  taste  for  magnificent 
buildings  in  the  erection  of  Fonthill  abbey, 
with  a  lofty  tower,  which  afterward  fell  owing 
to  its  hasty  construction.  After  having  sold 
Fonthill  in  1822,  in  consequence  of  the  dimin- 
ished income  from  his  Jamaica  estates,  he  built 
another  remarkable  mansion  on  Lansdown  Hill, 
near  Bath ;  and  previously  while  in  Portugal 
he  had  a  fairy  palace  constructed  at  Cintra, 
which  was  his  residence  for  several  years,  and 
which  is  commemorated  by  Lord  Byron  in  tho 
first  canto  of  "  Childe  Harold."  His  life  was 


BECKMANN 


BECQUEREL 


443 


spent  in  arduous  studies,  and  his  exclusive 
habits  and  oriental  surroundings  added  the 
prestige  of  mystery  to  the  extraordinary  im- 
pression produced  by  his  palaces  and  towers, 
his  gems  of  art  and  furniture ;  and  his  fanciful, 
extravagant,  morbid,  and  eccentric  disposition 
tallied  well  with  the  characteristics  of  his  cele- 
brated romance.  Many  works  were  published 
on  Fonthill,  and  on  its  artistic  and  literary 
treasures,  at  one  time  including  Gibbon's 
library,  which  he  had  purchased  at  Lausanne. 
Among  his  works  is  "  Italy,  with  Sketches  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,"  published  in  1834,  though 
printed  in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  from  his 
letters  written  during  a  residence  in  those 
countries.  This  work  has  been  characterized 
as  a  prose  poem,  and  abounds  in  picturesque 
and  enthusiastic  descriptions  of  scenery  and 
life.  In  1835  appeared  his  "  Recollections  of 
an  Excursion  to  the  Monasteries  of  Alcobaca 
and  Batalha."  This  was  his  last  publication. 
His  "  Memoirs "  were  published  in  London, 
1859  (2  vols.). 

BECKJIAM,  .liiliiuin,  a  German  technologist, 
born  at  Hoya,  June  4,  1739,  died  in  Hanover, 
Feb.  4, 1811.  He  was  educated  for  the  church, 
but  abandoned  theology  in  order  to  devote 
himself  to  the  natural  sciences.  For  some  time 
lie  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
Lutheran  academy  of  St.  Petersburg ;  and 
after  studying  mineralogy  in  Sweden,  and 
forming  there  the  acquaintance  of  Linnseus, 
he  was  appointed  in  1766  professor  at  G5t- 
tingen.  He  acquired  a  high  reputation  by 
his  lectures  and  treatises  on  rural  economy 
(Gruiuhdtze  der  Aeutxchen  Landwirthschaft, 
6th  ed.,  1806),  finance,  commerce,  technology, 
politics,  &c.  He  wrote  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte 
der  Erfin&ung  (5  vols.,  Leipsic,  1780-1805  ; 
English  translation,  "History  of  Inventions," 
&c.,  4  vols.,  London,  1817;  revised  ed.,  2  vols., 
1846).  His  editions  of  the  "Wonderful  His- 
tories" of  Oarystius,  of  De  Mirabilibus  Aus- 
cultationibui,  and  of  the  "  Treatise  on  Stones  " 
by  Marbodius,  are  valued. 

BECKX,  Pierre  Jean,  general  of  the  society 
of  Jesus,  born  at  Sichem,  near  Louvain, 
Belgium,  Feb.  8,  1795.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  society  of  Jesus  at  Hildesheim  in  1819, 
was  confessor  of  Ferdinand  of  Anhalt-Kothon 
after  the  conversion  of  the  duke  and  duchess 
to  Roman  Catholicism  in  1825,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  newly  established  church  at 
Kothen.  After  Duke  Ferdinand's  death  in 
1830  he  accompanied  his  widow,  the  duchess 
Julia,  countess  of  Brandenburg  (natural  daugh- 
ter of  .Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia),  to 
Vienna.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  procurator 
for  the  society  in  Austria,  but  the  revolution 
of  1848  obliged  him  to  leave  that  country,  and 
he  became  rector  of  the  college  of  Louvain. 
Subsequently  he  was  the  superior  of  the  society 
for  Hungary,  and  eventually  provincial  for 
the  whole  Austrian  empire  excepting  Galicia. 
After  the  death  of  F.  Roothaan,  May  8, 1853,  he 
was  elected  general  of  the  society,  July  2.  His 


principal  work,  Der  Monat  MariS,  (Vienna, 
1843 ;  9th  ed.,  1861)  has  been  translated  into 
Italian,  Bohemian,  and  Polish.  In  December, 
1871,  he  published  an  appeal  to  the  representa- 
tives of  foreign  governments  on  the  question 
of  the  seizure  by  the  Italian  cabinet  of  the 
great  convent  of  St.  Andrew  on  the  Quirinal. 

BECQl'EREL.  I.  intoine  Cesar,  a  French  phys- 
icist, born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  March  7, 
1788.  He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic 
school,  served  with  the  army  in  Spain  as  an 
officer  of  engineers,  and  retired  in  1815  with 
the  rank  of  major.  In  1819  he  commenced  the 
publication  of  his  mineralogical  and  geological 
researches.  In  studying  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  amber,  he  was  led  to  experiment  on 
the  discharges  of  electricity  by  means  of  pres- 
sure ;  and  that  was  the  starting  point  of  almost 
all  his  subsequent  investigations.  He  then 
observed  the  evolutions  of  electricity  in  even» 
kind  of  chemical  action.  These  researches  led 
to  the  refutation  of  the  "theory  of  contact," 
by  which  Volta  explained  the  action  of  his 
pile  or  battery,  and  to  the  construction  of  the 
first  electrical  apparatus  with  a  constant  cur- 
rent. The  discoveries  in  electricity  made  by 
Becquerel  have  been  published  in  the  Annales 
de  physique  et  de  chimie  and  in  the  Mem.oirea 
de  Vacademie  des  sciences.  His  investigations 
enabled  him  to  discover  a  very  simple  method 
of  determining  the  temperature  of  the  interior 
organs  of  men  and  animals.  He  made  numer- 
ous physiological  applications  of  this  method, 
and  discovered  that  whenever  a  muscle  is  con- 
tracted a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  evolved. 
Becquerel  is  also  one  of  the  creators  of  electro- 
chemistry. In  1828  he  made  use  of  this  new 
science  in  the  production  of  mineral  substances, 
and  in  treating  by  the  humid  process  the  ores 
of  silver,  lead,  and  copper.  For  these  re- 
searches he  was  elected  member  of  the  royal 
society  of  London,  and  in  April,  1829,  of  the 
French  academy  of  sciences.  In  1837  the 
royal  society  awarded  him  the  Copley  medal 
for  his  numerous  discoveries  in  science.  He 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  Paris  museum 
of  natural  history  the  same  year,  and  was  pro- 
moted in  1865  to  the  rank  of  commander  of 
the  legion  of  honor.  Among  the  list  of  new 
substances  which  Becquerel  obtained  by  the 
action  of  electricity  may  be  mentioned  alu- 
minum, silicon,  glucium,  crystals  of  sulphur 
and  of  iodine,  and  numerous  metallic  sul- 
phurets,  such  as  dodecahedral  pyrites,  galena, 
sulphuret  of  silver,  iodurets  and  double  iodu- 
rets,  carbonates,  malachite,  calcareous  spar, 
dolomite,  metallic  and  earthy  phosphates  and 
arseniates,  crystallized  silica,  &c.  He  also  dis- 
covered a  process  of  electric  coloring  on  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  which  has  been  extensively 
and  variously  applied  in  practice.  In  his 
electro-chemical  investigations,  Becquerel's  ob- 
ject was  to  discover  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween the  electric  forces  and  the  so-called 
chemical  affinities,  and  to  excite  the  latter  into 
action  by  means  of  the  former.  All  kinds  of 


444: 


BECSE 


BED  AND  BEDSTEAD 


plating  with  gold  or  silver  by  the  humid  pro- 
cess, such  as  electrotyping,  are  only  so  many  va- 
rious applications  of  electro-chemistry.  Many 
of  his  researches  relate  to  the  electric  con- 
ductibility  of  metals,  galvanometers,  the  elec- 
tric properties  of  tourmaline,  atmospheric  elec- 
tricity, the  effects  produced  by  vegetation,  the 
electro-magnetic  balance,  capable  of  measuring 
with  exactness  the  intensity  of  electric  cur- 
rents, and  to  the  use  of  marine  salt  in  agri- 
culture. Among  his  principal  works  are :  Traite 
experimental  de  Velectricite  et  du  magnetisme 
(7  vols.,  Paris,  1834-'40;  new  ed.,  2  vols., 
1855);  Traite  de  physique  dans  sea  rapports  avec 
la  chimie  (2  vols.,  1842-'4) ;  Traite  de  Velec- 
tricite  et  du  magnetisme  (2  vols.,  1855-'6) ; 
and  Resume  de  VhMoire  de  Pelectricite  et  du 
magnetisme  (1858).  II.  Alexandra  Edmond,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  March  24,  1820. 
He  was  assistant  professor  of  natural  sciences 
at  the  museum,  and  afterward  professor  at  the 
conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers.  In  1853  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  physical  sciences. 
In  1863  he  was  elected  member  of  the  academy 
as  successor  of  Despretz.  He  discovered  a  chlo- 
ride of  silver  which  will  receive  and  retain  the 
colored  impressions  of  light,  so  that  the  colors 
of  the  rainbow  may  now  be  fixed  in  the  daguer- 
reotype in  all  varieties  of  hue ;  but  they  can 
only  be  retained  in  obscurity,  as  they  gradually 
disappear  when  long  exposed  to  light.  In 
1862  he  published  IStudes  sur  ^exposition  de 
Londres,  the  phosphoroscope  of  his  invention 
having  attracted  much  attention  at  the  London 
exposition  of  1861.  He  assisted  his  father  in 
his  later  works.  III.  Louis  Alfred,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1814,  died  in 
1862.  He  was  a  physician  and  a  professor  in 
the  faculty  of  Paris,  and  author  of  many  valu- 
able treatises.  His  Semeiotique  des  urines 
(1841)  won  a  prize  from  the  academy ;  and  a 
second  edition  of  Des  applications  de  Velec- 
tricite  d  la  therapeutique  medicale  was  pub- 
lished in  1861. 

BECSE.  I.  Old  (Hung.  d-Secse),  a  market 
borough  of  8.  Hungary,  hi  the  county  of  Bacs, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Theiss,  25  m.  N.  N.  E. 
of  Neusatz;  pop.  in  1870,  14,058.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  in  corn.  II.  New  ( Uj- 
£ecse),  a  market  borough  and  steamboat  sta- 
tion in  the  county  of  Torontal,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Theiss,  about  4J  m.  E.  of  the  preceding ; 
pop.  in  1870,  7,193,  and  with  the  immediately 
adjoining  village  of  Franyova,  14,423.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  corn  markets  in  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  monarchy. 

BECSKEREK.  I.  Great  (Hung.  Nagy-Bectlce- 
relc),  a  town  of  8.  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Torontal,  on  the  Bega,  47  m.  S.  W. 
of  Temesvar;  pop.  in  1870,  19,666.  It  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  Greek  church,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  a  college  of  Piarists.  The  princi- 
pal trade  is  in  agricultural  produce  and  cattle. 
II.  Little  (Hung.  Kis-BecsTcerelc),  a  village  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  and  10  m.  N.  W.  of 
Temesvar;  pop.  about  3,000.  It  is  in  a  fine 


agricultural  district,  famous  for  its  sheep,  and 
has  a  trade  in  wool  and  honey. 

BED  AND  BEDSTEAD.  The  articles  of  furni- 
ture devised  by  the  people  of  different  nations 
to  secure  comfort  in  reclining  for  sleep,  natu- 
rally vary  widely  with  various  degrees  of  civil- 
ization, with  differences  of  climates,  dwell- 
ings, and  national  characteristics.  Savages 
stretch  themselves  on  the  ground  or  on  piles 
of  leaves,  or  make  rough  preparations  for 
sleep  by  spreading  skins — probably  the  first 
approaches  of  primitive  nations  toward  a  more 
elaborate  bed.  The  native  of  the  tropics 
sleeps  in  a  hammock,  or  on  a  cool,  thin  mat  of 
grass.  The  East  Indian  at  night  unrolls  his 
light  portable  charpoy,  or  mattress,  which  in 
the  morning  is  again  rolled  together  and  car- 
ried away.  The  Japanese  lie  upon  matting, 
with  a  singular  and  to  the  European  most 
uncomfortable  wooden  neck  rest  in  the  place 
of  a  pillow.  The  Chinese  use  low  bedsteads, 
often  elaborately  carved,  and  supporting  only 
mats  or  quilted  coverlets.  They,  too,  use  for  a 
pillow  a  peculiar  kind  of  wooden  frame,  gener- 
ally of  bamboo.  In  the  north  of  China  the  bed- 
ding is  laid  in  winter  upon  raised  platforms  of 
masonry,  which  are  gently  warmed  by  a  small 
furnace  underneath. — The  nations  of  continen- 
tal Europe  generally  use  the  French  bedstead, 
without  a  canopy  above  it,  and  with  mattresses 
of  various  materials,  sheets,  coverlets,  feather 
pillows,  &c.  A  peculiarity  of  the  German 
beds  is  their  shortness ;  besides  this,  the  bed 
clothing  always  consists  in  part  of  a  large  down 
pillow  or  upper  mattress,  which,  spread  over 
the  person,  is  supposed  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  all  other  ordinary  bedclothing  combined. 
Often  this  is  the  only  covering  furnished ;  in 
the  houses  of  the  poorer  classes  and  in  small 
country  inns  this  is  almost  always  the  case ; 
but  all  the  ordinary  hotels  of  the  towns  have 
learned  to  add  to  it,  in  beds  intended  for  for- 
eigners at  least,  sheets,  blankets,  and  other  cov- 
erings.— In  England,  the  old  "four-poster  "  bed- 


stead, an  immense  piece  of  furniture,  having 
a  canopy  supported  over  it  by  posts  at  the 
corners,  still  forms  the  pride  of  many  country 


BED  AND  BEDSTEAD 


BEDDOE8 


445 


guest  chambers,  and  is  everywhere  common, 
though  the  simpler  open  bed  is  fast  taking 
its  place.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  the  canopy 
covered  only  the  head  of  the  bed.  The  Eng- 


Great  Bed  of  Ware. 

lish  beds  even  now  are  the  largest  in  the 
world,  and  the  famous  ancient  "bed  of  Ware," 
alluded  to  by  Shakespeare,  is  12  feet  square. 
This  bedstead  was  probably  constructed  about 
the  year  1500,  and  has  been  for  three  centuries 
or  more  preserved  in  an  inn  at  Ware  in  Hert- 
fordshire. It  is  of  solid  oak,  elaborately  carved. 
As  many  as  12  persons  are  said  to  have  slept  in 
it  at  one  time. — The  beds  of  the  ancients  had,  in 
general,  few  peculiarities  to  distinguish  them 
from  our  own  simpler  forms.  Both  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  had  their  beds  supported  on  frames 
much  resembling  our  bedsteads;  feather  and 
wool  mattresses  were  common,  and  their  bed- 
clothing  was,  in  the  luxurious  periods  of  both 
nations,  of  great  magnificence,  and  decorated 
with  elaborate  needle -work.  The  ancient 
Briton  slept  on  skins ;  after  the  Roman  conquest 
straw  sacks  became  common  as  beds.  The 
Egyptians  had  a  couch  of  peculiar  shape,  if  we 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bed. 

may  judge  from  their  inscriptions ;  but  the  beds 
ordinarily  mentioned  in  the  Bible  seem  to 
have  been  of  the  customary  simple  kind. — In 
recent  years  many  arrangements  of  the  bed 
have  been  invented  by  leading  surgeons  for 
the  comfort  of  the  wounded  and  sick ;  some  of 
a  kind  permitting  the  raising  or  depression  of 
one  portion  of  the  body ;  others  so  contrived  J 


that  the  patient  may  lie  at  such  an  angle  as 
to  permit  the  performance  of  very  difficult 
surgical  operations.  The  most  useful  of  all 
these  inventions  has  been  that  of  the  hydro- 
static or  water  bed  of  Dr.  Neil  Arnott.  This 
consists  of  a  trough  or  tub  partially  filled  with 
water,  and  covered  with  a  rubber  cloth  of 
sufficient  size  to  sink  deeply  into  the  tub  when 
empty.  This  of  course  floats  on  the  water, 
and  a  bed  laid  upon  the  cloth  accommodates 
itself  to  every  motion  of  the  person  lying  upon 
it.  Other  valuable  beds  for  surgical  purposes 
are  those  in  which  the  patient  can  be  moved 
by  turning  handles  which  lower  or  raise  por- 
tions of  the  surface. 

BED  OF  Jl  STICK,  a  name  originally  given  to 
the  raised  seat  occupied  by  the  earlier  kings 
of  France  in  their  councils  with  the  peers  and 
barons  for  the  decision  of  questions  of  import. 
As  the  parliaments  gained  increased  power, 
the  king  appeared  personally  only  in  the 
gravest  cases ;  and  the  name  lit  de  justice  was 
soon  applied,  not  to  the  seat,  but  to  an  occa- 
sion when  the  king  was  thus  present.  Still 
later,  a  bed  of  justice  was  called  by  the  king 
when  the  parliament  refused  to  pass  a  measure 
of  which  he  approved.  He  then  appeared  and 
solemnly  commanded  its  passage ;  so  that  the 
title  became  only  another  name  for  an  act  of 
arbitrary  power  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign. 
The  last  bed  of  justice  was  that  held  by  Louis 
XVI.  in  1787,  at  which  time  the  whole  parlia- 
ment, refusing  to  register  the  royal  edict  for 
assembling  the  states  general,  were  arrested 
and  confined  in  prisons  in  different  parts  of 
France.  This  incident  forms  one  of  the  most 
striking  episodes  in  the  early  part  of  the  French 
revolution. 

BKN.tRIEl  X,  a  town  of  Languedoc,  France, 
in  the  department  of  H6rault,  on  the  Orbe,  19 
m.  N.  of  Beziers;  pop.  in  1866,  8,985.  The 
town  has  a  college  and  manufactories  of  cloths 
and  woollen  goods.  In  1851  B6darieux  was 
the  scene  of  a  serious  insurrection. 

BEDBUG.     See  EPIZOA. 

BEDDOES.  I.  Thomas  an  English  physician 
and  author,  born  at  Shiffnal,  Shropshire,  April 
13,  1760,  died  at  Clifton  in  December,  1808. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  studied  anatomy  in 
London,  became  a  pupil  of  Sheldon,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Spallanzani's  "  Disserta- 
tions on  Natural  History."  He  removed  in 
1784  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  published  in  1785 
a  translation  of  Bergman's  "  Essays  on  Elective 
Attractions,"  to  which  he  added  many  valuable 
notes.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  scien- 
tific societies  of  Edinburgh.  In  1786  he  visited 
France,  formed  an  intimacy  with  Lavoisier  and 
other  chemists,  and  on  his  return  to  England 
was  elected  to  the  chemical  lectureship  at  Ox- 
ford. His  talents  and  position  drew  around 
him  many  men  of  learning,  including  Gilbert 
and  Erasmus  Darwin;  and  in  1790  he  pub- 
lished a  dissertation,  in  which  he  claimed  for 
the  speculative  physician  Mayow  the  discovery 
of  the  principal  facts  in  pneumatic  chemistry. 


446 


BEDE 


His  sympathy  with  the  French  revolution 
damaging  his  position  at  Oxford,  he  resigned 
in  17S>2,  utter  which  he  published  his  work 
"  On  the  Nature  of  Demonstrative  Evidence, 
with  an  Explanation  of  certain  Difficulties  con- 
curring in  the  Elements  of  Geometry,"  in 
which  he  claimed,  in  opposition  to  ontological 
theories,  that  mathematical  reasoning  depends 
essentially  upon  experiment,  and  proceeds  only 
by  evidence  of  the  senses.  He  anticipated  new 
improvements  in  medicine  from  the  science  of 
galvanism,  which  was  now  arising  in  Italy ;  and 
in  his  first  medical  work,  embracing  observa- 
tions on  calculus,  sea  scurvy,  consumption,  ca- 
tarrh, and  fever,  and  conjectures  on  other  ob- 
jects of  physiology  and  pathology,  he  showed 
his  tendency  to  found  medical  science  upon 
chemistry.  The  most  popular  of  all  his  works, 
and  that  which  best  reveals  his  imagination 
and  taste,  as  well  as  judgment,  was  his  "  His- 
tory of  Isaac  Jenkins,"  written  in  favor  of 
temperance,  for  the  benefit  of  the  working 
classes,  of  which  more  than  40,000  copies  were 
rapidly  sold.  He  was  enabled  in  1798  to  es- 
tablish a  pneumatic  institution  at  Bristol,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  father-in-law,  Richard 
Lovell  Edgeworth,  and  of  Thomas  Wedgwood. 
The  superintendent  of  this  institution  was  Hum- 
phry Davy,  then  a  young  man,  whose  first  dis- 
'  coveries  were  made  here.  The  numerous  pub- 
lications of  Dr.  Beddoes  at  this  time  had  refer- 
ence to  his  favorite  theory  of  the  efficacy  of 
the  permanently  elastic  fluids,  and  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  curing  all  diseases  by  breathing  a 
medicated  atmosphere.  He  was  especially  san- 
guine in  his  expectations  from  the  brilliant  dis- 
covery by  Davy  of  the  respirability  and  intoxi- 
cating qualities  of  nitrous  oxide ;  and  he  issued 
treatises  in  rapid  succession  till  near  the  tune 
of  his  death.  Dr.  Stock  published  his  memoirs 
in  1811,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy  gave  him 
credit  for  talents  "  which  would  have  exalted 
him  to  the  pinnacle  of  philosophical  eminence, 
if  they  had  been  applied  with  discretion." 
II.  Thomas  Lovell,  an  English  poet,  son  of  the 
preceding  and  nephew  of  Maria  Edgeworth, 
born  in  Clifton,  July  20, 1803,  died  in  Basel,  Jan. 
26,  1849.  He  was  brought  up  under  the  care 
of  Mr.  Davies  Giddy  (afterward  Sir  Davies  Gil- 
bert), and  educated  at  Pembroke  college,  Ox- 
ford. "  The  Bride's  Tragedy  "  (London,  1822), 
though  ill  adapted  for  the  stage,  was  highly 
praised,  and  Mr.  Beddoes  was  regarded  as  a 
reviver  of  English  tragedy.  Discouraged  by 
the  unwillingness  of  managers  to  produce  his 
plays,  he  went  to  Gottingen  in  1824  to  study 
medicine,  and  thenceforward  chiefly  resided 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Two  posthu- 
mous volumes  (London,  1851)  contain  his 
tragedies  "Death's  Jest  Book"  and  the  "Sec- 
ond Brother." 

BEDE,  or  Bcda,  called  the  Venerable  Bede, 
a  Saxon  ecclesiastic,  and  the  earliest  historian 
of  England,  born  probably  at  Monkton  in 
Durham  in  672,  died  at  Girvy,  May  26,  735. 
He  was  sent  in  his  childhood  to  the  monastery 


BEDEAU 

of  Saint  Peter  at  Wearmouth,  and  was  edu- 
cated there  under  the  abbots  Benedict  Biscop 
and  Ceolfrid.  He  was  made  a  deacon  at  the  age 
of  19,  and  ordained  a  priest  at  30.  His  learn- 
ing and  ability  were  remarkable,  and  he  ac- 
quired a  wide  reputation  as  a  scholar  and 
writer.  William  of  Malmesbury  even  says, 
though  the  truth  of  the  statement  is  doubtful, 
that  Pope  Sergius  sent  to  Bede's  superiors, 
begging  them  to  request  him  to  go  to  Rome  to 
enter  the  immediate  service  of  the  pontiff.  He 
did  not  leave  his  monastery,  however,  but  spent 
his  whole  life  at  Wearmouth,  absorbed  in  study 
and  in  writing.  His  greatest  work,  the  "Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  the  English  Nation," 
occupied  him  for  many  years,  and  has  re- 
mained the  best  and  most  trusted  authority  on 
the  early  period  of  which  it  treats.  It  was 
compiled  from  chronicles,  the  traditions  handed 
down  in  the  convents,  and  miscellaneous  evi- 
dence of  many  kinds ;  but  it  is  remarkably  free 
from  the  exaggerations  and  distortions  which 
fill  the  books  of  many  of  the  later  monkish 
historians.  Bede  produced  a  great  number  of 
other  and  smaller  works,  principally  essays  and 
treatises  on  ecclesiastical  matters.  His  literary 
activity  was  extraordinary,  and  his  devotion  to 
his  work  most  enthusiastic.  Even  during  his 
last  illness  he  continued  to  dictate  to  an  aman- 
uensis the  conclusion  of  a  translation  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  (as  is  supposed)  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  immediately  after  completing  the  last 
sentence  he  requested  his  assistant  to  place  him 
on  the  floor  of  his  cell,  said  a  short  prayer,  and 
expired  as  the  last  word  passed  his  lips.  Bede's. 
Historic/,  Ecclesiastica  was  first  printed  in  Ger- 
many about  1475.  There  is  a  copy  of  this  edi- 
tion in  the  British  museum,  and  one  in  Paris. 
The  history  was  translated  from  the  Latin  into 
Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred,  and  his  version 
may  be  found  in  several  English  editions,  as 
those  of  Cambridge,  1644  and  1722.  An  Eng- 
lish translation  by  Thomas  Stapleton  was  pub- 
lished at  Antwerp  in  1565.  The  best  modern 
edition  of  Bede's  Latin  text  is  that  of  the  Eng- 
lish historical  society  (1838).  A  later  English 
version  is  that  of  Dr.  Giles  (London,  1840), 
who  has  also  published  Bede's  complete  works, 
as  far  as  extant,  in  6  vols.  (1843-'4) ;  and  a 
new  translation  appeared  in  1871. 

BEDEiU,  Marie  Alphonse,  a  French  general, 
born  at  Vertou,  Aug.  10,  1804,  died  in  Nantes, 
Oct.  30,  1863.  He  was  the  son  of  a  naval 
officer,  was  educated  at  Saint  Cyr,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp  (1832)  as  aide- 
de-camp  of  Generals  Ge>ard  and  Schramm, 
served  in  Algeria,  and  in  1844  became  lieuten- 
ant general  and  commander  of  the  province  of 
Constantine.  He  was  provisional  governor  of 
Algeria  from  July  to  October,  1847.  Com- 
manding one  of  the  five  columns  in  Paris 
charged  with  the  repression  of  the  insurrection 
of  February,  1848,  he  was  accused  by  Bugeaud 
of  having  evinced  too  little  energy,  but  proved 
that  he  had  strictly  obeyed  that  marshal's 
orders.  Though  appointed  by  the  revolution- 


BEDELL 


BEDFORD 


447 


ary  government  minister  of  war,  he  preferred 
to  be  military  commander  of  Paris.  He  was 
next  commander  of  the  first  division  of  the 
army  of  the  Alps,  was  elected  to  the  constitu- 
ent assembly  by  the  department  of  Loire-In- 
ferieure,  and,  though  originally  a  legitimist, 
was  more  liberal  than  most  conservatives.  He 
was  wounded  while  operating  under  Cavaignac 
against  the  Paris  insurgents  in  June,  1848.  In 
1849  he  was  sent  to  the  legislative  assembly 
by  the  department  of  the  Seine.  He  was  now 
considered,  after  Cavaignac  and  Lamoriciere, 
one  of  the  principal  military  supports  of  the 
republican  constitution.  The  coup  d'etat  of 
Dec.  2,  1851,  consigned  him  to  prison  at  Mazas 
and  Ham,  and  subsequently  to  banishment  in 
Belgium  till  after  the  amnesty  of  1853,  when 
he  returned  to  France. 

1:1:111:1.1..  I.  Gregory  Townsend,  D.  1  >.,  an 
American  clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal church,  born  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
28,  1793,  died  in  Baltimore,  Aug.  30,  1834, 
while  on  his  way  to  Philadelphia,  where  he 
was  buried  Sept.  2.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
Bishop  Moore  of  Virginia,  and  a  graduate  of 
Columbia  college  (1811).  Having  been  or- 
dained deacon  in  1814,  he  became  rector  at 
Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1815,  at  Fayetteville,  N.  C., 
in  1818,  and  of  St.  Andrew's  church,  Phila- 
delphia, which  had  been  built  for  his  use,  in 
1823,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  sacred  poems,  and  of 
several  musical  compositions,  some  of  which 
are  in  familiar  use  in  the  churches.  Among 
his  other  works  are:  "Bible  Studies"  (2  vols., 
1829),  "Ezekiel's  Vision,"  "Onward,  or  Chris- 
tian Progression,"  "  Waymarks,"  "Is  it  well?  " 
&c.  After  his  death  the  Rev.  Dr.  Tyng  pub- 
lished a  memoir  of  him  with  30  of  his  sermons 
(2  vols.,  1836);  the  former  was  also  published 
separately.  As  stated  in  this  memoir,  "  he  was 
very  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  his  oratory, 
and  has  been  regarded  by  those  best  qualified 
to  judge  as  a  model  of  chaste,  dignified,  and  im- 
pressive elocution."  II.  Gregory  Thnrston,  D.  D., 
an  American  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal church,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Hud- 
son, N.  Y.,  Aug.  27,  1817.  He  was  educated 
at  Bristol  college,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  theo- 
logical seminary  of  Virginia,  was  ordained  in 
1840  at  St.  Andrew's  church,  Philadelphia, 
and  became  pastor  at  Westchester,  Penn.  He 
was  rector  of  the  church  of  the  Ascension, 
New  York,  from  1843  to  1859,  since  which 
time  he  has  been  assistant  bishop  of  Ohio. 
He  is  prominent  among  the  evangelical  clergy 
of  the  Episcopal  church,  and  a  number  of  his 
sermons  have  been  published  by  request  in  the 
United  States  and  England.  He  has  also  re- 
published  one  of  his  father's  works,  "  Pay  thy 
Vows,"  under  the  title  "Renunciation,"  with 
additions  of  his  own. 

BEDELL,  William,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 

Black  Notley,  Essex,  in  1570,  died  at  Kilmore, 

Feb.  7,  1642.     He  was  secretary  to  Sir  Henry 

Wotton   on  his   embassy  to  Venice  in  1604. 

81  VOL.  ii.— 29 


Having  acquired  the  Italian  language,  he  trans- 
lated the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer,"  and 
presented  it  to  the  clergy  who  were  at  the  time 
appointed  by  the  republic  of  Venice  to  preach 
against  the  papal  power.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  remained  in  retirement  for  some 
time,  but  was  at  length  presented  to  a  living 
in  Norfolk.  In  1627  he  was  elected  provost 
of  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  which  office  he  de- 
clined until  the  king's  orders  made  his  accept- 
ance imperative.  He  was  next  made  bishop 
of  Kilmore  and  of  Ardagh,  but  resigned  the 
latter  see,  and  addressed  himself  to  the  task 
of  reforming  the  clergy  of  Kilmore,  and  of  in- 
troducing the  Protestant  worship  into  Ireland. 
He  studied  Irish,  and  had  the  Prayer  Book 
with  the  homilies  of  Chrysostom  and  Leo  in 
praise  of  reading  the  Scriptures  translated  and 
circulated.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  great  Irish 
rebellion  he  was  at  first  not  molested,  a  respite 
which  he  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  distressed 
Protestants.  Soon,  however,  his  palace  was 
invaded,  and  himself,  his  two  sons,  and  son-in- 
law  were  carried  off  to  a  stronghold  of  the 
rebels,  where  all  except  the  bishop  were  put 
in  fetters.  The  exposure  during  the  winter 
brought  on  a  severe  fever,  of  which  soon  after 
his  release  he  died.  At  his  burial  a  concourse 
of  Roman  Catholics  attended,  and  a  volley  was 
fired  over  his  grave  by  the  rebels.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  was  published  in 
1685  at  the  expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle. 
His  life  was  written  by  Bishop  Burnet  (1685). 
BEDFORD,  the  name  of  counties  in  three  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Maryland  border ;  area,  about 
1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,635.  The  sur- 
face is  broken  by  numerous  ridges  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  whose  principal  chain  forms  the  W. 
border  of  the  county.  One  half  of  the  surface 
is  unfit  for  cultivation,  but  in  this  portion  iron 
ore  is  abundant.  The  Pittsburgh  and  Connells- 
ville  railroad  passes  through  the  S.  W.  corner, 
and  the  Huntingdon  and  Broad  Top  road  has  its 
terminus  near  the  centre  of  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  338,074  bushels 
of  wheat,  118,091  of  rye,  405,261  of  Indian 
corn,  376,296  of  oats,  35,491  of  buckwheat, 
104,657  of  potatoes,  28,623  tons  of  hay,  457,241 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  60,705  of  wool.  There  were 
8,249  horses,  8,079  milch  cows,  10,189  other 
cattle,  21,746  sheep,  and  15,302  swine.  Capi- 
tal, Bedford.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
at  the  E.  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  bounded  N. 
E.  by  the  James  and  S.  W.  by  the  Staunton 
river ;  area,  504  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,327, 
of  whom  10,770  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  mountainous  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad  passes 
through  the  county.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  165,560  bushels  of  wheat,  258,995 
of  Indian  corn,  249,799  of  oats,  and  1,956,157 
Ibs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  3,194  horses, 
3,995  milch  cows,  5,659  other  cattle,  5,935 
sheep,  and  12,649  swine.  Capital,  Liberty. 
III.  A  central  county  of  Tennessee,  intersected 


448 


BEDFORD 


by  Duck  river ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
24,333,  of  whom  6,484  were  colored.  The  sur- 
face is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Nashville  and  Chat- 
tanooga railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  212,922  bushels  of  wheat,  1,010,642 
of  Indian  corn,  104,801  of  oats,  35,516  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  869  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
6,255  horses,  2,372  mules  and  asses,  4,568  milch 
cows,  8,916  other  cattle,  25,204  sheep,  and 
38,962  swine.  Capital,  Shelbyville. 

BEDFORD,  a  post  borough,  capital  of  Bedford 
county,  Penn.,  256  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia, on  the  Raystown  branch  of  the  Juniata 
river;  pop.  in  1870,  1,247.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  springs,  situated  in  a  valley 
about  1-J  in.  from  the  town,  and  much  resorted 
to  by  invalids  in  summer.  The  water  con- 
tains carbonic  acid,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sul- 
phate of  lime,  and  muriate  of  soda.  It  has 
two  weekly  newspapers. 

BEDFORD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  capital  of  Bedfordshire, 
situated  on  the  Ouse,  41  m.  N.W.  of  London  by 
a  new  branch  of  the  Midland  railway ;  pop.  in 
1871,  16,849.  The  town  is  well  paved,  and  di- 
vided by  the  Ouse  into  two  parts,  which  are 
connected  by  a  fine  stone  bridge.  John  Bunyan 
preached  here  and  composed  his  "Pilgrim's 
Progress  "  in  the  county  jail.  The  charitable 
and  educational  institutions  of  Bedford  are 
larger  and  better  than  those  of  most  English 
towns.  Many  of  them  were  endowed  by  Sir 
William  Harpur  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ; 
his  bequests  produce  over  £13,000  a  year,  and 
support  several  schools  of  different  grades,  in- 
cluding a  grammar  school  (which  has  been  en- 
larged since  1861,  and  is  now  known  as  the 
Tudor  collegiate  building),  and  over  50  houses 
for  paupers.  The  old  church  of  St.  Peter's, 
with  a  curious  Norman  door  and  an  antique 
font,  was  enlarged  in  1846.  The  Bunyan  meet- 
ing house,  originally  a  Baptist  chapel,  has  been 
rebuilt,  and  was  opened  in  1850.  Among  the 
prominent  public  edifices,  the  Bedford  school 
buildings  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and 
extent ;  the  public  library  is  also  a  fine  estab- 
lishment. There  is  an  excellent  corn  exchange, 
and  a  new  cattle  market  was  opened  in  1867. 
There  is  an  active  trade  in  wheat,  barley,  malt, 
coal,  timber,  and  iron.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  pillow  lace,  straw  plait,  shoes,  and 
agricultural  implements,  the  iron  ploughs  of 
the  Howard  establishment  being  the  most  re- 
nowned of  England.  Bedford  has  sent  two 
members  to  parliament  ever  since  the  end  of 
the  13th  century,  besides  the  two  returned  by 
the  county.  It  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  town  of  Bedcanford  mentioned  in 
the  Saxon  Chronicle,  the  scene  of  conflicts 
between  the  Saxons  and  Britons  late  in  the 
6th  century,  and  400  years  later  between  the 
Saxons  and  the  Danes,  who  burned  it  early  in 
the  llth  century.  The  first  charter  on  record 
was  granted  to  the  town  by  Henry  II.,  and  the 
last  by  Charles  II. 


BEDFORD,  Conning  S.,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Baltimore  in  1806,  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  5,  1870.  He  graduated  at  the 
Rutgers  medical  college  in  1829,  and  after- 
ward spent  two  years  in  professional  study  in 
Europe.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  professor 
in  the  medical  college  of  Charleston,  and  sub- 
sequently in  the  medical  college  of  Albany,  N. 
Y.  Soon  afterward  he  commenced  practice  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  medical  department  of  the  New 
York  university  (1840)  he  was  created  professor 
of  obstetrics,  in  which  chair  he  continued  till 
1862.  His  two  principal  works,  which  have 
been  remarkably  popular,  are  "  The  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Obstetrics,"  and  "The  Diseases 
of  Women  and  Children,"  the  latter  of  which 
has  passed  through  ten  editions.  They  have 
been  translated  into  French  and  German. 

BEDFORD,  John,  Duke  of,  an  English  soldier 
and  statesman,  born  about  1389,  died  in  Rouen, 
France,  Sept.  14,  1435.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Henry  IV.  of  England  and  of  Mary  de  Bo- 
hun,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford.  He  was 
knighted  in  1399,  at  the  coronation  of  his  fa- 
ther, and  became  governor  of  Berwick-upon- 
Tweed  and  warden  of  the  Scottish  marches. 
His  brother  Henry  V.  in  1415  conferred  upon 
him  the  dukedom  of  Bedford,  and  appointed 
him  governor  and  commander-in-chief  of  Eng- 
land, while  he  vindicated  in  France  his  right 
to  that  realm.  Henry  V.  in  1422  designated 
on  his  deathbed  the  duke  of  Bedford  as  regent 
of  France  during  the  minority  of  Henry  VI., 
then  one  year  old,  and  the  fourth  son  of  Henry 
IV.,  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  as  regent  of  Eng- 
land. So  great  was  Bedford's  renown,  that 
parliament  set  aside  the  king's  will  so  far  as 
to  make  him  also  protector  of  England,  except- 
ing during  his  absence  beyond  seas,  when  his 
brother  the  duke  of  Gloucester  was  to  dis- 

I  charge  this  function.  The  proceedings  on  this 
occasion  established  an  important  constitutional 
precedent  in  favor  of  the  prerogatives  of  parlia- 
ment over  the  crown.  Bedford  first  offered  the 
regency  of  France  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
on  whose  refusal  he  assumed  the  office  in  virtue 
of  the  treaty  of  Troyes  in  1420,  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy  and  Brittany  having  renewed  their 
adherence  to  this  treaty,  and  the  union  between 
them  being  cemented  by  Bedford  and  the  duke 
of  Brittany  both  marrying  daughters  of  the 
duke  of  Burgundy.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
VT.  of  France  (Oct.  21,  1422)  Bedford  pro- 
claimed Henry  VI.  as  king  of  both  countries; 
but  war  soon  broke  out  with  Charles  VII., 
who  was  defeated  at  CreVant  (1423),  and  over- 
whelmed at  Verneuil  (1424),  where  Bedford 
commanded  in  person  and  displayed  great  skill, 
but  was  unable  to  follow  up  his  victory.  Jacque- 
line of  Luxemburg,  wife  of  the  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, had  eloped  from  her  first  husband,  the  duke 
of  Brabant,  who  contested  her  Hainaut  posses- 

1  sions  with  Gloucester;  and  when  they  were 
invaded  by  the  latter,  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
came  to  the  assistance  of  his  kinsman  of  Bra- 


BEDFORD  LEVEL 


BEDLAM 


449 


bant.  In  addition  to  the  defection  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  forces,  Bedford  was  crippled  by  the 
vexatious  course  of  his  brother  and  of  par- 
liament, and  by  intestine  agitation  in  England. 
Nevertheless,  his  victories  would  probably  have 
culminated  in  the  conquest  of  France  if  it  had 
not  been  for  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Orleans 
by  the  interposition  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Bedford, 
with  reenforcements  from  the  garrison  towns 
of  Normandy,  followed  Charles  VII.  to  Paris. 
Before  the  walls  of  the  capital  he  succeeded  in 
repulsing  the  maid  of  Orleans,  and  in  capturing 
her  while  she  was  attempting  to  make  a  sally 
from  CompiSgne  (May  24,  1430) ;  and  he  was 
subsequently  the  principal  agent  in  bringing 
her  to  the  stake.  After  the  death  of  his  wife, 
Nov.  14,  1432,  he  widened  still  more  the  breach 
between  him  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  by 
marrying  Jacquette,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  St. 
Pol,  one  of  Burgundy's  vassals.  Cardinal  Beau- 
fort exerted  himself  in  vain  to  reconcile  the 
two  princes.  At  length  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
agreed  upon,  hut  this  was  regarded  as  hostile 
to  English  interests,  and  Bedford's  death  was 
hastened  by  mortification  a  fortnight  before  its 
official  ratification.  He  was  a  patron  of  let- 
ters, and  acquired  for  London  the  royal  library 
of  Paris. — The  dukedom  of  Bedford  was  revived 
in  1694,  and  conferred  upon  William  Rus- 
sell, 5th  earl  of  Bedford,  the  progenitor  of  the 
present  ducal  family. 

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  a  district  of  England,  con- 
sisting of  an  extensive  tract  of  level  country 
bounded  N.  E.  by  the  German  ocean,  and  on 
all  other  sides  by  highlands  which  encompass 
it  like  a  horseshoe.  It  embraces  the  isle  of 
Ely,  in  Cambridge,  and  portions  of  Hunting- 
don, Northampton,  Lincoln,  Norfolk,  and  Suf- 
folk; length  about  60  m.,  breadth  40  m. ;  area 
probably  about  400,000  acres.  There  is  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  at  the  time  of  the 
Roman  invasion  the  surface  of  the  district  was 
much  lower  than  now,  and  covered  by  one  of 
those  vast  forests  into  which  the  natives  used 
to  retreat,  and  which  it  was  the  general  policy 
of  the  conquerors  to  destroy.  The  subjugated 
people  werja  employed  in  felling  the  trees  and 
erecting  great  embankments  to  keep  out  the 
sea.  At  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century  the 
emperor  Severus  built  roads  through  the 
marshes,  one  of  which,  from  Peterborough  to 
Denver,  was  60  ft.  wide  and  made  of  gravel  3 
ft.  deep ;  it  is  now  covered  by  from  3  to  5  ft. 
of  soil.  For  many  years  the  district  was  fertile 
and  well  cultivated;  but  in  1236,  during  a  vio- 
lent storm,  the  sea  burst  through  the  embank- 
ment at  Wisbeach  and  other  places,  doing  im- 
mense damage  to  life  and  property,  and  redu- 
cing the  surviving  inhabitants  to  great  distress. 
A  second  accident  -of  the  same  kind  occurred 
in  1253,  and  a  third  a  few  years  later.  The 
evil  was  sometimes  aggravated  by  improper 
measures  taken  for  its  cure,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  time  the  greater  part  of  the  district 
became  a  vast  morass,  some  portions  of  which 
were  covered  with  pools  of  stagnant,  putrid 


water  from  10  to  20  ft.  deep.    Efforts  to  drain 
it  were  set  on  foot  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII., 
Elizabeth,  and  James  I.,  but  all  failed.     In  the 
time  of  Charles  I.  the  earl  of  Bedford,  after 
whom  the  district  was  named,  made  a  partially 
successful  attempt,  which  was  renewed  in  1 649 
'  by  his  son,  who  brought  the  work  to  a  close 
1  and  received  95,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  land 
1  as  a  compensation.     A  regular  system  for  pre- 
j  serving  and  improving  the  drained  lands  was 
i  now   inaugurated.      A   corporation   for  their 
management,  consisting  of  a  governor,  6  bai- 
liffs, 20  conservators,  and  a  commonalty,  was 
chartered  and  is  still  kept  up.     Of  late  years 
important  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  old  system  of  drainage,  which  in  some  re- 
spects proved  defective.     The  reclaimed  lands 
produce  fine  crops  of  grain,  flax,  and  cole  seed, 
but  the  harvests  have  occasionally  suffered  by 
fresh   inundations,  one  of  which  in  1841  in- 
volved a  loss  of  over  £150,000. 

BEDFORDSHIRE  (often  abbreviated  Beds), 
a  county  in  the  south  midland  division  of 
England,  bounded  by  the  counties  of  North- 
ampton, Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  Hertford, 
and  Buckingham ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  146,256.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ouse  and  its  tributary  the  Ivel.  The  only 
range  of  high  lands  is  the  lowest  portion  of  the 
Chiltern  hills,  the  country  being  generally  level. 
The  woods  are  of  modern  growth.  The  chief 
wealth  of  the  county  is  agricultural.  Near 
the  valley  of  the  Ouse  the  soil  is  well  adapted 
for  market  gardening.  Ferruginous  peat  is 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  river  Ivel.  The  an- 
cient Ikeneld  and  Watling  Street  roads  passed 
through  the  county,  and  there  are  many  Roman, 
Saxon,  and  Norman  antiquities.  The  Roman 
forces  of  Julius  Cresar  were  opposed  by  the 
chief  of  the  district,  which  was  called  Catyeu- 
chlana,  and  under  Constantino  Bedfordshire 
was  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Flavia 
Cassariensis.  Under  the  Saxon  heptarchy  it 
was  part  of  Mercia,  and  under  Alfred  it  re- 
ceived its  present  name  and  divisions.  Among 
the  renowned  country  seats  are  Woburn  Abbey, 
belonging  to  the  Russell  family  ;  Luton  Hoo,  to 
the  Earl  of  Bute ;  Ampthill  park,  to  the  Hol- 
land family ;  and  Cardington  house,  once  the 
residence  of  the  philanthropist  Howard. 

BEDLAM,  the  popular  designation  of  Beth- 
lehem hospital,  a  lunatic  asylum  in  London, 
derived  from  a  priory  founded  in  1246  by 
Simon  Fitz  Mary,  sheriff  of  London.  After 
the  suppression  of  the  religious  houses,  Henry 
VIII.  granted  it  in  1547  to  the  corporation  of 
London;  but  it  retained  the  name  of  Fitz 
Mary's  hospital  till  1675,  when  the  building 
was  removed  from  Bishopsgate  without  (where 
now  is  Bethlem  court)  to  Moorfields,  near 
London  wall,  in  the  city  of  London.  The  new 
hospital  was  laid  out  by  the  architect  Robert 
Hooke,  and  cost  nearly  £17,000.  This  second 
hospital  was  taken  down  in  1814,  the  founda- 
tion stone  of  the  third  and  present  establish- 
ment in  St.  George's  Fields  having  been  laid 


450 


BEDOUINS 


April  18,  1812.  The  building  has  been  much 
enlarged,  and  now  covers  14  acres  and  accom- 
modates about  600  patients.  The  annual  in- 
come is  nearly  £30,000,  and  the  expenditure 
over  £-20,000.  The  wretched  management  of 
the  first  hospital  led  in  1771  to  the  prohibition 
of  the  brutal  exhibition  of  maniacs,  whose 
treatment  furnished  materials  for  Hogarth's 
picture  of  a  madhouse  in  his  "  Rake  s  Pro- 
gress." Patients  partly  cured  were  permitted 
to  go  at  large,  and  were  called  Bedlam  beg- 
gars, or  Tom-o'-Bedlams.  The  mismanagement 
continued,  though  in  a  far  less  degree,  till  1815, 
since  which  time  improvements  have  been 
gradually  introduced. 

BEDOUINS  (Arab.  Bedawi,  pi.  Bedwdn,  dwell- 
er in  the  desert),  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Arabia, 
Irak,  and  the  eastern  and  southeastern  parts 
of  Syria.  They  live  in  tribes  of  from  200  to  20,- 
000  or  30,000  men,  moving  from  place  to  place 
as  the  exigencies  of  their  flocks  and  herds  re- 


Bedooln  Arabs. 

quire.  From  the  earliest  ages  they  have  led  a 
pastoral  life,  dwelling  in  tents  and  rearing 
cattle,  with  which  they  supplied  the  cities,  go- 
ing out  on  plundering  excursions  or  spending 
their  leisure  time  in  horse-racing,  athletic 
sports,  story-telling,  and,  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  tobacco,  in  smoking.  All  domestic 
labor  except  milking  and  spinning  is  left  to 
the  women  and  slaves;  the  arable  land  is  culti- 
vated by  the  neighboring  peasantry,  who  re- 
ceive one  third  of  the  produce  and  are  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  the  proprietor  during 
their  stay,  as  a  reward  for  their  service.  The 
women  also  perform  the  part  of  hairdressers 
to  their  husbands  in  curling  their  locks.  The 
tending  of  the  flocks  is  left  to  the  boys  and  girls. 
The  Bedouin  considers  agriculture  beneath  his 
dignity;  he  despises  alike  all  labor  and  engage- 


ments in  commerce,  proud  of  his  liberty  and 
genealogy,  which  he  traces  back  to  Mohammed, 
Ishmael,  or  Joktan.     He  is  fierce  and  warlike, 
not  out  of  patriotism,  for  he  has  no  country, 
jut  for  the  sake  of  plunder.     The  Bedouins  are 
passionately  fond  of  poetry ;  nearly  every  tribe 
:ias   a  poet,  who  recites  the   deeds  of  their 
tieroes   and  adventures  of  lovers,  accompany- 
ing his  songs  with  the  rabala,  a  kind  of  one- 
stringed   fiddle.     They  are    among   the  most 
expert  riders  in  the  world,  and  are  greatly 
attached  to  their  horses.     Their  diet  is  simple, 
consisting  of  the  flesh  and  milk  of  their  herds, 
rice,  and  coffee.     They  dislike  sleeping  in  build- 
ings, and  when  obliged  to  visit  the  towns  for 
the  sale  of  their  cattle,  wool,  and  grain,  their 
stay  there  is  as  brief  as  possible.     The  Be- 
douins are  of  middle  size,  spare  and  sinewy, 
capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue  and  exposure 
to  the  fiery  sun  and  hot  winds  of  the  desert. 
In  complexion  they  are  dark  brown,  have  reg- 
ular features,  with  deep-set,  piercing,  and  intel- 
ligent eyes.     Their  clothing,  especially  during 
predatory   excursions,  is  often   reduced   to   a 
single  cotton  shirt  bound  round  the  waist  with 
a  leathern  girdle,  into  which  the  Bedouin  sticks 
his  arms  with  a  pipe  and  lighting  apparatus. 
The  wealthy  Bedouin  or  the  sheikh  wears  over 
his  shirt  a  long  gown,  often  of  scarlet  cloth, 
with  the  usual  arms,  pistols  and  short  dagger, 
in  his  girdle,  while  a  silver-mounted  sword  is 
swung  across  his  shoulder,  and  a  flowing  mantle 
of  cashmere  covers  the  whole.     The  head  dress 
consists  of  a  keffiye  or  shawl  of  wool  or  silk 
interwoven  with  gold  lace,  with  fringes  of  the 
same  material,  folded  cornerwise  and  tied  round 
the  head  with  a  cord.     He  wears  clumsy  boots 
of  red  or  yellow  leather.    The  Bedouins  prac- 
tise polygamy  and  hold  slaves.     They  are  igno- 
rant, superstitious,  fierce,  revengeful,  and  of 
depraved  morals.     Their  greatest  virtue  is  hos- 
pitality to  their  guests ;  but  even  this  is  ques- 
tionable, and  the  sanctity  of  the  asylum  (dakMT) 
has  often  been  violated.     Instances,  however, 
are  not  rare  of  magnanimous  conduct,  where 
the  dakhil  has  been  faithfully  observed  even 
at  great  danger  to  the  protector.     Unlike  the 
Turkomans  or  other  robbers  in  civnized  coun- 
tries, the  Bedouin  is  averse  to  shedding  blood, 
and  will  have  recourse  to  extreme  measures 
only  when  others  have  failed.     This  may  he 
partly  attributed  to  their  fear  of  causing  a 
blood  feud.     The  Bedouins  have  no  criminal 
code  except  for  murder,  when  the  blood  feud 
is  rigidly  enforced,  and  the  murderer  and  some- 
times one  of  his  relations  is  liable  to  be  killed 
at  any  moment  >by  the  survivors  of  the  victim. 
But  even  here  a  compensation  can  be  made 
and  accepted.    (See  BLOOD  MONEY  )    The  gen- 
eral government  of  Arabia  is  patriarchal,  each 
tribe  having  its  sheikh  or  chief.     The  sheikh- 
ship  is  hereditary,  the  next  oldest,  whether  son 
or  brother,  succeeding.     The  sheikh  leads  the 
men  to  battle,  represents  the  tribe,  and  acts 
as  arbitrator  in  differences  which  may  arise 
between  them. — The  Bedouins  seem  never  to 


BEE 


451 


have  been  conquered.  Retiring  to  their  deserts 
when  danger  threatens,  it  is  almost  impossible 
for  their  enemies  to  follow,  where  the  wells 
are  only  known  to  themselves.  But  they  have 
not  unfrequently  suffered  terrible  retaliation  for 
their  robberies.  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  son  of 
Mehemet  AH,  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Wa- 
habees,  was  perhaps  their  most  successful  as- 
sailant. The  Bedouins  have  been  marauders 
and  scourges  over  the  neighboring  territories 
from  the  earliest  ages ;  and  in  the  7th  century, 
when  stirred  up  to  the  highest  degree  of  ex- 
citement by  the  preaching  of  Mohammed,  they 
became  the  terror  of  both  Asia  and  Europe. 

BEE,  the  name  of  several  genera  of  honey- 
making  insects,  of  the  order  hymenaptera,  family 
anthophila,  divided  by  Latreille  into  the  two 
sections  andrenidos,  solitary  bees  consisting 
only  of  males  and  females,  and  apiaria,  either 
solitary  or  living  in  large  or  small  societies. 
Of  the  different  genera  of  bees  no  fewer  than 
250  species  are  natives  of  Great  Britain.  I. 
Honey  Bee  (apis),  the  best  known,  most  widely 
diffused,  and  most  useful  genus  of  the  apiaria. 
The  common  honey  bee  (A.  mellifica,  Linn.)  is 
probably  of  Asiatic  origin,  whence  it  has  spread 
over  Europe,  has  been  introduced  in  America, 
and  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  wanner  portions 
of  the  world.  There  are  many  other  species 
of  apis,  as  A.  ligustica,  of  Spain  and  Italy; 
A.  unicolor,  of  Madagascar ;  A.  Indica,  of 
India ;  A.  faiciata,  of  Egypt;  and  A.  Adanso- 
nii,  of  Senegal.  The  generic  description  of  A. 
mellifica  will  answer  in  the  main  for  all  others 
domesticated  in  hives  and  apiaries.  The  bee 
has  four  membranaceous  naked  wings,  the  up- 
per being  the  larger ;  the  mouth  is  furnished 
with  two  strong  mandibles  and  four  palpi, 'larg- 
est in  the  working  bee,  and  used  not  so  much 
in  eating  as  in  breaking  hard  substances  in 
their  various  labors ;  the  teeth,  concave  scales 
with  sharp  edges,  are  attached  to  the  ends  of 
the  jaws  and  play  horizontally.  For  taking 
up  liquids  it  has  a  long  flexible  proboscis  or 
trunk,  performing  the  office  of  a  tongue,  though 
it  is  formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  under 
lip ;  it  is  solid,  and  not  tubular  like  the  trunks 
of  other  hymenopterous  insects;  the  trunk  is 
supported  on  a  pedicle,  and  is  protected  by  a 
double  sheath ;  the  central  portion,  which  ap- 
pears like  a  thread  or  silky  hair,  under  the 
microscope  is  seen  to  terminate  in  a  sort  of 
button  fringed  with  hairs,  and  the  whole  organ 
to  its  very  base  is  surrounded  with  similar 
fringes,  admirably  adapted  for  licking  up  fluids. 
The  eye  is  large,  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  six-sided  facets  thickly  studded  with  hairs ; 
there  is  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  be- 
tween the  antennas  there  are  three  small  bright 
spots,  considered  by  Swammerdam  and  Reau- 
mur as  eyes.  From  the  fact  of  bees  recognizing 
their  hives  from  long  distances,  and  flying  in  a 
straight  line  toward  them  with  the  greatest 
rapidity,  it  would  seem  that  the  sense  of  vision 
is  very  acute ;  at  the  same  time  we  see  them  run- 
ning their  heads  against  the  hive,  and  actually 


feeling  their  way  to  the  door  with  their  anten- 
nae ;  so  that  their  composite  eyes  are  probably 
fitted  only  for  distant  vision.  Whether  the 


1.  Pollen  basket  of  Bee  mainlined.  2.  Trunk  of  a  Bee  mag- 
nified. 8,  8,  8.  Bees  constructing  cells.  4.  Larva  of  the 
Bee  magnified.  5.  Bee  seen  through  a  magnifying  glass  at 
the  moment  when  the  cakes  of  wax  appear  between  the 
segments  of  the  abdomen. 

spots  described  by  Swammerdam  are  eyes  or 
not,  it  seems  that  the  antenna  chiefly  guide 
the  bees  at  night  and  in  the  vicinity  of  near 
objects.  The  antennse  are  composed  of  13  ar- 
ticulations in  the  males,  and  of  12  in  the  fe- 
males ;  from  their  great  flexibility  and  constant 
motion,  most  of  their  impressions  from  with- 
out are  doubtless  received  through  these ;  by 
them  every  object  is  examined  and  many  of  the 
operations  of  the  hive  performed,  as  building 
the  comb,  storing  the  honey,  feeding  the  larva, 
and  ascertaining  the  presence  and  wants  of  the 
queen ;  their  removal  completely  changes  the 
instincts  of  both  workers  and  queen.  The  legs 
are  six  in  number ;  in"  the  hind  pair  of  the 
workers  the  middle  portion  is  hollowed  into  a 
triangular  cavity  or  basket,  surrounded  by  a 
margin  of  thickly  set  hairs ;  in  this  receptacle 
are  carried  the  pollen,  propolis,  and  other  hive 
materials;  at  the  end  of  the  feet  are  little 
hooks  by  which  they  adhere  to  the  hive,  and  to 
each  other  during  the  wax-secreting  process ; 
the  other  pairs  of  feet  have  a  pencil  of  hairs  on 
the  tarsi  by  means  of  which  the  pollen  is  col- 
lected, and  brushed  off  from  their  bodies  on 
arrival  at  the  hive.  The  bee  has  two  stomachs : 
the  first  is  a  large  membranous  bag,  pointed  in 
front,  for  the  reception  and  retention  of  the 
honey;  no  digestion  takes  place  in  this,  the 
analogue  of  the  crop  of  birds ;  its  walls  are 
muscular  and  capable  of  throwing  back  the 
honey  into  the  mouth  for  deposition  in  the 
cells  or  distribution  to  the  working  bees ;  di- 
gestion is  performed  in  the  second  stomach, 
which  is  of  a  lengthened  cylindrical  shape, 
communicating  with  the  first  stomach,  and 


452 


BEE 


with  the  intestine,  by  a  projecting  valvular  ap- 
paratus, with  a  very  small  opening,  preventing 
all  regurgitation  of  the  food.  The  muscular 
strength  of  bees  is  very  great,  and  their  flight 
is  rapid  and  capable  of  being  long  sustained.— 
Notwithstanding  the  cultivation  of  the  hive 
bee  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  its  history  was 
little  more  than  a  series  of  conjectures  until 
the  invention  of  glass  hives  in  1712  by  Maraldi, 
a  mathematician  of  Nice,  enabled  naturalists 
to  study  the  indoor  proceedings  of  the  bee; 
this  invention  was  taken  advantage  of  by  Reau- 
mur, who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  more  re- 
cent discoveries  of  Hunter,  Schirach,  and  the 
Hubers.  A  hive  of  bees  consists  of  three  kinds, 
females,  males,  and  workers;  the  females  are 
called  queens,  not  more  than  one  of  which  can 
live  in  the  same  hive,  the  presence  of  one  being 
necessary  for  its  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance ;  the  males  are  called  drones,  and  may 
exist  by  hundreds  and  even  thousands  in  a 
hive;  the  workers,  or  neuters,  as  they  have 
been  called  from  the  supposition  that  they  be- 
longed to  neither  sex,  are  by  far  the  most  nu- 
merous. The  queen  lays  the  eggs  from  which 


A,  Drone.    B.  Queen  Bee.    C,  Worker.    D,  Leg  of  Worker, 
showing  cavity  for  propolis.    E,  Cells  for  honey. 

the  race  is  perpetuated ;  the  males  do  no  work, 
and  are  of  no  use  except  to  impregnate  the 
females,  after  which  they  soon  die  or  are  kill- 
ed ;  the  workers  colleat  the  honey,  secrete  the 
wax,  build  the  cells,  and  feed  and  protect  the 
young.  The  females  and  workers  have  a  sting 
at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  absent 
in  the  males ;  this  formidable  weapon  consists 
of  an  extensile  sheath,  enclosing  two  needle- 
shaped  darts  of  exceeding  fineness,  placed 
side  by  side ;  toward  the  end  they  are  armed 
with  minute  teeth,  like  those  of  a  saw, 
whence  it  happens  that  the  animal  is  fre- 
quently unable  to  withdraw  the  sting  from 
an  enemy  that  it  has  pierced,  causing  its  own 
as  well  as  its  victim's  death ;  the  sting  is 
protruded  by  several  muscles  so  powerful  that 
it  will  penetrate  -^  of  an  inch  into  the  thick 
skin  of  the  human  hand.  When  the  sting  enters 
the  flesh  the  acrid  poison  is  squeezed  into  the 
wound  from  a  bag  near  its  base ;  the  poison 
is  a  transparent  fluid  with  a  sweetish  and 
afterward  acrid  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction  ;  it 
is  of  so  active  a  character  that  a  single  sting 
almost  instantly  kills  a  bee  ;  animals  have  been 


killed  and  men  nearly  so  by  the  stings  of  an  en- 
raged colony  whose  hive  had  been  upset.     The 
queens  are  more  peaceable  and  less  disposed  to 
sting  than  the  workers.     These  three  kinds  of 
bees  are  of  a  different  size  and  may  be  easily 
recognized ;  the  males  are  of  the  heaviest  flight. 
The  queen  bee  is  the  largest,  being  8-J  lines  in 
length,  the  males  being  7,  and  the  workers  6 ; 
her  abdomen  is  longer  in  proportion,  and  has 
two  ovaria  of  considerable  size ;  her  wings  are 
so  short  as  hardly  to  reach  beyond  the  third 
ring,  and  her  color  is  of  a  deeper  yellow.     She 
is  easily  recognized  by  the  slowness  of  her 
march,  by  her  size,  and  by  the  respect  and  at- 
tentions paid  to  her;  she  lives  in  the  interior 
of  the  hive,  and  seldom  departs  from  it  unless 
for  the  purpose  of  being  impregnated  or  to  lead 
out  a  new  swarm ;  if  she  be  removed  from  the 
live,  the  whole  swarm  will  follow  her.     The 
queen  governs  the  whole  colony,  and  is  in  fact 
its  mother,  she  being  the  only  breeder  out  of 
20,000  or  30,000  bees.     The  impregnation  of 
the  queen  bee  was  long  a  subject  of  uncertain- 
ty; it  is  now  kuown,  and  has  been  proved  by 
depriving  the  queen  bee  of  her  wings,  that  this 
never  takes  place  within  the  hive,  and  that 
if  she  be  confined  she  always  remains  sterile, 
even  though  surrounded  by  males.     To  accom- 
plish it  the  queen  leaves  the  hive  and  flies 
high  into  the  air;  after  an  absence  of  about 
half  an  hour  she  returns  with  unequivocal  evi- 
dence of  sexual  union,  having  robbed  the  male 
of  the  organs  concerned  in  the  operation.     The 
male,  thus  mutilated,  soon  dies — a  fact  which 
has  been  proved  by  repeated  observation,  and 
from  which  Huber  infers  the  necessity  of  a 
great  number  of  males  being  attached  to  a 
hive  ,in  order  that  the  female  may  be  almost 
certa'in  to  meet  one  in  her  flight.     "When  im- 
pregnation occurs  late  in  the  autumn,  the  laying 
of  the  eggs  is  delayed  by  the  cold  weather  until 
the  following  spring,  so  that  the  ova  are  ready 
to  come  forth  in  March  ;  but  the  young  queen 
is  capable  of  laying  eggs  36  hours  after  impreg- 
nation.   Before  depositing  an  egg  she  examines 
whether  the  cell  is  prepared  to  receive  it  and 
adapted  for  the  future  condition  of  the  grub,  for 
queens,  males,  and  workers  have  cells  specially 
constructed  for  them ;  the  eggs  producing  work- 
ers are  deposited  in  six-sided  horizontal  cells ; 
the  cells  of  the  drones  are  somewhat  irregular 
in  their  form,  and  those  of  the  queens  are  large, 
circular,  and  hang  perpendicularly.     When  the 
cells  are  ready,  the  queen  goes  from  one  to 
the  other,   with    scarcely  any  repose,   laying 
about  200  eggs  daily;   the  eggs  first  laid  are 
those  of  workers,  for  10  or  12  days,  during 
which  the  larger  cells  are  in  process  of  con- 
struction; in  these,  after  they  have  reached  a 
very  large  size,  she  lays  male  eggs  for  16  to 
24  days,  less  numerous  than  those  of  the  work- 
ers in  the  proportion  of  about  1  to  30.     The 
royal  cells,  if  from  the  productiveness  of  the 
season  and  the  number  in  the  hive  it  is  de- 
termined  to    bring  out   another   queen,    are 
now  commenced;  these  are  of  large  size,  an 


BEE 


453 


inch  deep  and  one  third  of  an  inch  wide ; 
during  their  construction  the  queen  lays  the 
eggs  of  workers,  and  when  they  are  finished 
she  deposits  a  single  egg  in  each  at  one  or  two 
days'  interval,  worker  eggs  being  laid  in  this 
interval.  When  the  eggs  are  laid  the  workers 
supply  the  cells  with  the  pollen  of  flowers  for 
the  food  of  the  larvae ;  the  pollen  is  mixed 
with  honey  and  water,  and  partly  digested  in 
the  stomachs  of  the  nursing  bees,  and  dis- 
tributed of  different  qualities  according  to  the 
age  of  the  young.  The  eggs  are  of  a  bluish 
white  color,  of  a  lengthened  oval  shape,  slightly 
curved;  in  a  proper  temperature  they  are 
hatched  in  three  days;  the  larvse  are  small 
white  worms  without  feet.  The  workers  re- 
main five  days  in  this  state,  the  males  six  and 
a  half,  and  the  females  five ;  at  the  end  of  this 
time  the  mouth  of  the  cell  is  closed  by  a  mix- 
ture of  wax  and  propolis,  and  the  larvee  begin 
to  spin  a  silken  envelope,  or  cocoon,  which  is 
completed  in  36  hours ;  in  three  days  more  the 
larva  changes  into  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  on 
the  20th  day  it  emerges  from  its  prison  a  per- 
fect worker ;  the  males  come  forth  on  the  24th 
day.  The  color  of  the  bee  just  out  of  its  cell 
is  a  light  gray ;  it  requires  two  days  to  acquire 
strength  for  flying,  during  which  it  is  caressed 
and  plentifully  fed  by  the  nurses.  The  same 
cell  may  bring  several  workers  to  maturity ; 
when  the  insect  comes  out  the  cell  is  cleaned, 
the  web  being  left  to  strengthen  the  sides.  The 
royal  cells  are  never  used  but  once,  being  de- 
stroyed when  the  queen  escapes.  The  eggs 
and  larvae  of  the  royal  family  do  not  differ  in 
appearance  from  those  of  the  workers ;  but  the 
young  are  more  carefully  nursed,  and  fed  to 
repletion  with  a  more  stimulating  kind  of  food, 
which  causes  them  to  grow  so  rapidly  that  in 
five  days  the  larva  is  prepared  to  spin  its  web, 
and  on  the  16th  day  becomes  a  perfect  queen. 
But,  as  only  one  queen  can  reign  in  the  hive, 
the  young  ones  are  kept  close  prisoners,  and 
carefully  guarded  against  the  attacks  of  the 
queen  mother,  as  long  as  there  is  any  prospect 
of  her  leading  another  swarm  from  the  hive ; 
if  a  new  swarm  is  not  to  be  sent  off,  the  work- 
ers allow  the  approach  of  the  old  queen  to  the 
royal  cells,  and  she  immediately  commences 
the  destruction  of  the  royal  brood  by  stinging 
them,  one  after  the  other,  while  they  remain 
in  the  cells.  Huber  observes  that  the  cocoons 
of  the  royal  larvm  are  open  behind,  and  he  be- 
lieves this  to  be  a  provision  of  nature  to  enable 
the  queen  to  destroy  the  young,  which  in  the 
ordinary  cocoon  would  be  safe  against  her 
sting.  When  the  old  queen  departs  with  a 
swarm,  a  young  one  is  liberated,  who  imme- 
diately seeks  the  destruction  of  her  sisters,  but 
is  prevented  by  the  guards ;  if  she  departs  with 
another  swarm,  a  second  queen  is  liberated, 
and  si)  on,  until  further  swarming  is  impossible 
from  the  diminution  of  the  numbers  or  the 
coldness  of  the  weather ;  then  the  reigning 
queen  is  allowed  to  kill  all  her  sisters.  If  two 
queens  should  happen  to  come  out  at  the  same 


time,  they  instantly  commence  a  mortal  com- 
bat, and  the  survivor  is  recognized  as  the  sove- 
reign ;  the  other  bees  favor  the  battle,  form  a 
ring,  and  excite  the  combatants,  exactly  as  in 
a  human  prize  fight.  The  male  bees  or  drones 
may  be  known  by  the  thicker  body,  more  flat- 
tened shape,  round  head,  more  obtuse  abdo- 
men containing  the  male  generative  organs,  the 
absence  of  the  sting,  and  the  humming  noiso 
of  their  flight ;  they  produce  neither  wax  nor 
honey,  being  idle  spectators  of  the  labors  of  the 
workers,  who  support  them ;  they  comprise 
about  ^V  or  -fa  of  the  whole  number  of  a  hivo 
in  the  spring  when  they  are  most  numerous ; 
their  use  is  only  to  impregnate  the  females,  and, 
secondarily,  to  supply  food  to  the  swallows 
and  carnivorous  insects  which  prey  upon  them 
when  they  take  their  midday  flights.  When 
the  queens  are  impregnated,  and  the  swarming 
has  ceased,  the  workers,  in  July  or  August, 
commence  an  indiscriminate  attack  upon  the 
drones,  chasing  them  into  the  bottom  and  cor- 
ners of  the  hive,  killing  them  with  their  stings, 
and  casting  out  the  dead  bodies ;  this  destruc- 
tion extends  even  to  the  eggs  and  larvaa  of 
males.  If  a  hive  is  without  a  queen,  the  males 
are  allowed  to  survive  the  winter.  The  work- 
ing bees  are  the  smallest,  with  a  lengthened 
proboscis,  the  basket  conformation  of  the  pos- 
terior pair  of  legs,  and  the  apparent  absence 
of  generative  organs.  They  have  been  divided 
by  Huber  into  nurses  and  wax-workers ;  the 
former  are  the  smallest  and  weakest,  ill  adapt- 
ed for  carrying  burdens,  and  their  business  is 
to  collect  the  honey,  feed  and  take  care  of  the 
grubs,  complete  the  cells  commenced  by  the 
others,  and  to  keep  the  hive  clean ;  the  latter 
take  the  charge  of  provisioning  the  hive,  col- 
lecting honey,  secreting  and  preparing  wax, 
constructing  the  cells,  defending  the  hive  from 
attack,  attending  to  the  wants  of  the  queen, 
and  carrying  on  all  the  hostilities  of  the  com- 
munity. The  number  of  the  workers  is  from 
5,000  or  10,000  to  50,000,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  hive ;  they  form  about  f$  of  the  whole ; 
they  are  armed  with  a  sting,  and  are  easily  ex- 
cited to  use  it.  They  are  sometimes  called  neu- 
ters, as  if  they  were  of  neither  sex ;  bnt  it  is 
now  established,  by  the  discovery  in  them  on 
minute  dissection  of  rudiments  of  ovaries,  that 
the  larvfe  of  the  workers  and  of  the  females 
do  not  differ ;  that  the  queens  lay  only  two 
kinds  of  eggs,  one  destined  to  produce  males, 
and  the  other  capable  of  being  converted,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  into  workers  or 
queens ;  in  other  words,  that  the  workers  are 
females,  in  which  the  generative  organs  are 
not  developed.  On  the  loss  of  the  queen  the 
hive  is  thrown  into  the  greatest  confusion; 
the  bees  rush  from  the  hive,  and  seek  the 
queen  in  all  directions ;  after  some  hours  all 
becomes  quiet  again,  and  the  labors  are  resum- 
ed. If  there  be  no  eggs  nor  brood  in  the 
combs,  the  bees  seem  to  lose  their  faculties; 
they  cease  to  labor  and  to  collect  food,  and  tho 
whole  community  soon  dies.  But,  if  there  be 


454 


BEE 


brood  in  the  combs,  the  labors  continue  as  fol- 
lows :  having  selected  a  grub,  not  more  than 
three  days  old,  the  workers  sacrifice  three  con- 
tiguous cells  that  the  cell  of  the  grub  may  be 
made  into  a  royal  cell;  they  supply  it  with 
the  peculiar  stimulating  jelly  reserved  for  the 
queens,  and  at  the  end  of  the  usual  16  days  the 
larva  of  a  worker  is  metamorphosed  into  a  queen. 
This  fact,  which  rests  on  indisputable  author- 
ity, is  certainly  a  most  remarkable  natural  pro- 
vision for  the  preservation  of  the  lives  of  the 
colony.  While  a  hive  remains  without  a  queen 
swarming  can  never  take  place,  however  crowd- 
ed it  may  be.  The  possibility  of  changing  the 
worker  into  a  queen  is  taken  advantage  of  in 
the  formation  of  artificial  swarms,  by  which 
the  amount  of  honey  may  be  indefinitely  in- 
creased. In  a  well-proportioned  hive,  contain- 
ing 20,000  bees,  there  would  be  19,499  work- 
ers, 500  males,  and  1  queen. — The  food  of  bees 
consists  principally  of  two  kinds,  the  honeyed 
fluids  and  the  pollen  of  flowers ;  they  also  eat 
honey  dew,  treacle,  sirup,  and  any  saccharine 
substance.  They  lick  up  honey  and  fluid  sub- 
stances by  their  long  proboscis  from  the  blos- 
soms of  various  flowers ;  the  mignonette  and 
clover  afford  honey  of  remarkable  fragrance 
and  in  great  abundance.  It  is  inferred  that 
bees  have  an  imperfect  sense  of  taste  and  smell 
from  their  collecting  honey  indiscriminately 
from  sweet-scented  and  offensive  flowers ;  it  is 
well  known  that  in  some  places  their  honey 
acquires  poisonous  qualities  from  the  flowers 
of  different  species  of  laurel,  thorn-apple,  aza- 
lea, and  poison  ash ;  many  mysterious  cases  of 
sickness  have  been  traced  to  the  consumption 
of  such  poisoned  honey,  and  even  the  bees  are 
sometimes  destroyed  by  the  vegetable  poisons 
which  they  imbibe.  During  the  spring,  and 
until  late  in  the  autumn,  bees  collect  the  pollen 
from  the  anthers  of  flowers  by  means  of  the 
hairs  on  their  legs,  and,  after  forming  a  ball, 
transport  it  in  their  basket  to  the  hive  for  the 
food  of  the  young  brood ;  this  pollen  consists 
of  small  capsules  which  contain  the  fecunda- 
ting principle  of  flowers,  and  is  so  abundant 
that  the  bees  of  a  single  hive  will  often  bring 
in  a  pound  daily ;  hence  some  agriculturists 
have  supposed  that  the  bees  diminish  the 
fecundity  of  plants  by  abstracting  the  pol- 
len, when,  on  the  contrary,  they  essentially 
promote  it,  by  transporting  the  fecundating 
principle  from  plant  to  plant.  Honey  dew  is  a 
saccharine  fluid  discharged  from  the  tubes  at 
the  extremity  of  the  body  in  the  aphides,  or 
plant  lice ;  these  herd  together  on  plants,  and 
become  so  gorged  with  sap  that  they  are  oblig- 
ed to  eject  the  honeyed  fluid  ;  this  falls  on  the 
leaves  and  dries,  forming  honey  dew,  eagerly 
sought  after  by  bees  and  ants ;  the  same  name 
has  been  given  to  a  sweet  exudation  of  the  sap 
from  the  leaves  of  plants  in  dry  weather. 
Bees  require  considerable  water,  but  they  are 
not  particular  about  its  purity.  The  food  of 
the  queen  bee  has  been  subjected  to  chemi- 
cal analysis  by  Dr.  Wetherill  of  Philadelphia. 


That  of  the  royal  grubs  is  a  kind  of  acescent 
jelly,  thick  and  whitish,  becoming  more  trans- 
parent and  saccharine  as  the  larva  increases  in 
size ;  it  has  been  shown  by  Huber  to  consist  of 
a  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen,  modified  by  the 
workers  ;  the  former  appears  amorphous  under 
the  microscope,  is  heavier  than  water,  of  the 
consistency  of  wax,  sticky  and  elastic  ;  it  con- 
sists of  wax,  albumen,  and  proteine  compounds, 
and  is  therefore  properly  called  bee  bread  ;  it 
contains  albuminous  compounds,  which  would 
probably  prove  on  analysis  similar  to  the  glu- 
ten of  wheat.  Honey  alone  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  support  of  bees;  they  require  nltro- 
genized  substances,  like  pollen,  as  well  as  hon- 
ey and  non-nitrogenized  food.  Wax  is  secreted 
in  pouches  or  receptacles,  in  the  abdomen  of 
the  working  bees  only,  lined  with  a  membrane 
arranged  in  folds  like  a  six-sided  network  ;  it 
accumulates  in  these  until  it  appears  exter- 
nally in  the  form  of  scales  between  the  ab- 
dominal rings ;  these  plates  are  withdrawn  by 
the  bee  itself,  or  some  of  its  fellow  workers, 
and  used  for  building  and  repairing  the  cells. 
The  formation  of  wax  is  the  office  of  the 
wax-workers,  which  may  be  known  from  the 
nurses  by  the  greater  size  and  more  cylindri- 
cal shape  of  the  abdomen,  and  larger  stomach ; 
the  secretion  goes  on  best  when  the  bees  are 
at  rest,  and  accordingly  the  wax-workers  sus- 
pend themselves  in  the  interior  in  an  extended 
cluster  or  hanging  curtain,  holding  on  to  each 
other  by  the  legs ;  they  remain  motionless  in 
this  position  about  15  hours,  when  a  single  bee 
detaches  itself  and  commences  the  construction 
of  a  cell,  and  the  others  come  to  its  assistance 
and  begin  new  cells.  The  quantity  of  wax  se- 
creted depends  not  at  all  on  the  pollen  consum- 
ed, but  on  the  consumption  of  honey ;  when 
bees  are  fed  on  cane  sugar  they  form  wax  with 
more  difficulty  than  when  they  are  fed  on 
grape  sugar ;  the  former  is  not  so  readily  de- 
composed, but  may  be  changed  into  the  latter 
in  the  bee's  body  by  the  absorption  of  2  equiv- 
alents of  water.  According  to  Liebig,  an 
equivalent  of  starch  is  changed  into  fat  by  los- 
ing 1  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid  and  7  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen;  and  Dr.  Wetherill  suggests 
that  wax,  which  bears  a  great  analogy  to  fats, 
may  be  derived  from  honey  in  similar  man- 
ner. Wax,  composed  of  cerine  and  myricine, 
is  represented  chemically  by  Cs4Hs4O2,  and 
anhydrous  grape  sugar  by  CuHuOu  ;  so  that 
3  equivalents  of  grape  sugar  would  yield  1 
equivalent  of  wax  by  the  loss  of  2  equivalents 
of  carbonic  acid,  2  of  water,  and  28  of  oxy- 
gen.— Bees  breathe  by  means  of  air  tules, 
which  open  externally  on  the  corslet ;  ex- 
periments show  that  they  soon  perish  in  a 
vacuum  or  under  water,  and  that  a  constant 
renewal  of  atmospheric  air  is  necessary  for 
their  well-being.  The  condition  of  a  hive, 
:  filled  with  many  thousand  active  and  crowded 
bees,  and  communicating  with  the  outer  air 
only  by  a  small  opening  at  the  bottom,  and  that 
usually  obstructed  by  the  throng  passing  in  and 


BEE 


455 


out,  is  very  unfavorable  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  pure  air ;  the  black  hole  of  Calcutta  is  the 
only  human  receptacle  which  can  be  compared 
to  it ;  a  taper  is  very  soon  extinguished  in  a 
globe  of  the  dimensions  and  with  the  aperture 
of  a  beehive ;  and  yet  these  insects,  as  easily 
suffocated  as  any  other,  get  along  very  well, 
and  their  respiration  is  accompanied  by  the 
usual  absorption  of  oxygen  and  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  With  all  this  closeness  of 
the  air  in  the  hive,  direct  examination  has 
proved  that  it  is  nearly  as  pure  as  atmospheric 
air ;  neither  the  contents  of  the  hive  nor  the 
bees  themselves  have  any  power  of  evolving 
oxygen,  but  the  air  is  renewed  through  the 
door  of  the  hive,  where  an  inward  current 
is  produced,  whenever  required,  by  the  rapid 
agitation  of  the  wings  of  the  bees.  Some  of 
the  workers  are  always  thus  employed  in  ven- 
tilating the  hive,  which  they  do  by  planting 
themselves  near  the  entrance,  and  imitating 
the  action  of  flying;  in  this  way  the  impulse 
which  would  carry  them  forward  in  flight  is 
exerted  on  the  air,  producing  a  powerful  back- 
ward current ;  this  fact  explains  the  humming 
sound  heard  in  the  interior  of  an  active  hive, 
especially  in  the  warmest  days.  From  their 
active  respiration  the  temperature  of  a  hive  is 
very  high,  varying  from  73°  to  84°  F.,  and  on 
some  occasions  rising  to  106° ;  they  are  very 
sensitive  to  thermometrical  changes,  the  warm 
sun  exciting  them  to  vigorous  action,  and  cold 
reducing  them  to  a  torpid  state. — The  instincts, 
and  in  the  belief  of  many  the  intelligence  of 
the  bee,  are  remarkably  displayed  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  hive,  the  construction  of  the 
cells,  and  in  the  phenomena  of  swarming.  The 
first  thing  done  on  entering  a  new  hive  is  to 
clean  it  thoroughly,  to  stop  all  crevices,  and 
lay  the  foundation  for  the  comb.  Wax  is  not 
the  only  material  used  by  bees  in  their  archi- 
tecture ;  besides  this,  they  employ  a  reddish 
brown,  odoriferous,  glutinous  resin,  more  te- 
nacious and  extensible  than  wax,  called  pro- 
polis, which  they  obtain  from  the  buds  of  the 
poplar  and  birch  and  from  various  resinous 
trees.  This  adheres  so  strongly  to  the  legs  of 
the  bee,  that  its  fellow  laborers  are  obliged  to 
remove  it,  which  they  do  with  their  jaws,  ap- 
plying it  immediately  to  every  crevice  and  pro- 
jection in  the  hive,  to  the  interior  of  the  cells, 
and  to  the  covering  of  any  foreign  body  too 
heavy  for  them  to  remove ;  in  this  way  even 
large  snails  are  hermetically  sealed  and  pre- 
vented from  imparting  a  noxious  quality  to  the 
air.  Bees  will  carry  home  many  artificially 
prepared  glutinous  substances  in  their  tarsal 
baskets.  After  the  workers  have  secreted  a 
sufficient  amount  of  wax,  the  construction  of 
the  combs  commences.  These  are  formed  into 
parallel  and  vertical  layers,  each  about  an  inch 
thick,  the  distances  between  the  surfaces  of 
each  being  about  half  an  inch  for  the  passage 
of  the  bees.  They  may  extend  the  whole 
breadth  and  height  of  the  hive,  consisting  of 
thin  partitions  enclosing  six-sided  cells,  about 


half  an  inch  deep  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  bottom  of  each  cell  has  the 
shape  of  a  flattened  pyramid  with  three  rhom- 
bic sides,  like  the  diamonds  on  playing  cards ; 
this  gives  the  greatest  strength  and  greatest 
capacity  with  the  least  expenditure  of  mate- 
rial. Maraldi  had  determined  that  the  two 
angles  of  the  rhomb  should  be  109°  28'  and 
70°  32'  by  mathematical  calculation,  and  by 
actual  measurement  they  are  110°  and  70  . 
There  is  nothing  in  the  shape  of  the  antennae, 
mandibles,  or  legs  of  the  bee  which  should 
determine  these  angles  in  the  cells.  From  the 
fact  that  bees  stand  as  close  as  they  can,  each 
depositing  its  wax  around  it,  some  have  main- 
tained that  the  form  and  size  of  the  insect 
determine  the  shape  of  the  cell ;  that  the 
mathematical  accuracy  of  the  cell  depends  on 
its  form  and  structure  and  not  on  its  instinct ; 
and  that  the  cell  form  is  inevitable.  The  foun- 
dation is  a  solid  plate  of  wax,  of  a  semicircular 
form,  in  which  a  vertical  groove  is  scooped  out 
of  the  size  of  a  cell,  which  is  strengthened  by 
further  additions  of  wax ;  on  the  opposite  side 
two  other  grooves  are  formed,  one  on  each' 
side  of  the  plane  opposite  the  first ;  after  the 
bottom  is  formed,  the  walls  are  raised  round 
the  sides.  The  cells  of  the  first  row,  by  which 
the  comb  is  attached  to  the  roof  of  the  hive, 
have  five  sides  instead  of  six,  the  roof  forming 
one.  The  first  cell  determines  the  position  of 
all  that  succeed  it ;  and  two  are  not,  in  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  begun  in  different  parts  of 
the  hive  at  the  same  time.  The  laborers  fol- 
low each  other  in  quick  succession,  each  one 
adding  a  little  to  the  work ;  when  a  few  rows 
have  been  constructed  in  the  central  comb, 
two  other  foundation  walls  are  begun,  one  on 
each  side  of  it,  at  the  distance  of  one  third  of 
an  inch,  and  parallel  to  it,  and  then  two  others 
as  the  former  are  advanced ;  the  comb  is  thus 
enlarged  and  lengthened,  the  middle  being  al- 
ways the  most  prominent.  If  all  their  founda- 
tions were  laid  at  the  same  time,  it  would  be 
difficult  for  them  to  preserve  their  parallelism, 
which  is  perfect  only  at  the  last  stage  of  the 
building  process.  Besides  the  vacancies  be- 
tween the  cells,  which  form  the  highways  of 
the  hive,  the  combs  are  pierced  with  holes,  to 
permit  easy  communication,  and  prevent  loss 
of  time  in  going  round.  The  symmetry  of  the 
architecture  of  bees  is  more  observable  in  their 
work  looked  at  as  a  whole  than  in  its  details, 
as  they  often  build  irregularly  to  adapt  the 
structure  to  different  localities  and  various  un- 
favorable circumstances;  different-sized  cells 
are  made  for  the  larvre  of  workers,  males,  and 
queens;  those  for  honey  and  pollen  magazines 
are  twice  as  large  as  ordinary  cells,  and  so 
placed  that  their  mouths  are  upward,  for  the 
easier  retention  of  their  contents.  These  sup- 
posed defects  are  generally  the  results  of  cal- 
culation, and,  when  mistakes,  are  very  soon 
remedied.  The  cells  at  first  are  whitish,  soft, 
and  translucent ;  but  they  soon  become  yellow 
and  firmer,  and  quite  dark  in  an  old  comb. — 


456 


BEE 


When  a  hive  becomes  too  crowded,  or  for 
other  reasons  as  yet  not  perfectly  understood, 
preparations  are  made  for  the  emigration  of  a 
swarm  with  a  queen;  scouts  are  sent  out  in 
advance  to  select  a  proper  place  for  the  new 
hive,  and  the  workers  are  busy  in  collecting 
an  extra  quantity  of  provisions  to  be  carried 
with  them.  When  the  weather  is  warm,  and 
after  a  full  stock  of  eggs  has  been  laid,  the  old 
queen,  unsuccessful  in  her  attempts  to  destroy 
the  royal  brood,  abdicates  the  throne  which 
the  first-born  new  queen  will  soon  dispute 
with  her.  During  the  preparations,  a  great 
buzzing  is  occasionally  heard,  which  suddenly 
ceases  on  the  day  of  departure.  When  all  is 
ready,  the  signal  is  given  by  the  workers,  and 
the  queen,  with  all  the  departing  swarm, 
rushes  to  the  door,  and  rises  into  the  air ;  they 
follow  the  queen,  alighting  with  her  in  a  dense 
cluster,  and  returning  to  the  hive  if  she  does. 
Cold  weather,  or  even  a  passing  cloud,  will 
arrest  the  emigration  until  a  warmer  or 
brighter  period.  After  a  rest  at  their  first 
landing  place,  the  swarm  collects  into  a  close 
.phalanx,  and  Hies  in  a  direct  line  to  the  select- 
ed spot.  The  deserted  hive  is  busily  occupied 
in  hatching  out  a  new  queen,  which  in  her 
turn  leads  out  a  swarm ;  two  or  three  will  be 
sent  oif  in  a  summer  from  an  old  hive.  After 
the  massacre  of  the  males  in  July  or  August, 
the  workers  busy  themselves  in  collecting 
stores  for  winter  use ;  as  the  autumn  advances, 
honey  becomes  scarce,  and  they  are  obliged  to 
collect  the  sweet  exudations  from  leaves,  honey 
dew,  and  also  the  juices  of  peaches  and  other 
sweet  fruits,  after  the  skin  has  been  broken 
by  birds,  snails,  or  insects;  when  all  other 
resources  fail,  they  do  not  scruple  to  attack 
weaker  hives  and  despoil  them  of  their  honey. 
The  cold  of  winter  reduces  them  to  a  nearly 
torpid  state,  in  which  they  remain  until  the 
warm  days  of  spring.  The  instinct  of  the  bee 
and  its  tendency  to  thrift  are  curiously  manifest 
in  the  fact  that  it  accumulates  immense  stores 
of  honey  in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries, 
wheue  there  is  no  necessity  for  laying  up  sup- 
plies for  winter,  since  flowers  are  abundant 
at  all  seasons.  In  fact,  the  largest  supplies  of 
honey  and  wax  are  exported  from  such  coun- 
tries ;  the  latter  is  the  more  important  article 
of  commerce,  as  the  honey,  particularly  from 
the  West  Indies  and  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica, is  generally  of  an  inferior  quality. — Bees 
recognize  the  person  of  their  queen ;  if  a  new 
one  be  given  them,  they  will  generally  sur- 
round her  and  suffocate  or  starve  her  to  death, 
for  it  is  remarkable  that  the  workers  never 
attack  a  queen  with  their  stings;  if  she  be 
permitted  to  live  24  hours,  she  will  be  received 
as  their  sovereign.  Huber  discovered  that  if 
the  fecundation  of  the  queen  be  delayed  beyond 
the  21st  day  of  her  life,  she  begins  to  lay  the 
eggs  of  males,  and  produces  no  others  d'uring 
her  life;  she  lays  them  indiscriminately  in 
large  and  small,  and  even  in  royal  cells ;  in  the 
latter  case,  they  are  treated  by  the  nurses  as 


if  they  were  royal  grubs.  Eeim  made  the  sin- 
gular discovery  of  prolific  workers,  thus  ex- 
plaining the  laying  of  eggs  in  hives  destitute  of 
a  queen;  but  the  eggs  thus  produced  are  al- 
ways those  of  males ;  this  is  accounted  for  by 
their  having  passed  their  grub  state  in  cells 
contiguous  to  the  royal  ones,  and  from  having 
their  generative  organs  partially  developed  by 
devouring  portions  of  the  stimulating  royal 
food ;  how  they  become  impregnated  has  not 
been  ascertained.  (See  PARTHENOGENESIS.) — 
The  Italian  or  Ligurian  bee  (A.  ligustica)  has 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and 
found  far  superior  to  the  common  bee.  (See 
BEE-KEEPING.) — The  natural  enemies  of  bees 
are  numerous ;  among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned wasps,  hornets,  spiders,  dragon  flies, 
toads,  lizards,  woodpeckers,  the  bee-eater 
and  most  insectivorous  birds,  rats  and  mice, 
ant-eaters,  bears,  and  badgers.  They  seldom 
die  a  natural  death,  and  the  average  dura- 
tion of  life  cannot  be  more  than  a  year;  the 
whole  population  would  be  destroyed  by  their 
enemies,  each  other,  and  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  were  it  not  for  the  surprising  fecun- 
dity of  the  queen,  who  will  lay  in  temperate 
climates  as  many  as  60,000  eggs,  and  in  warm 
regions  three  times  that  number ;  a  single  im- 
pregnation is  sufficient  to  fecundate  all  the  eggs 
which  a  queen  will  lay  for  at  least  two  years, 
and  probably  during  her  life.  The  most  de- 
structive and  insidious  enemy  of  the  bee  is  a 
lepidopterous  insect,  of  the  group  crambida, 
the  galleria  cereana  (Fab.),  commonly  called 
the  bee  or  wax  moth ;  in  its  perfect  state  it  is 
a  winged  moth,  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  a  little  more 
than  an  inch ;  the  females  are  the  largest,  of  a 
dark  gray  color,  tinged  with  purple-brown  and 
dark  spots.  (See  BEE-KEEPING.) —  Wild  Honey 
Bees.  When  bees  swarm,  if  they  are  neglected 
and  are  not  speedily  hived,  they  will  fly  away 
with  their  queen  to  the  woods  and  find  a  home 
in  a  hollow  tree,  where  they  lay  up  honey,  rear 
brood,  and  send  out  successive  swarms  for  new 
wild  colonies.  Wild  bees  are  abundant  in  India, 
the  islands  of  the  Malay  archipelago,  Crete  and 
all  the  Greek  islands,  the  W.  coast  of  Africa, 
and  throughout  America.  Those  in  the  United 
States  are  all  of  foreign  origin.  There  were 
none  W.  of  the  Mississippi  before  1797,  nor  in 
California  before  1850;  and  the  Indians  call 
the  bee  the  white  man's  fly.  In  regions  where 
wild  bees  abound,  bee  hunting  is  a  distinct  and 
important  business,  pursued  by  professional 
hunters  or  experts.  In  Africa,  India,  and  the  In- 
dian islands,  the  hunter  is  unerringly  guided  to 
a  bee  tree  by  a  bird  of  the  cuckoo  family.  (See 
HONEY  GUIDE.)  Wells's  "  Explorations  in  Hon- 
duras" (New  York,  1857)  states  that  in  Cen- 
tral America  wild  swarms  generally  establish 
themselves  in  the  hollow  limbs  of  trees ;  these 
are  removed  to  the  porches  of  the  houses,  and 
are  there  suspended  by  thongs ;  in  this  primi- 
tive way  large  quantities  of  honey  and  wax 
are  obtained.  The  honey  of  some  of  these 


BEE 


457 


swarms  is  stored  in  wax  bags  two  or  more 
inches  long,  ranged  along  the  hive  in  rows, 
while  the  brood  cells  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
hive.  In  Timor  and  other  Indian  islands  there 
is  a  wild  bee  (A.  dorsata)  that  builds  huge  hon- 
eycombs, of  semicircular  form,  and  often  3  or 
4  ft.  in  diameter,  which  are  suspended  in  the 
open  air  from  the  under  side  of  the  uppermost 
branches  of  the  highest  trees.  These  the  hunt- 
er takes  by  climbing  to  them,  holding  a  smok- 
ing torch  under  them  to  stupefy  or  drive  away 
the  bees,  and  then  cutting  off  the  comb  close  to 
the  limb.  In  the  United  States,  at  the  south 
and  west,  where  bee-hunting  is  extensively  fol- 
lowed, the  method  is  uniform  and  simple.  The 
hunter  takes  into  the  woods  a  box  or  basin  con- 
taining about  half  a  pound  of  honey,  and  some- 
times various  mints  or  essences  are  used  to  at- 
tract the  bees.  If  the  bees  will  not  come  to  the 
honey,  one  or  two  are  caught  and  brought  to 
the  box,  or  are  caught  in  boxes  devised  for  the 
purpose.  Several  bees  collect  or  are  caught  in 
the  same  localities,  and  soon  fly  away  loaded 
with  honey.  As  the  bee  always  rises  and  circles 
around  till  it  sees  some  familiar  landmark,  and 
then  takes  a  "  bee  line"  for  home,  the  line  of 
flight  is  observed  by  the  hunter  or  his  compan- 
ions. After  several  bees  have  flown  in  the 
same  direction,  or  in  two  or  more  directions, 
showing  that  two  or  more  different  swarms 
have  been  marked,  the  hunter  removes  the  box 
to  a  point  at  an  angle  from  the  first  position, 
more  bees  are  caught  and  liberated,  and  their 
line  of  flight  is  marked.  The  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  two  lines  gives  the  locality  of  the 
sought-for  tree.  The  best  time  for  bee-hunt- 
ing is  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves  are  out, 
for  the  bees  come  out  freely  in  fine  days,  and 
their  line  of  flight  can  more  easily  be  seen. 
When  the  bee  tree  is  discovered,  it  may  hold  a 
new  swarm  with  no  store  of  honey;  but  fre- 
quently there  is  a  prize  of  many  hundred 
pounds  of  wax  and  honey,  which  is  secured 
after  the  tree  is  cut  down  by  killing  or  driving 
away  the  bees  by  burning  straw.  Frequently, 
if  the  tree  is  of  suitable  size  and  shape,  after  it 
is  cut  down  the  orifice  where  the  bees  go  in 
and  out  is  stopped,  and  the  section  containing 
the  swarm  is  sawn  out  and  carried  home, 
where  the  bees  may  be  "drummed"  into  a 
hive  containing  honey  and  brood  comb,  in 
which  they  will  contentedly  make  a  new  home 
and  furnish  stock  for  successive  swarms.  Wild 
bees  abound  nearly  everywhere  in  the  vicinity 
of  domesticated  bees ;  but  they  are  no  longer 
hunted  to  any  great  extent  in  the  thickly  set- 
tled states,  owing  to  the  increased  value  of 
timber  and  contests  as  to  ownership  or  pri- 
ority of  discovery,  out  of  which  many  lawsuits 
have  arisen.  II.  Bumblebee,  a  genus  distin- 
guished by  the  loud  humming  noise  they  make 
during  flight,  whence  their  generic  name  bom- 
bus,  the  French  bourdon,  and  the  English  bum- 
blebee. It  differs  from  the  honey  bee  in  its 
colors,  larger  size,  and  having  the  tibiee  of  the 
hind  legs  terminated  by  spines.  More  than  40 


different  kinds  are  native  in  Great  Britain,  and 
many  species  abound  in  America.  No  insect 
is  more  widely  diffused ;  its  range  extends  from 
the  limits  of  floral  vegetation  to  the  equator, 
and  it  is  everywhere  found  in  great  abundance 
in  the  temperate  zone.  The  great  number  of 
the  British  species,  having  the  prevailing  colors 
yellow,  red,  and  black,  have  been  divided  into 
three  sections :  1,  apex  of  body  red ;  2,  apex 
of  abdomen  white;  3,  ground  color  of  body 
yellow  or  buff.  The  bumblebees  live  in  much 
smaller  societies  and  are  less  prolific  than  the 
honey  bee.  They  lay  in  no  store  of  honey,  and 
their  main  mission  seems  to  be  to  fecundate 
plants  by  carrying  pollen  from  the  male  to  fe- 
male flowers.  In  size  the  workers  are  the 
smallest,  the  males  are  larger,  and  the  females 
are  somewhat  larger  than  the  males.  Late  in 
autumn  the  male  and  neuter  bumblebees  die ; 
but  some  of  the  females  survive  in  a  torpid 
Etate  and  without  food  till  spring,  when  they 
become  the  founders  of  a  new  colony,  and 
may  be  seen  prying  into  every  hole  and  crev- 
ice in  the  earth  in  search  of  a  suitable  nest. 


Bumblebee  (Bombus  terrestris)  and  Nest. 

This  they  make  at  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet 
in  meadows  and  plains ;  they  make  cavities  of 
considerable  extent,  dome-shaped,  more  wide 
than  high  ;  the  vault  is  made  of  earth  and 
moss,  and  the  interior  is  lined  with  an  inferior 
kind  of  wax ;  the  entrance  may  be  either  a 
simple  aperture  at  the  lower  part,  or  a  tortuous 
moss-covered  path ;  the  bottom  is  carpeted 
with  leaves.  Their  nest  has  little  of  the  archi- 
tectural regularity  of  the  hive  of  the  honey 
bee ;  there  are  only  a  few  egg-shaped,  dark- 
colored,  irregularly  disposed  cells,  arranged 
generally  in  a  horizontal  position,  connected  by 
shapeless  waxen  columns ;  these  cells  are  not 
made  by  the  old  bees,  but  by  the  grubs,  who 
spin  them  when  they  are  ready  to  undergo  the 
change  into  nymphs ;  from  them  they  are  lib- 
erated by  the  gnawing  of  the  old  ones ;  the 
cocoons  are  afterward  used  as  storehouses  for 
honey.  The  true  breeding  cells  are  contained 
in  masses  of  brown  wax,  the  number  of  eggs 
varying  from  3  to  30,  the  whole  colony  seldom 
exceeding  60,  though  the  nest  of  the  terrestrial 
species  (B.  terrestris,  Latr.)  sometimes  contains 


458 


BEE 


as  many  as  300.  The  larvae  live  in  society  until 
they  are  about  to  change  into  nymphs,  when 
each  spins  a  silken  cocoon  in  which  the  oc- 
cupant is  placed  head  downward,  and  from 
which  it  comes  out  in  four  or  five  days  during 
May  and  June.  The  females  assist  in  building 
the  cells,  and  deposit  at  the  first  laying  eggs 
both  of  males  and  females ;  the  males  are  not 
reared  till  late  in  the  season,  and  like  the  hive 
drones  do  not  assist  in  the  care  of  the  young. 
Several  females  may  live  in  peace  under  the 
same  roof;  impregnation  takes  place  outside  the 
nest.  The  honey  and  wax  are  of  the  same 
origin  and  nature  as  those  of  the  honey  bee. 
As  they  do  not  hibernate,  but  perish  during 
the  winter,  the  same  nest  is  not  occupied 
for  two  successive  years.  The  nest  of  the 
species  called  carder  bee  (B.  muscorum,  Latr.) 
is  composed  of  a  dome  of  moss  or  withered 
grass  placed  over  a  shallow  excavation  in  the 
ground  of  about  half  a  foot  in  diameter ;  the 
materials,  after  being  carded  by  means  of  the 
mandibles  and  fore  legs,  are  pushed  by  the  first 
bee  backward  to  a  second,  which  passes  it  to  a 
third,  and  so  on  until  the  nest  is  reached ;  they 
work  in  long  files,  the  head  being  turned  away 
from  the  nest,  and  toward  the  material.  Their 
domes  are  often  seen  rising  4  or  6  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  fields  and  meadows ;  the  en- 
trance is  at  the  bottom,  about  a  foot  long  and 
half  an  inch  wide.  The  carder  bee  is  smaller 
than  the  terrestrial  humblebee,  and  shorter 
and  thicker  than  the  honey  bee ;  it  resembles 
in  color  the  materials  of  the  nest,  having  the 
fore  part  of  the  back  a  dull  orange,  and  the 
hind  part  with  different  shades  of  grayish  yel- 
low rings.  The  lapidary  bee  (B.  lapidarius, 
Latr.)  builds  its  nest  in  a  heap  of  stones,  of  bits 
of  moss,  neajly  arranged  in  an  oval  form ;  they 
are  social  in  their  habits,  and  collect  honey  with 
great  industry ;  the  individuals  of  a  nest  are 
more  numerous  than  the  carders,  and  much  more 
vindictive.  III.  Solitary  Be»s  display  as  much 
foresight,  ingenuity,  and  skill  in  the  construc- 
tion of  their  nests  as  do  the  social  species,  and 
perhaps  in  a  more  remarkable  manner,  as  a 
single  individual  begins  and  finishes  every  part 
of  the  work.  There  are  only  two  kinds  of  indi- 
viduals, males  and  females ;  the  males  are  idle, 
and  the  females  perform  all  the  labor  of  mak- 
ing the  nest  and  providing  food  for  the  young ; 
they  have  no  brush  to  their  hinder  feet  and  no 
basket  structure  on  the  external  side  of  the 
tarsi. — Different  species  of  megachile,  antho- 
phora,  and  osmia,  have  been  called  by  Reaumur 
mason  bees,  from  their  constructing  their  nests 
with  sand,  earthy  substances,  and  sometimes 
wood,  cemented  with  a  glutinous  secretion ; 
they  build  in  the  interstices  of  brick  walls,  in 
crevices  in  stones,  and  wherever  they  can  find 
a  suitable  place,  often  amid  the  busiest  throngs 
of  men.  Within  a  wall  of  clay  they  make  from 
one  to  six  chambers,  each  containing  a  mass 
of  pollen  with  an  egg ;  the  cells  are  sometimes 
parallel  and  perpendicular,  at  others  with  vari- 
ous inclinations,  and  are  closed  with  a  paste 


of  earth ;  they  are  thimble-shaped,  and  about 
an  inch  long.  Many  species,  not  larger  than  a 
horse  fly,  have  been  called  mining  bees  (an- 
drenai),  from  their  digging  in  the  ground  tubular 


Mason  Bee  and  Kent 

galleries,  a  little  wider  than  the  diameter  of 
their  bodies ;  they  are  fond  of  clay  banks,  in 
which  their  holes,  of  the  size  of  the  stem  of  a 
tobacco  pipe,  are  frequently  seen ;  they  are  6 
or  8  inches  deep,  smooth  and  circular,  with  a 
thimble-shaped  horizontal  chamber,  almost  at 
right  angles  to  the  entrance,  and  nearly  twice 
as  wide ;  in  this  is  placed  a  single  grub  with 
its  supply  of  pollen. — There  are  several  British 
species  of  solitary  bees  to  which  Reaumur  has 
given  the  name  of  carpenter  bees,  from  their 
working  in  wood  as  the  mason  bees  do  in  earth ; 


Carpenter  Bee  and  Nest. 

they  select  posts  and  the  woodwork  of  houses 
which  have  become  soft  from  commencing  de- 
cay. The  violet-colored  species  (xylocopa  vio- 
lated, Linn.)  makes  her  nest  by  gnawing  out 


BEE 


BEECH 


459 


small  pieces  of  the  wood,  which  she  carries  to 
a  short  distance  and  drops  for  future  use,  re- 
turning by  a  circuitous  route  as  if  to  conceal 
its  location ;  the  direction  of  the  tunnel  is 
ohlique  for  about  an  inch,  a-nd  then  perpendic- 
ular in  the  axis  of  the  wood  for  12  or  15  inches, 
and  half  an  inch  in  breadth ;  sometimes  three 
or  four  such  excavations  are  made.  The  tun- 
nel is  divided  into  cells  somewhat  less  than  an 
inch  deep,  separated  from  each  other  by  par- 
titions made  of  the  chips  and  dust  cemented 
together ;  some  other  species  employ  clay  for 
these  partitions.  At  the  bottom  of  the  cell  is 
placed  an  egg,  and  over  it  a  paste  of  pollen  and 
honey ;  in  this  way  are  completed  10  or  12 
cells,  one  above  the  other,  and  then  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  is  closed  by  a  similar  sawdust 
covering.  As  several  weeks  are  occupied  in 
these  labors,  and  as  the  bee  deposits  her  eggs 
at  considerable  intervals,  it  is  evident  that  the 
first  egg  will  have  become  a  perfect  insect 
before  the  last  egg  has  left  the  grub  state ;  in 
order  to  enable  the  young  to  escape  as  they  are 
hatched,  each  cell  has  a  lateral  opening. — 
Among  the  leaf-cutting  and  upholstering  bees 
may  be  mentioned  the  poppy  bee  (oimia  papa- 
veris,  Latr.),  a  European  species,  one  third  of 
an  inch  long,  of  a  black  color,  with  reddish 
gray  hairs  on  the  head  and  back,  and  the 
abdomen  gray  and  silky.  She  excavates  a  per- 
pendicular hole  in  the  ground,  largest  at  the 
bottom,  which  she  lines  with  the  petals  of  the 
scarlet  poppy  cut  into  oval  pieces,  and  adapted 
with  the  greatest  nicety  and  smoothness ;  the 
hole  is  about  3  inches  deep,  and  the  lining  ex- 
tends externally  on  the  surface ;  filling  it  with 
pollen  and  honey  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch, 
she  deposits  ah  egg,  folds  down  the  scarlet 
tapestry,  and  fills  above  it  with  earth ;  it  is 
rare  to  find  more  than  one  cell  in  an  excava- 
tion. The  rose-leaf  cutter  {megachile  centun- 
cularu,  Latr.)  makes  a  cylindrical  hole  in  the 
hard  earth  of  a  beaten  path,  from  6  to  10  inches 


Kose-Leaf  Cutter  and  Nest  (Megachile  centuncularls). 

deep,  in  which  she  constructs  several  cells 
about  an  inch  deep,  thimble-shaped,  and  made 
with  circular  pieces  of  leaves  neatly  cut  out 
and  folded  together ;  the  rose  leaf  is  preferred, 
but  almost  any  leaf  with  a  serrated  margin,  as 
the  birch  and  mountain  ash,  will  be  taken ;  no 
cement  is  employed,  the  elastic  property  of  the 


leaves  keeping  them  in  place ;  it  takes  9  to  12 
pieces  to  make  a  single  cell,  which,  when  com- 
pleted with  its  contents  of  pollen  and  honey, 
and  single  egg,  is  closed  with  three  pieces  of 
leaf  exactly  circular ;  the  convex  extremity 
of  one  cell  fits  into  the  open  end  of  the  next, 
by  this  means  greatly  increasing  the  strength 
of  the  fabric. 

BEE,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  drained  by  the 
Aransas  and  Mission  rivers  and  their  tributa- 
ries; area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,082,  of 
whom  69  were  colored.  The  soil  is  sandy  and 
poor,  and  little  rain  falls  in  summer.  Stock 
and  sheep  raising  is  the  principal  industry, 
though  some  corn  is  raised.  In  1870  there 
were  260  horses,  78  milch  cows,  8,346  other 
cattle,  1,860  sheep,  and  365  swine.  Capital, 
Beeville. 

BEECH,  a  forest  tree  of  the  genus  fagm  of 
Endlicher's  order  cupuliferte,  Lindley's  coryla- 
ce<e,  Jussieu's  quercinete,  and  of  the  Linntsan 


Beech  Tree  (Fagus  sylvatlco). 

class  mon&cia  polyandria.  The  generic  charac- 
ters of  the  genus  are :  sterile  (male)  flowers — 
ament  globular,  pendulous  on  silky  thread; 
perianth  6-cleft,  bell-shaped ;  5  to  1 2  stamens. 
Fertile  (female)  flowers — 2  within  a  4-lobed 
prickly  involucre ;  perianth  4  to  5-lobed ;  ovary 
3-celled  (2  abortive) ;  styles  3 ;  nut  one-seeded, 
triangular,  enclosed  in  a  cupule  which  com- 
pletely covers  it.  Some  branches  bear  male, 
others  female  flowers.  The  number  of  species 
is  very  limited,  some  being  considered  as  mere 
varieties.  In  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  on  both  continents,  there 
are  extensive  forests  consisting  of  beeches, 
which  also  occur  mixed  with  oaks,  pines,  firs, 
&c.  F.  syfoatica,  the  common  European  white 
beech,  has  the  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  slightly 
toothed,  ciliate  on  the  margin,  acute  at  base ; 
nut  ovate,  3-sided,  obtuse,  pointed.  Of  this 
the  American  is  taken  to  be  a  variety,  growing 
in  Florida  and  other  southern  states.  F.ferru- 
ginea,  or  red  beech,  has  the  leaves  oblong 


460 


BEECH 


ovate,  acuminate,  pubescent  beneath,  coarsely 
toothed,  obtuse,  and  unequally  subcordate  at 
base ;  nut  acutely  3-sided,  muricate ;  most  fre- 
quent in  the  northern  United  States.  F.  obliqua 
and  Dombeyi,  both  having  valuable  wood  and 
a  beautiful  crown ;  F.  procera,  scarcely  less 
towering  in  height  than  the  araucaria ;  and  F. 
pumilia,  a  dwarf  species  growing  above  the 
region  of  trees  on  lofty  mountains,  are  all  na- 
tives of  the  Andes  of  southern  Chili.  Some 
species  grow  in  the  Magellanic  regions,  others 
in  Tasmania  and  the  colder  parts  of  New  Zea- 
land. The  varieties  of  the  European  F,  sylva- 
tica  are:  F.  purpurea,  whose  bright  blood- 
colored  leaves,  when  tossed  by  the  wind  in 
sunshine,  seem  to  be  flames;  F.  cuprea,  with 
copper-colored  shining  leaves ;  F.  asplenifolia, 
with  some  leaves  entire,  and  others  cut  into 
narrow  strips ;  F.  pendula,  or  weeping  beech, 
with  branches  drooping  to  the  ground;  F. 
cristata,  with  ragged  crest-like  leaves;  F.  va- 
riegata,  with  leaves  spotted  with  white ;  F.  la- 
tifolia,  with  chestnut-like  leaves,  &c.  All  these 
are  ornamental  trees. — The  beech  is  easily  pro- 


Beech  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Nut. 

pagated  from  seed,  also  by  grafting,  budding, 
and  in-arching.  It  thrives  in  a  deep  moist  soil 
(on  the  Ohio  some  attain  100  ft.  in  height),  but 
also  succeeds  well  in  rocky  soil,  in  heaps  of 
stones  under  cliifs,  even  in  shaded  situations. 
"When  crowded  by  its  kindred,  or  by  other 
trees,  its  stem  rises  pillar-like  even  to  80  ft.  in 
tmdiminished  thickness,  before  branching  into 
a  tufty  crown,  reminding  one  of  Gothic  halls. 
Standing  alone,  it  sends  forth  branches  at  from 
1 0  to  30  ft.  above  the  root,  at  a  large  angle,  far 
and  wide,  the  lower  ones  almost  horizontal, 
while  the  upper  rise  to  form  a  majestic  crown. 
In  depth  of  shade  it  is  scarcely  equalled  by  any 
other  tree.  Its  light  grayish  or  leaden-green- 
ish, smooth,  shining  bark,  its  rich  green,  shining 
foliage,  which  appears  earlier  than  that  of  the 
oak,  from  long  buds  in  tender  drooping  jets, 
and  which  is  tinted  yellow,  reddish,  and  brown 
in  the  autumn,  remaining  often  through  the 


BEECHER 

winter  on  the  tree,  recommend  it  for  avenues, 
plantations,  and  clumps.  Of  these  there  are 
many  in  Normandy  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
which  abound  in  beech  forests.  The  diameter 
of  the  common  beech  seldom  surpasses  3  ft. 
The  tree  scarcely  bears  fruit  before  the  50th 
year  of  its  age,  and  then  not  every  year.  After 
the  140th  year  the  wood  rings  become  thinner. 
The  tree  lives  for  about  250  years.  Some  stems 
are  fluted,  some  even  twisted.  The  roots  stretch 
far  away,  near  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  partly 
above  it.  Young  beeches  are  useful  for  live 
hedges,  as  they  bear  pruning,  and  as  their 
branches  coalesce  by  being  tied  together,  or 
by  rubbing  each  other.  Amputations  of  limbs 
and  deep  incisions  in  the  tree  soon  become  ob- 
literated by  the  bark,  which  contains  a  peculiar 
periderme.  The  wood  is  yellowish  white  in 
the  common  beech,  brownish  in  the  red ;  very 
hard,  permeated  by  transverse  lighter-colored 
pith  rays  and  shorter  rays,  so  that  the  longitu- 
dinal fibres  are  somewhat  waving.  Its  close 
wood  cells,  with  thick  walls,  att'ord  a  great 
quantity  of  heating  material  and  of  potash,  so 
that  the  wood  ranks  next  to  hickory,  oak,  and 
maple  as  fuel.  It  is  easily  decayed  by  alterna- 
tion of  dryness  and  moisture,  and  is  unfit  for 
many  purposes ;  but  it  is  good  for  cylinders  for 
polishing  glass,  for  plane  stocks,  chair  posts, 
shoe  lasts,  tool  handles,  wheel  felloes,  cart 
bodies,  rollers,  screws,  bowls,  and  even  for 
ship  building  where  no  better  timber  can  be 
obtained.  It  is  incorruptible  when  constantly 
under  water.  The  tree  is  so  rarely  struck  by 
lightning  that  woodmen  and  Indians  consider 
themselves  safe  when  under  its  shelter.  Very 
good  oil  may  be  pressed  from  the  beech  nut, 
almost  equalling  that  of  olives,  and  lasting 
longer  than  any  other  after  proper  purification. 
Wild  animals  feed  on  the  nut,  swine  are  fattened 
on  it,  and  people  eat  it  in  Europe ;  too  freely 
eaten,  it  produces  giddiness  and  nausea.  The 
husks  of  the  nut  contain  fagine,  a  peculiar  nar- 
cotic extractive  principle. 

BEECHER.  I.  l.niian.  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  12, 
1775,  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  10,- 18(58. 
His  ancestor  in  the  fifth  ascent  was  among  the 
earliest  emigrants  to  New  England,  having 
settled  at  New  Haven  in  1638.  His  mother 
dying  shortly  after  his  birth,  he  was  committed 
to  the  care  of  his  uncle  Lot  Benton,  by  whom 
he  was  adopted  as  a  son.  He  entered  Yale 
college,  where,  besides  the  usual  collegiate 
course,  he  studied  theology,  and  graduated  in 
1797.  During  his  collegiate  course  he  had 
given  a  foretaste  of  the  zeal  and  eloquence  for 
which  he  was  afterward  noted.  In  1708  he 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  at  East  Hampton,  near  the  E.  extremity 
of  Long  Island,  and  shortly  afterward  married 
his  first  wife,  Roxana  Foote.  Ills  salary  war 
only  $300,  after  five  years  increased  to  $400, 
besides  the  occupancy  of  a  dilapidated  parson- 
age. To  eke  out  this  scanty  income  his  wife 
opened  a  private  school,  in  which  the  husband 


BEECHER 


461 


gave  instruction.  Mr.  Beecher  soon  became 
one  of  the  foremost  preachers  of  his  day.  A 
sermon  which  he  preached  in  1804,  upon  occa- 
sion of  the  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a 
duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  excited  great  attention. 
Finding  his  salary  wholly  inadequate  to  sup- 
port his  increasing  family,  he  resigned  the 
charge,  and  in  1810  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  Litchfield,  Conn. 
Here  he  remained  for  16  years,  during  which 
he  took  rank  as  the  foremost  clergyman  of  his 
denomination.  The  vice  of  intemperance  had 
become  a  common  one  in  New  England,  even 
the  formal  meetings  of  the  clergy  being  not 
nnfrequently  accompanied  by  gross  excesses. 
Mr.  Beecher  resolved  to  take  a  stand  against  this 
vice,  and  about  1814  preached  and  published 
his  famous  six  sermons  on  intemperance,  which 
contain  passages  the  eloquence  of  which  is 
hardly  exceeded  by  anything  in  the  English 
language.  During  his  residence  at  Litchfield 
arose  the  Unitarian  controversy  in  New  Eng- 
land, in  which  he  took  a  prominent  part. 
Litchfield  was  at  this  time  an  educational  cen- 
tre, being  the  seat  of  a  famous  law  school  and 
of  several  other  institutions  of  learning.  Mr. 
Beecher  (now  a  doctor  of  divinity)  and  his 
wife  undertook  to  supervise  the  training  of  a 
number  of  young  women,  who  were  received 
into  his  family.  Here  too  he  found  in  time  his 
salary,  $800  a  year,  inadequate  to  the  neces- 
sities of  his  large  family.  In  1826  he  received 
a  call  to  become  pastor  of  the  Hanover  street 
church  in  Boston,  where  he  remained  for  six 
years,  which  were  the  most  active  and  labo- 
rious of  his  life.  The  religious  public  had  be- 
come impressed  with  the  growing  importance 
of  the  grea^;  west;  a  theological  seminary 
was  founded  at  Walnut  Hills,  near  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and  named  Lane  seminary,  after  one  of 
its  principal  benefactors.  In  1832  Dr.  Beecher 
accepted  the  presidency  of  this  institution, 
which  he  retained  for  20  years,  being  at  the 
same  time  for  10  years  pastor  of  the  second 
Presbyterian  church  in  Cincinnati.  In  1838, 
during  the  absence  of  Dr.  Beecher,  the  trus- 
tees of  the  seminary  prohibited  the  open  dis- 
cussion of  slavery  by  the  students,  a  large 
majority  of  whom  withdrew.  In  1835  Dr. 
Beecher,  who  has  been  styled  "a  moderate 
Calvinist,"  was  arraigned  before  his  presbytery 
on  charges  of  hypocrisy  and  teaching  false 
doctrine ;  he  was  acquitted,  and  an  appeal  was 
taken  to  the  synod,  which  decided  that  there 
was  no  foundation  for  the  charge.  When  the 
disruption  took  place  in  the  Presbyterian 
church,  he  adhered  to  the  New  School  branch. 
In  1852  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  Lane 
seminary,  and  returned  to  Boston,  proposing 
to  devote  himself  mainly  to  the  revisal  and 
publication  of  his  works,  though  not  unfre- 
quently  preaching,  and  for  a  time  with  much 
of  his  former  eloquence.  But  his  intellectual 
powers  began  to  decline,  while  his  physical 
strength  remained  unabated.  Memory  first 
failed,  then  the  capacity  for  expression.  The 


last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  the  residence  of  his  son  Henry  Ward 
Beecher.  Dr.  Beecher  was  a  man  of  great 
intellectual  power,  though  not  a  profound 
scholar.  His  sermons  were  usually  extempore 
as  fur  as  form  was  concerned,  but  were  care- 
fully thought  out,  often  while  engaged  in 
active  physical  exercise  ;  but  his  writings  were 
elaborated  with  the  utmost  care.  He  had  some 
striking  personal  peculiarities.  He  was  pro- 
verbially absent-minded,  and  after  having  been 
wrought  up  by  the  excitement  of  preaching 
was  accustomed  to  let  himself  down  by  playing 
"Auld  Lang  Syne"  on  the  fiddle,  or  dancing 
the  "  double  shuffle  "  in  his  parlor.  His  auto- 
biography and  life  has  been  prepared  by  some 
of  his  children,  the  autobiographical  part  oc- 
cupying only  a  subordinate  place.  Three  vol- 
umes of  his  collected  works,  revised  by  himself, 
were  published  in  1852.  He  was  three  times 
married,  in  1799,  1817,  and  1836,  and  was 
father  of  13  children,  of  whom  11  are  living 
(1872).  One  died  in  infancy,  and  another, 
George,  a  promising  clergyman,  died  in  1843 
from  the  accidental  discharge  of  his  own  gun. 
Of  the  remainder,  the  following  have  attained 
distinction.  II.  Catherine  Esther,  born  at  East 
Hampton,  Long  Island,  Sept.  6,  1800.  When 
quite  young  she  was  betrothed  to  Prof.  Fisher 
of  Yale  college,  who  perished  by  shipwreck 
off  the  coast  of  Ireland  while  on  a  voyage  to 
Europe,  and  she  has  remained  unmarried.  In 
1822  she  opened  a  school  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
which  she  continued  for  ten  years,  during 
which  she  prepared  some  elementary  books  in 
arithmetic  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 
In  1832  she  accompanied  her  father  to  Cincin- 
nati, where  she  opened  a  female  seminary, 
which  she  was  obliged  to  discontinue  after  two 
years  on  account  of  ill  health.  She  thence- 
forth devoted  herself  to  the  development  of  an 
extended  plan  for  female  education,  physical, 
social,  intellectual,  and  moral.  In  this  she  has 
labored  more  than  30  years,  organizing  so- 
cieties for  training  teachers  and  sending  them 
to  the  new  states  and  territories,  and  for  other 
related  objects,  writing  much  for  periodicals, 
and  publishing  the  following  books:  "Do- 
mestic Service,"  "Duty  of  American  Women 
to  their  Country,"  "Domestic  Receipt  Book," 
"  The  True  Remedy  for  the  Wrongs  of  Woman," 
"  Domestic  Economy,"  "Letters  to  the  People 
on  Health  and  Happiness,"  "Physiology  and 
Calisthenics,"  "  Religious  Training  of  Children," 
"  The  American  Woman's  Home,"  "  Common 
Sense  applied  to  Religion,"  and  "  Appeal  to  the 
People,  as  the  authorized  Interpreters  of  the 
Bible."  Apart  from  the  books  relating  to  her 
special  educational  purpose,  she  has  written 
memoirs  of  her  brother  George  Beecher,  and 
"  Truth  Stranger  than  Fiction,"  an  account  of 
an  infelicitous  domestic  affair  in  which  some  of 
her  friends  were  involved.  III.  Edward,  D.  D., 
born  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  in  1804.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1822,  studied  the- 
ology at  Andover  and  New  Haven,  and  was 


4:62 


BEECHER 


pastor  of  the  Park  street  Congregational  church, 
Boston,  from  1826  to  1831.     In  the  latter  year 
he  was  elected  president  of  Illinois  college, 
Jacksonville,   where    he  remained    till    1844, 
when  he  returned  to  Boston  as  pastor  of  the 
Salem  street  church;   and  since  1856  he  has 
been  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Galesburg,  Illinois.    His  works  are :  "Baptism, 
its  Import  and    Mode"  (New   York,   1850); 
"  The  Conflict  of  Ages  "  (Boston,  1854) ;  "  The 
Papal    Conspiracy"   (New  York,    1855);  and 
"The  Concord  of  Ages  "   (New  York,  1860). 
Few   works  in  speculative  theology  have   at- 
tracted more  attention  than  the  two  on  the 
"Ages."     The  central  idea  presented  in  them 
is  that  man's  present  life   upon  earth  is  the 
outgrowth  of  a  former,  as  well  as  a  prelude  to 
a  future  one ;  that  during  the  ages  a  conflict 
has  been  going  on  between    good   and  evil, 
which  will  not  be  terminated  in  this  life  ;  but 
that  sooner  or  later  all  the  long  conflicts  of 
ages  will  become  harmonized  into  an  everlasting 
concord.     IV.   Henry  Ward,  born  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  June  24,  1813.     He  graduated  at  Am- 
herst  college  in  1834,  and  studied  theology  at 
Lane  seminary.     In  1837  he  became  pastor  of 
a  Presbyterian  church  at  Lawrenceburg,  and  in 
1839  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.     In  1847  he  received 
a  call  from  the  Plymouth  church,  a  new  Con- 
gregationalist  organization  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Here  almost  from  the  outset  he  began  to  ac- 
quire that  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator  which 
has  been  maintained   and  increased  during  a 
quarter  of  a  century.     The  church  and  con- 
gregation under  his  charge  are  probably  the 
largest  in  America.     He  has  always  discarded 
the  mere  conventionalities  of  the  clerical  pro- 
fession.    In  his  view  humor  has  a  place  in  a 
sermon  as  well  as  argument  and  exhortation. 
He  is  fond  of  illustration,  drawing  his  material 
from  every  sphere  of  human  life  and  thought ; 
and  his  manner  is  highly  dramatic.     Though 
his  keen  sense  of  humor  continually  manifests 
itself,  the  prevailing  impression  given  by  his 
discourses  is  one  of  intense  earnestness.      The 
cardinal  idea  of  his  creed  is  that  Christianity 
is  not  a  series  of  philosophical  or  metaphysi- 
cal dogmas,  but  a  rule  of  life  in  every  phase. 
Hence  lie  has  never  hesitated  to  discuss  from  the 
pulpit  the  great  social  and  political  questions  of 
the  day,  such  as  slavery,  intemperance,  licen- 
tiousness, the  lust  for  power,  and  the  greed  for 
gain.  He  is  an  enthusiast  in  music,  a  connoisseur 
in  art,  a  lover  of  flowers  and  animals.     Apart 
from  his  purely  professional  labors,  he  is  a  popu- 
lar lecturer  in  lyceums,  and  orator   at  public 
meetings.   Before  beginning  to  preach  he  edited 
for  a  year  (1836)  a  newspaper,  "The  Cincinnati 
Journal,"  and  while  pastor  at  Indianapolis  an 
agricultural  journal,  his  contributions  to  which 
were    afterward    published   under    the   title, 
"Fruits,  Flowers,  and  Farming."    For  nearly 
20  years  he  was  an  editorial  contributor  to  ' '  The 
Independent,"  a  weekly  journal  published  in 
New  York,  and  from  1861  to  1863  its  editor ; 
his  contributions  to  this  were  signed  with  a  #-, 


and  many  of  them  were  collected   and   pub- 
ished  as.  "The  Star  Papers."      Since  1870  he 
:ias  been   editor  of  "The   Christian   Union," 
a  weekly  newspaper  published  in  New  York. 
!Iis  regular  weekly  sermons,  as  taken  down  by 
stenographers,  have  been-printed  since  1859,  and 
now  (1872)  form  10  volumes  under  the  title  of 
"The   Plymouth   Pulpit."     Besides  these  he 
iias  published    "  Lectures  to  Young    Men  ;  " 
Industry  and  Idleness;"    "Life  Thoughts," 
two  series  edited  by  Edna  Dean  Proctor  and 
Augusta  Moore ;    "  Sermons  on   Liberty   and 
War ;  "  "  The  Plymouth  Collection  of  Hymns 
and  Tunes;"  "Norwood,"  a  novel,  originally 
published    in    the    "New  York   Ledger,"   to 
which  he  is  a  constant  contributor ;  "  Sermons, 
from  Published  and  Unpublished  Discourses " 
(2   vols.,  1870);    "Life   of   Christ"   (2   vols., 
1871-'2);  and  "  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  " 
(1872).    In  1863  he  visited  Great  Britain,  with 
a  special  view  to  disabuse  the  public  in  regard 
to  the  issues  of  our  civil  war.     His  speeches 
exerted  a  wide  influence  in  changing  popular 
sentiment,  which  had  been  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  southern  confederacy.     They  were  pub- 
lished in  London,  but  have  not  been  reprinted 
in  America.    T.  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Stone),  born 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  14,  1812.     During 
several  years  she  was  a  teacher  in  the  school  of 
her  sister  at  Hartford,  Conn.    In  1832  she  went 
with  her  family  to  Cincinnati,  and  in  1836  was 
married  to  Prof.  Calvin  E.  Stowe  of  Lane  sem- 
inary.   In  1849  she  published  "'Mayflower,  or 
Sketches  of  the  Descendants  of  the  Pilgrims," 
several  times  repnblished,  with  additions.     In 
June,  1851,  she  commenced  in  the  "National 
Era,"  an  anti-slavery  newspaper  published  in 
Washington,  a  serial  story,  which  was  continued 
till  the  following  April.     In  1852  this  was  is- 
sued in  two  volumes,  nnder  the  title  of  "  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  and   achieved  an  unparalleled 
success.    In  four  years  there  had  been  printed 
in  the  United  States  313,000  copies,  and  proba- 
bly still  more  in  Great  Britain.    As  early  as  1862 
it  had  been  translated  into  French  (two  or  three 
versions),  German   (13   or  14),   Dutch  (two), 
Danish,  Swedish,  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Italian, 
Welsh  (two),  Russian  (two),  Polish,  Hungarian, 
(three),  Wendish,  Wallachian  (two),  Armenian, 
Arabic,  and  Romaic ;  and  it  is  said  that  there 
are  also  translations  into  the  Chinese  and  Japa- 
nese.    The  truthfulness  of  the  representations 
in  "  Uncle  Tom  "  having  been  questioned,  Mrs. 
Stowe  in   1853   published  a   "Key  to  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,"  presenting  the  "original  facts 
upon  which  the  story  was  founded,  together 
with   corroborative  statements   verifying  the 
truth  of  the  work."    In  1853,  accompanied  by 
her  husband    and  her   brother    Charles,   she 
visited  Europe,  and  gave  the  results  of  their 
observations  in  "  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign 
Lands  "  (1854).     Since  that  time  Mrs.  Stowe 
has  written  much,  mainly  in  periodicals,  the  pa- 
pers being  subsequently  collected  into  volumes. 
Among  these  volumes  are:  "Dred,  a  Tale  of 
the  Great  Dismal  Swamp"  (1856;  republished 


BEECHEY 


BEE-EATER 


463 


in  1866  under  the  title  of  "Nina  Gordon"); 
"The  Minister's  Wooing"  (1859);  "The  Pearl 
of  Orr's  Island  "  ( 18(>2) ;  "  Agnes  of  Sorrento  " 
(1803) :  "  Old  Town  Folks  "  (1869) ;  "  My  Wife 
and  I"  (1872),  and  several  others.  In  1868 
the  countess  Guiccioli  put  forth  her  "  Recollec- 
tions of  Lord  Byron."  Mrs.  Stowe  thereupon, 
in  September,  1869,  published  in  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  a  paper,  "The  True  Story  of  Lady 
Byron's  Life,"  in  which  she  undertook  to  show 
that  Byron  had  formed  an  incestuous  intimacy 
with  his  half-sister,  Mrs.  Leigh.  This  paper 
elicited  much  comment  and  many  replies.  She 
extended  her  magazine  article  into  a  volume, 
"Lady  Byron  Vindicated"  (1869),  in  which 
she  reiterated  her  original  statement,  and  re- 
plied to  the  animadversions  which  it  had  occa- 
sioned. In  1868-'70  she  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  "Hearth  and  Home,"  a  weekly  literary 
journal  of  New  York.  Her  home  is  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  but  she  passes  much  of  her  time  at  her 
winter  residence  in  Mandarin,  Florida.  VI. 
Charles,  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in  1815.  In 
1844  he  was  ordained  as  a  clergyman,  and  be- 
came successively  pastor  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
Georgetown,  Mass.  He  has  written  "The 
Incarnation"  (1849);  "Review  of  the  Spirit- 
ual Manifestations  "  (1853) ;  and  "  Pen  Pictures 
of  the  Bible"  (1855).  He  aided  his  brother, 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  the  compilation  of  the 
"Plymouth  Collection  of  Hymns  and  Tunes," 
was  joint  author  with  his  sister,  Mrs.  Stowe, 
of  the  "Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands," 
and  acted  as  editor  of  the  life  of  his  father, 
Lyman  Beecher.  VII.  Thomas  hriinii-utt,  born 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Feb.  10,  1824.  He  grad- 
uated in  1843  at  Illinois  college,  of  which 
his  brother  Edward  was  president,  and  en- 
gaged in  teaching.  He  afterward  became 
pastor  of  the  New  England  Congregational 
church  in  Williarnsburgh,  now  a  part  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  and  about  1857  removed  to  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  is  now  pastor  of  a  church 
(1872).  He  has  published  a  volume  entitled  ; 
"Our  Seven  Churches  "  (New  York,  1870). 

BEECHEY,  Frederick  William,  an  English  navi- 
gator, born  in  London  in  February,  1796,  died  ! 
there,  Nov.  29,  1856.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir  j 
William  Beechey,  the  painter.  He  entered  the  i 
navy  as  a  volunteer  at  the  age  of  1 0,  and  saw 
a  great  deal  of  service  (including  the  contest 
at  New  Orleans)  during  the  12  years  following, 
and  in  1815  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1818  he 
sailed  in  the  Trent,  under  Franklin,  on  his  first 
voyage  of  arctic  discovery,  acting  as  artist  to 
the  expedition,  and  in  1819  he  was  lieutenant 
of  the  Ilecla  in  Parry's  first  arctic  voyage.  In 
1821  he  was  commissioned  (with  his  brother 
II.  W.  Beechey)  to  make  a  survey  of  the  N. 
coast  of  Africa,  from  Tripoli  to  Derne.  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  sent 
out  in  1825  in  the  Blossom  on  another  arctic 
expedition,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  to  act  in  con- 
cert with  Franklin  and  Parry.  Having  passed 
Behring  strait,  he  reached  in  August,  1826, 
a  point  N.  of  Icy  cape,  and  went  in  boats  to 
82  VOL.  ii.— 30 


lat.  71°  23'  31"  N.  and  Ion.  156°  21'  30"  W.,  only 
146  m.  from  the  extreme  point  simultaneously 
reached  by  Franklin.  As  they  were  not  aware 
of  each  other's  position,  neither  advanced. 
Commander  Beechey  subsequently  discovered, 
in  1827  (in  which  year  he  was  made  post  cap- 
tain), two  secure  harbors  S.  E.  of  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales,  and  near  to  Behring  strait,  which  he 
named  Port  Clarence  and  Grantley  harbor. 
He  returned  to  England  after  an  absence  of 
nearly  three  years.  Between  1829  and  1839  he 
was  employed  in  making  surveys  of  the  coasts 
of  South  America  and  Ireland,  and  in  1854  he 
was  appointed  rear  admiral  of  the  blue. 

BEECHEY,  Sir  William,  an  English  portrait 
painter,  born  at  Burford,  Oxfordshire,  in  De- 
cember, 1753,  died  at  Hampstead,  near  London, 
in  January,  1839.-  He  was  articled  to  a  Lon- 
don attorney,  but  procured  his  release  at  the 
age  of  19,  became  a  student  of  the  royal  acad- 
emy, and  closely  imitated  the  style  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds.  For  some  time  he  confined 
himself  to  portraits,  living  at  Norwich;  but 
having  executed  some  small  pieces  in  the  man- 
ner of  Hogarth,  which  were  very  successful, 
he  returned  to  London,  where  he  obtained 
numerous  commissions  for  full-length  portraits. 
In  1793  he  was  elected  associate  of  the  royal 
academy,  and  appointed  portrait  painter  to 
Queen  Charlotte.  In  1797,  having  painted  a 
good  picture  of  George  III.,  he  was  knighted, 
and  at  the  same  time  made  a  member  of  the 
royal  academy. 

BEE-EATER,  a  bird  of  the  genus  merops,  and 
family  meropidtx.  There  are  26  species  de- 
scribed, inhabiting  most  parts  of  the  old  world, 
and  migrating  from  place  to  place,  according 
to  change  of  season.  In  the  winter  they  seek 
the  warmest  portions  of  the  globe,  and  the  tern- 


Bee-Eater  (Merops  npiaster). 

perate  regions  in  summer,  in  search  of  food, 
which  consists  exclusively  of  insects.  They 
commonly  perch  singly  or  in  small  parties  on  a 


BEE-EATER 


BEE-KEEPING 


prominent  branch,  from  which  they  can  see  all  ' 
around  them.  From  this  they  capture  insects 
on  the  wing,  like  the  swallow,  generally  return- 
ing to  the  same  perch.  At  morning  and  even- 
ing they  often  congregate  in  considerable  num- 
bers. Their  night  is  graceful  and  sustained ; 
their  cry  is  loud,  consisting  of  pleasant,  whis- 
tling notes,  continued  at  morning  and  evening. 
They  rear  their  young  in  horizontal  holes  in 
the  sandy  hanks  of  rivers,  or  in  soft  rocks 
which  they  can  excavate.  The  entrance  is  | 
small,  opening,  at  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet,  into  ; 
a  cavity  in  which  the  parent  can  easily  turn. 
The  eggs  are  from  5  to  7  in  number,  laid  on  the 
bare  ground,  or  on  moss  or  other  soft  material. 
The  common  bee-eater  (merops  apiuster,  Linn.) 
inhabits  the  south  of  Europe,  especially  about 
the  Russian  rivers  Don  and  Volga,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  occasionally 
seen  in  England  and  Sweden.  The  other  species 


Bee  Wolf  (Melittotheres  Nubicus). 

of  the  genus  are  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  the 
Indian  archipelago.  The  common  species  is 
about  10  inches  long ;  the  bill  1-J  inch,  black 
and  pointed ;  eyes  red ;  forehead  bluish  green, 
and  behind  it  green ;  top  of  the  head  chestnut, 
with  a  green  tinge  ;  hind  head  and  upper  part 
of  neck  chestnut,  paler  toward  the  back ;  from 
the  bill  is  a  black  stripe,  passing  through  the 
eye  ;  the  back  and  scapulars  pale  yellow,  tinged  . 
with  chestnut  and  green ;  rump  and  upper  tail 
coverts  blue-green,  with  a  yellowish  tinge; 
throat  yellow ;  under  parts  blue-green,  palest  on 
the  belly ;  lesser  wing  coverts  dull  green ;  quills 
mostly  sea-green  without,  and  many  of  the  in- 
ner rufous— the  first  very  short,  the  second  the 
largest  of  all;  the  tail  wedge-shaped,  of  12 
feathers,  the  shafts  brown  above  and  whitish 
beneath,  the  two  middle  ones  sea-green,  shaded 
with  rufous,  and  the  longest  by  nearly  an  inch ; 
daws  black.  In  Egypt  this  species  is  eaten  as 
food.  The  eggs  are  white.  It  receives  its 
name  from  the  insect  which  is  its  favorite  food, 


Hives  near  the  Ground. 


though  it  feeds  on  most  of  the  winged  insects, 
which  it  takes  as  it  liies. — One  of  the  must 
beautiful  of  the  African  genera  is  the  bee  wolf 
(melittotheres  Nubicw),  a  bird  of  the  most  bril- 
liant plumage.  Its  back  is  of  a  deep  red  color, 
its  under  side  rose  pink.  .  The  head,  throat,  and 
portions  of  the  tail  are  of  a  bluish  green  ;  while 
a  black  stripe  runs  from  the  corner  of  the  beak 
to  the  ear.  The  tips  of  some  of  the  longest 
feathers  are  also  black.  The  eyes  are  red.  the 
feet  brown,  and  the  beak  black.  The  bird  is 
generally  about  13  inches  in  length,  and  its 
breadth  of  wing  is  about  12  inches.  It  inhab- 
its eastern  Africa. 

BEE-KKEPIIVG.  The  apiary  should  be  well 
sheltered  from  strong  winds,  either  naturally 
or  by  building  walls  or  close,  high  fences,  and 
should  face  the  south,  the  east,  or  the  south- 
east, so  as  to  get  the 
sun  during  the  day. 
If  it  is  not  so  shel- 
tered, in  a  high  wind 
the  bees  are  unable 
to  strike  the  hive  and 
are  blown  to  the 
ground,  where  they 
are  chilled  and  die. 
It  should  not  be 
near  large  surfaces 
of  water,  lest  the 
bees,  overcome  by  cold  or  fatigue,  should 
be  forced  to  alight  on  them,  or  be  carried 
down  by  the  wind.  After  a  suitable  place  for 
an  apiary  is  selected, 
the  hives  should  not 
be  moved  over  a  few 
feet ;  for  when  the 
bees  first  fly  out  in 
the  spring  they  mark 
the  location  and  take 
note  of  immediately 
surrounding  objects 
as  guides  for  their 
return.  The  hives 
should  be  placed  in 
a  right  line ;  the  dis- 
tance between  the 
hives  should  not  be 
less  than  two  feet. 
In  some  apiaries 
their  height  from  the 
ground  is  from  one 
to  two  feet,  but  many 
bee-keepers  of  expe- 
rience raise  the  plat- 
form only  two  inches  from  the  earth,  because 
fewer  of  the  fatigued  or  chilled  bees  that  miss 
the  hive  in  returning  and  alight  under  it  are 
lost,  the  flight  of  issuing  swarms  is  lower,  and 
there  is  less  exposure  to  strong  winds.  Grounds 
on  which  there  are  no  large  trees,  but  some 
of  small  size  and  shrubbery,  on  which  the 
swarms  may  alight,  are  preferable.  The  grass 
should  be  mown  frequently  around  the  hives, 
and  the  ground  kept  clean,  to  prevent  too 
much  dampness,  and  to  destroy  the  lurking 


Hives  on  Two-foot  Pedestals. 


BEE-KEEPING 


465 


Chamber  Hive. 


places  of  noxious  insects  and  vermin.  The 
hives  should  be  on 
separate  stands,  to 
prevent  the  bees  from 
running  from  one  hive 
to  another,  and  should 
be  of  different,  not 
glaring  colors,  as 
guides  to  the  bees. — 
The  chamber  hive  is 
made  with  two  apart- 
ments— the  lower  for 
the  residence  of  the 
bees,  the  upper  to 
hold  the  boxes  in  which  the  bees  put  their 
honey  after  having  filled  the  lower  part. 
These  hives  are  sometimes  made  several  inch- 
es narrower  from 
front  to  rear  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the 
top,  to  prevent  the 
comb  from  slipping 
down.  They  are 
also  sometimes  fur- 
nished with  inclined 
bottom  boards  to 
roll  out  the  worms 
that  fall  upon  them, 
or  are  driven  down 
by  the  bees.  To  protect  the  bees  from  ver- 
min, several  kinds  of  suspended  hives  have 
been  contrived  with  inclined  movable  bottom 
boards.  The  dividing  hives  are  made  with 
several  compartments,  so  as  to  multiply  at  the 
will  of  the  bee-keeper  the  number  of  colonies, 
without  the  trouble  and  risk  of  swarming  and 
hiving.  By  means  of  these  hives,  the  partitions 
of  which  are  supposed  to  divide  the  brood 
combs,  a  part  of  the  bees  and  of  the  combs  are 
removed  and  placed  by  themselves  to  go  on 
making  honey,  and  multiplying  in  every  re- 
spect like  a  natural  swarm.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  where  a  swarm  is  divided, 


Tapering  Hives. 


Dividing  Hives. 

in  one  apartment  there  will  be  no  brood  from 
which  to  raise  a  queen. — Several  inventions 
have  been  made  to  enable  the  bee-keeper  to 
change  the  combs  and  get  the  honey  with- 
out driving  out  or  destroying  the  bees.  Change- 
able hives  are  made  in  sections,  generally  three 
drawers  placed  one  above  another,  with  holes 
to  allow  the  bees  to  pass.  When  the  boxes 
are  all  filled,  and  it  is  desired  to  change  the 
combs,  the  upper  box  is  removed,  and  its 
place  supplied  by  a  new  one  put  in  at  the 


bottom.  It  is  held  that  there  is  a  necessity 
for  changing  the  brood  combs,  because  the 
larvie  hatched  from  the  eggs  and  sealed  up  in 
the  cells  there  spin  their  cocoons,  which  re- 


Changeable  Hive. 

main  when  they  go  out,  upon  the  walls  of  the 
cells.  This  deposit,  although  extremely  thin, 
diminishes  the  size  of  the  cell,  affording  less 
room  for  each  succeeding  generation,  thus 
causing  the  bees  to  gradually  deteriorate  in 
size.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  denied  that  de- 
terioration is  caused  in  the  bees  by  the  filling 
up  of  the  brood  cells,  even  if  the  same  combs 
are  hatched  from  12  years,  and  time  and  honey 
are  therefore  needlessly  wasted  by  keeping  the 
bees  constantly  making  new  brood  comb.  It 
is  estimated  by  some  writers  that  in  elaborat- 


Comb. 

ing  a  pound  of  wax  the  bees  will  consume  25 
Ibs.  of  honey,  besides  losing  the  time  when 
they  might  be  laying  up  further  stores.  The 
difficulty  of  putting  the  swarms  into  these 
hives,  and  the  many  lurking  places  they  afford 
to  the  bee  moth,  and  also  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing, in  this  method  of  taking  away  honey, 
that  which  is  good  and  free  from  cocoons  and 
bee  bread,  more  than  counterbalance,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  bee-keepers,  their  advantages. 
— Swarming  hives  are  sometimes  used.  They 
are  made  with  sections,  so  that  by  closing  all 
or  a  part  of  them  the  space  which  the  bees  oc- 
cupy is  lessened,  and  they  are  crowded  out, 
and  their  swarming  hastened.  Non-swarmers 
are  arranged  so  as  to  allow  the  bees  to  go  on 
accumulating  honey  and  increasing  in  number, 
and  in  theory  not  swarm  at  all.  A  hive  of 
bees  is  put  into  a  bee  house,  and  empty  hives 
connected  with  it,  so  that  as  soon  as  one  be- 
comes filled  the  bees  pass  to  the  adjoining  ones. 
In  some  instances  more  surplus  honey  has  been 
obtained  by  this  method ;  but  giving  the  bees 


466 


BEE-KEEPING 


Polish  llhe. 


any  amount  of  room  w'M  not  prevent  t\icir 
*\\- -.inning.  The  result  of  all  the  experiments 
tends  to  show  the  superiority,  for  practical 
purposes,  of  the  simpler  hives.  For  protection 
against  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  sum- 
mer and  winter,  straw  hives  are  excellent. — In 
Poland,  where  finer 
honey  is  produced 
and  bees  are  more 
successfully  man- 
aged than  elsewhere 
in  Europe,  hives  are 
made  by  excavating 
trunks  of  trees,  tak- 
ing logs  a  foot  or 
more  in  diameter  and 
about  9  feet  long. 
They  are-  scooped 
out  or  bored  for  the 
length  of  6  feet  from 
one  end,  forming  hol- 
low cylinders,  the  di- 
ameter of  the  bore 
being  6  or  8  inches. 
A  longitudinal  slit  is 
made  in  the  cylin- 
der nearly  its  whole 
length,  and  about  4 
inches  wide.  Into  this  is  fitted  a  slip  of  wood 
with  notches  on  the  edges  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit a  single  bee.  This  slip  is  fastened  in  with 
wedges  or  hinges ;  if  it  is  in  several  parts,  it  will 
often  be  found  more  convenient.  The  top  is  cov- 
ered, and  the  trunk  set  upright  with  the  open- 
ing toward  the  south.  Through  the  door  the 
condition  of  the  entire  swarm  is  seen,  and  the 
honey  taken  from  time  to  time. — One  of  the 
best  hives  is  made  of  pine  boards  an  inch  thick, 
12  inches  square  inside,  and  14  J  deep.  Instead 
of  a  top,  with  holes  to  allow  the  bees  to  as- 
cend to  the  boxes,  there  should  be  slats  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide  and  an  inch  thick,  half 
an  inch  apart,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  below 
the  top  of  the  hive.  Four  or  five  quarter-inch 
strips  at  equal  distances  across  the  slats  will  be 
even  with  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  on  these  the 
surplus  boxes  can  be  set.  Over  all  should  be  a 
cover  or  cap  14  inches  inside  and  7  inches  high. 
A  hole  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the  front  side,  half 
way  to  the  top,  furnishes  an  entrance  for  the 
bees,  and  additional  entrances  may  be  made 
at  the  bottom  on  the  sides.  If  glass  boxes  are 
used  to  receive  the  honey,  guide  comb  must 
be  placed,  as  bees  will  rarely  build  on  glass 
without  it.  Glass  boxes  are  the  most  profit- 
able, as  they  show  the  honey  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, and  are  sold  by  weight  with  the  ho- 
ney, which  pays  their  cost.  A  separate  cover 
for  each  hive  may  be  easily  made  by  put- 
ting together  two  boards,  letting  them  in- 
cline to  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  roof.  It 
is  necessary  to  guard  against  shading  the 
hives  too  much  in  spring  and  fall,  against  pre- 
venting a  free  circulation  of  air  all  around 
them  in  summer,  and  exposing  them  too  much 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  to  the  sun.  The  bee 


house  should  not,  in  cool  weather,  make  the 
temperature  around  the  hives  much  higher 
than  the  bees  will  encounter  at  a  distance. 
Simple  movable  covers,  which  are  easily  ad- 
justed as  the  season  demands,  with  hives 
made  of  boards  of  sufficient  thickness,  well 
painted  to  prevent  warping  and  cracking,  will 
generally  prove  an  ample  protection,  except  in 
winter,  when  the  hives  must  be  housed,  or 
covered  with  straw  mats.  In  the  movable 
comb  hive  each  comb  is  suspended  in  a  frame 
and  the  top  is  not  fastened,  permitting  combs 
to  be  removed  for  examination  or  for  transfer 
to  other  hives;  drone  comb  may  be  cut  out 
and  working  comb  substituted ;  swarming  for 
the  season,  after  one  swarm  has  issued,  can  be 
stopped  by  cutting  oft'  all  but  one  of  the  queen 
cells;  moth  worms  can  be  detected  and  de- 
stroyed ;  and  the  amount  of  brood  the  colo- 
ny shall  raise  can  be  controlled. — The  new 
swarms  generally  appear  during  the  months  of 
June  and  July,  but  sometimes  as  early  as  May 
or  as  late  as 
August,  and 
in  good  sea- 
sons Italian 
bees  have 
swarmed  at 
intervals  for 
three  months. 
The  swarms 
are  usually 
hived,  when 
the  branch 
or  whatever 
they  alight  on 
can  be  re- 
moved, by 
shaking  them 
oft*  in  front  of 
the  hive,  a  lit- 
tle raised  on 
one  side  to  al- 
low their  pas- 
sage. When  they  collect  where  they  can- 
not be  shaken  off,  and  the  hive  cannot  bo 
placed  near,  they  may  be  brushed  quickly  into 
a  sack  or  basket  and  carried  to  the  hive.  It  is 
irritating  to  the  bees  and  useless  to  endeavor 
to  make  the  swarms  collect  by  a  din  of  horns, 
tin  pans,  and  bells.  They  will  sometimes  col- 
lect on  a  pole  with  a  few  branches,  some  broom 
corn,  dry  mullein  tops,  or  similar  things  fas- 
tened to  the  end  and  held  in  the  air.  They 
may  sometimes  be  arrested  when  going  oft'  by 
throwing  water  or  earth  among  them.  It  is 
very  seldom  that  a  swarm  starts  for  its  chosen 
destination  without  previously  alighting.  If 
two  or  more  swarms  issue  at  the  same  time 
and  unite,  they  may  be  'separated,  if  desired, 
by  shaking  them  from  the  branch  between  two 
or  more  hives  placed  near  together.  Should 
the  queens  enter  the  same  hive,  the  bees  must 
be  shaken  out  between  empty  hives  as  before, 
and  this  operation  repeated  till  the  queens  sep- 
arate, or  the  bee-keeper  is  able  to  catch  one  or 


Swarming  Bees. 


BEE-KEEPING 


467 


more  of  them,  and  put  them  with  the  bees 
where  wanted.  Or  it'  there  are  only  two 
swarms  united,  a  part  may  be  separated  and 
returned  to  the  parent  hives,  and  the  rest  put 
into  one  hive ;  or  they  may  all  be  put  into  one, 
and  boxes  put  on  immediately.  It  is  some- 
times desirable  to  unite  small  swarms;  this 
may  be  easily  done,  if  they  issue  about  the 
same  time,  by  inverting  one  hive  and  placing 
the  other  over  it ;  the  bees  in  the  lower  will 
ascend.  When  it  is  desirable  to  defer  for  a 
short  time  the  issuing  of  a  swarm  which  the 
signs  indicate  to  be  just  at  hand,  the  bees  on 
the  outside  of  the  hive  should  be  sprinkled  : 
with  water.  This  is  effectual  only  before  the  i 
swarm  has  started.  Sometimes  the  swarm  is- 
sues and  returns  several  times;  if  this  is  owing 
to  the  inability  of  the  queen  to  fly,  she  should 
be  found  if  possible,  and  put  with  the  others  ; 
in  the  new  hive.  It  has  been  proved  by  the 
movable  comb  hive  that  the  old  queen,  if  she 
can  fly,  always  leaves  with  the  first  swarm. 
If  the  weather  should  be  such  as  to  prevent  the 
new  swarms  from  going  out  to  collect  honey 
for  several  days  immediately  after  being  hived,  j 
it  may  be  necessary  to  feed  them. — The  general 
use  of  box  and  movable  comb  hives  makes  it 
unnecessary  to  kill  bees  to  get  the  honey.  In 
other  hives  the  bees  may  be  stupefied  with 
chloroform,  sulphur,  or  tobacco  smoke.  The 
comb  when  taken  should  be  cut  off  clean  so 
that  the  honey  may  run  as  little  as  possible 
upon  the  bees.  Polish  apiarians  cut  out  the 
old  comb  annually  to  lessen  the  tendency  to  ' 
swarming,  and  thus  obtain  the  largest  amount 
of  honey.  The  old  practice  of  destroying  the 
bees,  except  those  which  are  intended  for 
wintering,  after  the  hives  have  been  filled  and 
the  honey  season  has  passed,  still  prevails,  and 
La  Grenie  gives  many  reasons  proving  this  to 
be  profitable.  The  time  for  taking  up  hives 
depends  somewhat  on  the  season  and  the  bee 
pasturage.  The  quantity  of  honey  does  not 
increase  generally  after  Sept.  1.  The  bees  are 
suffocated  by  burning  sulphur,  are  buried  to 
prevent  resuscitation,  and  the  honey  removed. 
The  bees  are  sometimes  deprived  of  the  entire 
store  of  comb  and  honey  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season,  generally  after  the  leaving  of  the 
first  swarm,  and  driven  into  a  new  hive. 
When  the  old  hive  is  infested  with  moths, 
or  the  comb  is  not  good,  and  it  is  desirable 
to  winter  the  bees,  this  operation  may  be  ex- 
pedient. It  is  performed  by  inverting  the 
hive,  and  putting  the  other,  into  which  the  ] 
bees  are  to  be  driven,  over  it,  making  the  j 
junction  close,  and  tapping  with  the  hand  or 
a  stick  the  sides  of  the  hive ;  the  bees  will 
pass  up  to  the  new  hive,  which  is  to  be  then 
removed  to  the  stand. — Hives  are  sometimes  i 
attacked  and  robbed,  either  because  they  are 
too  weak  or  other  bees  are  attracted  by  broken 
honeycomb  or  by  food  put  near  the  hive.  To 
protect  it  after  the  robbery  has  commenced, 
the  hive  should  be  removed  to  the  cellar,  or 
some  cool  dark  place,  and  allowed  to  remain 


two  or  three  days.  It  is  sometimes  sufficient 
to  close  the  entrance  to  the  hive  so  as  to  admit 
but  one  bee  at  a  time.  It  is  beneficial  to  put 
a  similar  hive  in  the  place  of  the  one  removed, 
and  rub  o"n  the  bottom  board  wormwood  leaves 
or  the  oil  of  wormwood.  This  is  so  disagree- 
able to  the  bees  that  they  speedily  forsake  the 
place.  Breaking  the  comb  in  the  hive  of  the 
robbers  will  generally  make  them  desist. — 
The  quantity  of  honey  usually  necessary  for 
wintering  safely  a  swarm  of  bees  is  30  pounds ; 
and  it  is  known  that  two  colonies  put  into  one 
hive  will  consume  but  few  more  pounds  than 
one  swarm,  probably  because  of  the  increased 
warmth  in  the  hive.  Those  that  are  found  in 
the  autumn  to  be  weak  in  numbers  and  with  a 
scanty  supply  of  honey  should  be  united  with 
another  weak  colony  to  make  a  new  and 
strong  stock.  Only  the  strong  swarms  are 
profitable  to  winter.  Feeding  should  begin  in 
October,  so  that  the  honey  may  be  sealed  up 
before  cold  weather.  Brown  sugar  made  into 
candy  by  being  dissolved  in  water,  clarified 
and  boiled  to  evaporate  the  water,  is  a  good 
food  for  bees.  The  sirup  should  be  boiled  till 
it  begins  to  be  brittle  when  cooled.  This  or 
common  sugar  candy  may  be  fed  to  bees  in  the 
hives,  under  them,  or  in  the  boxes.  If  fed  in 
the  liquid  state,  it  may  be  introduced  into  the 
hives  in  dishes,  some  contrivance  being  made 
to  enable  the  bees  to  eat  it  without  getting  into 
it.  Honey  is  of  course  the  best  food,  and  mov- 
able combs  may  easily  be  transferred  from 
well  supplied  to  destitute  colonies.  The  ob- 
ject in  feeding  bees  in  spring  is  to  induce 
early  swarming.  Feeding  should  never  be  at- 
tempted as  a  matter  of  profit.  Clover  is  the 
principal  source  of  supply  for  the  bees.  Fruit 
tree,  basswood,  locust,  and  maple  blossoms  yield 
abundantly  and  of  fine  quality ;  buckwheat 
furnishes  a  large  quantity,  excellent  for  the 
winter  food  of  bees,  but  inferior  for  the  table. — 
The  bee  moth  is  the  greatest  foe  the  apiarian 
has  to  contend  with.  The  best  safeguard 
against  this  pest  is  to  have  the  hive  well 
jointed  and  painted,  the  entrances  not  too 
large,  the  bees  vigorous  and  numerous,  and  to 
examine  the  hive  daily  from  about  May  1  till 
September  or  October.  In  the  daytime  the 
moths  remain  in  their  hiding  places,  and  may 
often  be  found  around  the  hive.  They  are  on 
the  wing  in  the  evening,  hovering  around  the 
apiary  or  running  over  the  hives,  endeavoring 
to  enter  and  deposit  their  eggs.  Many  may  be 
destroyed  by  entrapping  them  in  shallow  dishes 
of  sweetened  water  with  a  little  vinegar  added. 
Hollow  sticks,  small  shells,  and  similar  things 
are  often  placed  on  the  bottom  board,  where 
the  worms  hatched  from  the  eggs  may  take 
refuge  and  be  destroyed.  It  is  necessary  to 
look  often  under  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  if 
one  side  is  raised  (as  is  required  for  ventilation 
in  warm  weather),  under  the  blocks  or  shells 
on  which  it  rests.  These  caterpillars  at  first 
are  not  thicker  than  a  thread,  and  are  of  n 
yellowish  white  color  with  a  few  brownish 


468 


BEE-KEEPING 


dots.  They  live  in  the  wax,  eating  it,  and  fill- 
ing the  comb  with  webs.  They  protect  them- 
selves  from  the  bees  by  a  sort  of  silken  sack, 
which  they  spin,  and  in  which  they  lodge. 
\Vhen  they  have  attained  their  full  size,  which  1 
requires  about  three  weeks,  they  spin  their  | 
cocoons ;  in  these  they  remain  enclosed  some  i 
time,  and  change  to  chrysalids  of  a  light  brown  , 
color,  with  a  dark  elevated  line  along  the  j 
back.  A  few  days  afterward  they  are  trans- 
formed to  winged  moths  and  issue  from  the  co-  , 
coons.  Rats  and  mice  do  not  attack  the  hives  : 
except  in  winter,  unless  the  comb  is  unprotect- 
ed by  bees.  Spiders  sometimes  spin  their  webs 
upon  and  around  the  hives.  There  is  a  dis- 
ease called  foul  brood,  which  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  young  bees  in  the  larva  state ;  they 
die  in  the  cells,  and  become  black  and  putrid. 
The  disease  appears  to  be  in  a  measure  infec- 
tious. The  only  remedy  is  to  drive  out  the 
bees  into  a  new  clean  hive.  It  is  the  practice 
in  some  parts  of  Germany  to  put  the  bees  into  a 
temporary  hive,  and  let  them  remain  24  hours, 
without  food,  in  the  dark,  before  settling  them 
in  the  new  hive.  The  disease  is  attributed 
sometimes  to  feeding  the  bees  with  foreign 
honey;  the  infection  being  conveyed  by  the 
honey,  which,  to  be  safely  fed,  should  be  previ- 
ously scalded. — In  wintering  bees  it  is  necessary 
to  protect  them  especially  from  freezing  and 
starving.  The  latter  happens  when  they  col- 
lect together  closely,  in  the  coldest  weather, 
and  the  comb  becomes  covered  with  frost  and 
ice,  excluding  them  from  the  honey.  This  is 
obviated  by  putting  straw  in  the  cover,  after  the 
removal  of  the  boxes,  to  collect  the  moisture. 
The  entrance  to  the  hive  is  liable  to  be  stopped 
with  ice,  and  the  bees  thus  suffocated.  The 
bee  never  passes  into  the  actually  torpid  state 
in  winter,  like  some  other  insects.  It  re- 
quires less  food  when  kept  warm  and  com- 
fortable. If  the  hives  are  to  be  carried  into  a 
house  or  cellar,  the  place  for  them  should  be 
cool,  dry,  and  dark.  The  best  method  is  to 
house  them,  unless  sufficient  protection  can  be 
given  them  on  the  stands.  Russian  and  Polish 
bee-keepers  winter  their  hives  on  the  stands ; 
hut  they  make  them  of  inch  and  a  half  plank, 
and  wind  the  upper  part  with  twisted  straw  or 
cordage.  If  left  on  the  stands,  hives  made  of 
common  boards  need  additional  covering ;  the 
entrance  should  also  be  narrowed  so  as  to 
leave  only  space  enough  for  a  single  bee  to 
pass.  Light  snow  may  cover  the  hive  with- 
out danger. — The  time  for  carrying  bees  out 
from  their  winter  quarters  is  in  March,  except 
in  very  backward  seasons.  A  few  bright  cold 
days  will  riot  be  more  destructive  to  them  than 
too  long  confinement.  If  new  snow  has  fallen, 
and  the  weather  is  not  sufficiently  warm  for 
them  to  venture  into  the  air  safely,  the 
hive  may  bo  shaded  from  the  sun,  or  the 
bees  confined  in  the  hive.  If  they  are  to 
stand  very  near  each  other,  it  is  not  well  to 
carry  out  too  many  hives  at  once,  the  bees  at 
first  not  readily  distinguishing  their  own.  The 


hives  should  be  raised  from  the  bottom  board 
only  on  one  side,  if  at  all.  Many  prefer,  if  the 
bees  are  not  especially  numerous,  to  let  the 
hive  rest  entirely  on  the  board,  allowing  less 
room  for  passage,  and  securing  greater  defence 
against  intruders.  More  ventilation  than  this 
affords  may  be  required  in  warm  weather, 
when,  if  liable  to  suffer  from  heat,  the  hive 
may  be  raised  entirely,  proper  means  being 
furnished  for  the  bees  to  ascend  from  the  bot- 
tom board. — European  apiarians  have  devised 
means  for  weighing  hives  so  as  to  show  the  in- 

j  crease  in  the  weight  of  honey  from  day  to  day ; 
but  the  use  of  glass  boxes  and  movable  frames 

}  for  combs  permits  inspection  of  the  progress  of 
the  work  at  any  time  and  renders  weighing  un- 
necessary.— Bee-keeping  has  in  some  instances- 
been  made  very  profitable.  It  is,  however,  un- 
certain. Much  depends  on  the  season  and  on 
the  pasturage.  Mr.  M.  Quimby,  in  "  Mysteries 
of  Bee-Keeping  Explained"  (New  York,  1865), 
says  that  an  area  of  a  few  square  miles  in  the 
vicinity  of  St.  Johnsville,  N.  Y.,  in  some  favor- 
able seasons  has  furnished  for  market  more  than 
20,000  Ibs.  of  surplus  honey ;  and  it  is  estimated 
that  in  good  localities  every  acre  in  the  country 
would  yield  a  pound.  A  single  colony  has  been 
known  to  give  a  profit  of  $85  in  a  season ;  90 
stocks  have  given  $900  profit ;  and  a  New  York 
apiarian  reports  for  130  hives  $1,800  profit  in  a 
single  season.  Owing  to  the  difference  in  the 
seasons,  it  is  impossible  to  know  how  many 
stocks  can  be  kept  in  given  localities  in  Tin.- 
United  States.  One  of  the  provinces  in  Hol- 
land has  an  average  of  2,000  hives  to  the  square 
mile.  In  an  area  of  45  square  miles  in  Attica, 
Greece,  it  was  estimated  in  1865  that  there- 
were  20,000  hives.  In  all  ages  the  abundance 
of  flowers  in  Attica  has  made  Hymettus  famous 
for  its  honey;  and  as  long  ago  as  1681,  when 
Sir  George  Wheler  visited  the  monks  of  Men- 
deli,  a  monastery  of  Pentelicus,  they  had  5,000 
hives. — In  1860  a  few  colonies  of  the  Italian  or 
Ligurian  bee  (op-is  ligvstica),  which  had  long 
been  a  favorite  with  European  apiarians,  were 
imported  into  the  United  States,  where  they 
are  now  among  the  most  popular,  prolific,  and 
profitable  bees  kept  in  the  country.  Their  su- 
periority over  the  native  bee  appears  in  their 
larger  size  and  greater  beauty ;  they  are  more 
prolific,  longer-lived,  more  industrious,  less  sen- 
sitive to  cold,  and  they  swarm  earlier  and  more 
frequently,  and  continue  later  than  common 
bees.  The  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  author  of  a 
well-known  "Practical  Treatise  on  the  Hive 
and  the  Honey  Bee,"  says  his  Italian  colonies 
gathered  more  than  twice  as  much  honey  as  the 
swarms  of  the  common  bee ;  and  Mr.  Quimby,  a 
practical  bee-keeper  of  many  years'  experience, 
says  he  has  not  received  a  single  unfavorable 
report  of  them.  They  are  said  to  be  a  valuable 
acquisition  to  localities  of  high  altitude,  and  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  climate  of  Washing- 
ton, Oregon,  and  the  mountainous  regions  of 
California.  The  introduction  of  these  bees  into 

j  the  United  States  has  led  to  the  Italianizing  of 


BEELZEBUB 


BEER 


469 


whole  apiaries,  and  to  the  production  of  nu- 
merous and  superior  hybrids,  sometimes  by  de- 
sign and  again  by  the  proximity  of  Italian  and 
native  swarms,  though  apiarians  consider  puri- 
ty in  swarms  desirable. 

"  BEELZEBUB,  or  Beelzebnl,  a  heathen  deity,  to 
whom  the  Jews  in  the  times  of  the  apostles 
ascribed  the  sovereignty  over  evil  spirits.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Baalzebub, 
fly  god,  of  the  Ekronites  (see  BAAL),  the  final 
b  being  in  later  times  changed  to  I  in  pronounc- 
ing the  word.  Others  find  in  the  last  element 
the  Hebrew  word  zebul,  "  habitation,"  and  con- 
sider Beelzebul  to  mean  "  lord  of  the  house ;  " 
others  refer  it  to  the  Heb.  zebel,  "dung,"  and 
render  the  name  "dung  god."  Hug  ingenious- 
ly suggests  that  the  form  under  which  the 
Philistine  deity  was  worshipped  was  that  of 
the  scarabaiua  pillvlariiu,  the  dunghill  beetle, 
in  which  case  Baal-zebub  or  Beelzebul  would 
be  equally  appropriate.  The  name  appears 
nowhere  in  the  rabbinical  writers. 

BEEJISTER,  the  largest  of  the  polders  or 
tracts  of  drained  land  of  the  Netherlands, 
about  12  m.  N.  of  Amsterdam;  area,  8,000 
acres.  The  district  contains  a  neat  village  of 
about  2,600  inhabitants,  chiefly  employed  in 
raising  sheep  and  cattle. 

BEER  (Ger.  Bier),  a  fermented  liquor  made 
from  malted  grain,  in  Europe  most  commonly 
from  barley,  but  in  this  country  from  wheat  as 
well,  and  in  India  from  rice.  Corn,  oats,  peas, 
and  similar  articles  of  food  may  also  be  used 
for  its  manufacture.  Hops  and  other  bitter 
substances  are  added  to  improve  the  flavor, 
and  to  impart  their  peculiar  properties  to  the 
liquor.  The  name  beer  is  also  given  in  this 
country  and  in  Britain  to  several  partially 
fermented  extracts  of  the  roots  and  other 
parts  of  plants,  as  spruce,  sassafras,  ginger, 
&c.,  most  of  which  are  designated  by  the 
term  root  beer ;  but  as  generally  used  in  Eu- 
rope, it  is  applicable  only  to  liquors  prepared 
by  malting,  and  seasoned  with  hops  or  other 
bitters.  The  drink  in  some  of  its  varieties  ap- 
pears to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  proba- 
bly discovered  by  the  Egyptians.  Tacitus  no- 
tices it  as  being  in  common  use  with  the  Ger- 
mans of  his  time.  Pliny  describes  the  celia 
and  ceria,  the  beer  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
cerevisia  of  the  Gauls,  made  from  almost  every 
species  of  grain,  and  evidently  named  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  corn.  Aristotle  speaks 
of  its  intoxicating  qualities,  and  Theophrastus 
very  properly  calls  it  the  wine  of  barley. 
Herodotus  (450  years  B.  0.)  stated  that  the 
Egyptians  made  their  wine  of  barley.  An  an- 
cient description  by  Isidorus  and  Orosius  of  the 
process  in  use  by  the  Britons  and  Celtic  nations 
defines  the  liquor  as  not  ditt'ering  essentially 
from  that  now  made.  "The  grain  is  steeped 
in  water  and  made  to  germinate,  by  which 
its  spirits  are  excited  and  set  at  liberty ;  it 
is  then  dried  and  ground,  after  which  it  is  in- 
fused in  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  which,  be- 
ing fermented,  be'-onies  a  pleasant,  warming, 


strengthening,  and  intoxicating  liquor."  Beet 
is  a  nourishing  drink  from  the  gum,  sugar, 
and  starch  it  holds  in  solution ;  and  the 
bitter  substances  combined  with  it  impart 
their  tonic  properties.  The  proportion  of  alco- 
hol is  small.  In  the  Edinburgh  ale  it  has  been 
found  by  Mr.  Brande  to  amount  to  6'20  per 
cent. ;  in  brown  stout,  to  6-80 ;  Burton  ale, 
8-88;  London  porter,  4'20 ;  small  beer,  1-28. 
Burton,  or  the  pale  India  ale,  as  found  by  Hott- 
mann,  contains,  in  100  parts :  water,  78'37 ;  ex- 
tract of  malt,  14-97;  absolute  alcohol,  6'62 ; 
and  carbonic  acid,  0'04.  Pale  ale  consists  of 
the  same  ingredients,  in  the  following  propor- 
tions :  water,  89'74 ;  extract  of  malt,  4'62 ; 
alcohol,  5-57 ;  carbonic  acid,  0'07.  Lactic 
acid,  aromatic  matters,  and  various  salts  are 
detected  in  the  extract. — Although  the  term 
beer  is  generally  applied,  as  above  stated,  to 
all  kinds  of  fermented  liquors  made  from  malt, 
a  distinction  is  made  between  the  heavier  and 
lighter  kinds.  The  more  spirituous  liquor, 
made  in  England  and  in  this  country,  is  com- 
monly called  ale,  the  name  given  to  it  before 
the  use  of  hops  (Anglo-Saxon,  eala).  Upon 
the  introduction  of  hops  into  England  the  word 
beer  {Bier)  was  also  imported,  and  was  used  to 
distinguish  the  liquor  made  with  hops  from  the 
more  ancient  beverage.  A  distinction  is  made  by 
the  German  brewers  between  ale  and  beer  on 
account  of  the  two  diiferent  modes  of  fermen- 
tation which  are  employed  ;  ale  being  produc- 
ed by  rapid  fermentation,  in  which  the  yeast 
rises  to  the  surface  (Obergahrung),  while  beer 
is  fermented  in  cool  cellars  by  a  slow  process 
in  which  the  yeast  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessels  (Untergahrung).  The  latter  is  the  Ba- 
varian method,  which  is  employed  in  brewing 
Lagerbier,  Schenkbier,  &c.  The  term  lager- 
bier  is  indiscriminately  applied  in  this  country 
to  the  light  kinds  of  beer  which  are  prepared 
by  the  slow  process  of  fermentation.  Much 
of  this  beverage,  however,  is  not  genuine  lager- 
bier,  for  it  has  not  lain  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  in  the  cellar  to  acquire  that  title ;  nor 
could  it  have  been  preserved  in  casks  during 
the  time  in  which  lagerbier  is  ripening.  It  is 
more  technically  termed,  and  is  knowfl  by 
the  brewers  as  Schenlcbier  (schenken,  to  pour, 
to  retail  drinks),  i.  e.,  draught  beer,  or  beer 
ready  to  be  drawn.  It  contains  less  alcohol 
than  genuine  lager,  and  less  than  the  various 
kinds  of  beer  which  are  brewed  in  Bavaria, 
and  corresponds  to  what  is  known  in  this  coun- 
try as  "  present  use  ale,"  or  the  new  ale  com- 
monly kept  in  the  ale  houses.  It  occupies 
much  less  time  in  fermenting,  and  has  not  the 
keeping  properties  of  German  lager,  or  of  the 
various  kinds  of  Bavarian  beer.  To  Germany 
we  owe  not  only  the  general  introduction  of 
beer,  but  also  most  of  the  improvements  which 
have  been  made  in  its  manufacture.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  beer  brewed  in  Bavaria, 
and  also  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  which 
receive  particular  names,  as  Bock,  Heiliger 
Vater,  Augustine  double,  and  Salvator,  of  Mu- 


470 


BEER 


nich  ;  brown  beer  of  Merseburg ;  Berlin  white 
beer,  or  champagne  of  the  north ;  Broyhan,  a 
famous  Hanoverian  beer ;  double  beer  of  Griin- 
thal  ;  and  white  bitter  beer  of  Erlangen,  Lich- 
tenhain,  and  Upper  Weimar.  All  these  possess 
various  excellences,  particularly  the  Bavarian 
beers,  most  of  which  are  due  to  the  peculiar 
mode  of  fermentation.  Usually,  what  is  called 
ale  contains  a  smaller  quantity  of  hops  than 
beer,  although  the  term  bitter  beer  is  often  ap- 
plied to  the  East  India  pale  ale,  which,  besides 
being  very  heavy,  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  hops. — Porter  was  first  made  in  England  in 
1730.  Previous  to  that  time  the  malt  liquors 
in  London  were  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny.  It 
was  customary  to  call  for  half  and  half,  or  for 
three  threads.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  draw- 
ing from  two  or  three  casks,  a  brewer  named 
Harwood  produced  a  beverage  which  was  in- 
tended to  embrace  the  qualities  of  the  three 
liquors.  It  was  called  entire,  or  the  entire 
butt;  and  being  a  strong,  nourishing  drink, 
suitable  for  laboring  men  and  porters,  it  re- 
ceived at  last  the  name  of  porter.  It  is  made 
from  malt,  a  portion  of  which  has  been  to  a 
certain  degree  roasted  ;  consequently  it  has  a 
deeper  color  than  the  other  kinds. — The  fol- 
lowing table,  from  Watts's  "  Dictionary  of 
Chemistry,"  exhibits  analyses  of  some  cele- 
brated European  beers,  by  Kaiser,  Hoffmann, 
Otto,  and  others : 


NAME  OF  BEER. 

Milt 

Eit. 

Alcohol 

Cub. 
Add. 

W.tCT. 

6-0 

6-4 

0-18 

88-44 

145 

6-9 

79-08 

10-9 

8-B 

0-15 

80-45 

8-4 

5-5 

0-20 

90-90 

9-4 

4-6 

0-18 

85-85 

9-2 

4-2 

0-17 

86-49 

Bavarian  draught  (Scheflk)  .  .  . 
Bavarian.  16  months  old  

5-8 
5-0 
6-9 

8-8 
5-1 
2-4 

0-14 
015 

90-26 
89-75 
90-70 

Prague  Stadtbier  

10-9 
14-0 

8-9 

1-4 

.... 

86-20 
84-60 

2-6 

2-6 

0-60 

94-80 

Werder's  brown  beer,  Berlin  .  . 
Berlin  Weissbier 

8-1 

5-7 

2-8 

1-9 

0-80 
0-60 

94-20 
91-80 

Biere  blanche  de  Louvain  
Brunswick  mum  .  .  . 

8-0 

45-0 

4-0 
1-9 

98-00 
58-10 

— The  amount  of  fermented  liquors  brewed  in 
the  United  States  during  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1871,  according  to  Mr.  Louis  Schade,  a 
statistician,  was  7,159,740  bbls.  Of  this 
amount  New  York  produced  2,305,145 ;  Penn- 
sylvania, 918,986;  Ohio,  656,896;  Massachu- 
setts, 525,731;  New  Jersey,  514,189;  and 
North  Carolina,  51  bbls.  The  total  brewers' 
tax  in  1871  was  $7,387,501.  The  number  of 
breweries  in  the  United  States  in  1870  was 
2,862.  Of  the  ale  brewers,  only  one  brewed 
over  100,000  bbls.  Four  breweries  produced 
over  70,000  bbls.  each.  One  lagerbier  brewery 
produced  over  40,000  bbls.  The  number  of 
breweries  in  England  in  1870  was  2,671.  The 
ale  and  beer  brewed  amounted  to  50,724,086 
bbls.,  the  duty  upon  which  was  £6,878,102. 
Allsop  and  Sons  employ  1,300  persons  in  Bur- 
ton, of  whom  100  are  clerks.  Their  two 


BEEK-SHEBA 

breweries  are  capable  of  producing  16,000  bbls. 

1  of  ale  per  week.  The  new  brewery  covers  40 
acres,  and  the  ground  is  traversed  by  12  miles 
of  rail.  In  Austria  and  Hungary,  in  1871, 
there  were  2,699  breweries,  which  produced 
in  Austria  7,918,433  bbls.,  and  in  Hungary 
630,938  bbls.  of  beer,  of  which  there  were  ex- 
ported 126,336  bbls.  The  German  states,  ex- 
cluding Bavaria,  Wilrtemberg,  and  Baden,  pro- 
duced from  January  to  May,  1872,  four  months. 
3,733,769  bbls.  of  beer,  and  during  the  same 
time  there  were  exported  2,576  bbls.  Bavaria 
produced  in  1871  about  4,285,000  bbls. 

i;i:i  li.  I.  U illiHm,  a  German  astronomer,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  the  brother  of  Meyerbeer, 
the  great  composer,  born  in  Berlin,  Feb.  4, 
1797,  died  March  27,  1850.  His  regular  pro- 
fession was  that  of  a  banker,  but  he  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  his  favorite  study  of 
astronomy,  working  in  conjunction  with  Mad- 

i  ler.  Beer  built  an  observatory  in  the  Thier- 
garten  at  Berlin,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  ob- 
servation of  the  planet  Mars  and  the  moon. 
The  crowning  labor  of  the  two  astronomers 
was  a  map  of  the  moon  published  in  1836, 
upon  which  the  Lalande  prize  was  conferred 
by  the  French  academy.  In  1849  Beer  became 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  diet.  II.  Michael,  a 
dramatist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Berlin  in  1800,  died  in  Munich,  March  22, 
1833.  He  became  known  in  literature  by  five 
tragedies,  of  which  his  Struensee  is  the  best. 
His  complete  works  were  published  at  Leipsic 
in  1835,  and  his  "  Correspondence "  in  1837. 
(See  MEYERBEER.) 

BEER-SHEBA  (Heb.  Beer  SheW,  well  of 
swearing  or  well  of  seven),  an  ancient  town 
on  the  southern  border  of  Palestine,  38  m.  8. 
S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  of  which  only  the  ruins 
are  now  visible.  It  took  its  name  from  one  of 

;  two  wells  still  existing  near  the  site.     Accm-d- 

( ing  to  one  Biblical  account  (Gen.  xxi.)  the  more 
ancient  one  was  dug  by  Abraham  and  received 
the  name  from  the  fact  that  he  and  Abime- 
lech,  king  of  the  Philistines,  "swore  there"  a 
covenant,  and  ratified  it  by  the  setting  apart 
of  "  seven "  ewe  lambs.  Another  account 
(Gen.  xxvi.)  conveys  the  impression  that  Isaac 
instead  of  Abraham  was  the  digger  of  the  well. 
Of  the  two  principal  wells  at  Beer-sheba,  the 
larger  one  is  12£  ft.  in  diameter  and  about  44 
ft.  deep  to  the  surface  of  the  water ;  the  other, 
100  yards  further  W.,  is  5  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
has  about  the  same  depth.  Both  are  surround- 
ed by  masonry,  the  inner  edge  of  which,  as  in 
other  wells  of  the  country,  is  worn  into  deep 
grooves  by  the  friction  of  the  ropes  used  in 
drawing  up  water.  These  two  wells  lie  near 
the  N.  bank  of  the  Wady  es-Seba,  and  a  short 
distance  from  them  is  a  group  of  five  smaller 
ones.  The  ruins  of  the  town,  on  the  slight 
elevation  near  these,  are  unimportant  as  guides 
to  its  history.  It  has  been  Kttle  visited  by 
strangers,  partly  owing  to  its  distance  from 
other  places  of  historical  interest,  and  partly 
because  of  the  insecurity  of  travel  in  that  part 


BEET 


471 


of  the  country.     A  wilderness,  still  known  as  ! 
the  desert  of  Beer-sheba,  stretches  to  the  south- 
ward.    The  Scriptural  passages  in  which  Beer-  ; 
sheba  is  mentioned  are  very  numerous ;  and  the 
position  of  the  town  in  the  extreme  south  of 
the  country  gave  rise  to  the  phrase  "  from  Dan 
to  Beer-sheba,"  as  a  means  of  designating  the 
whole  land  of  the  Jews,  Dan  being  on  the  X. 
border. 

BEET,  a  plant  of  the  genus  beta,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  chenopodea,  among  which 
it  is  known  by  its  large  succulent  roots  and  a 
green  calyx  united  half  way  to  a  hard  rugged 
nut.  The  species  are  found  in  Europe,  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  the  western  parts  of  Asia.  Four 
species  of  this  genus  are  cultivated  as  esculents; 
the  others  are  mere  weeds.  The  common  beet 
(S.  vulgaris)  is  found  in  a  wild  state  in  Egypt 
and  along  the  whole  of  the  seacoast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  There  are  several  varieties,  dif- 
fering in  the  form,  size,  color,  and  sweet-  j 
ness  of  their  roots.  Those  of  a  deep  red  color 
are  called  blood  beets.  The  "small  red"  and 


Long  Blood  Beet. 

the  "long  yellow"  are  the  most  sweet  and 
delicate,  and  have  the  richest  color  when 
served  at  table.  Beet  roots  can  only  be  ob- 
tained in  perfection  in  a  rich,  light,  sandy  soil, 
through  which  they  can  easily  penetrate.  In 
stony  or  stiff  soils  the  roots  become  parched 
and  lose  their  succulence.  Mangel-wurzel 
(B.  altistima)  is  a  much  larger  and  coarser 
plant  than  the  common  beet,  from  which  it 
differs  by  its  roots  being  marked  internally 
with  zones  of  red  and  pink  or  white.  Its  na- 
tive country  is  unknown.  It  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Europe  for  feeding  cattle;  its 
leaves  afford  a  very  nutritious  food  for  all 
kinds  of  live  stock,  and  its  roots,  from  their 
exceeding  sweetness,  are  considered  one  of  the 
most  valuable  plants  on  which  cattle  can  be 
fed  in  winter.  Swedish  turnips,  or  ruta  baga, 
exceed  them  in  the  quantity  of  nourishment, 
weight  for  weight;  but  on  good  light  soils  the 


produce  of  the  beet  per  acre  is  much  greater. 
The  following  proportional  values  are  given  by 
Einhof  and  Thaer:  18  tons  of  mangel-wurzel 
are  equal  to  15  tons  of  Swedish  turnips,  or  7i 
tons  of  potatoes,  or  3J  tons  of  good  Englisn 
hay,  each  quantity  containing  the  same  amount 
of  nourishment;  but  the  roots  may  be  grown 
upon  less  than  an  acre  of  ground,  while  two  or 
three  acres  of  good  grass  land  are  required  to 
produce  the  equivalent  amount  of  hay.  The 
beet  root  is  also  deemed  the  least  exhausting 
to  the  land. — The  white  beet  has  been  chiefly 
cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  sugar 
from  its  juice.  It  is  smaller  than  the  man- 
gel-wurzel and  more  compact.  The  manufac- 
ture of  sugar  from  beet  root  was  first  com- 
menced in  France  in  consequence  of  the  em- 
peror Napoleon's  scheme  for  excluding  British 
colonial  produce.  The  process  has  since  been 
much  improved,  and  beet-root  sugar  now  com- 
petes on  nearly  equal  terms  with  colonial  or 
cane  sugar,  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Most 
of  the  operations  in  manufacturing  beet-root 
sugar  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  by  which 
the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  is  prepared  for  use ; 
but  much  greater  skill  and  nicety  are  required 
in  rendering  the  juice  of  the  beet  root  crystal- 
lizable,  owing  to  its  greater  rawness  and  the 
smaller  relative  proportion  of  sugar  it  contains. 
When  beet-root  sugar  is  refined,  however,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
other,  either  by  the  taste  or  the  appearance. 
Five  tons  of  clean  roots  produce  about  4J  cwt. 
of  coarse  sugar,  which  gives  about  160  Ibs. 
of  double-refined  sugar  and  60  Ibs.  of  infe- 
rior lump  sugar;  the  rest  is  molasses,  from 
which  spirits  are  distilled. — The  chard  beet  (B. 
cycla),  inferior  in  the  size  of  its  roots,  is  re- 
markable for  the  thickness  of  the  ribs  of  its 
leaves,  which  are  white,  yellow,  green,  orange- 
colored,  or  deep  crimson,  in  different  varieties. 
It  is  cultivated  like  the  common  beet  in  gar- 
dens, and  forms  one  of  the  principal  vegetables 
used  by  agricultural  laborers  and  small  oc- 
cupiers of  land  in  many  parts  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  Swiss  chard  pro- 
duces numerous  large  succulent  leaves,  with  a 


Chard  Beet. 


very  solid  rib  running  along  the  middle.  The 
leafy  part  stripped  off  and  boiled  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  greens  and  spinach ;  the  rib  and 
stalk  are  dressed  like  asparagus  or  scorzenera. 


±1-2 


BEETHOVEN 


They  have   a  pleasant  sweet    taste,  and   are  | 
deemed  hy  some  persons  more  wholesome  than 
the  cabbage  tribe;  but  in  other  varieties  they 
have  an  earthy  taste  which  is  unpleasant. — Sea  j 
beet  (B.  maritima)  is  a  perennial,  and  one  of  ' 
the  most  valuable  plants  known  for  greens.    It  | 
thrives  in  gardens  without  any  sort  of  care,  j 
and  is  increased  by  seeds,  which  it  yields  in 
great  abundance. 

BEETHOVEN.  I.  Lndwlg  Tan,  a  musician, 
probably  a  native  of  Maastricht  in  Holland, 
died  in  Bonn,  Dec.  24,  1773.  He  was  a  bass 
singer  of-  considerable  reputation  in  the  elec- 
toral chapel  at  Bonn,  and  in  opera.  About 
1761  he  was  made  kapellmeister  by  the  elector 
Maximilian  Frederick,  and  seems  to  have  held 
that  office  until  the  appointment  of  Lucchesi 
in  1771.  He  composed  several  operas,  none  I 
of  which  are  now  preserved.  II.  Lndwig  Tan, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  musical  composers,  son  ' 
of  Johann  van  Beethoven,  a  tenor  singer  in  the 
electoral  chapel  at  Bonn,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Bonn,  Dec.  16  or  17,  1770, 
died  in  Vienna,  March  26, 1827.  Before  he  was 
4  years  old  he  was  placed  at  the  harpsichord, 
and  forced  unrelentingly  to  perform  his  daily 
task  of  exercises.  He  soon  required  hetter  in- 
struction than  his  father  could  give,  and  be- 
came successively  the  pupil  of  Pfeiffer,  oboist 
in  the  chapel,  and  of  Van  der  Eder,  court  or- 
ganist. In  1781  Van  der  Eder  was  succeeded 
by  0.  G.  Neefe,  and  the  pupil  was  transferred 
to  him.  In  a  musical  periodical  of  that  day  it 
is  said  that  at  the  age  of  11  years  he  played 
nearly  all  of  Sebastian  Bach's  Wohltemperirtes 
Kla/vwr,  and  that  Neefe  had  caused  nine  vari- 
ations by  him  upon  a  march  to  be  engraved. 
Besides  these  variations,  we  possess  a  specimen 
of  his  powers  at  this  early  age  in  three  piano- 
forte sonatas,  dedicated  to  the  elector  and 
printed  at  Spire.  Through  the  influence  of 
Count  Waldstein,  Beethoven  was  in  his  15th 
year  appointed  assistant  court  organist,  and  in 
his  18th  was  sent  to  Vienna  at  the  elector's 
expense,  to  study  with  Mozart.  The  illness  of 
his  mother  recalled  him  to  Bonn,  and  her  death 
about  the  end  of  July,  1787,  doubtless  was  the 
cause  of  his  remaining  for  the  present  there ; 
for,  owing  to  the  habits  of  his  father,  the  sup- 
port of  his  two  young  brothers  must  in  a  great 
measure  have  devolved  upon  him.  In  1792, 
his  brothers  being  off  his  hands  (Karl  a  music 
teacher,  and  Johann  an  apothecary's  boy), 
Beethoven  was  again  in  a  position  to  accept 
the  elector's  kindness,  and  returned  to  Vienna; 
which  capital  and  its  environs,  save  upon  a  . 
single  visit  to  Berlin,  one  or  two  to  Prague, 
and  his  summer  journeys  for  health  to  various 
watering  places,  he  never  again  left.  The 
young  composer  reached  Vienna  a  few  weeks 
before  completing  his  22d  year,  and,  modestly 
suppressing  all  his  previous  attempts  at  com- 
position, came  before  the  public  only  as  a 
pianoforte  virtuoso.  The  first  five  years  of  his 
sojourn  in  Vienna  were  the  happ'iest  of  the 
composer's  life.  He  mincrled  in  the  best  soci- 


ety, was  the  favorite  of  people  of  the  first 
rank,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession by  the  best  judges.  In  the  mean  time 
he  was  making  himself  muster  of  musical  form, 
studying  successively  with  Haydn  and  the  re- 
nowned contrapuntist  Albrechtsberger,  kapell- 
meister at  St.  Stephen's.  The  somewhat  dry 
but  thorough  course  of  study  pursued  under  the 
latter  may  be  followed  by  the  musical  student 
in  the  work  known  as  "Beethoven's  Studies," 
which  is  made  up  from  the  lessons,  original 
and  selected,  given  him  by  his  teacher,  and  is 
often  enriched  by  the  shrewd,  witty,  and 
caustic  remarks  of  the  pupil.  The  first  impor- 
tant works  which  he  sent  to  the  press  were  the 
three  sonatas,  op.  2,  and  the  three  trios,  op.  1, 
but  others  followed  with  a  rapidity  truly  aston- 
ishing. It  is  not  possible  to  arrange  the  works 
of  this  master  in  the  order  of  their  composition, 
and  to  decide  how  many,  of  his  earlier  produc- 
tions especially,  belong  to  a  given  period.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  before  the  close  of  the 
century  the  list  included  many  variations  and 
songs,  more  than  20  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte 
solo,  three  (probably  more)  sonatas  for  the 
pianoforte  and  violin,  three  for  piano  and  vio- 
loncello, three  trios  for  piano,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello, that  in  B[,  with  clarinet,  the  quartet  for 
piano  and  bowed  instruments,  the  quintet  for 
piano  and  wind  instruments,  the  concertos  in 
C  and  B(,  for  piano  and  orchestra,  five  trios, 
six  quartets,  the  quintet  in  E[,  for  bowed  in- 
struments, the  septet,  the  ballet  "  Men  of  Pro- 
metheus," and  the  1st  and  2d  symphonies! 
But  he  was  already  suffering  from  a  calamity 
which  afterward  greatly  limited  his  produc- 
tiveness, but  which  we  may  consider  the  cause 
of  the  profound  depth  of  sentiment,  feeling, 
and  passion,  which  is  the  leading  characteristic 
of  the  music  of  Beethoven.  In  a  letter  to  his 
friend  Dr.  Wegeler,  dated  June  29,  1800,  he 
says:  "My  hearing  has  been  gradually  becom- 
ing weaker  for  three  years  past."  The  original 
cause  of  this  misfortune  was  a  hemorrhoidal 
difficulty,  and  a  consequent  chronic  weakness 
of  the  bowels,  attended  with  violent  colic.  He 
describes  the  symptoms  of  his  case  and  its 
treatment  by  physicians,  and  adds:  "I  may 
say  that  I  feel  myself  stronger  and  better  in 
consequence,  only  my  ears — they  are  still  ever 
ringing  and  singing  day  and  night.  I  can  truly 
say  that  I  pass  a  wretched  existence  ;  for  the 
last  two  years  I  have  almost  entirely  shunned 
society,  because  it  is  impossible  to  tell  people 
I  am  deaf!  "  Again :  "  In  the  theatre  I  am  forced 
to  lean  up  close  to  the  orchestra  to  understand 
the  actors.  The  higher  tones  of  the  voices  and 
instruments,  if  I  am  at  a  little  distance,  I  cannot 
hear,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  people  do  not 
notice  it  in  conversation  with  me."  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1802  he  had  a  dangerous  attack  of  illness. 
and  in  the  prospect  of  death  wrote  a  remark- 
able paper,  addressed  to  his  brothers,  in  which 
he  paints  the  sufferings  which  he  had  passed 
through  in  very  powerful  language.  We  quote 
a  few  lines :  "  Born  of  an  ardent,  sanguine 


BEETHOVEN 


473 


temperament,  and  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the 
pleasures  of  society,  yet  at  this  early  age  I 
must  withdraw  from  the  world  and  lead  a  soli- 
tary life.  When  1  at  times  have  determined 
to  rise  superior  to  all  this,  oh,  how  cruelly  have 
I  been  again  cast  down  by  proofs  doubly  pain- 
ful of  my  defective  hearing;  and  yet  it  has 
been  utterly  impossible  for  me  to  say  to  people, 
•  Speak  louder,  scTeam,  for  I  am  deaf! '  Ah, 
how  could  I  proclaim  the  weakness  of  a  sense 
which  I  ought  to  possess  in  a  higher  degree 
than  others,  which  once  I  did  possess  in  the 
highest  perfection — a  perfection  equalled  by 
few  of  my  profession  ?  Alas,  I  cannot  do  this ! 
Forgive  me,  then,  if  I  draw  back  when  I  would 
gladly  mingle  with  you.  My  misfortune  in- 
flicts upon  me  a  double  woe  in  causing  me  to 
be  misapprehended.  For  me  there  can  be  no 
recreation  in  social  intercourse,  no  joining  in 
refined  and  intellectual  conversation,  no  mutual 
outpourings  of  the  heart  with  others."  Again : 
"  But  what  humiliation,  when  some  one  stand- 
ing by  me  hears  a  distant  flute,  and  I  hear 
nothing,  or  listens  to  the  song  of  the  herdsman, 
and  I  hear  no  sound !  Such  incidents  have 
brought  me  to  the  verge  of  despair;  a  little 
more,  and  I  had  put  an  end  to  my  life.  One 
thing  only,  art — this  restrained  me.  I  could 
not  leave  the  world  until  that  was  accomplished 
which  I  felt  was  demanded  of  me."  Upon  his 
recovery  from  his  illness,  though  he  had  little 
hope  of  ever  recovering  his  hearing,  he  became 
more  patient  and  cheerful,  and  again  wrought 
out  his  musical  inspirations  with  great  industry. 
Among  the  numerous  compositions  of  the  few 
following  years  are  several  of  his  capital  works. 
The  "Heroic  Symphony"  was  produced  in 
1804;  "Fidelio"  in  1805;  the  4th,  5th,  and 
6th  symphonies,  and  the  mass  in  0,  during  the 
four  following  years.  It  is  a  common  impres- 
sion that  the  ill  success  of  his  opera  "  Fidelio" 
discouraged  Beethoven  ever  after  from  attempt- 
ing dramatic  composition.  His  negotiations 
with  various  poets,  Korner,  Rellstab,  Grillpar- 
zer,  Bernard,  for  a  libretto,  even  down  to  the 
close  of  life,  and  especially  a  formal  written 
proposition  dated  in  1807,  and  still  in  existence, 
to  the  management  of  the  imperial  theatres  for 
an  engagement  as  regular  composer,  show  how 
erroneous  is  the  impression.  What  prevented 
the  acceptance  of  Beethoven's  proposition  by 
the  managers  is  not  now  known.  The  music 
to  Kotzebue's,  "Ruins  of  Athens"  was  first 
performed  in  1812;  the  "Battle  of  Vitoria" 
and  the  7th  symphony  in  the  autumn  of  1813; 
the  cantata,  "The  Glorious  Moment,"  at  the 
Vienna  congress  in  1814 ;  and  the  8th  symphony 
was  written  as  early  as  1816.  The  labors  of 
the  summer  of  1815  were  principally  devoted 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  Scottish  songs  for 
George  Thompson  of  Edinburgh.  From  this 
period  the  works  of  Beethoven  followed  each 
other  in  still  less  rapid  succession,  not  only 
from  the  grandeur  and  extent  of  their  designs, 
but  from  the  effects  produced  upon  him  by  a 
I'.-giil  process,  which  claimed  much  of  his  atten- 


tion and  caused  him  the  deepest  anxiety.  The 
last  half  dozen  sonatas,  those  giants  of  piano- 
forte composition ;  the  grand  mass  in  D,  a  three 
years'  labor;  the  overture  in  C,  op.  115;  the 
9th  symphony,  with  chorus,  completed  in  1824; 
and  the  last  grand  quartets,  were  the  principal 
productions  of  his  last  10  years.  The  legal 
process  above  mentioned  was  too  important  in 
its  influence  to  be  passed  over  without  some 
notice.  His  brother  Karl  had  been  unfortu- 

j  nate  in  his  marriage,  and  upon  his  death  in 
1815  had  left  his  son  to  the  special  care  and 
protection  of  the  composer.  The  mother,  al- 
though she  soon  became  the  kept  mistress  of 

'  a  citizen  of  Vienna,  refused  to  part  with  her 
son,  and  Beethoven  was  forced  to  bring  the 
case  before  the  courts.  The  will  of  the  father 
was  not  sufficient  ground  by  the  laws  of  Austria 
for  removing  the  child  from  his  mother,  nor 
for  his  legal  adoption  by  his  uncle.  It  became 

I  necessary  for  Beethoven  to  prove  the  bad 
character  of  his  sister-in-law,  and  show  that 
the  moral  welfare  of  the  boy  demanded  his  re- 
moval from  her  influence.  This,  to  a  man  who 
in  the  corrupt  society  of  Vienna  had  lived  a 
blameless  life,  and  who  had  his  friends  and  ac- 

'  quaintances  principally  among  princes  and  the 
nobility,  was  in  the  last  degree  mortifying. 
Its  effect  upon  him  was  so  great  that  nothing 
but  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  large  expenses 
entailed  upon  him  by  the  lawsuit,  and  by  his 
adoption  of  the  boy,  induced  him  to  meet  the 
demands  of  his  publishers.  During  three  years 
not  one  of  his  great  works  was  produced.  The 
suit  was  originally  brought  in  181f>,  in  the 
court  in  which  the  causes  of  the  nobility  were 
tried,  and  after  two  or  three  years,  during 
which  the  boy  was  sometimes  in  possession  of 
the  mother  and  at  others  of  the  uncle,  was  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  opposing 
counsel  thereupon  brought  a  technical  objection 
to  the  proceedings,  viz.,  that  Beethoven  was 
not  of  noble  birth,  and  could  not  bring  suit  in 
this  court ;  that  van  in  Holland  was  not  equiv- 
alent to  von,  in  Germany.  The  point  was  sus- 
tained, and  the  suit  was  transferred  to  the 

!  magistrates'  court  of  the  city,  clearly  the  prop- 

j  er  place,  as  Beethoven  had  been  made  a  citizen 
of  Vienna  some  years  before,  as  a  mark  of 
honor.  The  former  decision  was  here  reversed, 
and  Beethoven  was  obliged  to  bring  a  new- 
action.  It  was  not  until  some  time  in  the  year 
1821  that  he  obtained  full  possession  of  the 
boy.  In  the  mean  time  the  nephew  had  fallen 
into  habits  of  indolence,  falsehood,  and  extrav- 
agance beyond  the  power  of  his  uncle  to  restrain 
or  control.  Johann  van  Beethoven,  the  com- 
poser's younger  brother,  was  mean,  sordid,  and 
vain,  and  married  to  a  woman  who  brought  her 
illegitimate  daughter  to  his  house,  and  not  sel- 
dom received  her  own  lovers  there.  For  such 
a  man  Beethoven  could  have  little  fraternal 
affection.  The  nephew  became  all  in  all  to 
him.  Upon  him  he  lavished  all  the  rich  affec- 
tions of  his  great  heart ;  no  pains  nor  expense 
was  spared  on  the  young  man's  education ;  tot 


474 


BEETHOVEN 


in  vain.  In  August,  1826,  the  youth,  then 
about  20  years  of  age,  unable  to  pass  the  ex- 
aminations of  the  school  to  which  he  belonged, 
filled  up  the  measure  of  his  ingratitude  by 
shooting  himself  in  the  head.  The  wound  was 
not  fatal,  and  at  length  he  recovered.  By  the 
laws  of  Austria  he  was  an  offender  against 
public  morals  and  the  church,  and  for  some 
months  was  deprived  of  liberty.  When  at 
length  restored  to  his  uncle,  it  was  with  the 
order  to  leave  Vienna  in  24  hours.  In  his  ex- 
tremity Beethoven  accepted  the  invitation  of 
his  brother  to  retire  with  Karl  to  Johann's 
estate  on  the  Danube,  some  80  miles  above 
Vienna,  until  such  time  as  a  place  in  the  army 
could  be  found  for  the  young  man.  The  place 
and  the  society  of  his  brother's  family  soon 
became  insupportable  to  the  composer,  and  he 
determined  to  return  to  the  capital.  This 
journey  of  two  days,  in  cold,  wet  weather,  was 
too  much  for  his  feeble  constitution,  and  he 
reached  Vienna,  Dec.  2, 1826,  with  his  nephew, 
laboring  under  the  effects  of  a  very  severe  cold. 
Violent  inflammation  of  the  lungs  set  in,  suc- 
ceeded by  dropsy,  under  which  he  sank. — In 
the  catalogue  of  Beethoven's  works,  we  find 
hardly  a  branch  of  the  art  in  which  ho  had  not 
wrought,  but  the  preponderance  of  the  instru- 
mental over  the  vocal  music  is  striking.  For 
the  full  orchestra  he  has  left  us  9  symphonies, 
11  overtures,  the  Egmont  music,  the  "  Battle  of 
Vitoria,"  and  some  shorter  pieces.  Of  cham- 
ber music  the  compositions — among  them  16 
grand  quartets,  and  4  trios  for  bowed  instru- 
ments, from  the  grand  concerto  and  septet 
down  to  the  romanza  sfnd  sonata — are  very 
numerous.  There  are  32  grand  sonatas  for  the 
pianoforte  solos,  and  more  than  100  other  com- 
positions, varying  from  the  grand  concerto  to 
the  variations  upon  a  melody  for  that  instrument 
nlone  or  combined  with  others.  Two  masses, 
one  sacred  cantata,  and  a  number  of  songs,  be- 
long to  the  branch  of  sacred  music ;  an  opera, 
and  a  vast  variety  of  songs,  trios,  &c.,  fill  up  the 
catalogue  of  his  vocal  music.  Beethoven's  mis- 
sion, if  we  may  use  the  term,  was  to  perfect  in- 
strumental music  as  the  language  of  feeling  and 
of  the  sentiments.  Under  Bach,  Haydn,  and 
Mozart,  the  sonata  and  the  symphony  had  attain- 
ed their  complete  development  in  form.  Tinder 
Beethoven,  a  new  soul  was  infused  into  them. 
Something  had  already  been  done  in  this  direc- 
tion. We  perceive  traces  of  it  in  Bach  and  in 
Mozart,  dementi  had  written  a  sonata  for  the 
pianoforte,  entitled  Dido  AUandonata,  and 
Haydn,  in  quartet  and  symphony,  was  in  the 
habit  of  imagining  some  story,  the  situations 
of  which,  in  their  corresponding  emotions,  he 
endeavored  to  depict.  Beethoven  went  further. 
He  not  only  painted  character  as  no  other 
master  had  done  in  music  (see  his  overtures  to 
"Prometheus"  and  " Coriolanus "),  but  made 
his  music  the  medium  of  communicating  the 
feelings  which  swelled  his  own  breast.  We 
feel  this  continually  in  his  pianoforte  sonatas, 
nor  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact  difficult.  The 


unremitting  practice  to  which  he  was  forced 
by  his  father  during  childhood,  together  with 
the  course  of  instruction  then  in  vogue,  which 
aimed  rather  at  making  sound  musicians  than 
masters  of  finger  gymnastics,  gave  him  that 
power  over  the  pianoforte  and  the  organ  with- 
out which  no  one  can  be  said  to  have  a  mas- 
tery over  those  instruments.  Beethoven's 
extemporaneous  performances  were  as  free 
from  false  harmonic  relations  as  the  speak- 
ing of  an  accomplished  orator  from  errors 
in  the  use  of  articulate  speech.  Upon  his  ar- 
rival in  Vienna  men  who  had  known  Mozart 
and  fully  appreciated  his  marvellous  powers, 
confessed  their  astonishment  at  the  force,  vigor, 
and  fire  of  the  young  Rhinelander  when,  giving 
his  fancy  the  rein,  his  flying  fingers  inter- 
preted the  current  of  his  musical  thoughts.  In 
his  earliest  published  works  will  be  found 
much  of  that  pensive  feeling  which  distin- 
guished his  extemporaneous  efforts,  and  this 
quality  in  his  sonatas  became  more  marked 
as  he  advanced  in  years.  When  writing  for 
the  orchestra  the  grandeur  of  his  thoughts  rose 
with  the  increase  of  means  at  his  command, 
and  he  reached  heights  beyond  all  that  com- 
posers before  him  or  since  have  attained. — 
Justice  has  not  usually  been  done  to  Beethoven 
on  the  score  of  intellect.  His  large  head  was 
in  fact  filled  with  a  brain  capable  of  intensely 
energetic  and  long-continued  action.  He  was 
an  insatiable  reader,  especially  of  history,  and 
none  followed  with  a  deeper  interest  the 
rapidly  changing  scenes  of  that  great  political 
drama  which  began  in  his  19th  year  in  Paris, 
and  ended  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  in  1815. 
Born  upon  the  Rhine,  reared  under  the  re- 
markably liberal  institutions  of  the  electorate 
of  Cologne,  and  subjected  to  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  those  ideas  which  set  France  in  a  blaze, 
he  was  early  and  for  life  a  republican  in  his 
politics.  In  whatever  sphere  of  mental  ac- 
tivity Beethoven  had  been  placed,  he  would 
have  been  a  man  of  mark. — Great  preparations 
had  been  made  long  in  advance  for  the  cele- 
bration of  Beethoven's  centenary  anniversary 
throughout  Germany  in  December,  1870  ;  but 
owing  to  the  Franco-German  war  then  raging 
they  were  only  partially  carried  out,  and  in 
Bonn  the  commemoration  was  held  on  a  large 
scale  in  August,  1871. — There  are  a  number 
of  biographies  of  Beethoven,  the  earliest  being 
that  by  his  friend  A.  Schindler  (Biographic 
von  Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  2  vols.  8vo,  Mini- 
ster, 1838 ;  2d  ed.,  1860).  On  his  deathbed 
the  composer  expressed  a  wish  that  his  life 
should  be  written  by  Fr.  Rochlitz,  the  author 
of  the  work  Fur  Freunde  der  Tonkunst ;  but 
the  state  of  Rochlitz's  health  prevented  his 
undertaking  the  work,  and  it  devolved  upon 
Schindler,  whose  long  and  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  Beethoven  gave  him  many  ad- 
vantages for  performing  the  task.  Schindler's 
work  was  translated  into  English  and  edited 
by  Moscheles.  Among  the  other  lives  of  Bee- 
thoven, the  most  voluminous  is  by  Mr.  Alex- 


BEETLE 


475 


ander  W.  Thayer,  an  American,  who  has  de- 
voted many  years  of  his  life  to  the  minute 
researches  necessary  to  make  an  exhaustive 
biography  of  the  composer.  The  work  at  the 
present  date  (1873)  is  unfinished,  only  one 
volume  having  been  published,  and  that  in 
German.  The  other  principal  sources  of  in- 
formation upon  this  subject  are  as  follows: 
Wegeler  and  Ries,  Biograph-ische  Notizen  uber 
L.  v.  Beethoven  (Coblentz,  1838) ;  Dr.  A.  B. 
Marx,  Ludwig  van  Beethoven's  Leben  und 
Schaffen  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1859 ;  2d  ed.,  1863) ; 
L.  Nohl,  Beethoven's  Leben.  (2  vols.,  Vienna, 
1864-'7);  and  Ludwig  van  Beethoven's  Bio- 
graphie  und  Characteristic,  by  Dr.  Heinrich 
Doring,  prefixed  to  the  Wolfenbuttel  edition 
of  the  composer's  pianoforte  sonatas. 

BEETLE,  a  very  numerous  and  well  known 
order  of  insects,'  constituting  the  coieoptera. 
They  have  usually  4  wings :  2  membranous, 
the  organs  of  flight,  filmy  and  folded  trans- 
versely ;  and  2,  anterior  and  superior  to  these, 
of  a  harder  consistence,  protecting  the  former, 
and  called  elytra.  They  all  have  mandibles 
and  jaws.  The  head  varies  greatly  both  in 
size  and  form  in  the  ditferent  tribes;  it  pre- 
sents 2  antennae,  of  various  forms,  of  which  the 
joints  are  generally  11  in  number;  the  eyes 
are  .2,  and  compound ;  they  have  no  simple 
eyes,  according  to  Latreille.  The  mouth  con- 
sists of  a  labrum ;  2  mandibles,  usually  of  a 
horny  consistence ;  2  jaws,  each  one  having  1 
or  2  palpi ;  and  a  labium  of  2  pieces,  accom- 
panied by  2  palpi.  The  anterior  segment  of 


1.  Digestive  apparatus.    2.  Mouth.    «.  Thorax.    4.  Fore  leg. 
6.  Hind  leg.    6.  Nervous  system. 

the  thorax,  or  the  corslet,  which  is  in  front  of 
the  wings,  is  larger  than  the  other  two  seg- 
ments, and  is  free  in  its  movements ;  it  sup- 
ports only  the  first  pair  of  legs ;  the  other  seg- 
ments are  united  together,  and  nearly  im- 
movable ;  the  mesothorax  supports  the  second 


I  pair  of  legs  and  the  elytra ;  the  membranous 
wings  and  the  third  pair  of  legs  are  attached 
j  to  the  third  and  last  segment.  The  elytra  and 
|  wings  originate  from  the  lateral  and  upper 
portions  of  the  segments.  The  former  are  of  a 
firm  consistence,  almost  crustaceous,  and,  in  a 
state  of  rest,  are  applied  horizontally  one 
against  the  other  along  their  internal  edge  ; 
they  almost  always  conceal  the  true  wings, 
and  are  generally  as  long  as  the  body ;  in  the 
act  of  flight  they  are  usually  extended,  though 
in  some  species  destitute  of  true  wings  they  are 
united  on  the  dorsal  suture;  in  the  wingless 
genera  the  elytra  are  always  found.  The  ab- 
domen is  sessile,  or  united  to  the  chest  by  its 
greatest  breadth,  composed  of  6  or  7  rings, 
membranous  above,  where  it  is  protected  by 
the  elytra,  and  of  a  more  horny  consistence 
below.  In  the  males  the  anterior  pair  of  legs 
are  often  stronger,  and  the  tarsi  broader,  than 
in  the  females.  All  the  coieoptera  masticate, 
and  are  accordingly  provided  with  instruments 
proper  for  cutting  and  triturating  their  food ; 
the  salivary  glands  are  quite  rudimentary,  and 
few  in  number;  the  digestive  canal  varies  in 
length  according  to  the  habit  of  life,  but  it  gen- 
j  erally  is  much  longer  than  the  body.  The  sexes 
I  are  separate,  and  the  act  of  reproduction  is  a 
[  true  sexual  connection.  The  organs  of  respira- 
j  tion  are  stigmata  along  the  sides  of  the  body, 
I  and  tracheae  pervading  all  parts  of  the  system. 
!  The  abdomen  encloses  a  fatty  tissue,  apparently 
|  connected  with  nutrition,  which  causes  many 
1  of  these  insects  to  be  eagerly  sought  for  as  food 
by  the  savage  tribes  of  the  old  world.  They 
undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis;  and  the 
larva?  or  grubs  are  generally  soft-bodied,  and 
provided  with  6  legs;  it  is  in  this  state  that 
they  are  so  destructive  to  vegetation.  The 
males  perish  soon  after  the  sexual  union,  and 
the  females  die  shortly  after  the  eggs  have  been 
deposited'. — The  coieoptera  have  been  variously 
divided  by  different  authors ;  the  divisions  of 
Latreille,  according  to  the  number  of  the  joints 
in  the  tarsi,  have  been  generally  adopted  by 
naturalists.  These  divisions  are  the  following: 
1,  pentamera,  having  5  joints  on  each  foot;  2, 
heteromera,  having  5  joints  to  the  anterior  2 
pairs  of  feet,  and  4  joints  to  the  posterior  pair ; 
3,  tetramera,  having  4  joints  to  all  the  feet ;  4, 
trimera,  having  no  more  than  3  joints  to  the 
feet.  Though  this  system  is  artificial,  and  in 
many  points  very  defective,  it  is  still  sufficient 
to  give  a  clear  idea  of  this  very  complex  order. 
Latreille  makes  20  families.  The  pentamera 
include:  1.  The  carnivora,  whose  varied  spe- 
cies all  agree  in  being  exceedingly  voracious ; 
they  are  both  terrestrial  and  aquatic ;  the  for- 
mer have  been  divided  into  the  tribes  cicin- 
deletce  and  earabici ;  the  latter  constitute  the 
tribe  hydrocanthari.  The  eicindelce  are  very 
beautifully  ornamented,  of  light  and  active 
forms,  quick  in  their  motions,  darting  on  their 
insect  prey,  which  they  devour  alive;  they 
prefer  light  and  sandy  districts  exposed  to  the 
sun ;  they  are  extensively  distributed  over  the 


476 


BEETLE 


earth;  the  larvae  are  of  a  forbidding  appear- 
ance and  extremely  voracious,  seizing  any  in- 
sect which  passes  the  openings  of  their  subter- 
ranean holes.  All  the  cambici,  in  the  grub 
and  perfect  state,  feed  on  living  prey ;  they 
emit  a  fetid  liquid  when  pursued,  and  are  for 
the  most  part  agile  runners;  many  have  no 
true  wings;  they  conceal  themselves  in  the 
earth  or  under  stones  and  the  bark  of  trees. 


Bombardier  Beetle  (Brachinus  crepitans). 

This  is  a  very  numerous  tribe,  and  its  study  is 
difficult.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  genera 
are  curatui,  scaritea,  harpalus,  brachimis,  fe- 
ronia,  &c.  Among  the  carabidce  or  ground 
beetles,  many  of  which  eject  a  fetid  fluid  for 
defensive  purposes,  may  be  mentioned  the 
bombardier  beetle  (bracliinus),  of  which  there 
are  several  species  in  both  hemispheres,  vary- 
ing in  length  from  one  eighth  to  half  an  inch. 
The  wing  covers  and  lower  part  of  abdomen 
are  bluish  black ;  the  rest  of  the  insect,  includ- 
ing the  long  and  narrow  head  and  thorax,  legs, 
and  antennae,  reddish.  The  species  of  brachi- 
nvs,  and  of  the  allied  genus  apt  inns,  have  re- 
ceived the  above  name  from  their  habit  of 
projecting  from  the  anus,  with  an  explosive 
pnif,  a  fine  acid  spray,  to  the  distance  of  sev- 
eral inches,  so  irritating  to  the  eyes  and 
abraded  skin  as  to  cause  severe  smarting,  and 
discoloring  the  cuticle  as  if  by  an  acid ;  the  fluid 
is  very  volatile,  and  of  a  pungent  odor.  They 
are  carnivorous  in  all  their  stages,  and  not 
injurious  to  vegetation.  The  larger  tropical 
species  are  the  most  brilliant.  The  hydrocan- 
thari,  or  swimming  beetles,  include  the  genera 
dytwciis  and  gyrinus  ;  the  feet  are  adapted  for 
swimming,  being  compressed  and  ciliated ;  they 
live  in  the  fresh  lakes  and  marshes  and  quiet 
streams  of  all  countries,  and  they  pass  their 
first  and  final  stages  in  the  water.  The  dytuci 
can  live  on  the  land  and  also  can  fly;  they 
vary  in  size  from  H  inch  to  \  of  an  inch  in 
length;  they  are  carnivorous  and  voracious, 
and  can  remain  a  long  time  under  water  in 
pursuit  of  their  prey;  they  swim  on  the  sur- 
face with  great  rapidity.  The  gyrini  are  small- 
er, and  may  be  found  in  troops  on  the  surface 
of  still  waters,  darting  about  with  surprising 
agility ;  they  can  see  in  the  water  and  in  the 
air  at  the  same  time ;  they  can  fly  well,  though 
they  swim  better;  the  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  This  family  is 


useful  in  destroying  noxious  and  predaceous  in- 
sects and  grubs.  2.  The  brupjielytra  have  but 
one  palpus  in  the  jaws,  or  four  in  all ;  the  wing 
cases  are  shorter  than  the  body,  which  is  nar- 
row and  elongated ;  the  head  is  large  and  flat, 
the  mandibles  strong,  the  antennao  short;  they 
live  in  rnoist  earth,  on  dung  and  other  ex- 
crementitious  matters,  and  most  of  all  in  de- 
caying animal  carcasses;  they  are  courageous 
and  strong,  running  or  flying  with  the  greatest 
facility;  they  destroy  insects  with  eagerness. 
This  family  is  composed  entirely  of  the  old  and 
vaguely  determined  Limut-an  genus  staplty- 
linun.  The  larva?  live  in  the  same  situations 
as  the  perfect  insects.  The  family  are  very  use- 
ful natural  scavengers.  3.  The  serricornes  have 
elytra  covering  the  abdomen,  and  antennas 
equal  throughout,  dentated,  saw-like  or  fan- 
like.  Among  the  most  interesting  genera  is 
buprestis,  many  of  whose  species  are  very 
large  and  exceedingly  brilliant;  these  walk 
very  slowly,  but  are  excellent  flyers ;  they  are 
most  numerous  in  warm  climates,  and  live  gen- 
erally in  wood.  The  genus  elater  is  remark- 
able for  the  shortness  of  the  legs,  and  for  the 
faculty  it  lias  of  changing  from  a  supine  posi- 
tion to  its  feet  by  springing  into  the  air  by 
means  of  a  spine  on  its  pnesternum ;  the  species 

'.  are  found  in  flowers  or  plants,  and  on  the 
ground ;  some  of  the  American  species,  as  the 
E.  noctilvcits,  are  phosphorescent,  and  are 

j  called  fireflies.  The  genus  lampyris  also  is 
interesting,  as  containing  the-  phosphorescent 
species  whose  females  go  by  the  name  of  glow- 
worms. The  genus  telephone  is  noted  as  fur- 
nishing the  species  which  are  occasionally  taken 
up  by  high  winds,  and  deposited  in  distant 
regions,  causing  the  so-called  insect  showers. 
The  tick  of  the  death-watch  is  produced  by  a 
species  of  anobivm,  living  in  decaying  wood. 
The  larvae  sometimes  cause  great  destruction 
of  valuable  timber.  4.  The  elavieornet  have 
the  antenna?  thickened  or  knob-shaped  at  the 
end ;  they  live  chiefly  on  animal  substances. 
The  genus  hister  feeds  on  decaying  and  ex- 
crementitious  matters.  The  genus  necropJiorus 
is  noted  for  its  habit  of  interring  small  animals, 
such  as  mice  and  moles,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
positing its  eggs  in  the  decaying  carcass;  this 
they  do  by  removing  the  earth  beneath  the 
body,  which  falls  into  the  hollow ;  their  sense 
of  smell  must  be  extremely  acute.  The  genus 
iilpJia  also  prefers  putrefying  animal  sub- 
stances. The  genera  dermestes  and  anthrenut, 
in  their  larva  state,  are  perfect  pests  to  the 
naturalist,  as  they  devour  every  animal  sub- 
stance accessible  in  his  cabinet ;  the  action  of 
heat,  usually  employed  to  destroy  them,  is 
nearly  as  destructive  as  the  insects.  5.  The 
palpicornes  resemble  the  preceding  family  in 
the  shape  of  the  antennae,  composed  of  only 
nine  joints,  and  the  feet  in  most  of  the  genera 
are  formed  for  swimming.  The  genus  hyiiro- 
philus  is  carnivorous  and  voracious,  frequenting 
fresh  water  and  marshes,  swimming  well,  but 
not  so  rapidly  as  dytiscus  ;  their  larvss  destroy 


BEETLE 


477 


great  numbers  of  aquatic  insects  and  water 
snails;  they  pass  the  nymph  state  in  cavities 
in  the  earth,  for  about  three  weeks.  Other 
genera  are  elophorw  and  sphteridium  ;  the 
latter  i<  terrestrial.  6.  The  lamellieornes  are 
the  last  family  of  the  pentamera,  including 
numerous  genera,  among  which  are  some  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  the  largest  of  the  order ; 
those  that  feed  on  vegetable  substances  are 
beautifully  colored,  while  dark  tints  prevail 
among  those  which  devour  decaying  animal 
matters.  The  untennea  are  deeply  inserted 
under  the  side  of  the  head,  short,  ending  in  a 
knob,  composed  of  plates  or  lamina.  An  idea 
of  the  form  of  the  larva,  which  are  often  very 
destructive  to  vegetation,  may  be  formed  from 
the  well  known  white  worm,  the  larva  of  the 
melolontha.  In  this  family  is  included  the 
genus  scarabceus  of  Linnaeus,  proper  to  warm 


Scarabams  enema. 

climates,  particularly  Africa;  they  live  in  or- 
dure of  all  kinds;  the  ateuchus  sacer,  an  object 
of  religious  veneration  among  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  often  represented  on  their  monu- 
ments, and  found  in  the  sarcophagi,  belongs  to 
this  genus.  Other  genera  are  copris,  geotrupes, 
trox,  melolontha,  cetonia,  and  lucanut  (stag 
beetle).  While  many  of  the  melolonthians  are 


Stag  Beetle. 

destructive,  the  gectriipiilif  and  srarabceida 
are  useful  in  removing  carrion  and  filth. — The 
heteromera,  the  second  section  of  the  order, 
are  all  vegetable  feeders;  many  of  them  avoid 
the  light.  It  includes:  7.  The  family  mela- 


soma,  of  black  or  ash-colored  species,  for  the 
most  part  apterous,  with  the  elytra  as  it  were 
soldered  together ;  some  of  them  have  a  sali- 
vary apparatus;  they  dwell  on  the  ground, 
under  stones,  and  in  dark  situations  in  houses, 
quitting  their  retreats  at  night ;  they  are  slow 
in  their  movements.  Among  the  genera  are 
pimelia,  blaps,  and  tenebrio  (meal  worms). 
They  and  their  larvae  are  useful  scavengers. 

8.  The  taxicornes  have  no  corneous  tooth  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  jaws ;  all  are  winged,  and 
the  legs  are  not  adapted  for  running;  in  the 
males  the  head  is  sometimes  furnished  with 
horns.     Most  live  on  tree  fungi  or  under  the 
bark,  or  under  stones  on  the  ground.     Some 
of  the  genera  are  diaperis,  phaleria,  and  ele- 
dona.     These  fungus-eaters  are  useful  to  man. 

9.  The  stenelytra,  differ  from  the  preceding 
chiefly  in  the  antennas ;  they  are  very  active, 
concealing  themselves  under  the  bark  or  among 
the  leaves  and  flowers  of  trees ;  some  live  in 
fungi,  others  in  old  wood.     To  this  belong  the 
genera  helops,  cistela,  dirccea,  cedemera,  and 
others  serviceable  to  man.      10.   The  trache- 
lides  live  on  plants,  of  which  they  devour  the 
leaves  and  suck  the  juices.     Here  belong  the 
genera   lagria,  pyrochroa,  mordella,  notoxus, 
horia,  meloe,  cantharis,  &c. ;    the    C.  vesien- 
toria,  or  Spanish  fly,  is  well  known  in  medi- 
cine for  its  blistering  properties. — The  third 
section,  the  tetramera,  are  vegetable  feeders. 
It  includes:    11.   The  rhynchophora,  a  large 
and    richly   ornamented    family,    living    very 
often  in  the  interior  of  fruit  and  seeds,  and 
very  destructive  to  the  products  of  the  farm 
and  the  orchard ;  it  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
projecting  muzzle.      Among   the   genera  are 
bruehus,  whose   larvea   are  very   destructive; 
attelabus;  brentia  ;  curculio,  the  greatest  pest 
of  the  horticulturist;  calandra,  one  of  whose 
species,  the  weevil,  destroys  immense  quantities 
of  grain;  the  larvee  of  the   G.  palmarum  are 
considered  a  great  dainty  by  the  West  Indian 
blacks.     12.  The  xylophagi,  in  the  larva  state, 
destroy  or  render  useless  great  numbers  of  for- 
est trees  by  the  channels  which  they  gnaw  in 
various  directions.  Among  the  most  destructive 
is  the  genus  scolytm;   other  genera  are  bostri- 
cJius  and  trogosita.      13.    The  platysoma  are 
found  beneath  the  bark  of  trees.    The  principal 
genus  is  cucujus.      14.    The  longicornes  have 
filiform  and  very  long  antennas ;   their  larvae 
live  in  the  interior  or  beneath  the  bark  of  trees, 
where  they  are   very  destructive.      Some   of 
the  species  are  among  the  largest  of  the  order. 
Among  the  genera  are  parandra,  cerumbyx,  cal- 
lidium,  lamia,  saperda,  and  leptura.     15.  The 
eupoda  derive  their,  name  from  the  large  size 
of  the  posterior  thighs  in  many  species ;   they 
are  all  winged,  and  occur  on  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  plants,  especially  the  Uliacece.  Among 
the  genera  are  sugra,  crioceru,  and  donacia. 
Hi.  The  cycliea  are  small,  slow  in  their  move- 
ments, but  often  brilliantly  colored ;  the  females 
are  very  prolific.     Here  are  placed  the  gene- 
ra Jiispn,  cassida,  cryptocephalus,  chrysomela ; 


478 


BEFANA 


BEGONIA 


eumolpvs,  one  species  of  which,  E.  vitis,  in  its 
larva  state,  commits  great  ravages  in  wine 
countries ;  galerucii  and  altiea,  possessed  of 
great  jumping  powers ;  the  latter  is  often  very 
destructive  to  turnip  crops.  17.  The  clavipalpi 
are  all  gnawers,  and  may  be  distinguished  by 
their  antennas  ending  in  a  knob,  and  by  an  in- 
ternal tooth  to  the  jaws ;  the  body  is  usually 
rounded.  Some  of  the  genera  are  erotylus, 
triplax,  agathidium,  and  phalacrus. — The  last 
section,  the  trimera,  have  the  antenna  ending 
in  a  compressed  club  formed  by  the  last  3  of 
the  11  joints;  it  contains:  18.  Thefungicolce, 
living  chiefly  in  fungi  and  dead  wood.  The 
principal  genus  is  eumorphus.  19.  The  aphido- 
phagi  are  best  represented  by  the  genus  oocci- 
nella,  or  lady-bird ;  these  pretty  little  beetles, 
more  especially  in  the  larva  state,  live  almost 
entirely  on  aphides,  or  plant-lice,  and  in  this 
way  are  of  immense  service.  20.  The  psela- 
phii  have  short  truncated  elytra ;  the  species 
are  generally  very  small,  and  live  on  the 
ground  in  moist  places,  and  under  stones  and 
moss.  The  types  of  this,  the  last  family,  are 
the  genera  pselaphus  and  claviger. — The  cole- 
optera  are  exceedingly  numerous  in  species. 
It  is  by  the  occurrence  of  elytra  that  this  order 
may  be  at  once  recognized ;  these  organs  are 
highly  ornamented,  and  they  serve  not  only  to 
protect  the  membranous  wings,  but  to  shield 
the  body  in  the  dark  and  dangerous  places 
in  which  beetles  delight  to  go ;  and  by  their 
expanded  surfaces  they  assist  the  heavy  spe- 
cies in  their  flight,  acting  both  as  a  sail  and  a 
parachute. 

BEFANA,  in  Italy,  a  puppet  or  doll  dressed 
as  a  woman,  and  carried  through  the  streets 
in  procession  on  the  day  of  Epiphany,  and  on 
some  other  feast  days.  The  name  is  probably 
derived  from  JSpifania,  the  feast  of  the  Epiph- 
any. On  the  day  of  this  feast  presents  are 
given  to  children  in  Italy,  as  they  are  elsewhere 
on  Christmas  or  New  Year's,  and  the  lefana 
is  supposed  to  bring  them. 

BEG,  Bey,  and  Beglerbeg,  titles  of  honor  among 
the  Turks.  Beg  means  lord  or  commander; 
the  beglerbeg  is  "  the  lord  of  the  lords."  The 
sons  of  a  pasha  bear  this  title,  and  in  the  army 
an  officer  on  being  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
colonel  obtains  the  title  of  bey.  In  the  African 
provinces,  the  bey  is  the  supreme  officer  of 
Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

BECAS,  Karl,  a  Prussian  painter,  born  at  Heins- 
berg,  near  Aix-la-Ohapelle,  Sept.  30,  1794,  died 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  24,  1854.  He  studied  first  un- 
der Philippart,  and  in  Paris  under  Gros.  One 
of  his  early  works,  a  copy  of  the  Madonna  della 
Sedia,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  king  of 
Prussia,  who  appointed  him  painter  to  the 
Prussian  court.  His  productions  comprise  his- 
torical, genre,  and  portrait  paintings,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  "Henry  IV.  at  the  j 
Castle  of  Canossa,"  the  "Sermon  on  the  | 
Mount,"  "Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  the 
Lorelei,  and  the  portraits  of  Humboldt,  Schel- 
ling,  Ritter,  Rauch,  Cornelius,  and  Meyerbeer. 


BEGHARDS.  I.  The  popular  appellation  of  a 
body  of  religious  penitents  of  the  third  order 
of  St.  Francis  of  the  congregation  of  Zepperen. 
They  were  founded  at  the  convent  of  Zopperen 
in  the  diocese  of  Liege  prior  to  1323,  and 
several  other  houses  soon  grew  up.  They  were 
almost  all  lay  brothers,  living  in  community, 
and  carrying  on  some  trade,  as  weaving,  spec- 
tacle-making, &c.  Having  few  priests  in  the 
order,  they  were  at  first  all  governed  \>y  a 
superior  general,  who  was  a  secular  priest  till 
Pope  Nicholas  V.  directed  that  he  should 
always  be  a  Franciscan.  These  Franciscan  ter- 
tiaries  incorporated  into  their  body  a  com- 
munity founded  at  Antwerp  in  1228  and  call- 
ed Beghards,  a  name  of  uncertain  derivation. 
The  Franciscan  rule  and  habit  were  adopted, 
and  the  name  Beghards  was  given  to  the 
whole  body.  Difficulties  having  arisen  be- 
tween the  priests  and  lay  brothers,  they  sep- 
arated for  a  time,  but  were  finally  reunited 
under  one  general.  In  1651  the  whole  body 
was  incorporated  by  Innocent  X.  with  the 
congregation  of  Lombardy.  There  were  similar 
houses  in  other  parts  of  the  Low  Countries, 
some  of  which  also  took  the  name  of  Beg- 
hards. II.  A  set  of  fanatics,  also  called  Spirit- 
ualists, who  arose  in  the  13th  century  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  assumed  the  dress  and 
name  of  the  Franciscan  tertiaries,  but  refused 
to  obey  any  ecclesiastical  authority.  A  number 
of  enthusiasts  of  both  sexes  joined  them,  and 
adopting  the  reveries  of  Abbot  Joachim,  they 
spread  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  creat- 
ing great  disturbances.  They  were  also  called 
Beguins  and  Beguines.  They  were  condemned 
in  1300  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  and  by  Clem- 
ent V.  in  the  council  of  Vienne. 

BEGHARMI.     See  BAGHIRMI. 

BEGONIA,  a  genus  of  plants  indigenous  to 


Begonia. 

the  East  and  West  Indies  and  South  America, 
closely  allied  to  the  cucvrbitacece  according  to 


BEGSHEIIER 


BEIIISTUN 


479 


Lindley.  Their  curiously  one-sided  leaves,  and 
the  brilliant  colors  these  often  exhibit,  make 
the  various  species  much  sought  by  florists. 
B.  rex  has  been  varied  until  the  leaves  not  only 
attain  great  size,  but  are  beautifully  banded. 
Other  species  are  remarkable  for  the  brilliant 
red  of  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  or  the 
abundance  and  grace  and  color  of  their  flowers. 
They  are  easily  propagated  under  glass  on  the 
cutting  bench  by  planting  the  end  of  the  suc- 
culent petiole  with  a  small  disk  of  the  leaf  at- 
tached, the  new  stem  springing  from  this  un- 
usual place. 

BEGSHEHER,  Begshehr,  or  Beysheher,  a  lake, 
river,  and  town  in  Karaman,  Asia  Minor.  The 
lake,  which  is  20  m.  long  and  from  5  to  10  m. 
broad,  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Carallis  or 
Oaralitis  in  Isauria.  It  contains  a  number  of 
islands.  The  river  is  the  outlet  of  the  lake, 
and  flows  8.  E.'  about  25  m.  into  Lake  Soghla. 
On  the  banks  of  this  river,  near  the  S.  E.  end 
of  the  lake,  stands  the  town  of  the  same  name, 
43  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  Konieh.  It  is  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  stream,  the  opposite  quarters  being 
connected  by  a  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches. 
It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  sanjak. 

BEGDARDS.     8ee  BEGUINES. 

BEG!  INKS,  a  sisterhood  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church  peculiar  to  Belgium  and  Holland. 
Their  name  is  ascribed  by  some  to  Saint  Beg- 
ghe,  by  others  to  their  founder  Lambert,  sur- 
named  le  B&gue  or  the  Stammerer,  who  died 
in  1177.  These  Beguines  were  associated  at 
first  in  communities,  with  or  without  vows, 
but  agreeing  to  live  in  chastity  and  penance. 
They  now  make  simple  vows  before  the  parish 
priest  to  live  in  obedience  and  chastity  as  long 
as  they  remain  in  the  beguinage.  Their  habit  is 
black.  The  beguinages  comprise  several  houses 
within  the  same  enclosure,  with  a  church,  fre- 
quently in  the  centre,  each  house  having  its 
own  prioress.  (See  BEOHARDS). 

BEHAIM,  or  Behem,  Martin,  a  German  naviga- 
tor and  geographer,  born  in  Nuremberg  about 
1459,  died  hi  Lisbon,  July  29,  1506.  He  went 
in  1477  to  Flanders,  where  he  engaged  in 
manufacturing  and  selling  cloth  at  Mechlin  and 
at  Antwerp.  The  active  commerce  between 
Flanders  and  Portugal,  and  the  interest  which 
he  took  in  the  great  maritime  undertakings  of 
the  Portuguese,  induced  him  in  1480  to  visit 
Lisbon,  where  he  was  well  received  at  the 
court  of  John  II.,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the 
learned  Johann  Muller,  celebrated  under  the 
name  of  Regiomontanus.  Here  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  Columbus,  whose  views  of  a  west- 
ern passage  to  India  he  is  said  by  Herrera  to 
have  supported.  In  1483  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  commission  for  calculating  an 
astrolabe  and  tables  of  declension ;  and  in  re- 
ward for  his  services  he  was  made  a  knight  of 
the  order  of  Christ.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  cosmographer  in  the  expedition  of  Diogo 
Cam,  who  sailed  along  the  W.  coast  of  Africa 
as  far  S.  as  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.  In  1486 
he  sailed  to  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  where  he 
83  VOL.  ii.— 31 


established  a  Flemish  colony,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  its  governor.  Here  he  remained 
till  1490,  when  he  returned  to  Nuremberg, 
where  he  constructed  a  terrestrial  globe,  still 
preserved  there,  on  which  historical  notices 
were  written,  and  which  is  a  valuable  memorial 
of  the  discoveries  and  geographical  knowledge 
of  his  time.  Behaim  subsequently  returned  to 
Fayal,  and  was  for  a  time  employed  in  diplo- 
macy by  the  Portuguese  government.  It  has 
been  maintained  by  some  writers  that  he  visited 
America  before  Columbus ;  and  an  island  which 
he  places  upon  his  globe  far  to  the  west  of  the 
Azores  has  been  thought  to  be  evidence  of  this. 
But  the  existence  of  an  island  somewhere  in 
the  western  waters  was  one  of  the  current  be- 
liefs of  the  time,  and  it  is  probable  that  Be- 
haim had  no  positive  evidence  in  assigning  it  a 
locality. 

BEHAM,  Hans  Sebald,  a  German  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  Nuremberg  about  1500,  died 
in  Frankfort  in  1550.  He  was  at  first  a  pupil 

'  of  his  uncle  Barthel  Beham,  and  afterward  of 

:  Albert  Diirer.  Bartsch  enumerates  430  of  his 
prints,  of  which  171  are  woodcuts.  He  ex 
celled  principally  as  an  engraver  upon  copper, 
and  in  small  prints,  which  are  much  in  the 
style  of  those  of  Aldegrever.  He  was  notorious 
for  profligacy,  on  account  of  which  he  was 
thrown  into  the  Main  and  drowned. 

BKIIAR,  the  western  portion  of  the  territory 
under  the  rule  of  the  lieutenant  governor  of 
Bengal,  comprising  the  commissionerships  of 
Patna  and  Bhaugulpore,  bounded  W.  by  the 
Northwest  Provinces  and  N.  by  Nepaul;  area, 
exclusive  of  waste  and  forest  lands  and  areas 
of  great  rivers,  42,417  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
19,736,101,  being  465  to  the  square  mile.  Be- 
har  was  a  province  under  the  Mohammedan 
government,  but  was  ceded  to  the  British  East 
India  company  in  1765.  It  is  the  most  popu- 
lous of  the  large  divisions  of  Bengal,  and  is 
generally  well  watered,  fertile,  and  thoroughly 
cultivated.  The  principal  products  are  opium, 
indigo,  and  rice.  There  is  a  system  of  irriga- 
tion works  S.  of  the  Ganges,  in  the  basin  of 
the  river  Sone.  Patna  is  the  chief  town.  In 
the  Patna  commissionership  is  the  smaller  ad- 
ministrative district  called  Behar,  including 
the  town  of  that  name,  in  lat.  29°  19'  N.,  Ion. 
85°  35',  formerly  a  prominent  city,  but  now 
comparatively  unimportant. 

BEHISTUN,  Blsntnn,  or  Baghlstan,  a  ruined 
town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi, 
in  lat.  34°  18'  N.,  Ion.  47°  30'  E.,  17  m.  E.  of 
Kermanshah.  It  is  noted  for  a  precipitous 
rock,  anciently  known  as  Mount  Bagistanus, 
which  on  one  side  rises  perpendicularly  to  the 

|  height  of  1,700ft.  Diodorus  relates  that  Semi- 
ramis  encamped  near  this  rock,  and  caused  the 

1  lower  part  to  be  smoothed  away  and  an  in- 
scription engraved  upon  it  in  her  honor.  No 
trace  of  any  such  inscription  now  exists ;  but 
the  rock  contains  cuneiform  inscriptions  en- 
graved upon  it  by  the  Persian  king  Darius 

|  Hystaspis,  about  516  B.  0.     The  principal  in- 


480 


BEEN 


scription  is  in  three  languages,  Persian,  Baby- 
lonian, and  Scythic ;  its  interpretation  has  been 
accomplished  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson.  It  is 
on  the  face  of  the  rock,  at  an  elevation  of  300 
ft.  from  the  ground.  Great  labor  was  required 
to  fit  the  rock  for  the  purpose.  Where  the 
stone  was  defective  pieces  were  let  in  and 
fastened  with  molten  lead;  so  carefully  was  I 
this  done  that  the  inserted  pieces  can  now 
be  detected  only  by  careful  scrutiny.  After 
the  inscriptions  had  been  engraved,  a  silicious 
coating  was  applied  to  preserve  them  from 
the  action  of  the  elements.  This  coating  is 
harder  than  the  rock  itself.  In  places  where 
it  has  been  washed  away,  it  lies  in  flakes  at  the 
foot  of  the  precipice.  In  other  places,  where 
the  rock  has  been  honeycombed  beneath,  the 
varnish  still  adheres  to  the  broken  surface,  and 
preserves  with  distinctness  the  forms  of  the 
characters.  The  Persian  copy  is  contained  in  five 
main  columns,  four  of  which  have  each  from  92 
to  96  lines,  the  fifth  35  lines.  It  sets  forth  the 
hereditary  right  of  Darius  to  the  throne,  tra- 
cing his  genealogy  for  eight  generations ;  re- 
counts the  provinces  of  his  empire  ;  and  tells 
how  he  triumphed  over  various  rebels  who  up- 
rose against  him  during  the  first  four  years  of 
his  reign.  The  monarch  himself  is  pictorially 
represented,  armed  with  a  bow,  his  foot  upon 
the  prostrate  figure  of  a  man,  while  nine  rebels 
chained  together  by  the  neck  stand  humbly 
before  him.  The  Behistun  inscription  is  one 
of  the  most  notable  works  of  the  kind.  (See 
CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.) 

BKIIN,  Aphara,  or  Aphra,  an  English  dramatist 
and  novelist,  born  in  Canterbury  about  1640, 
died  in  London,  April  16,  1689.  She  was  very 
young  when  she  sailed  with  her  father,  whose 
name  was  Johnson,  for  Surinam,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant  general.  Her  father 
died  on  the  passage,  but  she  resided  for  some 
time  in  Surinam,  and  became  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  native  prince  Oroonoko,  whose 
adventures  and  fate  were  the  theme  of  one  of 
her  own  novels,  and  of  a  tragedy  by  her  friend 
Southern.  Soon  after  her  return  to  England 
she  married  Mr.  Behn,  a  London  merchant  of 
Dutch  extraction,  and  was  introduced  to  Charles 
II.,  whom  she  delighted  by  her  vivacity.  This 
monarch  selected  her  as  a  political  spy  on  the 
continent  during  the  Dutch  war.  She  took  up 
her  residence  at  Antwerp,  and  attracted  nu- 
merous lovers  and  admirers,  whom  she  man- 
aged so  well  that  in  1666  she  detected  the  pro- 
ject formed  by  Admirals  De  Witt  and  De 
Ruyter  of  burning  the  English  ships  in  the 
Thames.  She  at  once  transmitted  the  intelli- 
gence to  England,  but  the  court  refused  to  be- 
lieve her,  though  her  report  was  speedily  proved 
true  by  the  event.  Mortified  at  this,  she  re- 
nounced politics.  Embarking  soon  after  for 
England,  she  narrowly  escaped  death,  being 
saved  in  a  boat  after  the  vessel  had  foundered. 
From  this  time  she  devoted  herself  to  author- 
ship and  to  the  gayest  society  of  the  capital. 
Among  her  acquaintances  were  Rochester, 


BEHRING  SEA 

Etheridge,  Southern,  Crisp,  and  Dryden.  Her 
works  comprise  17  plays,  "Oroonoko,  the 
American  Prince,"  and  other  novels,  a  variety 
of  short  poems,  and  numerous  letters,  of  which 
those  between  a  "Nobleman  and  his  Sister-in- 
Law "  (Lady  Henrietta  Berkeley  and  Lord 
Grey)  were  the  most  famous.  These  produc- 
tions are  remarkable  for  their  grace  and  spright- 
liness,  their  lack  of  moral  principle,  and  their 
entirely  unbounded  license.  She  wrote  under 
the  signature  of  "  Astrsea,"  and  Pope  alludes  to 
her  by  that  name.  She  was  buried  in  West- 
minster abbey.  A  fac-simile  reprint  of  the 
edition  of  "The  Plays,  Histories,  and  Nov- 
els of  the  ingenious  Mrs.  Aphra  Behn  "  of 
1724-'35  (6  vols.  12mo)  appeared  in  London 
in  1871. 

BEHRI1VG,  or  Bering,  Vitus,  a  navigator  in  the 
Russian  service,  born  at  Horsens,  Denmark,  in 
1680,  died  Dec.  8,  1741.  He  entered  the  Rus- 
sian naval  service  in  1704,  was  made  captain 
by  Peter  the  Great,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  war  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  and  in 
1725  was  placed  in  command  of  an  expedition 
of  discovery  in  the  arctic  seas.  Returning  from 
this,  he  was  in  1728  placed  in  command  of  an- 
other expedition  to  the  seas  bordering  upon 
N.  E.  Siberia.  The  explorations  connected 
with  the  expedition  lasted  several  years,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  discovered  that  the  conti- 
nents of  Asia  and  America  were  separated  by 
the  narrow  strait  which  bears  his  name.  On 
June  4,  1741,  he  again  set  sail  from  Okhotsk, 
in  command  of  two  vessels.  He  sailed  ap- 
parently as  far  as  lat.  69°  N.,  but  stormy  wea- 
ther and  sickness  in  his  crews  compelled  him 
to  return.  He  was  wrecked  on  a  desolate 
island  in  lat.  55°  22'  N.,  Ion.  166°  E.,  where  he 
died.  This  island,  and  the  sea  in  which  it  lies, 
still  bear  his  name.  He  founded  the  Russian 
settlement  of  Petropavlovsk  in  Kamtchatka. 

BEHBING  ISLAND,  an  island  off  the  E.  coast 
of  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka,  in  lat.  55°  17' 
N.,  Ion.  165°  46'  E.,  about  90  m.  long.  It  was 
uninhabited  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
Behring  in  1741,  but  has  since  been  occupied 
by  fur-traders,  and  is  a  winter  harbor  for  trad- 
ing vessels.  The  island  is  destitute  of  wood, 
and  the  soil  is  exceedingly  barren.  It  abounds 
in  springs  of  fresh  water,  and  the  furs  of  the 
arctic  animals  found  here  are  very  valuable, 
the  principal  being  the  ice  fox  and  sea  otter. 

BEHRIJVG  SEA,  that  part  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
which  lies  immediately  S.  of  Behring  strait, 
and  between  the  continents  of  America  and 
Asia.  Its  southern  limit  is  the  curvilinear  line 
of  the  Aleutian  islands,  which,  together  with 
Behring  island,  stretch  across  the  Pacific  from 
Alaska  to  Kamtchatka.  It  receives  the  Anadyr 
river  in  a  gulf  of  the  same  name  on  the  Asiatic 
side,  and  the  Yukon  from  the  American,  has 
several  islands,  and  is  almost  perpetualh'  cov- 
ered with  fog.  The  current  sets  north  through 
the  strait.  The  sea  is  not  so  much  obstructed 
with  ice  as  Baffin  bay.  It  was  first  explored 
by  Behring  in  1728. 


BEHRING  STRAIT 


BEJAPOOR 


481 


BEHRING  STRAIT,  a  channel  connecting  the 
North  Pacific  and  Arctic  oceans  between  the 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  discovered  by 
Behring  in  1728.  Between  East  cape  in  Asia 
and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  American 
side,  the  strait  is  only  45  m.  wide.  The  depth 
of  water  is  from  20  to  30  fathoms.  It  is  com- 
monly reckoned  about  400  m.  long.  Capt. 
Cook  visited  and  described  the  strait  in  1778, 
and  later  Capt.  Beechey.  About  midway  across, 
in  the  narrowest  place,  are  three  islands,  called 
Diomedes.  Opposite  the  southern  opening  of 
the  strait  stands  the  large  island  of  St.  Law- 
rence. A  current  sets  through  the  strait  from 
S.  to  N.  The  adjacent  coasts  are  uninhabited. 
The  shores  are  bold  and  deeply  indented.  The 
strait  is  frozen  over  every  winter,  and  large 
quantities  of  ice  are  constantly  blocked  in  north 
of  the  capes. 

BEIRA,  or  Beyra,  one  of  the  six  former  prov- 
inces of  Portugal,  bounded  N.  by  Minho  and 
Tras-os-Montes,  E.  by  Spain,  S.  by  Estrema- 
dura  and  Alemtejo,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic; 
area,  9,244  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1868,  1,288,994. 
The  surface  is  very  mountainous;  the  soil  is 
not  fertile,  but  produces  barley,  wine,  wheat, 
maize,  olives,  and  fruits.  The  mountains,  in- 
cluding the  Sierra  de  Estrella,  furnish  fine 
pasturage  for  sheep,  and  yield  iron,  marble, 
and  coal.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Douro, 
which  forms  the  northern  boundary,  the  Mon- 
dego,  which  flows  through  the  centre,  and  the 
Tagus,  on  the  S.  E.  border.  The  province  was 
in  1838  divided  into  Upper  Beira,  capital  Viseu, 
and  Lower  Beira,  capital  Castello  Branco.  It 
is  now  divided  into  the  administrative  districts 
of  Coimbra,  Castello  Branco,  Aveiro,  Viseu, 
and  Guarda. 

BEIRUT.     See  BBTEOITT. 

BEISAN.     See  SOYTHOPOLIS. 


BEISSEL,  Jiihanii  Conrad,  a  German  religionist, 
born  at  Eberbach  in  the  Palatinate  in  1690, 
died  at  Ephrata,  Lancaster  co.,  Penn.,  in  1768. 
He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  but  having  joined 
the  Bunkers  was  obliged  to  leave  Germany, 
and  in  1720  went  to  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
eventually  established  the  new  sect  of  the  Sev- 
enth-Day Dunkers,  or  the  German  Seventh-Day 
Baptists,  and  founded  a  monastic  establishment 
at  Ephrata,  over  which  he  presided  about  30 
years.  He  published  hymn  books  in  German 
and  Latin  (1766-'73),  besides  his  99  mystical 
oracles. 

Id  1 1 -i:i.-r A h III  (house  of  the  saint),  a  town 
of  Arabia,  40  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Hodeida  on  the 
Red  sea,  and  85  m.  N.  of  Mocha ;  pop.  about 
8,000.  It  contains  a  mosque  and  a  strong  cit- 
adel. The  houses  are  built  of  brick  and  clay, 
and  roofed  with  date  leaves.  Caravans  from 
all  parts  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt 
resort  hither  with  Indian  and  British  goods, 
i  spices  and  sugar,  receiving  in  exchange,  coffee, 
wax,  and  various  gums.  Much  of  the  com- 
mercial importance  of  the  place  is  owing  to  an 
annual  festival  of  three  days  which  is  held  at 
the  tomb  of  a  sheik  near  by.  Another  town 
of  the  same  name,  surnamed  el-Kebir  (the 
Great),  is  N.  E.  of  Hodeida. 

BEJA,  a  city  of  Portugal,  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of 
Alemtejo,  36  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Evora;  pop.  7,000. 
It  is  built  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  having  40  towers. 
It  has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral.  Earthenware 
is  manufactured,  and  there  are  several  tanne- 
ries in  the  town. 

BEJAPOOR,  or  Viziapoor,  a  ruined  city  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  province  of  Sattara,  presidency 
of  Bombay,  formerly  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  in  lat.  16°  48'  N.,  Ion.  75°  46' 


Bqjapoor. 


482 


BEKK 


E.,  126  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Sattara.  It  was 
once  of  great  size,  strongly  fortified  with  out- 
works of  great  extent,  and,  according  to  the 
tradition  of  the  natives,  was  the  largest  city  of 
the  East.  The  modern  city  retains  few  traces 
of  its  former  grandeur.  There  is  a  street  3  m. 
long,  several  magnificent  Saracenic  edifices 
huilt  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  and  a 
Brahman  temple  of  unknown  antiquity.  This 
last  is  a  remarkable  structure,  consisting  of  a 
rudely  built  roof  of  stone,  supported  by  pillars 
each  of  which  is  a  monolith.  Another  note- 
worthy edifice,  partly  in  ruins,  is  the  mosque 
and  mausoleum  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah.  The 
building  is  400  ft.  in  length  and  150  in  width, 
and  is  surmounted  by  a  dome  of  immense  size. 
— The  city  and  the  province  of  which  it  was 
the  capital  were  brought  by  native  wars  suc- 
cessively under  the  dominion  of  the  Bahmenee 
empire  (till  1489),  of  Adil  Shah  and  his  succes- 
sors (till  1689),  of  Aurnngzebe  until  his  death, 
of  the  Mahrattas,  and  finally  of  the  British, 
who  in  1818  expelled  the  native  ruler,  and 
added  Bejapoor  to  the  territory  assigned  under 
their  protection  to  the  rajah  of  Sattara. 

BEKE,  Charles  Tilstone,  an  English  geogra- 
pher and  explorer  in  Africa,  born  in  London, 
Oct.  10,  1800.  He  received  a  commercial  ed- 
ucation, then  studied  law,  and  afterward  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits,  residing  for  sev- 
eral years  in  the  island  of  Mauritius.  In  1836- 
'8  he  resided  at  Leipsic,  acting  as  British  con- 
sul for  Saxony.  Considering  Abyssinia  of  great 
importance  in  connection  with  the  commerce  of 
central  Africa,  he  set  out  in  1840  on  a  journey 
of  discovery  in  that  region.  In  1861,  in  com- 
pany with  his  wife,  he  made  a  journey  in  Syria, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  identified  Harran,  near 
Damascus,  as  the  residence  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham.  In  1865  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Beke  left 
England  on  a  fruitless  mission  to  effect  the  re- 
lease of  the  Abyssinian  captives.  In  1870  he 
received  a  pension  of  £100  in  consideration  of 
his  geographical  researches,  and  especially  of 
the  value  of  his  explorations  in  Abyssinia. 
Among  his  works  are :  "  Origines  Biblicae,  or 
Researches  in  Primeval  History"  (1834),  for 
which  the  university  of  Tubingen  conferred 
upon  him  the  degree  of  Ph.  D. ;  "  Statement 
of  Facts"  relating  to  his  journey  to  Abyssinia 
(1845) ;  "  Essay  on  the  Nile  and  its  Tributa- 
ries "  (1847) ;  "  The  Sources  of  the  Nile  in  the 
Mountains  of  the  Moon  "  (1848) ;  "  Geographi- 
cal Distribution  of  Languages  in  Abyssinia" 
(1849) ;  "  Sources  of  the  Nile,  with  the  History 
of  Nilotic  Discovery,"  in  which  are  incorpo- 
rated the  results  of  his  previous  labors  (1860) ; 
"Jacob's  Flight,  or  a  Pilgrimage  to  Harran," 
written  in  conjunction  with  his  wife  (1865) ;  and 
"The  British  Captives  in  Abyssinia"  (1867). 

BEKES.  I.  A  county  of  S.  E.  Hungary, 
watered  by  the  Koros,  an  affluent  of  the  Theiss ; 
area,l,320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 209,729,  of  whom 
about  two  thirds  are  Magyars,  upward  of  one 
fourth  Slavs,  and  the  rest  chiefly  Germans  and 
Roumans.  The  county  is  exceedingly  fertile, 


BELA 

but  exposed  to  inundations.  Agriculture  and 
the  raising  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  the 
main  occupations.  The  ptuztas  and  studs  of 
Bekes  are  renowned.  Capital,  Gyula.  II.  A 
town  of  the  preceding  county,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  White  and  Black  Koros,  33 
m.  S.  W.  of  Grosswardein;  pop.  in  1870,  22,- 
547.  It  has  a  considerable  grain  trade.  It 
was  formerly  strongly  fortified. 

BEKKER,  Imniiiiiurl.  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Berlin,  May  21,  1785,  died  there,  June 
7,  1871.  He  studied  at  Halle  under  F.  A. 
Wolf,  and  afterward  in  the  royal  library  at 
Paris  (1810-'12),  having  in  the  interval  been 
appointed  professor  of  philology  in  the  newly 
founded  university  of  Berlin.  In  1815  he  was 
sent  to  Paris  by  the  Berlin  academy  of  sciences 
to  collate  the  papers  of  Fourmont  for  the  Cor- 
pus Imcriptionum  Grcecarum.  In  1817  the 
academy  sent  him  to  Italy,  in  conjunction  with 
Goschen,  to  edit  the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  the 
manuscript  of  which  had  been  discovered  at 
Verona  by  Niebuhr,  and  to  prepare  an  edition 
of  Aristotle.  He  passed  three  summers  in  Mi- 
lan, Venice,  Florence,  Ravenna,  and  Naples, 
and  three  winters  in  Rome.  In  1819  he  went 
again  to  Paris,  and  in  the  year  following  to 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  London,  and  thence  to 
Leyden  and  Heidelberg.  He  now  resumed  his 
duties  as  professor  in  the  university  of  Berlin, 
and  continued  his  labors  in  philology,  especially 
in  the  Greek  language.  He  published  editions, 
with  extensive  critical  notes,  of  the  Anecdota 
Or<eca}  Plato,  Theognis,  Thucydides,  the  Athe- 
nian orators,  Photius,  Aristophanes,  the  scholia 
upon  the  Iliad,  Aristotle,  Harpocration  and 
Moeris,  and  Pollux,  the  whole  comprising  42 
volumes.  He  also  furnished  accurate  texts  of 
Apollodorus,  Appian,  Dio  Cassius,  Diodorus, 
Heliodorus,  Herodian,  Herodotus,  Homer,  Jo- 
sephus,  Lucian,  Pausanias,  Plutarch's  Parallels, 
Polybius,  Suidas,  Livy,  and  Tacitus.  His  part 
in  the  Corpus  Scriptorum  Historic  Byzantina, 
published  at  Bonn,  fills  24  volumes.  In  addition 
to  these  strictly  classical  labors,  he  busied  him- 
self with  the  remains  of  the  Provencal  roman- 
cers and  song-writers,  the  results  of  his  investi- 
gations appearing  mainly  in  the  periodicals  of 
the  Berlin  academy.  In  the  HomeriscJie  Blat- 
ter (Bonn,  1863)  he  published  German  notes 
upon  Homer.  Reminiscences  of  Bekker  by  his 
son  were  published  in  the  Preusiiche  Jahr- 
lucher  for  May,  1872. 
BEL,  or  Bit.  See  BELTJS. 
liiil.l.  the  name  of  several  Hungarian  kings 
|  of  the  lineage  of  Arpad. — Bela  I.  reigned  from 
|  1061  to  1063.  As  prince  he  was  twice  obliged 
to  escape  to  Poland,  on  account  of  domestic 
dissensions  occasioned  by  his  brothers;  but 
in  1061,  supported  partly  by  Poles,  partly  by 
Magyars,  he  succeeded  in  seizing  the  throne. 
He  subdued  the  remains  of  paganism  and 
strengthened  the  royal  power,  but  his  reign 
was  too  short  to  carry  out  all  the  reforms 
which  Magyar  annalists  ascribe  to  him. — Bela 
II.  reigned  from  1131  to  1141.  In  his  youth 


BELBEIS 


BELEM 


483 


he  was  blinded  by  his  own  uncle,  for  which  | 
he  took  terrible  revenge  on  a  number  of  his  ! 
enemies   when   king. — Beta  III.  reigned  from 
1173  to  1196.     He  warred  successfully  against 
the  Poles,  Austrians,  and  Venetians,  and  recon- 
quered from  the  last  named  some  cities  in  Dal- 
matia.    He  was  married  to  a  sister  of  Philip  Au-  j 
gustus,  king  of  France. — Beta  IV.  reigned  from 
1235  to  1270.     He  was  son  of  Andrew  II.,  was  ; 
crowned  in  childhood,  and  when  his  father  j 
went  to  Palestine   received   the  title  of  rex 
junior,  and  finally  joined  in  the  opposition  of 
the  nobility  against  him.     The  greater  part  of 
his  reign  was  stormy ;  the  nobility  continued 
in  its  turbulence,  and  Hungary  was  dreadfully 
devastated    by  the  invasion  of  the   Mongols 
(1241),  before  whom  he  had  to  fly  to  Dalma- 
tia.    (See  HITNGAEY.) 

BELBEIS,  Belbeys,  or  Belbes,  a  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
28  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Cairo;  pop.  about  5,500. 
About  14  m.  N.  N.  W.  is  the  site  of  Bubastus, 
where  traces  of  the  Pelusian  arm  of  the  Nile 
are  still  visible,  which  probably  led  Bishop 
William  of  Tyre  erroneously  to  identify  Belbeis 
with  Pelusiura.  North  of  the  town  are  the 
ruins  of  the  city  of  Patumus,  supposed  to  be 
the  Pithour  in  the  building  of  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  employed  by  their  Egyptian  task- 
masters. The  crusaders  destroyed  Belbeis, 
which  was  subsequently  rebuilt  and  became  an 
important  station  on  the  caravan  road  to  Syria. 
It  has  not  retained  its  prosperity.  Napoleon  I. 
had  the  fortifications  repaired  in  1798,  but  they 
have  since  fallen  to  decay. 

BELCHER,  Sir  Edward,  a  British  naval  officer 
and  explorer,  grandson  of  Chief  Justice  Belcher 
of  Nova  Scotia,  born  in  1799.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and,  after  having 
taken  part  as  midshipman  in  the  defence  of 
Gaeta  and  the  battle  of  Algiers,  was  in  1819 
appointed  to  the  Myrmidon  sloop,  destined  for 
the  African  station.  In  1825  he  became  as- 
sistant surveyor  to  the  Behring  strait  discovery 
expedition  under  Capt.  Beechey  in  the  Blossom. 
In  1829  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander, and  served  on  the  coasts  of  Africa 
and  of  Portugal,  rendering  on  the  latter  occa- 
sion valuable  services  to  the  British  residents 
by  protecting  their  property  during  the  politi- 
cal troubles  in  Portugal.  Subsequently  he  ex- 
plored the  Pacific  in  the  surveying  vessel  Sul- 
phur, passed  over  to  the  Chinese  waters  in 
1841,  materially  assisting  in  the  operations  of 
the  British  army  near  Canton,  and  in  acknowl- 
edgment of  these  services  was  knighted  and 
appointed  post  captain.  He  published  an  ac- 
count of  this  voyage  in  his  "Narrative  of  a 
Voyage  Round  the  World  "  (1843).  Afterward 
he  was  employed  on  board  of  the  Samarang 
on  surveying  service  in  the  East  Indies,  and 
was  severely  wounded  while  assisting  the  rajah 
of  Sarawak,  Sir  James  Brooke,  in  his  efforts  to 
subdue  the  pirates  of  Borneo.  In  1852  he  was 
sent  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  with  five 
vessels,  and  made  some  important  explorations 


in  the  neighborhood  of  Melville  island.  He 
rescued  McClure  and  his  crew,  who  had  been 
three  years  imprisoned  in  the  ice,  but  was 
obliged  to  abandon  four  of  his  own  vessels, 
and  reached  home  in  1854.  On  his  return  to 
England,  he  was  tried  before  a  court  martial 
for  voluntarily  abandoning  the  ships.  He  was 
acquitted,  and  his  sword  returned  to  him; 
but  while  some  of  the  other  officers  were 
commended,  his  name  was  passed  over  in 
significant  silence.  He  is  now  (1873)  a  vice 
admiral.  Besides  his  popular  "  Narrative,"  he 
has  written  "  The  Last  of  the  Arctic  Voyages  " 
(2  vols.,  1855). 

BELCHER.  I.  Jonathan,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  Jersey,  born  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  January,  1681,  died  at  Elizabeth  town, 
N.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1757.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1699,  visited  Europe,  and  made 
acquaintance  with  the  princess  Sophia  and  her 
son,  afterward  George  I.,  and  subsequently  be- 
came a  merchant  in  Boston.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  council,  and  in  1729  went  as 
agent  of  the  colony  to  England.  At  the  death 
of  Gov.  Burnet  in  1730  he  was  appointed  to 
the  government  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
Hampshire,  which  station  he  held  11  years, 
and  was  then  superseded.  Repairing  to  Eng- 
land, he  obtained  the  government  of  New 
Jersey,  where  he  arrived  in  1747,  and  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  en- 
larged the  charter  of  Pnnceton  college,  and 
was  its  chief  patron  and  benefactor.  II.  Jona- 
than, chief  justice  of  Nova  Scotia,  second  son 
of  the  preceding,  died  at  Halifax  in  March,  1767. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1728,  stud- 
ied law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  settlers  of  Chibucto,  afterward 
called  Halifax.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant governor,  and  in  1761  chief  justice. 

BELCHER,  Tom,  an  English  pugilist,  born  at 
Bristol  in  1783,  died  at  Peckham,  Dec.  9, 1854. 
He  was  the  hero  of  12  prize  fights,  in  eight  of 
which  he  was  the  conqueror,  in  three  he  was 
defeated,  and  the  12th  was  a  drawn  battle. 
He  was  one  of  the  18  pugilists  selected  to  act 
as  pages  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV.,  to 
protect  the  access  to  Westminster  abbey. 

BELED  UL-JERID,  "  the  land  of  dates,"  a  ster- 
ile region  of  Africa  S.  of  the  Atlas  chain,  on 
the  borders  of  the  great  Sahara,  extending 
from  the  borders  of  Morocco  to  Tripoli.  It 
received  its  name  from  the  numerous  date 
palms  found  in  its  oases. 

BELEM,  a  suburb  of  Lisbon,  Portugal,  on  the 
Tagus,  S.  W.  of  the  city.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem, 
built  here  by  King  Emanuel  in  1499,  on  the 
return  of  Vasco  da  Gama  from  his  expedition 
to  India  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This 
magnificent  structure  was  erected  on  the  site 
of  the  chapel  in  which  Da  Gama  and  his  com- 
panions passed  the  night  in  prayer  previous  to 
embarkation.  The  stone  is  a  carbonate  of 
lime  obtained  in  the  vicinity,  and  was  originally 
white,  but  is  now  of  a  rich  golden  hue.  The 


484 


BELEM 


whole  building  stands  on  piles  of  pine.  Belem 
was  formerly  a  separate  town.  It  contains  a 
Gothic  church,  in  which  is  the  tomb  of  the 
royal  family  of  Portugal.  It  has  also  an  old 


Tower  of  Belem. 

fortress,  of  singularly  picturesque  appearance, 
called  Torre  de  Belem,  which  rises  from  the 
bank  of  the  Tagus,  and  with  its  batteries  com- 
mands that  river.  This  quarter  of  the  city 
contains  a  royal  palace  and  the  residences  of 
many  persons  of  note. 

BELEM  (commonly  called  PARA),  a  city  and 
seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Grao  Para,  on  the  bay  of  Guajara,  right  bank 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  Para,  75  m.  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  1,500  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro ;  lat.  1°  28'  S.,  Ion.  48°  30'  W. ;  pop.  about 
35,000,  of  whom  in  1871  2,500  were  slaves. 
It  was  founded  in  1616  by  Francisco  Caldei- 
ra  Castello  Branco,  is  the  fourth  commercial 
city  in  the  empire,  and  one  of  the  best  built, 
and  remarkable  for  the  number  and  magnifi- 
cence of  its  public  edifices,  especially  the  ca- 
thedral, the  church  of  Sao  Joao  Baptista,  the 
governor's  palace,  and  some  others.  The 
houses,  mostly  of  stone,  are  very  neat,  and 
many  of  them  even  handsome ;  but  the  streets, 
though  regular,  are  with  few  exceptions  badly 
paved.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
old  and  new,  the  latter  having  long  streets 
planted  with  palms  or  mangabeiras.  From 
July  to  November  high  winds  prevail,  tinging 
people  and  buildings  with  the  red  dnst  from 
the  macadamized  thoroughfares,  and  violent 
thunder  storms  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Yet  the  climate  is  not  regarded  as  unhealthy ; 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  76°  to  86°  F., 
and  the  beat  is  tempered  by  refreshing  sea 
breezes.  The  prevailing  maladies  are  intermit- 
tent fevers,  and  certain  affections  of  the  stom- 
ach and  liver,  produced  by  the  water  used  in 


BELEMNITES 

the  city  from  wells  containing  deleterious  mat- 
ter proceeding  from  animal  and  vegetable  de- 
tritus. The  meat  and  vegetables  are  also  of 
very  inferior  quality.  The  harbor  is  defended 
by  several  forts ;  though  capable  of  admitting 
vessels  of  any  draft,  it  is  difficult  of  approach, 
and  the  bed  is  said  to  be  gradually  silting  up. 
The  surrounding  country  is  extremely  fertile, 
yielding  abundant  crops  of  rice,  coffee,  cotton, 
tapioca,  &c.,  which,  with  sarsaparilla,  cacao, 
balsam  copaiba  and  other  drugs,  isinglass, 
Maranhao  chestnuts,  india  rubber,  hides  and 
leather,  form  the  principal  exports.  Of  these 
india  rubber  is  by  far  the  most  important.  The 
exports  for  1870  amounted  to  $7,643,394  60, 
$6,000,000  of  which  were  of  india  rubber 
alone ;  but  the  precedence  is  likely  to  be  taken 
before  long  by  cacao.  The  imports  did  not 
exceed  $5,000,000.  Belem  bids  fair  to  become 
before  many  years  the  chief  commercial  city 
of  northern  Brazil.  Nine  lines  of  steamers 
ply  fortnightly  between  it  and  the  upper  Ama- 
zon and  intermediate  points ;  two  lines  of 
ocean  steamers  touch  here  monthly  to  and 
from  Europe,  and  one  to  and  from  New 
York ;  and  there  is  besides  a  prosperous  coast- 
ing trade.  Belem  has  six  banks,  a  university 
and  lyceum,  many  public  and  private  schools,  a 
scientific  club,  a  public  reading-room,  a  large 
public  library,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  theatre. 
BELEMNITES  (Gr.  pefapvlrTK,  from  fitte/ivov, 
a  dart  or  arrow),  a  class  of  extinct  molluscous 
animals,  belonging  to  the  same  division  as  am- 
monites, termed  cephalopods  from  the  organs 
of  motion  being  arranged  around  the  head. 
The  fossil  remains  of  the  animal  are  met  with 
in  the  rocks  of  the  upper  secondary,  and  are 
particularly  abundant  in  the  strata  of  the  green- 
sand  formation  in  New  Jersey.  The  part  pre- 
served, often  detached  from  the  loose  strata,  is 


B.  urnula.        B.  digitalis. 


a  pointed  cone  sometimes  eight  inches  long,  of 
brown  color  and  stony  material,  resembling  in 
shape  the  head  of  a  dart  or  javelin,  whence 
their  name.  The  larger  end  is  hollow,  the 
cavity  being  of  similar  shape  to  that  of  the 
whole  specimen.  They  are  found  by  millions 
in  the  formations  to  which  they  belong,  and 


BELEMNITES 


BELFAST 


485 


from  80  to  90  species  of  them  have  been  recog- 
nized. They  early  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  men  as  well  as  of  the  common  people ; 
and  it  appears  from  the  memoir  of  M.  de  Blain- 
ville  that  no  fewer  than  91  authors,  whose 
names  he  gives,  beginning  with  Theophrastus, 
have  written  on  this  subject.  The  ancient  in- 
habitants of  Asia  Minor  are  represented  by 
some  writers  to  have  designated  these  fossils 
by  the  term  dactyli  Idcei,  fingers  of  Mount 
Ida,  which,  however,  according  to  other  au- 
thorities, was  very  differently  applied,  some 
describing  these  unknown  Dactyli  as  divine 
persons  worthy  of  worship,  as  having  nursed 
and  brought  up  the  god  Jupiter ;  and  others, 


Belemnites  restored,  after  D'Orbigny. 

as  Sophocles,  making  them  to  be  the  inventors 

of  the  manufacture  of  iron.      Popular  modern 

names  for  them   are  thunder  stones,  devil's 

fingers,  and  spectre  candles.     By 

the   researches  of   Dr.   Buckland 

and  Prof.  Agassiz  the  true  nature 

of  the  belemnites  has   been  fully 

established.     The  hollow   pointed 

body  is  composed  of  carbonate  of 

lime,  part  of  which  was  the  original 

fibrous  shell,   and   the  remainder 

introduced  by  infiltration.     Thus 

the  fossil  became   crystalline  and 

nearly  solid.     The  cavity  was  the 

receptacle  of  the  animal,  but,  as 

in  the  genera  bulla  and  sepia,  and 

the  coralline  zoophytes,  it  by  no 

means  covered  the  fleshy  portions ; 

these,  on   the  contrary,  extended 

outside  of  the  shell,  and  enclosed    pelemnites 

it,  very  much  as  a  skeleton  is  en-       vf*ovTii 

closed  and  covered  with  the  softer 

portions  of  the  body.     Within  this  cavity  was 

the  apparatus  of  the  air  chambers  and  siphon, 

common  also  to  the  ammonite,  nautilus,   and 

other  chambered   shells,  by  means  of  which 

the  animal  could   rise  or  sink   at  will.     But 

the  belemnites  also  were  provided  with   the 


ink-bag  apparatus  of  the  modern  sepia;  an 
important  protection  for  their  soft  bodies, 
unguarded  as  they  were  by  any  outer  shell. 
These  ink  hags  were  noticed  in  a  communica- 
tion by  Dr.  Buckland  to  the  geological  society 
of  London  in  1829,  as  found  by  him  in  a  fossil 
state,  which  he  supposed,  from  comparison 
with  known  molluscous  animals  furnished  with 
them,  must  have  belonged  to  dibranchiate  or 
two-gilled  cephalopods  connected  with  belem- 
nites. Subsequently  Prof.  Agassiz  met  with 
specimens  retaining  the  ink  bag  within  the 
cavity ;  and  the  fact  being  thus  established,  the 
name  belemnosepia  was  thereupon  given  to  the 
family  in  the  class  of  cephalopods  comprising 
all  the  species  of  belemnites.  From  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  these  animals,  and  also  of  the 
still  more  abundant  varieties  of  ammonites, 
which  flourished  during  the  periods  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  oolite  and  cretaceous  groups,  Dr. 
Buckland  infers  that  these  extinct  families 
filled  a  larger  space  and  performed  more  im- 
portant functions  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ancient  seas  than  are  assigned  to  their  few 
living  representatives  in  our  modern  oceans. 

BELESTA,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Ariege,  17  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Foix;  pop.  in  1866, 
2,545.  It  is  noted  for  the  intermitting  spring 
of  Fontestorbes,  which  rises  in  a  natural  grotto 
or  cavern,  and  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
river  Lers,  a  feeder  of  the  Garonne.  The 
stream  which  flows  from  the  cavern  is  18  or  20 
ft.  wide  and  a  foot  or  more  deep,  and  runs  very 
rapidly ;  yet  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  and 
whenever  there  is  a  drought,  it  becomes  inter- 
mittent. The  intermission  takes  place  at  equal 
intervals  twice  in  the  24  hours. 

BELFAST,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Waldo  county,  Maine,  situated  on  a 
broad  bay  of  the  same  name,  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  Penobscot  river,  opposite  Castine,  30  m. 
from  the  ocean  and  110  m.  N.  E.  of  Portland  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,278.  The  harbor  is  deep  and 
spacious,  and  always  open,  so  that  it  is  the  win- 
ter port  of  the  Penobscot.  The  Passaggassas- 
sawakeag  empties  into  the  Penobscot  at  this 
point,  and  furnishes  water  power,  which  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber.  There  is 
considerable  ship  building  and  commerce.  The 
valuation  of  property  in  1870  was  $2,660,879  ; 
in  1860,  $1,802,307.  During  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1871, 19  vessels  of  9,098  tons  were 
built  here.  There  are  24  public  schools,  6 
churches,  a  well  endowed  academy,  2  evening 
newspapers,  a  national  bank,  a  state  hank,  and 
a  savings  bank.  The  Belfast  and  Moosehead 
Lake  railroad  (now  consolidated  with  the  Maine 
Central)  connects  Belfast  with  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral at  Burnham.  Belfast  was  founded  in  1770 
by  settlers  from  Londonderry,  N.  H.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1773,  and  in  1797  the  first 
church  was  established.  In  1815  the  town  was 
invested  by  the  British.  The  city  charter  was 
adopted  in  1853. 

BELFAST,  a  seaport  town  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Ireland,  county  Antrim,  on  the 


486 


BELFAST 


BELFORT 


Lagan,  near  its  embou- 
chure in  Belfast  bay, 
88  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Dub- 
lin; pop.  in  1871, 174,- 
394  (an  increase  of 
nearly  100,000  since 
1841).  The  site  of  the 
greater  part  of  the 
town  is  low  and  flat, 
having  been  reclaimed 
from  the  marshy  banks 
of  the  Lagan.  The  riv- 
er is  250  yards  wide, 
and  is  crossed  by  three 
bridges  and  two  ferries. 
The  streets  are  regular 
and  spacious,  macad- 
amized, and  well  light- 
ed. A  conspicuous  ar- 
chitectural ornament  is 
the  Albert  memorial 
tower,  erected  in  mem- 


Albert  Memorial  Tower. 


ory  of  the  prince  consort,  and  finished  in  1870. 
It  is  140  ft.  in  height,  and  is  built  in  the  Vene- 
tian Gothic  style,  and  elaborately  ornamented. 
In  a  niche  32  ft.  from  the  ground  stands  a 
statue  of  Prince  Albert ;  above  this  portion  of 
the  tower  is  a  large  clock,  and  above  this  again 


Queen's  College. 

a  belfry.  In  1871  there  were  80  places  of 
worship,  of  which  21  were  Episcopal  (church 
of  Ireland),  28  Presbyterian,  15  Methodist,  and 
5  Roman  Catholic.  At  the  head  of  its  educa- 
tional institutions  is  the  Queen's  college,  built  of 
brick  and  stone  at  an  expense  of  over  £25,000, 
and  opened  in  1849.  It  stands  in  a  conspicuous 
position  in  the  midst  of  large  grounds,  and  near 
the  botanic  garden.  For  the  maintenance  of 
the  institution  £7,000  a  year  is  allowed.  The 
"  General  Assembly  college  "  was  opened  Dec. 
5,  1853,  and  the  Methodist  college,  erected  by 
voluntary  subscriptions  at  a  cost  of  £24,000, 
Aug.  19,  1868.  There  are  besides  the  royal  aca- 
demical institution,  founded  in  1810,  the  Bel- 


fast academy,  the  Lancasterian  school,  and  nu- 
merous national  schools  and  private  seminaries. 
Belfast  has  many  charitable  and  benevolent 
institutions;  a  natural  history  society ;  a  royal 
botanical  and  horticultural  society ;  a  society 
for  the  promotion  of  knowledge;  a  teachers' 
association ;  a  theatre ;  and  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute. In  1871  there  were  14  newspapers,  one 
of  which  dates  from  1737.  Belfast  is  the  great 
depot  of  the  linen  trade  of  the  north  of  Ireland, 
and  is  also  the  chief  seat  of  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  linen.  There  are  also  distilleries, 
breweries,  flour  mills,  founderies,  tan  yards, 
vitriol  works,  saw  mills,  and  extensive  ship 
and  rope  yards.  Steamers  ply  regularly  be- 
tween Belfast  and  London,  Liverpool,  Fleet- 
wood,  Carlisle,  Whitehaven,  Glasgow,  Green- 
ock,  Stranraer,  Ardrossan,  and  Dublin.  Three 
railways  diverge  from  it:  N.  W.,  the  Northern 
Counties  railway ;  N.  E.,  the  County  Down, 
and  S.  W.,  the  Ulster  railway,  in  connection 
with  a  line  to  Dublin.  The  commerce  of  Bel- 
fast is  extensive.  In  1866  the  imports  amounted 
to  £12,447,000,  and  the  exports  to  £11,915,000. 
In  1870  8,303  vessels,  of  1,225,566  tons,  entered 
the  port.  New  docks  were  opened  in  August, 
1872,  one  of  them  being  named  after  Lord 
Duflferin. — Belfast  is  a  comparatively  modern 
town.  It  was  erected 
into  a  municipality  and 
parliamentary  borough 
early  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury. During  the  civil 
war  in  that  century  it 
was  besieged  and  taken 
four  times  in  six  years. 
In  consequence  of  the 
repeal  of  the  procession 
act  by  parliament,  Bel- 
fast was  in  August, 
1872,  the  scene  of  se- 
rious troubles  between 
the  Orangemen  and  the 
Roman  Catholics ;  the 
riots  continuing  for  sev- 
eral days,  with  consider- 
able loss  of  property  and 
life,  until  they  were  sup- 
pressed by  military  force. 
BELFORT,  or  Befort,  a 
fortiiied  town  of  France, 

formerly  in  the  department  of  Haut-Rhin,  on 
the  Savoureuse,  75  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Strasburg ; 
pop.  in  1866,  8,400.  It  has  manufactures  of 
iron,  paper,  hats,  and  printed  calico,  and 
was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  entrepots  of 
the  French  trade  with  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land. It  is  of  great  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view,  as  it  controls  the  Trouee  de 
Belfort,  the  passage  between  the  Vosges  and 
the  Jura.  The  town  was  ceded  to  France 
by  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in 
1648,  at  which  time  it  was  a  place  of  little 
strength,  but  the  French  made  it  a  fortress 
of  the  second  rank.  The  Germans  besieged 
i  it  in  November,  1870,  and  it  capitulated  on 


BELGSE 


BELGIUM 


487 


Feb.  16,  1871,  its  garrison  of  2,000  men  being 
allowed  free  departure.  At  the  conclusion  of 
peace  Belfort,  with  its  surrounding  district 
(rayon),  was  exempted  from  the  cession  of  Al- 
sace to  Germany  ;  but  it  is  still  occupied  by  a 


Beliort. 

German  garrison  (1873)  pending  the  complete 
payment  of  the  French  indemnity. 

BELC.E,  one  of  the  three  peoples  who  divided 
the  possession  of  the  whole  of  Gaul  among 
them  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  and  conquest 
by  Julius  Caesar,  the  other  two  being  the  Celtse, 
in  the  centre,  and  the  Aquitani,  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees.  The  Belgse  occu- 
pied the  country  between  the  Rhine,  Seine,  and 
Marne,  embracing  modern  Belgium  and  por- 
tions of  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  (See 
GAUL.)  It  is  not  settled  among  ethnologists 
how  far  the  Belgse  and  Celtse  of  Gaul  were  of 
different  or  kindred  races ;  nor  at  what  time, 
whether  previous  or  subsequent  to  this  period, 
the  Intel-migrations  with  Britain  occurred.  It 
is  assumed,  however,  from  many  considera- 
tions, that  the  Belgse  had  at  least  a  mixture  of 
Teutonic  blood,  if  they  were  not  Teutons. 

BELGARD,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Pomerania,  on  the  Persante,  15  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Koslin ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,303.  It  has  a  castle, 
three  churches,  and  important  cattle  and  horse 
markets. 

BELGIUM,  a  town  in  the  presidency  of  Bom- 
bay, Hindostan,  the  headquarters  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  the  Bombay  army,  40  m.  N.  W. 
of  Dharwar ;  pop.  about  8,000.  Its  site  is  ele- 
vated and  healthy,  and  it  is  strongly  fortified. 
The  British  captured  this  place  in  1818,  after 
a  siege  of  21  days. 

BELGIOJOSO,  "Cristina,  princess  of,  an  Italian 
patriot  and  writer,  born  in  Milan,  June  28, 
1808,  died  there,  July  5,  1871.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  the  marquis  Geronimo  Isidore 
Trivulzio,  and  married  on  Sept.  14,  1824,  the 
prince  Emilio  Barbian  e  Belgiojoso,  who  died 


Feb.  17, 1858.  Their  children  were  a  son,  who 
died  in  1862,  and  a  daughter  who  in  1861  be- 
came the  wife  of  the  marquis  Trotti-Bentivo- 
glio.  Allied  to  the  most  distinguished  families 
and  brought  up  under  the  influence  of  Manzoni, 
the  princess  Belgiojoso 
acquired  prominence 
by  her  social  position, 
her  varied  accomplish- 
ments, and  her  revo- 
lutionary ideas.  Ex- 
pelled from  Italy,  her 
house  in  Paris  became 
after  1830  a  centre 
for  scholars,  artists, 
and  liberal  politicians. 
Mignet  prevailed  upon 
Louis  Philippe  to  ob- 
tain from  the  Austrian 
government  the  resto- 
ration of  her  confisca- 
ted property,  and  she 
employed  her  fortune 
in  promoting  the  edu- 
cation and  prosperity  of 
her  tenantry.  She  vol- 
unteered as  the  amanu- 
ensis of  the  historian 
Thierry,  studied  math- 
ematics under  Arago,  was  intimate  with  the 
St.  Simonians,  and  published  an  Essai  sur  la 
formation  du  eulte  dogmatique  (Paris,  1846). 
In  1848  she  equipped  volunteers  at  her  own 
expense  in  Lombardy ;  in  Home  she  shared  in 
the  labors  of  Margaret  Fuller  for  the  relief  of 
the  wounded  patriots;  and  in  1849  she  went 
into  exile  in  Turkey,  while  the  Austrians  again 
confiscated  her  property,  which  was  not  re- 
stored to  her  till  1855.  She  thereupon  entered 
upon  a  literary  career,  and  some  have  recog- 
nized in  her  the  original  from  whom  Stendhal 
drew  the  duchess  of  San  Severino,  the  heroine 
of  his  Chartreuse  de  Parme.  She  became  the 
correspondent  of  several  journals;  published  in 
1850  her  Souvenirs  d' 'exile  in  the  National; 
edited  in  Paris  in  1851  Notions  d'histoire  d 
P  usage  des  enfants  ;  and  her  travels  in  the  East 
led  to  her  publication  of  Emina,  recits  turco- 
asiatiques  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1856),  Asie  Mineure 
et  Syrie  (1858),  and  Scenes  de  la  me  turque 
(1858).  In  1860  appeared  her  Hwtoire  de  la 
maison  de  Savoie,  and  in  1869  her  Reflexions 
sur  Vetat  actuel  de  Vltalie  et  sur  son  avenir. 

BELGIUM  (Fr.  La  Belgique),  a  kingdom  of 
Europe,  situated  between  N.  E.  France,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  the  North  sea,  and  extend- 
ing from  lat.  49°  30'  to  51°  30'  N.,  and  from  Ion. 
2°  33'  to  6°  6'  E. ;  area,  11,372  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1832,  4,064,235;  in  1849,  4,359,090;  in  1856, 
4,529,360;  in  1866,  4,829,320;  in  1869,  by  cal- 
culation, 5,021,336.  Its  greatest  length  from 
S.  E.  to  N".  W.  is  180  English  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth,  from  the  northern  boundary 
of  Antwerp  to  the  most  southern  part  of  Hai- 
naut,  is  124  miles.  The  kingdom  is  divided  into 
nine  provinces,  as  follows: 


488 


BELGIUM 


PROVINCES. 

Are*. 

Pop.,  Jan. 
1,  1849. 

Pop.,  Dec. 

31,  1866. 

Pop.,  Dec. 
31,  1869. 

1098 

418,824 

478,167 

4SA8S8 

Brabant       .     ... 

1268 

711,882 

819,182 

StiH.li-.-2 

Flanders,  W  
Flanders,  £  
Hainaut 

1,249 
1,158 
1437 

626,847 
7M.14:i 
7^8,539 

689,64.3 
801,859 
846.146 

Oiki.WJ 
829,887 
884,319 

1  119 

460  608 

557.549 

.r)S4.71s 

931 

186,621 

195.850 

I»*.7:i7 

Luxemburg  

1.704 
1,418 

187,978 
26t.,143 

isiii.ioc, 

299,808 

204,826 
810,903 

Total  

11,872 

4,859,090 

4.829,320 

5,021,886 

The  annual  increase  of  the  population  since 
1856  has  been  about  -962  per  cent.  In  1868 
there  were  163,619  births  (of  which  12,108 
were  illegitimate),  36,271  marriages,  60  divor- 
ces, and  115,041  deaths.  The  male  sex  showed 
a  slight  preponderance  over  the  female.  The 
number  of  emigrants  in  1865  was  12,015,  of 
immigrants  9,600.  Of  the  cities  of  Belgium, 
one,  Brussels,  had  in  1869  upward  of  171,000 
(with  8  suburbs,  814,000)  inhabitants;  3,  Ant- 


werp, Ghent,  and  Li6ge,  upward  of  100,000; 
and  5,  Bruges,  Mechlin,  Verviers,  Louvain,  and 
Tournay,  from  30,000  to  50,000  inhabitants. 
In  1866  the  kingdom  had  131  communes  with 
more  and  2,429  with  less  than  5,000  inhabitants. 
The  Belgian  people  consist  of  two  different  na- 
tionalities :  the  Flemish,  a  branch  of  the  Ger- 
man race,  and  the  Walloon,  an  offshoot  of  the 
French.  Although  only  42 '3  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population  are  purely  "Walloon,  and  49 '8 
per  cent.  Flemings  (the  remainder  speaking 
either  both  these  or  other  languages),  the 
French  is  the  predominant  and  the  official 
language.  Of  late,  however,  the  Flemish  ma- 
jority have  begun  a  vigorous  struggle  to  secure 
at  least  equal  rights  for  their  language;  and 
thus  the  nationality  conflict  has  become  of 
great  political  significance  in  Belgium.  The 
following  table  shows  the  numerical  propor- 
tion which  exists  between  the  two  principal 
nationalities  in  the  several  provinces  of  the 
kingdom : 


PROVINCES. 

NUMBER   SPEAKING 
FLEMISH. 

NUMBER  SPEAKING 
FRENCH. 

NUMBER  SPEAKING 
BOTH  LANGUAGES. 

Inhabitants. 

Per  cent. 

Inhabitant*. 

Per  cent. 

Inhabitant*. 

Per  csnt. 

480,408 
456,175 
564.840 
744.251 
15.476 
21,490 
178.282 
184 
390 

92-4 
66-1 
8S-0 
92-4 
1-8 
8-9 
88-8 
0-1 
0-1 

8.SN7 
216.098 
26,659 
7,837 
810,260 
499.108 
8.784 
16!l.4t>i 
299,846 

0-8 

26-6 
4-1 
1-0 
95-S 
89-6 
4-5 
64-7 
99-1 

28,592 
ISO.  722 
48.077 
51,819 
17.566 
16,888 
12.476 
.       461 
1,710 

6-1 
16-1 
7-6 
64 
2-1 
8-0 
6-4 
0-2 
0-8 

Brabant          

Flanders  W      .   .          

Liege 

Total 

2,406,491 

49-8           2,041,784 

42-3 

808,861 

6-4 

— The  surface  of  Belgium  is  generally  level.  In 
the  southeast  there  are  some  high  and  well 
wooded  lands,  traversed  by  or  connected  with 
the  Ardennes.  South  of  Verviers  there  is  also 
a  wild  tract  of  elevated  country  of  small  ex- 
tent, the  highest  elevation  not  exceeding  2,300 
feet.  Between  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt 
there  is  another  ridge.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Meuse,  the  Scheldt,  the  Ourthe,  and 
the  Sambre.  The  Meuse  flows  from  France 
through  the  provinces  of  Namur  and  Liege 
into  Holland,  and  is  navigable  throughout 
its  Belgian  course.  The  Scheldt  enters  Bel- 
gium in  the  province  of  Hainaut,  and  runs 
across  the  Belgian  territory,  receiving  the  Den- 
der,  the  Dyle,  and  other  streams,  and  passing 
into  Holland  below  Antwerp.  It  is  navigable 
throughout  Belgium,  but  is  obstructed  by 
banks  at  its  mouth.  The  Ourthe  rises  in  the 
Ardennes,  and  falls  into  the  Meuse  at  Liege. 
The  Sambre  flows  from  France  into  Belgium, 
and  falls  into  the  Meuse  at  Namur.  The 
northern  part  of  the  country  is  of  tertiary 
formation.  In  the  southeastern  provinces  the 
lower  formations  are  red  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, resting  upon  granite,  quartz,  and  slate. 
Fossil  animals  are  very  numerous;  the  lime- 
stone caverns  through  which  the  river  Lesse 
has  made  its  way  are  remarkable  natural  cu- 
riosities. East  and  West  Flanders  are  princi- 


pally sand. — After  England,  Belgium  yields 
more  fuel  than  any  other  country  in  Europe. 
There  were  155  coal  mines  in  operation  in 
1866,  covering  213,545  acres,  and  employing 
86,721  persons,  and  producing  in  1866  12,- 
774,662  tons  (against  5,820,858  in  1850),  of 
the  value  of  151,031,574  francs.  About  two 
thirds  of  the  produce  is  consumed  in  the 
country,  and  the  rest  exported  to  France  and 
Holland.  The  most  extensive  coal  fields  are 
in  the  province  of  Hainaut,  which  alone  in 
1 866  produced  9,800,000  tons.  The  production 
of  iron  is  also  large.  The  best  iron  is  found 
in  the  country  between  the  Sambre  and  the 
Meuse.  Lead,  manganese,  and  other  minerals, 
especially  zinc,  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  country.  The  most  celebrated  zinc  mines 
are  between  Liege  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The 
country  abounds  at  the  same  time  in  building, 
paving,  and  lime  stones,  roofing  slate,  and  mar- 
ble. The  black  marble  of  Dinant  is  renowned 
for  its  beauty.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Belgium 
is,  next  to  agriculture,  the  most  important 
source  of  the  national  prosperity.  The  most 
celebrated  mineral  springs  are  at  the  famous 
watering  place  Spa,  near  the  frontier  of  Rhe- 
nish Prussia. — The  canals,  though  numerous, 
are  not  equal  in  length  to  those  of  Holland, 
being  about  300  m.  The  greatest  of  these  is 
the  Brussels  canal,  supplied  by  the  river  Senne, 


BELGIUM 


489 


which  was  opened  in  1550.  Ghent  is  connect- 
ed with  the  sea  by  a  canal  opening  into  the  E. 
Scheldt,  which  admits  vessels  drawing  18  feet. 
The  railways  of  Belgium  were  the  earliest  of 
continental  Europe,  and  rapidly  followed  those 
of  England,  which  they  have  surpassed  in  unity 
of  design  and  economy  of  construction.  The 
principal  lines  were  built  by  the  government. 
The  aggregate  length  of  railways  in  1870  was 
1,930  m.  (against  550  in  1860),  of  which  1,426 
belonged  to  private  companies,  and  504  to  the 
state ;  and  320  m.  were  in  the  course  of  con- 
struction. The  receipts  were  upward  of  40,- 
000,000  francs,  while  the  total  cost  of  perma- 
nent construction  had  been  756,464,128  francs. 
Electric  telegraphs  have  been  in  operation 
since  March  15,  1851.  In  1870  the  aggregate 
length  of  the  lines  was  2,605  m.,  and  of  the 
wires,  8,293.  The  number  of  telegraph  offices 
in  1869  was  433;  their  aggregate  receipts, 
1,323,596  fr. ;  their  expenditures,  1,298,915  fr.— 
The  agriculture  of  Belgium  is  not  surpassed 
by  that  of  any  nation.  The  originally  un- 
favorable soil  has  by  generations  of  careful 
culture  been  raised  to  great  productiveness. 
Large  farms  are  rare,  the  subdivisions  of  the 
soil  have  been  carried  down  to  garden  size, 
and  less  than  -^  of  the  whole  area  of  the 
kingdom  is  uprofitable.  Flax  is  an  object  of 
peculiar  care,  and  the  Belgian  system  of  culti- 
vation is  studied  everywhere.  East  and  West 
Flanders  alone  produce  flax  to  the  value  of 
$8,000,000  annually.  The  artificial  grasses  are 
also  generally  productive,  while  the  production 
of  root  crops  by  artificial  manure  is  matter  of 
elaborate  study  and  attention.  Belgium  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  horses,  of  which  it  possesses 
nearly  300,000.  Those  of  the  Ardennes  are 
excellent  cavalry  horses,  and  those  of  Namur 
are  famous  draught  horses.  The  number  of 
cattle  exceeds  1,200,000,  and  of  sheep  700,000. 
The  government  pays  special  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  horses  and  cattle. — In  com- 
mercial pursuits  and  manufactures  Belgium  has 
long  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation.  But  the 
fame  of  her  linens  and  woven  goods  had  some- 
what deteriorated  from  the  high  estimation 
they  enjoyed  in  the  14th  century,  until  the 
separation  from  Holland.  The  lace  of  Brussels 
and  Mechlin,  the  linens  and  damasks  of  Li6ge, 
the  woollens  of  Ypres,  the  cotton  goods,  carpets, 
and  hosiery  of  the  country,  compete  with 
the  productions  of  the  French  and  English 
looms.  The  machine  factory  of  Oockerill  and 
company,  founded  at  Li6ge  in  1816,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  works  of  the  kind  in  Europe. 
Li6ge  has  a  cannon  foundery,  and  is  noted  for 
its  manufactories  of  firearms. — The  foreign 
commerce  of  Belgium  during  its  connection 
with  Holland  suffered  for  the  sake  of  Amster- 
dam and  Rotterdam,  and  .judicious  plans  of  in- 
ternal improvement  have  since  occupied  the 
national  attention.  The  entries  at  the  Belgian 
ports,  chiefly  Antwerp  and  Ostend,  in  1869, 
were  5,411  vessels,  of  1,470,322  tons,  and  the 
clearances  were  5,326  vessels,  of  1,456,965 


tons.  The  merchant  navy  in  1869  consisted 
of  67  sailing  vessels,  of  23,981  tons,  and  12 
steamers,  of  8,762  tons.  The  number  of  fish- 
ing boats  was  265,  of  9,087  tons.  The  imports 
for  the  same  year  amounted  to  903,600,000  fr. 
and  the  exports  to  691,600,000  fr.  The  im- 
ports from  the  United  States  from  July  1, 
1869,  to  June  30,  1870,  amounted  to  $6,600,- 
000,  and  the  exports  to  that  country  $3,140,- 
000.  The  revenue  of  Belgium  for  1870  was 
176,725,000  fr.,  and  the  expenditure  176,812,- 
836  fr.  The  budget  for  1873  estimates  the  re- 
ceipts at  196,703,500  fr.,  and  1;he  expenditures 
at  192,620,512  fr.,  the  latter  including  49,593,- 
136  fr.  for  public  debt,  53,202,054  fr.  for  pub- 
lic works,  and  37,125,000  fr.  for  the  army. 
The  public  debt,  commenced  by  the  assump- 
tion of  220,000,000  francs  of  the  enormous 
debt  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  at 
the  time  of  the  separation,  has  been  constantly 
increased  by  the  construction  of  railways,  the 
fortifications  of  Antwerp,  extra  military  expen- 
diture in  1870,  &c.,  and  on  May  1,  1870,  con- 
sisted of  705,874,214  fr.  The  aggregate  debts 
of  the  communes  amounted  to  126,319,085  fr. — 
The  military  force  of  the  kingdom,  according 
to  the  law  of  April  5,  1868,  consists  on  the 
war  footing  of  74,000  infantry,  6,530  cavalry, 
14,513  artillery,  2,354  engineers,  1,373  gen- 
darmes; total,  98,770.  The  standing  army 
on  the  peace  footing  numbered  38,970  men. 
Annually  10,000  men  are  enrolled  by  conscrip- 
tion, with  the  right  of  furnishing  substitutes ; 
the  time  of  military  duty  begins  with  the  19th 
year  and  lasts  eight  years,  about  one  half  of 
which  is  spent  on  furlough.  The  principal 
fortresses  of  the  kingdom  are  those  of  Antwerp, 
Charleroi,  Ostend,  Ghent,  and  Namur.  Besides 
the  standing  army,  there  is,  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  May,  1848,  and  July,  1853,  a  na- 
tional guard,  which  comprises  all  citizens  be- 
tween 21  and  40  able  to  bear  arms.  It  num- 
bers 125,000  men  (and  inclusive  of  the  reserve 
400,000),  but  is  in  active  service  only  in  towns 
having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants. — The 
constitution  of  Belgium  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
with  male  succession,  and  in  default  of  male 
issue  the  king  may  nominate  his  successor 
with  consent  of  the  chambers.  The  legislative 
body  consists  of  a  senate  and  house  of  repre- 
sentatives. The  elective  franchise  is  vested  in 
citizens  paying  not  less  than  42  fr.  annually  of 
direct  taxes.  The  house  of  representatives 
consists  of  deputies  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
40,000  of  population.  In  1869  the  number  of 
deputies  was  116,  chosen  from  41  electoral  dis- 
tricts. Citizenship  is  the  sole  qualification  for 
representatives,  and  they  are  elected  for  four 
years  (except  in  case  of  a  dissolution),  half  re- 
tiring every  two  years.  The  senate  has  half 
the  number  of  the  house,  elected  by  the  citi- 
zens for  eight  years,  half  retiring  every  four 
years.  The  senatorial  qualification  is  citizen- 
ship, domiciliation,  40  years  of  age,  and  pay- 
ment of  direct  taxes  of  at  least  2,000  fr.  annu- 
ally. The  restriction  created  by  this  large 


490 


BELGIUM 


proportion  of  taxes  is  mitigated  by  the  admis- 
sion of  those  citizens  who  pay  the  next  largest 
sums,  so  that  the  list  shall  always  be  kept  up 
to  the  footing  of  at  least  one  eligible  person  for 
every  6,000  inhabitants.  The  representatives 
receive  pay  at  the  rate  of  about  $20  per  week. 
Senators  receive  no  pay.  Each  house  may 
originate  laws,  but  money  bills  must  originate 
with  the  representatives.  The  chambers  as- 
semble as  of  right  on  the  second  Tuesday  in 
November.  The  king  may  dissolve  the  cham- 
bers, but  the  act  of  dissolution  must  contain 
a  provision  for  convoking  them  again  within 
two  months.  The  executive  government  con- 
sisted in  1871  of  six  departments,  namely : 
foreign  affairs,  finance,  justice,  public  works, 
war,  and  the  interior.  The  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  is  premier.  Besides  the  heads  of  these 
departments  there  are  a  number  of  ministers 
without  portfolio,  who  form  a  privy  council 
called  together  on  special  occasions  by  the 
sovereign.  Titles  of  nobility  are  allowed  by 
the  constitution,  but  without  particular  privi- 
leges, all  Belgians  being  equal  in  the  eye  of 
the  law.  Trial  by  jury  on  criminal  and  po- 
litical charges,  and  offences  of  the  press,  are 
provided  for.  Taxes  and  the  army  contin- 
gent must  be  voted  annually.  The  law  is 
administered  by  local  and  provincial  tribu- 
nals, with  courts  of  appeal  at  Brussels,  Ghent, 
and  Lie'ge. — Various  pernicious  influences  have 
produced  a  vast  amount  of  pauperism.  In 
1857  the  908,000  families  of  the  kingdom  were, 
according  to  an  official  report  made  to  the 
legislature,  divided  into  89,000  which  were 
wealthy,  373,000  living  in  straitened  circum- 
stances, and  446,000  living  in  a  wretched  con- 
dition. Of  the  latter  class  266,000  received 
support  from  the  state. — The  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  largely  predominant  in  Belgium.  The 
number  of  Protestants  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  10,000  to  25,000.  The  Jews  num- 
ber about  2,000.  The  stipends  of  ministers  of 
all  denominations  are  derived  from  the  state. 
At  the  head  of  the.  Catholic  church  are  the 
archbishop  of  Mechlin  and  the  bishops  of  Ghent, 
Bruges,  Liege,  Nainur,  and  Tournay.  Monas- 
tic institutions  are  very  numerous.  In  1866 
there  were  2,893  monks  in  178  monasteries, 
and  15,205  nuns  in  1,144  convents  and  commu- 
nities. The  "  Protestant  Evangelical  Church," 
to  which  the  majority  of  Belgian  Protestants 
belong,  is  governed  by  a  synod  which  sits  once  a 
year  at  Brussels,  and  is  composed  of  the  clergy- 
men of  the  body  and  a  representative  from  each 
of  the  congregations. — There  are  government 
universities  at  Ghent  and  Li6ge,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic university  at  Louvain,  and  a  free  university 
at  Brussels.  There  are  superior  public  schools 
in  most  of  the  cities,  and  a  great  number  of 
schools  have  been  established  for  instruction  in 
particular  branches  of  industry,  agricultural  pro- 
cesses, chemistry,  and  design.  The  conservatory 
of  music  at  Brussels  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  the  world.  The  number  of  primary  schools 
in  1864  was  5,664  (against  5,520  in  1851),  of 


which  4,006  were  under  the  control  of  the 
state.  They  were  attended  by  544,761  pupils; 
and  the  expenditure  incurred  for  their  support 
by  the  state,  the  provinces,  and  the  communes 
was  10,942,000  fr.  About  30  per  cent,  of  the 
adult  population  in  1871  were  unable  to  read 
and  write. — The  history  of  Belgium  as  an  in- 
dependent state  dates  from  1830,  at  which 
time  it  was  separated  from  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands.  Under  the  Romans  the  coun- 
try formed  a  part  of  Gallia  Belgica,  a  name  de- 
rived from  its  original  inhabitants.  (See  GAUL, 
and  BELG.E.)  After  the  fall  of  the  West  Ro- 
man empire  a  number  of  feudal  lords  achieved 
power  in  the  Belgic  territories,  under  the 
Frankish  and  German  monarchs,  among  whom 
the  counts  of  Flanders  rose  to  historical  dis- 
tinction. From  failure  of  male  heirs  their  pos- 
sessions devolved  to  the  house  of  Burgundy  in 
1384,  which  gradually  extended  its  influence, 
by  conquest  or  treaty,  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  Netherlands.  (See  BRABANT,  BURGUNDY, 
and  FLANDERS.)  On  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  his  daughter  Mary,  the  greatest  heiress 
of  Europe,  married  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
afterward  emperor  of  Germany ;  and  under  his 
successor  Charles  V.  the  rule  of  the  Low 
Countries  was  joined  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 
Both  Maximilian  and  Charles  respected  in  some 
degree  the  freedom  and  rights  of  their  Ba- 
tavian  and  Belgic  subjects.  But  Philip  II. 
drove  them  into  that  revolt  which  ended  in  the 
independence  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  yoke  of  Spain  on  the  necks 
of  the  Belgians.  (See  NETHERLANDS.)  From 
this  period  Belgium  followed  the  fortunes  of 
Spain.  In  1598  Philip  bestowed  the  Flemish 
provinces  on  his  daughter  Isabella  and  her  hus- 
band Albert,  during  which  period  something 
was  effected  toward  the  settlement  of  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  province.  On  the  death 
|  of  Isabella  without  issue,  Spain  again  assumed 
the  government,  and  the  Spanish  Low  Countries 
were  for  the  next  century  the  battlefield  of  Eu- 
rope. The  cities  were  taken  and  retaken,  the 
territory  cut  up,  and  passed  from  one  power 
to  another  by  the  treaties  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1668),  Nimeguen  (1678),  and  Ryswick  (1697), 
until  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  gave  the 
country  to  Austria ;  and,  as  though  these  in- 
fluences had  not  been  sufficiently  injurious  to 
the  country,  the  so-called  barrier  treaty  of 
1715  delivered  over  several  of  the  fortresses  to 
Holland,  in  order  to  create  a  barrier  against 
French  ambition.  Holland  closed  the  Scheldt, 
and  so  diverted  the  trade  of  Antwerp,  and 
in  1722  the  rising  commerce  of  Ostend  was 
sacrificed  to  the  Dutch.  The  empress  Maria 
Theresa  appointed  Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
her  viceroy,  and  under  his  equitable  rule 
the  people  enjoyed  an  interval  of  peace.  Jo- 
seph II.  shook  off  the  bonds  of  the  barrier 
treaty  with  the  Dutch,  and  compelled  Holland 
to  withdraw  her  army  of  occupation,  but 
could  not  succeed  in  reopening  the  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt.  He  also  addressed  himself  to 


BELGIUM 


491 


the  reform  of  existing  abuses ;  but  here,  as  in 
other  parts  of  his  empire,  his  precipitation 
placed  a  lever  in  the  hands  of  those  who 
opposed  his  plans,  which  they  used  success- 
fully to  excite  popular  discontent.  On  Dec. 
11,  1789,  the  opposition,  which  had  manifested 
itself  in  a  serious  revolt,  culminated  in  a  move- 
ment in  Brussels  against  the  garrison,  which 
was  forced  to  capitulate.  Joseph  and  his  suc- 
cessor Leopold  II.  made  liberal  offers  for  an 
adjustment  of  the  differences  and  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  constitution ;  but  the 
liberal  leaders  stood  out  for  an  independent 
Belgian  republic.  Internal  dissensions  soon 
threw  them  into  the  power  of  the  Austrians 
again,  when  Pichegru  crossed  the  frontier,  un- 
der instructions  from  the  French  convention,  to 
assist  the  Belgians.  The  Austrians  were  rap- 
idly driven  back,  and  the  Belgians  found  them- 
selves incorporated  into  the  French  republic, 
and  eventually  they  became  a  part  of  the  empire. 
On  Napoleon's  abdication  in  1814,  the  country 
was  put  under  the  control  of  an  Austrian  gov- 
ernor, but  at  the  final  peace  it  was  united  with 
Holland  under  Prince  William  Frederick  of 
Orange-Nassau  as  king  of  the  new  kingdom, 
called  Netherlands,  being  destined  to  form  a 
strong  bulwark  against  France.  The  inclina- 
tions and  habits  of  the  Belgians,  which  led 
them  to  a  French  alliance,  were  not  consult- 
ed in  this  settlement,  and  their  dissatisfaction 
was  aggravated  by  the  unwise  policy  of  the 
Hollanders,  and  by  the  marked  differences  in 
national  character,  language,  religion,  and  pur- 
suits. In  the  states  general  Holland  with  about 
2,500,000  was  to  have  a  number  of  representa- 
tives equal  to  Belgium  with  nearly  4,000,000 
of  people.  Belgium  had  only  a  debt  of  4,000,000 
florins,  Holland  a  debt  of  1,200,000,000 ;  this 
was  imposed  on  Belgian  industry.  The  consti- 
tution which  contained  all  these  objectionable 
provisions  was  passed  by  an  assembly  in  which 
the  dissentient  Belgian  nobility  were  an  actual 
majority,  but  the  absent  Belgians  were  reckoned 
as  assenting.  The  use  of  the  French  language 
in  judicial  and  government  proceedings  was  to 
be  abolished.  In  May,  1 830,  disregarding  640 
petitions,  the  government  carried  a  new  law  of 
the  press.  Officials  holding  Belgian  opinions 
were  dismissed.  M.  de  Potter,  the  head  of  the 
Belgian  party,  opened  a  subscription  for  all 
those  who  thus  suffered  for  their  principles.  De 
Potter  and  his  confidential  friends,  Tielemans, 
Bartels,  and  De  Neve,  were  arraigned  for  se- 
dition ;  the  charge  was  proved  by  their  private 
correspondence  with  each  other,  and  they  were 
banished.  The  public  mind  was  in  a  state  of 
excitement,  which  was  raised  to  its  highest 
pitch  of  intensity  by  the  revolution  of  July  in 
Paris.  At  length,  on  Aug.  25,  1830,  during  a 
performance  of  Auber's  "Masaniello"  at  the 
grand  opera  of  Brussels,  the  insurrectionary 
spirit  was  aroused  into  action  by  the  music. 
The  theatre  was  rapidly  emptied,  the  office  of 
the  National  newspaper,  the  government  organ, 
was  sacked,  the  armorers'  shops  were  broken 


open,  and  barricades  were  erected.  The  civic 
guard  restored  order  the  next  day;  but  the 
revolution  had  spread,  and  in  all  the  principal 
cities  the  same  scene  was  reenacted.  On  Aug. 
28  a  congress  of  citizens  assembled  in  the  h6tel 
de  ville  of  Brussels ;  they  adopted  an  address 
to  the  king,  asking  for  reform  of  the  system  of 
government,  dismissal  of  the  unpopular  minis- 
ters, and  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  prosecutions 
and  proceedings  affecting  the  press.  The  king 
received  the  deputies  at  the  Hague,  and  re- 
fused to  pledge  himself  to  anything  while  under 
menaces  of  force,  but  promised  an  early  con- 
sideration of  the  matter.  This  answer  gave 
great  dissatisfaction.  Subsequently  the  crown 
prince  was  induced  to  visit  Brussels.  He  held 
a  conference  with  the  leading  men  of  the  city, 
and  appointed  a  committee  for  redress  of 
grievances.  The  Liege  deputation,  however, 
boldly  told  the  prince  that  nothing  short  of 
total  separation  from  Holland  would  now  pacify 
the  people.  The  king  summoned  a  states  gen- 
eral extraordinary  on  Sept.  13,  formed  a  new 
ministry  under  De  Potter  and  De  Stassart,  and 
then  sent  troops  to  Brussels,  and  called  on  the 
rebels  to  submit.  On  Sept.  20  the  streets  of 
Brussels  were  rendered  completely  impassable. 
Prince  Frederick  advanced  with  14,000  men, 
and  on  Sept.  23  attacked  the  porte  de  Saar- 
brftck.  After  a  battle  of  six  hours  the  troops 
fought  their  way  through  the  streets  to  the 
palace,  and  for  three  days  there  was  an  inces- 
sant engagement,  during  which  the  Dutch  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  principal  part  of  the 
city.  But  the  insurgents,  receiving  reenforce- 
ments  from  Liege  and  other  towns,  recovered 
strength,  and  Prince  Frederick's  position  soon 
became  hopeless.  He  ordered  a  retreat ;  Brus- 
sels was  free ;  Mons,  Ghent,  Ypres,  and  all  the 
other  leading  towns,  at  once  declared  in  favor 
of  total  separation,  and  on  Oct.  6  the  Dutch 
garrison  of  Liege  capitulated.  Antwerp  was 
now  the  only  important  place  which  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  and  even  in  that 
city  their  authority  was  rapidly  crumbling 
away.  Gen.  Chasse  had  thrown  himself  into 
the  citadel,  and  the  authorities  agreed  on  an 
armistice.  But  the  insurgent  forces  repudiated 
the  right  of  the  magistrates  to  negotiate  with 
the  enemy,  and  summoned  Chasse  to  surren- 
der. In  reply  he  opened  his  guns  on  the 
quarter  of  the  town  in  which  the  revolutionary 
troops  lay,  and  did  much  harm  to  the  city, 
besides  destroying  a  vast  quantity  of  valuable 
merchandise.  A  provisional  government  had 
been  already  formed  in  Brussels,  consisting  of 
Baron  van  Hoogvorst,  Charles  Rogier,  Jolly, 
Count  Felix  de  Merode,  Gendebien,  Van  de 
Weyer,  Potter,  and  some  others.  They  ap- 
pointed the  various  ministers,  summoned  a 
national  congress,  and  settled  the  basis  of  a 
constitution  which  recognized  the  monarchical 
principle.  Secretaries  Nothomb  and  Paul  De- 
vaux  were  directed  to  prepare  a  draft  of  a 
constitution  in  accordance  with  this  basis. 
Prince  Frederick  went  so  far  as  to  consent 


492 


BELGIUM 


to  the  independence  of  Belgium  on  condition 
that  he  should  be  made  its  king,  but  this 
was  of  no  avail.  On  Oct.  25  he  quitted 
Antwerp,  and  on  the  27th  Gen.  Chasse  com- 
menced a  two  days'  bombardment  of  the 
town,  by  which  wanton  act  the  Dutch  party 
crushed  out  all  chance  of  a  friendly  settle- 
ment. On  Nov.  10  the  national  congress  was 
opened  and  the  independence  of  Belgium  pro- 
claimed. The  form  of  monarchical  govern- 
ment was  adhered  to,  but  the  exclusion  of  the 
house  of  Orange  for  ever  from  the  crown  of 
Belgium  was  carried  by  an  overwhelming  ma- 
jority. King  William  now  turned  to  the  great 
powers  who  had  given  him  Belgium  and  guar- 
anteed his  quiet  enjoyment  of  his  new  domin- 
ion. At  his  request  a  conference  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers  was  held  in  London,  which  or- 
dered an  armistice,  and  the  retirement  of  the 
troops  of  both  parties  within  their  respective 
frontiers.  On  Jan.  20,  1831,  the  independence 
of  Belgium  was  acknowledged  by  the  confer- 
ence, binding  Belgium  to  the  assumption  of  a 
part  of  the  state  debt,  which  entailed  upon 
her  the  payment  of  14,000,000  florins  annually. 
The  crown  was  offered  to  the  duke  de  Nemours, 
Louis  Philippe's  son,  and  declined,  as  the  Euro- 
pean powers  would  not  countenance  that  pro- 
ject. The  national  congress  now  determined 
by  a  majority  to  appoint  a  regent  in  place  of 
the  provisional  government,  and  Baron  Surlet 
de  Choquier  was  elected.  He  took  the  reins 
of  government  and  named  a  ministry,  which, 
being  composed  of  incongruous  materials,  soon 
resigned,  and  another  was  appointed.  The 
choice  of  the  ministry  and  national  congress 
now  fell  on  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who 
accepted  the  crown.  His  relationship  to  the 
royal  family  of  England  as  widower  of  the 
princess  Charlotte  naturally  procured  him  the 
sympathy  of  the  British  government,  and  he 
was  soon  considered  as  a  kind  of  mediator 
between  England  and  France.  Not  long  after 
his  coronation  (July  21,  1831)  Holland,  in  de- 
fiance of  the  armistice,  sent  an  army  across 
the  frontier,  and  the  new  king  thus  found 
himself  engaged  in  war,  with  a  kingdom  dis- 
organized, an  army  hastily  levied,  and  an  un- 
formed administration.  Leopold  asked  aid 
from  France,  which  was  promptly  afforded, 
and  Marshal  Gerard,  accompanied  by  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  marched  an  army  to  Brussels, 
which  compelled  the  Dutch  forces  to  retreat 
across  their  frontier.  William  of  Holland  had 
not,  however,  given  his  consent  to  the  new 
order  of  things  in  Belgium,  seeing  that  as  yet 
the  question  of  the  public  debt  was  not  satis- 
factorily disposed  of.  Accordingly,  the  con- 
ference determined  on  compelling  Holland  to 
evacuate  the  Belgian  territory,  and  an  Anglo- 
French  fleet  was  to  cooperate  with  the  army 
under  Gerard  in  reducing  the  citadel  of  Ant- 
werp and  Forts  Lillo  and  Liefkenshoek.  The 
siege  of  Antwerp  began  Nov.  29,  1832,  and 
on  Dec.  23  Gen.  Chasse  capitulated.  The 
other  forts  were  not  evacuated,  but  Leopold 


declared  himself  satisfied  to  hold  Limburg 
and  Luxemburg  against  the  strong  places  in 
question,  and  accordingly  the  French  army 
retired.  On  Aug.  9,  1832,  Leopold  married 
the  princess  Louise,  daughter  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe. The  new  king  soon  found  himself 
obliged  to  dissolve  the  chamber  which  had 
elected  him,  and  to  summon  a  second.  The 
final  peace  was  concluded  between  Belgium 
and  Holland  April  19,  1839,  at  the  dictation 
of  the  European  powers,  by  which  Luxem- 
burg and  Limburg  were  divided  between 
the  contending  parties,  Holland  receiving  the 
eastern  divisions  with  the  fortresses  of  Maes- 
tricht,  Venloo,  and  Luxemburg.  The  only 
effect  upon  Belgium  of  the  revolutionary  agi- 
tation of  Europe  in  1848  was  the  establish- 
ment of  an  electoral  reform  and  the  abolition 
of  the  newspaper  duty.  King  Leopold  ex- 
pressed his  willingness  to  resign  the  crown, 
but  the  suggestion  was  not  entertained.  The 
coup  d'etat  of  Napoleon  in  1851  caused  fresh 
embarrassment  to  Belgium  by  the  influx  of 
French  refugees.  The  government  felt  obliged 
to  suppress  the  most  obnoxious  journals,  ex- 
pel a  few  refugees,  and  pass  a  law  punish- 
ing attempts  against  the  lives  of  foreign  sov- 
ereigns. The  conflict  between  the  two  po- 
litical parties,  the  Catholic  and  the  liberal, 
turned  chiefly  on  home  questions,  especially 
relative  to  the  influence  of  the  clergy  in  pub- 
lic instruction ;  but  by  the  year  1857  the  lib- 
erals had  gained  the  upper  hand,  ruling  the 
country  till  1870.  The  principal  reforms  ef- 
fected during  this  period  were  the  abolition  of 
the  octrois  eommunaux,  or  city  gate  tolls,  and 
the  tax  on  salt ;  the  substitution  of  the  edu- 
cational qualification  for  officeholders  instead 
of  the  tax-paying  qualification;  laws  against 
election  frauds ;  and  reforms  in  the  penal  code. 
The  different  copyright  treaties  concluded 
with  France  and  other  powers,  though  strong- 
ly opposed,  proved  beneficial  to  Belgian  litera- 
ture. Commercial  treaties  were  also  concluded 
with  France,  England,  and  the  United  States, 
on  the  basis  of  free  trade,  similar  in  spirit  to 
the  treaty  made  between  France  and  England. 
Leopold  died  Dec.  9,  1865,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son,  Leopold  II.  The  question  of 
the  fortification  of  Antwerp,  which  formed  for 
years  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  po- 
litical parties,  was  finally  settled  in  favor  of 
Belgium  in  1870.-  During  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  1870  Belgium  observed  a  lonafide  neu- 
trality, forbidding  even  the  exportation  of 
arms  and  other  war  material ;  yet  her  position 
might  have  been  endangered  had  it  not  been 
for  England,  which  hastened  to  conclude  a 
triple  treaty  with  Prussia  and  France  (Aug. 
9,  1870),  which  guaranteed  the  independence 
and  neutrality  of  Belgium  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1839.  This  triple 
treaty  was  to  remain  in  force  for  only  one 
year  after  the  cessation  of  the  war. — See  Let 
fondateurs  de  la  monarcfiie  beige,  by  Theo- 
dore Juste  (Brussels,  1865  et  seq.). 


BELGOROD 


BELIDOR 


493 


BELGOROD,  or  Blelzorod  (Russ.,  white  city), 
a  town  of  Great  Russia,  on  the  Donetz,  in  the 
government  and  80  in.  S.  of  the  city  of  Kursk ; 
pop.  in  1867,  15,200.  The  town  was  originally 
built  by  the  Tartars  in  the  reign  of  Fedor 
Ivanovitch,  1597,  on  a  chalk  hill,  whence  its 
name.  It  was  afterward  removed  a  mile  lower 
down.  It  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new  town, 
and  has  three  suburbs.  The  old  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  rampart  and  ditch,  the  new  town 
by  palisades  only.  Belgorod  has  several  fac- 
tories for  refining  wax,  and  for  spinning  and 
weaving;  it  also  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  hemp,  bristles,  honey,  wax,  leather, 
and  soap.  Three  fairs  are  held  during  the  year, 
to  which  merchants  from  the  south  of  Russia 
resort.  The  environs  are  very  fruitful.  Bel- 
gorod is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  18 
churches,  2  convents,  and  3  charitable  asylums. 

BELGRADE  (Serv.  Belgrad,  white  city ;  anc. 
Singidunum),  the  capital  of  Servia,  with  a 


Belgrade. 

convenient  port  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, at  its  junction  with  the  Save,  44  m.  8. 
E.  of  Peterwardein ;  pop.  in  1866,  25,089. 
The  citadel,  formerly  occupied  by  a  Turkish 
garrison,  is  on  a  small  strip  of  land  between 
the  two  rivers,  behind  which  is  the  city.  Its 
parts  are:  the  Turkish  quarter,  which  slopes 
to  the  Danube,  and,  though  no  longer  inhabited 
by  Moslems,  and  partly  in  ruins,  still  presents 
an  oriental  appearance ;  and  the  Servian  quar- 
ter, which  borders  the  Save,  with  a  quay  and 
fine  houses  in  modern  style.  Belgrade  is  grad- 
ually becoming  modernized,  churches  are  su- 
perseding mosques,  and  new  buildings  are  con- 
structed, chiefly  in  the  German  fashion.  It 
produces  arms,  carpets,  silk  goods,  cutlery,  and 
saddles.  It  js  the  entrepot  of  commerce  be- 
tween Turkey  and  the  Austro-Hungarian  em- 
pire, and  the  seat  of  the  highest  authorities  of 
the  principality.  Its  situation  gives  it  military 
importance,  but  the  fortifications  are  now  rap- 


idly decaying. — Belgrade  was  long  an  object 
of  contention  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Turks.  It  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
latter  in  1456,  when  John  Hunyady  defended 
it  against  Mohammed  II.,  but  was  taken  by 
Solyman  the  Magnificent  in  1521,  and  held  till 
1688,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  elector  of 
Bavaria.  Two  years  later  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Turks.  In  1717  it  was  besieged  by  Prince 
Eugene,  who  was  in  his  turn  surrounded  by  a 
vastly  superior  Turkish  army.  After  a  pro- 
digious defeat  of  the  latter,  the  city  surrendered. 
In  1739  the  Turks  came  into  possession  of  it  by 
treaty,  retaining  it  till  1789,  when  it  was  again 
taken  by  the  Austrians  under  Laudon,  who, 
however,  relinquished  it  to  the  Turks  in  1791. 
It  was  partly  ruined  during  the  Servian  insur- 
rection in  1813.  In  1862  a  difficulty  between 
the  Turks  and  Servians  caused  the  commander 
of  the  citadel  to  open  tire  upon  the  city.  In 
1863  all  the  Turkish  inhabitants  of  the  city 
were  forced  to  emi- 
grate. In  1867  the  sul- 
tan was  prevailed  upon 
to  withdraw  the  gar- 
rison, and,  though  re- 
serving the  right  of 
sovereignty,  to  trans- 
fer the  citadel  to  Ser- 
via. Since  then  Bel- 
grade has  been  making 
rapid  progress  in  every 
respect. 

BELIAL,  a  compound 
Hebrew  word,  which 
the  Vulgate  and  the 
English  version  of  the 
Bible  frequently  but 
improperly  render  as  a 
proper  name.  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word, 
and  consequently  its 
precise  signification,  is 
not  certain.  The  first 
part  is  undoubtedly  the 

Hebrew  beli,  "  without ; "  the  second  part 
is  by  some  connected  with  the  Hebrew  'ol, 
"yoke,"  when  the  meaning  would  be  "un- 
bridled;" by  others  with  'alah,  "to  ascend," 
and  the  signification  would  be  "ignoble  con- 
dition;" by  others  with  ya'al,  "usefulness," 
the  signification  being  "  worthlessness."  The 
last  derivation  has  the  greater  number  of  sup- 
porters. It  is  usually  preceded  by  "man  of" 
or  "son  of."  The  phrase  "man  ofbelial,"or 
"son  of  belial,"  is  thus  equivalent  to  "a  very 
worthless  fellow."  In  the  best  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament  the  word  appears  as  Be- 
liar,  the  final  I,  as  is  not  unfreqnently  the  case, 
being  changed  to  r. 

BELIDOR,  Bernard  Forest  de,  a  French  military 
engineer  and  author,  born  in  Catalonia  in  1693, 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  8,  1761.  He  was  employed 
by  Cassini  and  La  Hire  in  their  measurements 
of  an  arc  of  the  meridian ;  and  they  recom- 
mended him  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of 


494 


BELISARIUS 


France,  who  appointed  him  professor  of  the 
newly  established  artillery  school  of  La  Fere, 
which  institution  acquired  great  celebrity  under 
his  management.  About  1740,  however,  he 
lost  the  position  through  the  jealousy  of  su- 
perior officers,  and  became  aide-de-camp  of 
Gen.  de  S6gur  in  Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  and 
was  captured  at  Linz,  but  exchanged  after  two 
months  of  confinement,  after  which  he  joined 
the  staff  of  the  duke  d'Harcourt  as  lieutenant 
colonel.  In  1744  he  served  under  the  prince 
de  Conti  in  Italy,  where  his  skill  in  reducing 
strongholds  without  risking  an  engagement 
with  the  enemy  was  conspicuous ;  and  subse- 
quently he  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture 
of  Charleroi,  and  was  promoted  to  a  colonelcy. 
In  1758  he  became  director  of  the  arsenal  of 
Paris,  and  afterward  inspector  general  of  engi- 
neering. Among  his  publications  are:  Cours 
de  mathematiques,  comprising  his  lectures  at 
La  F&re  on  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
military  engineering  (1725 ;  enlarged  and  re- 
vised ed.  by  Mauduit,  1759) ;  La  science  des 
ingeniewi  dans  la  conduite  des  travaux  &e  for- 
tification et  d*  architecture  civile  (1729  ;  2d  ed., 
Paris,  1749,  and  the  Hague,  1753  ;  new  illus- 
trated and  annotated  edition  by  Navier,  Paris, 
1837) ;  Le  bombardier  franfais,  ou  nouvelle 
methode  de  jeter  leg  bombes  avec  precision  (1731 ; 
Amsterdam,  1734) ;  and  Traite  des  fortifica- 
tions (2  vols.,  1735).  The  first  volume  of  a 
new  edition  of  his  greatest  work,  Architecture 
hydraulique  (4  vols.,  illustrated,  1737-'53), 
which  continues  to  rank  as  a  great  authority, 
was  published  in  1819  by  Navier,  who  died  in 
1836  without  finishing  the  remaining  3  volumes. 
A  German  translation  appeared  at  Augsburg 
(2  vols.,  1764-'66).  He  was  among  the  first  to 
demonstrate  the  utility  of  compression  globes, 
two  of  his  memoirs  on  this  subject  having  been 
published  in  the  annals  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences (1756). 

BKUSARIIS  (Slavic  JSeli-tzar,  white  prince), 
a  Byzantine  general,  born  at  Germania  in  Illy- 
ria  about  505,  died  in  Constantinople,  March 
18,  565.  While  a  youth  he  served  among  the 
private  guards  of  Justinian,  and  upon  the  ac- 
cession of  that  prince  to  the  throne  in  527 
was  promoted  to  military  command,  and  in 
529  made  general-in-chief  of  the  eastern  army 
of  the  empire,  stationed  at  Dara  in  Meso- 
potamia, near  the  frontier  of  Armenia.  At 
this  town  he  took  into  his  service,  as  private 
secretary,  Procopius  the  historian,  whose  writ- 
ings are  the  principal  authority  for  the  events 
of  his  life.  In  530,  near  Dara,  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  an  army  of  Persians  nearly 
twice  as  large  as  his  own.  In  the  spring  of  531 
he  marched  from  Dara  to  protect  Syria,  which 
had  been  invaded  from  the  desert.  He  baffled 
the  designs  of  the  Persians  against  Antioch, 
and  although,  owing  to  the  rashness  of  his 
troops,  he  was  defeated  in  a  battle  at  Callini- 
cum,  April  19,  he  successfully  defended  the 
eastern  frontier  till  the  end  of  the  war  in  532. 
Returning  to  Constantinople,  he  married  Anto- 


nina,  a  woman  of  ignoble  birth  and  dissolute 
character,  who  sometimes  accompanied  him  in 
campaigns,  and  at  other  times  intrigued  with 
the  empress  for  his  recall.  He  suppressed  an 
insurrection  of  the  party  of  the  greens  in  Con- 
stantinople against  Justinian,  attacking  them 
in  the  race  course  at  the  head  of  his  life  guards. 
In  533  he  was  made  commander  of  a  land  and 
naval  force  of  600  vessels  and  35,000  men,  with 
which  he  sailed  from  Constantinople  against 
the  Vandals  in  Africa.  He  took  Carthage, 
captured  the  Vandal  king  Gelimer,  and  sent 
detachments  which  reduced  Sardinia,  Corsica, 
and  the  Balearic  isles.  For  these  services  he 
was  on  his  return  to  Constantinople  rewarded 
with  the  first  triumph  granted  to  a  subject 
since  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  a  medal  was  struck 
in  his  honor,  and  in  535  he  was  chosen  sole 
consul  and  awarded  a  second  triumph.  In  the 
same  year  he  commanded  an  expedition  to  re- 
cover Italy  from  the  Ostrogoths.  He  regained 
Sicily,  subdued  a  rebellion  which  had  broken 
out  in  Africa,  and  returned  to  the  island  and 
quelled  a  mutiny  in  his  army.  He  then  cap- 
tured Naples  after  a  siege  of  20  days,  and  at  the 
end  of  536  was  in  possession  of  Rome.  Here  he 
was  besieged  in  537  by  an  army  of  150,000 
Goths,  under  Vitiges,  their  newly  elected 
king.  He  maintained  his  position  until  early 
in  538,  when  the  army  of  the  Goths  retired  to 
Ravenna,  whither,  after  repelling  an  inroad  of 
the  Franks,  Belisarius  followed  and  invested 
the  city.  During  the  siege  Vitiges  obtained 
terms  from  Justinian  which  Belisarius  refused 
to  recognize.  Then  the  Goths  offered  him 
their  support  if  he  would  assume  the  title  of 
emperor  of  the  West.  By  pretended  compli- 
ance he  gained  possession  of  Ravenna  for  the 
emperor,  and  afterward  of  all  Italy,  when  he  was 
recalled  by  Justinian.  In  541,  with  an  unpaid 
and  undisciplined  army,  he  defended  the  east- 
ern frontier  against  the  Persians  under  Chos- 
roes  Nushirvan.  In  542  or  543  he  was  again 
recalled  by  the  intrigues  of  the  empress  Theo- 
dora and  his  wife  Antonina,  who  accused  him 
of  disloyalty  to  Justinian.  His  treasures  were 
attached,  but  he  was  finally  pardoned  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  pay  a  heavy  fine  and  be- 
come reconciled  to  his  wife.  In  544  the  Goths, 
under  Totila,  having  attempted  the  reconquest 
of  Italy,  Belisarius  was  sent  against  them,  and 
during  the  year  546  strove  to  prevent  their 
taking  Rome.  Though  unsuccessful  in  this,  he 
saved  it  from  total  destruction,  and  after  its 
evacuation  by  Totila  entered  and  held  it 
against  him.  But  no  reinforcements  being 
sent  him,  he  gave  up  his  command  in  September, 
548,  and  his  rival  Narses  succeeded  him.  His 
last  victory  was  gained  over  the  Bulgarians, 
who  in  559  invaded  the  empire  and  threatened 
Constantinople.  In  563  he  was  accused  of 
conspiring  against  the  life  of  Justinian,  his 
property  was  sequestered,  and  "  the  Africanus 
of  new  Rome  "  passed  the  greater  part  of  the 
last  year  of  his  life  in  prison.  The  popular 
legend  that  his  eyes  were  put  out  and  that  he 


BELIZE 


BELL 


495 


passed  his  last  days  a  beggar  in  the  streets  of 
Constantinople  has  been  generally  rejected  by 
modern  historians,  but  is  accepted  by  Lord 
Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope)  in  his  "  Life  of  Beli- 
sarius  "  (London,  1830). 

BELIZE.    See  BALIZE. 

BELK  SiAP,  a  S.  E.  county  of  New  Hampshire ; 
area,  387  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,681.  Win- 
nepiseogee  lake  forms  its  N.  E.  boundary,  Win- 
nepiseogee  river  flows  for  some  distance  along 
its  southern  border,  and  the  Pemigewasset 
touches  it  on  the  west.  The  surface  is  uneven, 
containing  many  hills  and  small  lakes,  and  is 
generally  fertile.  The  Boston,  Concord,  and 
Montreal,  and  the  Dover  and  Winnepiseogee 
railroads  traverse  the  county.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  20,874  bushels  of  wheat, 
90,687  of  Indian  corn,  37,837  of  oats,  220,705 
of  potatoes,  36,149  tons  of  hay,  397,036  Ibs.  of 
butter,  81,298  of  cheese,  40,051  of  maple  sugar, 
and  38,549  of  wool.  There  were  2,146  horses, 
4,640  milch  cows,  10,978  other  cattle,  10,053 
sheep,  and  2,676  swine.  Capital,  Gilford. 

BELKJfAP,  Jeremy,  D.  D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman and  historian,  born  in  Boston,  June  4, 
1744,  died  there,  June  20, 1798.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1762,  and,  after  teaching 
school  four  years,  was  ordained  as  pastor  of 
the  church  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  in  1767,  where  he 
passed  20  years.  In  1787  he  took  the  charge 
of  the  Federal  street  church  in  Boston,  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  From  the  age  of  15  he 
kept  notes  and  abstracts  of  his  reading,  and  a 
series  of  interleaved  and  annotated  almanacs, 
of  which  curious  specimens  are  preserved.  His 
"  History  of  New  Hampshire  "  was  commenced 
soon  after  his  residence  at  Dover.  The  1st 
volume  appeared  at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  the 
2d  at  Boston  in  1791,  and  the  3d  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Not  paying  the  expenses  of  pub- 
lication, the  legislature  of  New  Hampshire 
granted  him  £50  in  its  aid.  In  1790  he  pro- 
jected the  Massachusetts  historical  society,  and 
in  1792  he  published,  in  successive  numbers  of 
the  "  Columbian  Magazine,"  "  The  Foresters," 
a  historical  apologue.  The  next  year  he  pub- 
lished a  life  of  Watts;  in  1794  a  series  of 
American  biographies ;  and  in  1795  a  "  Col- 
lection of  Psalms  and  Hymns,"  for  a  long  time 
in  use  in  many  of  the  New  England  churches, 
several  of  which  were  written  by  himself.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  many  fugitive  pieces, 
contributions  to  magazines,  sermons,  &c.  A 
life  of  Dr.  Belknap,  by  his  granddaughter,  with 
selections  from  his  correspondence,  was  pub- 
lished in  New  York  in  1847. 

BELL  (Saxon  Mian,  to  make  a  hollow  sound, 
to  bellow),  a  hollow  metallic  vessel,  which,  by 
its  vibrations  when  struck,  gives  forth  sounds 
which  vary  with  its  shape,  size,  and  composi- 
tion. It  is  an  instrument  of  great  antiquity, 
being  spoken  of  by  the  old  Hebrew  writers,  as 
in  Exodus  xxviii.,  in  which  golden  bells  are 
prescribed  as  appendages  to  the  dress  of  the 
high  priest,  that  notice  may  thus  be  given  of 
his  approach  to  the  sanctuary.  In  very  early 
84  VOL.  H. — 32 


times  the  Greeks  used  bells  as  signals  in  their 
camps  and  military  stations;  the  tradespeople, 
according  to  Plutarch,  rang  hand  bells  in  the 
Athenian  markets;  and  they  were  also  prob- 
ably used  in  the  household,  in  the  same  way 
that  we  employ  them  to-day.  The  Romans  at 
all  events  seem  to  have  made  this  use  of  them ; 
and  by  them  they  also  announced  the  time  of 
bathing.  In  a  still  older  civilization  the  feast 
of  Osiris  is  said  to  have  been  announced  by 
the  ringing  of  bells.  The  ancients  fastened 
bells  to  the  necks  of  their  cattle,  a  custom 
which  has  been  perpetuated;  and  in  several 
less  important  methods  of  use,  in  ornamenta- 
tion, in  the  decoration  of  horses  at  festivals, 
&c.,  they  frequently  employed  them. — Bells 
are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  churches 
about  A.  D.  400,  by  St.  Paulinus,  bishop  of 
Nola,  a  town  in  Campania — whence  the  names 
nola  and  campana  given  them  in  the  monkish 
Latin,  and  still  retained  in  several  European 
languages.  In  England  and  France  they  were 
in  use  as  early  as  the  7th  century,  and  the 
first  parish  churches  appear  to  have  been  fur- 
nished with  their  campanile  or  bell  tower, 
which  still  continues  to  be  one  of  their  distin- 
guishing features.  Several  were  used  in  a  sin- 
gle church,  as  is  still  the  custom  when  ar- 
ranged in  chimes,  or,  as  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  without  regard  to  harmony  of  tones. 
The  church  of  the  abbey  of  Croyland  in  Eng- 
land had  one  great  bell  named  Guthlac,  pre- 
sented by  the  abbot  Turketulus,  who  died 
about  the  year  870,  and  subsequently  six  oth- 
ers, presented  by  his  successor,  Egelric,  and 
named  Bartholomew  and  Betelin,  Turketul  and 
Tatwin,  Bega  and  Pega.  When  all  these  were 
rung  together,  Ingulphns  says,  "fiebat  mira- 
bilis  harmonia,  nee  erat  tune  tanta  consoncm- 
tia  campanarnm  in  tota  Anglia."  The  custom 
of  consecrating  church  bells,  still  universal 
among  Roman  Catholics  and  not  infrequent  in 
Protestant  communities,  dates  back  to  a  very 
early  period.  In  Charlemagne's  capitulary  of 
787  we  find  the  prohibition  "  lit  eloccie  bapti- 
zentur  ;  "  and  in  the  old  liturgies  of  the  Catho- 
lic church  is  a  form  of  consecration  directing 
the  priests  to  wash  the  bell  with  water,  anoint 
it  with  oil,  and  mark  it  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  Names  were 
given  to  bells  as  early  as  the  year  968,  when 
the  great  bell  of  the  Lateran  church  was  named 
by  John  XIII.,  for  himself,  John. — The  ancient 
custom  of  ringing  the  passing  bell,  that  those 
who  heard  it  might  pray  for  the  soul  that  was 
leaving  this  world,  endured  for  centuries,  and 
is  not  yet  entirely  abandoned;  and  the  ring- 
ing of  the  curfew  bell — a  custom  introduced 
into  England  before  the  Norman  conquest,  and 
common  on  the  continent  of  Europe  from  the 
earliest  tunes — remained  until  the  16th  century 
a  signal  prescribed  by  law,  to  warn  the  citi- 
zens, as  its  name  (from  the  French  couvre-feu) 
indicates,  to  put  out  the  fires  which  in  those 
days  threatened  such  danger  to  the  thatched 
and  wooden  villages.  Other  early  and  long 


496 


BELL 


enduring  uses  of  church  bells  were  to  give  the 
alarm  in  case  of  invasion  or  other  public  dan- 
ger, to  peal  in  celebration  of  marriages,  and  to 
toll  during  the  burial  of  the  dead — duties 
which,  in  modified  form  at  least,  are  still  as- 
signed to  them. — The  bells  of  Russia  are  among 
the  most  famous  of  the  world.  In  Moscow 
alone,  before  the  great  fire,  there  were  no  less 
than  1,706  large  bells;  in  a  single  tower  there 
were  37.  One  called  Bolshoi  (the  Giant),  cast 
in  the  16th  century,  broken  by  falling  from  its 
support,  and  recast  in  1654,  was  so  large  that 
it  required  24  men  to  ring  it,  and  this  was 
done  by  simply  pulling  the  clapper ;  its  weight 
was  estimated  at  288,000  Ibs.  It  was  suspend- 
ed from  an  immense  beam  at  the  foot  of  the 
bell  tower,  but  it  again  fell  during  a  fire  on 
June  19,  1706,  and  was  a  second  time  broken 
to  fragments.  These  were  used  with  addition- 
al materials,  in  1733,  in  casting  the  Tsar  Kolo- 
kol  (king  of  bells),  still  to  be  seen  at  Moscow. 


Tsar  Kolokol,  Moscow. 

Some  falling  timbers,  in  a  fire  in  1737,  broke 
a  piece  from  its  side,  which  has  never  been 
replaced.  This  bell  is  estimated  to  weigh  443,- 
772  Ibs. ;  it  is  19  ft.  3  in.  high,  and  measures 
around  its  margin  60  ft.  9  in.  The  value  of 
the  metal  alone  in  this  bell  is  estimated  to 
amount  to  over  $300,000.  Whether  this  bell  was 
ever  hung  or  not,  authorities  appear  to  differ. 
The  following  notice  of  the  bells  of  Moscow, 
and  of  the  great  bell  in  particular,  is  from 
Clarke's  "  Travels  " :  "  The  numberless  bells  of 
Moscow  continue  to  ring  during  the  whole  of 
Easter  week,  tinkling  and  tolling  without  har- 
mony or  order.  The  large  bell  near  the  cathe- 
dral is  only  used  upon  important  occasions, 
and  yields  the  finest  and  most  solemn  tone  I 
ever  heard.  When  it  sounds,  a  deep  hollow 
murmur  vibrates  all  over  Moscow,  like  the  full- 
est tones  of  a  vast  organ,  or  the  rolling  of  dis- 
tant thunder.  This  bell  is  suspended  in  a 
tower  called  the  belfry  of  St.  Ivan,  beneath 
others  which,  though  of  less  size,  are  enor- 


mous.   It  is  40  ft.  9  in.  in  circumference,  16iin. 
thick,  and  it  weighs  more  than  57  tons.    The 
great  bell  of  Moscow,  known  to  be  the  largest 
ever  founded,  is  in  a  deep  pit  in  the  midst  of 
the  Kremlin.  .  .  .  The  bell  is  truly  a  mountain 
of  metal.     They  relate  that  it  contains  a  very 
large  proportion  of  gold  and  silver,  for  that 
while  it   was  in  fusion  the  nobles  and   the 
people  cast  in  as  votive  offerings  their  plate 
and   money.  ...   I   endeavored  in  vain  to 
assay  a  small  part.     The  natives  regard  it  with 
superstitious  veneration,  and  they  would  not 
allow  even  a  grain  to  be  filed  off ;  at  the  same 
time,  it  may  be  said,  the  compound  has  a  white 
shining  appearance,  unlike  bell  metal  in  gen- . 
eral,  and  perhaps  its  silvery  appearance  has 
strengthened  if  not  given  rise  to  a  conjecture 
respecting  the  richness  of  its  materials.     On 
festival  days  the  peasants  visit  the  bell  as  they 
would  a  church,  considering  it  an  act  of  devo- 
tion, and  they  cross  themselves  as  they  descend 
and  ascend  the  steps  leading  to  the  bell." 
After  Mr.  Clarke's  visit  the  czar  Nicholas,  in 
the  year  1837,  caused  the  great  bell  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  deep  pit  in  which  it  lay,  and  to  be 
placed  upon  a  granite  pedestal.    Upon  its  side 
is  seen,  over  a  border  of  flowers,  the  figure  of 
the  empress  Anne  in  flowing  robes.     The  bell 
has  been  consecrated  as  a  chapel ;  the  door  is 
in  the  aperture  made  by  the  piece  which  fell 
out.     The  room  is  22  ft.  in  diameter  and  21  ft. 
3  in.  high.    The  bells  of  China  rank  next  in 
size  to  those  of  Russia,  but  are  much  inferior  to 
them  in  form  and  tone.    In  Peking,  it  is  stated 
by  Father  Le  Compte,  there  are  seven  bells 
each  weighing  120,000  Ibs.    One  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  the  city  is,  according  to  the  testimo- 
ny of  many  travellers,  the  largest  suspended 
bell  in  the  world.     It  is  hung  near  the  ground, 
in  a  large  pavilion,  and  to  ring  it  a  huge 
beam  is  swung  against  its  side.    A  bell  taken 
from    the    Dagon    pagoda   at    Rangoon  was 
valued  at  $80,000.     Among  the  bells  recently 
cast  for  the  new   houses  of  parliament,  the 
largest  weighs  14  tons.     The  next  largest  bell 
in  England  was  cast  in  1845  for  York  minster, 
and  weighs  27,000  Ibs.,  and  is  7  ft.  7  in.  in  di- 
ameter.   The   great  Tom  of  Oxford  weighs 
17,000  Ibs.,  and  the  great  Tom  of  Lincoln  12,- 
000  Ibs.    The  bell  of  St.  Paul's  in  London  is  9 
ft.  in  diameter,  and  weighs  11,500  Ibs.     One 
placed  hi  the  cathedral  of  Paris  in  1680  weighs 
38,000  Ibs.    One  in  Vienna,  cast  in  1711,  weighs 
40,000  Ibs. ;  and  in  Olmutz  is  another  weighing 
about  the  same.    The  famous  bell  called  Su- 
sanne  of  Erfurt  is  considered  to  be  of  the  finest 
bell  metal,  containing  the  largest  proportion  of 
silver;  its  weight  is  about  30,000  Ibs. ;   it  was 
cast  in  1497.    At  Montreal,  Canada,  is  a  larger 
bell  than  any  in  England,  weighing  29,400  Ibs. ; 
it  was  imported  in  1843  for  the  Notre  Damo 
cathedral.    In  the  opposite  tower  of  the  cathe- 
dral is  a  chime  of  10  bells,  the  heaviest  of 
which  weighs  6,043  Ibs.,  and  their  aggregate 
weight  is  21,800  Ibs.— There  are  few  bells  of 
i  large  size  in  the  United  States.    The  heaviest 


BELL 


497 


ever  made  here  was  the  alarm  bell  formerly 
on  the  city  hall  in  New  York.  It  was  cast  in 
Boston,  and  weighed  about  23,000  Ibs.  Its 
diameter  at  the  mouth  was  about  8  ft.,  its 
height  about  6  ft.,  and  thickness  at  the  point 
where  the  clapper  struck  6J  or  7  in.  The 
wooden  tower  in  which  it  was  hung  having 


been  burned  in  1858,  it  was  placed  in  a  sep- 
arate tower  in  the  rear  of  the  hall.  In  1867 
it  was  dropped  and  broken  in  the  process 
of  removal,  and  recast  in  smaller  fire  bells. 
The  bell  now  on  Independence  Hall  hi  Phila- 
delphia is  celebrated  as  being  connected  with 
the  ever  memorable  4th  of  July,  1776,  when  it 


Bolshol,  Moscow, 
21  ft.  high,  18  ft.  diam. 


Tsar  Kolokol,  Moscow, 
19  ft.  8  in.  high,  about 
19  ft.  diam. 


first  announced  by  its  peal  the  declaration  then 
made,  the  most  important  event  in  the  history 
of  our  country.  It  was  imported  from  Eng- 
land in  1752,  and,  having  been  cracked  on  trial 
by  a  stroke  of  the  clapper,  was  recast  in  Phila- 
delphia under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Isaac  Nor- 
ris,  to  whom  we  are  probably  indebted  for  the 
following  inscription,  which  surrounds  the  bell 
near  the  top,  from  Leviticus  xxv.  10:  "Pro- 
claim liberty  throughout  all  the  land,  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof."  Immediately  beneath 
this  is  added:  "By  or- 
der of  the  assembly  of 
the  province  of  Penn'. 
for  the  State  House 
in  Phil'."  Under  this 
again,  "Pass  &  Stow, 
Phil'.,  MDOCLIII." 
In  1777,  during  the  oc- 
cupation of  Philadel- 
phia by  the  British,  the 
bell  was  removed  to 


Liberty  Bell,  Philadelphia. 


Lancaster.  After  its 
return  it  was  used  as 
a  state  house  bell  until  the  erection  of  the 
present  steeple  with  its  bell  in  1828.  Then 
it  ceased  to  be  used  excepting  on  extraor- 
dinary occasions.  Finally  it  was  removed  to 
its  present  appropriate  resting  place.  Its  last 
ringing,  when  it  was  unfortunately  cracked, 
was  in  honor  of  a  visit  of  Henry  Clay  to 
Philadelphia.  There  are  no  other  bells  of 
particular  interest  in  this  country.  Those  used 
upon  the  fire  alarm  towers  in  our  cities  are 
from  10,000  to  11,000  Ibs.  in  weight.  They 
are  hung  in  a  fixed  position  and  struck  by  a 
hammer,  instead  of  being  turned  over. — Bells 
have  been  made  of  various  metals.  In  France 
iron  was  formerly  used,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  brass  was  a  common  material.  In 
Sheffield,  England,  the  manufacture  of  cast-steel 
bells  was  introduced  several  years  since.  The 


Peking.  14J  ft.  high, 
13  ft.  Oiam. 


Great  Bell  of 

Erfurt,  10J  ft.  h.,  Parliament, 

81  ft.  diam.      6  ft.  9  in.  h., 

7  ft.  1  la.  d. 


material  is  said  to  have  the  advantages  over 
the  ordinary  composition  of  greater  strength 
and  less  weight  and  cost.  They  have  been 
used  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  for 
schools,  manufactories,  and  steamboats,  and  for 
churches,  ranging  in  weight  from  100  to  over 
5,000  Ibs.  They  appear  to  have  given  satisfac- 
tion, and  to  possess  the  power  of  sending  their 
tones  to  a  great  distance.  They  are  said  to  be 
well  adapted  for  fog,  fire,  and  alarm  bells. 
The  smaller  steel  bells  do  not  compare  so  fa- 
vorably in  tone  with  bells  made  of  bell  metal  as 
do  those  of  larger  size.  Steel  bells  are  also 
made  in  Germany.  As  the  swinging  of  heavy 
bells  often  endangers  the  towers  in  which  they 
are  hung,  it  is  of  no  little  consequence  to  re- 
duce as  much  as  possible  their  weight.  Steel 
bells  are  cast  by  pouring  the  contents  of  the 
steel  pots  into  the  bell  mould  instead  of  into 
ordinary  ingot  moulds.  Bell  metal  is  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin  in  no  fixed  proportion,  but 
varying  from  66  to  80  per  cent,  of  copper,  and 
the  remainder  tin.  Other  metals  are  also  often 
introduced,  as  zinc,  with  the  object  of  adding  to 
the  shrillness  of  the  sound,  silver  to  add  to  its 
softness,  and  also  lead.  Dr.  Thompson  found 
an  English  bell  metal  to  consist  of  copper  800 
parts,  tin  101,  zinc  56,  and  lead  43.  Cymbals 
and  gongs  contain  81  copper  and  19  tin.  Mr. 
Denison,  of  England,  thinks  the  use  of  silver  is 
entirely  imaginary,  and  that  there  is  no  reason 
for  believing  it  could  be  of  any  service.  He 
condemns  the  use  of  all  other  materials  but  cop- 
per and  tin,  and  advises  that  contracts  for  bells 
stipulate  that  the  alloy  shall  consist  of  at  least 
20  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  the  remainder  copper. 
Three  and  a  half  to  one  is  perhaps  the  best 
proportion. — The  tone  of  a  bell  depends  upon 
its  diameter,  height,  and  thickness.  The  Ger- 
man bell  founders  have  a  rule  which  regu- 
lates these  dimensions.  The  thickness  of  the 
sound  bow  where  the  clapper  strikes,  and 


498 


BELL 


which  is  the  thickest  part,  being  equal  to  1, 
the  height  should  be  12,  the  diameter  at  the 
mouth  15,  the  diameter  of  the  top  7i,  and  the 
weight  of  clapper  ^  of  that  of  the  bell.  The 
tone  is  regulated  by  the  thickness,  a  thick 
bell  having  a  higher  note  than  one  that  is 
thin.  As  the  precise  pitch  cannot  be  attained 
in  casting,  the  bell  is  toned  afterward,  either 
by  reducing  the  thickness  where  the  hammer 
strikes,  to  produce  a  lower  note,  or  by  chipping 
away  the  edge  and  reducing  the  diameter  to 
make  it  more  acute.  In  conformity  to  the 
laws  of  acoustics,  the  number  of  vibrations  of 
a  bell  varies  in  inverse  ratio  with  its  diameter, 
or  the  cube  root  of  its  weight ;  so,  for  a  series 
of  bells  forming  a  complete  octave,  the  diam- 
eters should  go  on  increasing  with  the  depth 
of  tone,  as  for  do,  1 ;  re,  f ;  me,  $ ;  fa,  £ ;  sol, 
|;  la,  f ;  ii,  T8T;  do,  £. — A  work  on  church 
bells,  by  the  Eev.  W.  C.  Lukis,  appeared  at 
London  in  1857.  The  Rev.  Alfred  Gatty  has 
published  "The  Bell,  its  Early  History  and 
Uses"  (London,  new  ed.,  1848),  and  Mr.  E.  B. 
Denison's  "Lectures on  Church  Building"  treats 
of  bells. 

BELL,  a  central  county  of  Texas,  watered  by 
Little  river  and  its  head  streams,  the  Leon  and 
Lampasas ;  area,  1,097  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
9,771,  of  whom  1,104  were  colored.  It  has  a 
rolling  surface,  and  a  soil  of  sandy  loam,  well 
adapted  to  pasturage.  Forests  of  cottonwood 
and  live  oak  cover  about  one  fourth  of  the 
county.  There  are  several  chalybeate  springs. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  358,360 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  14,296  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 2,896  bales  of  cotton,  and  19,575  Ibs.  of 
wool.  There  were  7,425  horses,  4,430  milch 
cows,  1,494  working  oxen,  30,976  other  cat- 
tle, 9,718  sheep,  and  12,467  swine.  Capital, 
Belton. 

BELL,  Andrew,  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
St.  Andrews,  Scotland,  in  1753,  died  at  Chel- 
tenham, England,  Jan.  27,  1832.  After  study- 
ing in  St.  Andrews  university,  he  visited 
America,  and  in  1789  went  to  India,  where  at 
Madras  he  became  chaplain  of  Fort  St.  George. 
He  found  in  the  mission  schools  of  India  a 
monitorial  system,  which  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  proposed  for  adoption  into  English 
schools.  It  consists  in  a  division  of  the  school 
into  classes,  and  of  the  classes  into  pairs,  the 
two  members  of  a  pair  being  each  pupil  and 
tutor  of  the  other.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
an  analogous  system  had  been  introduced  by 
the  Quaker  Joseph  Lancaster  into  the  schools 
of  the  dissenters,  that  Dr.  Bell  was  authorized 
by  the  English  church  to  employ  it  in  schools 
under  his  charge.  He  published  several  works 
upon  educational  subjects,  and  left  his  fortune 
(amounting  to  more  than  £120,000)  for  the  en- 
dowment of  schools. 

BELL,  Sir  Charles,  a  British  surgeon  and  anat- 
omist, born  in  Edinburgh  in  November,  1774, 
died  at  Hallow  Park,  Worcestershire,  April 
29,  1842.  He  began  his  education  in  the  high 
school  and  university  of  his  native  city,  and 


pursued  his  professional  studies  under  his  elder 
brother  John.  He  was  admitted  in  1799  to 
the  college  of  surgeons,  became  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  surgeons  to  the  royal  infirmary, 
and  while  still  a  youth  delivered  lectures  be- 
fore 100  pupils  on  the  science  of  anatomy.  He 
removed  in  1806  to  London,  where  he  imme- 
diately began  a  course  of  lectures,  and  rapidly 
rose  to  distinction.  He  now  published  his 
work  on  the  "Anatomy  of  Expression,"  which 
was  designed  to  show  the  rationale  of  those 
muscular  movements  which  follow  and  indicate 
the  excitement  ef  the  various  passions  and  emo- 
tions. His  "System  of  Operative  Surgery" 
was  published  in  1807.  He  supported  himself 
unconnected  with  any  medical  schools  till  1811, 
when  he  was  invited  to  the  Hunterian  school, 
and  three  years  later  he  was  appointed  surgeon 
to  the  Middlesex  hospital,  an  institution  which 
during  the  22  years  of  his  connection  with  it 
he  raised  to  the  highest  repute  both  by  his 
striking  manner  of  lecturing  and  his  great  dex- 
terity as  an  operator.  He  visited  the  fields  of 
Corunna  and  Waterloo  immediately  after  the 
battles,  and  gave  his  services  to  the  wounded. 
In  1821  he  produced  his  ideas  on  the  nervous 
system  in  a  paper  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions." It  immediately  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  anatomists  throughout  Europe,  some 
of  whom  contested  with  him  the  priority  of 
discovery;  yet  it  was  fully  proved  that  Dr. 
Bell  had  taught  the  doctrine  for  many  years 
to  his  pupils,  had  explained  it  in  a  pamphlet,  a 
private  edition  only  of  which  was  printed,  in 
1810,  and  had  clearly  stated  it  in  letters  to  his 
brother  in  1807,  when  all  his  rivals  were  teach- 
ing the  old  theory.  The  principle  of  the  dis- 
covery is  that  there  are  distinct  nerves  of  sen- 
sation and  of  motion  or  volition,  one  set  bear- 
ing messages  from  the  body  to  the  brain,  and 
the  other  from  the  brain  or  will  to  the  body. 
It  was  shown  by  Dr.  Bell  that  the  brain  and 
spinal  marrow  are  likewise  divided  into  two 
parts,  which  minister  respectively  to  the  func- 
tions of  motion  and  sensation  ;  that  those  roots 
which  join  the  back  part  of  the  spinal  marrow 
are  nerves  of  feeling,  messengers  from  the 
senses,  but  incapable  of  moving  the  muscles, 
while  those  roots  which  have  their  origin  in 
the  front  column  of  the  spinal  marrow  and  the 
adjacent  portion  of  brain  are  nerves  of  vol- 
untary motion,  conveying  only  the  mandates 
of  the  will.  He  showed  that  though  three 
distinct  nerves  may  be  bound  together  in  a  sin- 
gle sheath  for  convenience  of  distribution,  they 
yet  perform  different  functions  in  the  physical 
economy,  and  have  their  roots  divided  at  the 
junction  with  the  brain.  The  nerves  of  the 
different  senses  are  connected  with  distinct 
portions  of  the  brain.  For  this  discovery  Bell 
received  a  medal  from  the  royal  society  of  Lon- 
don in  1829,  and  upon  the  accession  of  William 
IV.  he  was  invested,  in  company  with  Brews- 
ter,  Herschel,  and  others,  with  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  in  the  new  order  then  instituted. 
He  was  also  made  senior  lecturer  on  anatomy 


BELL 


499 


and  surgery  in  the  London  college  of  physi- 
cians, where  his  lectures  were  attended  both 
by  pupils  and  practitioners,  and  where  he  at- 
tracted crowds  by  a  series  of  discourses  on  the 
evidence  of  design  in  the  anatomy  of  the  hu- 
man body.  He  published  about  this  time  two 
essays,  "  On  the  Nervous  Circle,"  and  "  On  the 
Eye,"  having  reference  to  the  theory  of  a  sixth 
sense,  and  a  treatise  on  "Animal  Mechanics," 
for  the  society  for  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowl- 
edge. Being  invited  to  take  part  in  the  great 
argument  published  by  the  bequest  of  the  earl 
of  Bridgewater,  he  wrote  the  treatise  on  "  The 
Hand,"  and  he  soon  after  assisted  Lord  Brough- 
am in  illustrating  Paley's  "Natural  Theology." 
In  1836  he  accepted  the  chair  of  surgery  in 
the  Edinburgh  university,  and  afterward  visited 
Italy,  making  observations,  with  which  he  en- 
riched a  new  edition  of  the  "  Anatomy  of  Ex- 
pression." He  died  soon  after  returning  to 
England. 

BELL,  George  Joseph,  a  Scottish  lawyer,  born 
.  at  Fountainbridge,  near  Edinburgh,  March  26, 
1T70,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  23,  1843.  His 
first  legal  publication  was  a  treatise  on  the 
laws  of  bankruptcy,  which  in  1810  was  en- 
larged and  published  under  the  title  of  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  Scotland."  His  sub- 
sequent works  on  the  law  of  Scotland  are 
standard  text  books  in  the  courts  of  that  coun- 
try. He  was  at  the  head  of  two  commissions 
for  improving  the  administration  of  civil  justice 
in  Scotland,  and  from  the  year  1821  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 

BELL,  Henry,  a  Scottish  inventor,  born  at  Tpr- 
phichen,  near  Linlithgow,  April  7,  1767,  died 
March  14,  1830.  A  millwright  by  trade,  he 
went  to  London  when  his  apprenticeship  ex- 
pired, and  while  in  Mr.  Rennie's  service  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam, 
and  in  1800  and  1803  made  unsuccessful  appli- 
cations to  the  admiralty  for  assistance.  He 
then  returned  to  Scotland,  and  in  1811  launch- 
ed a  boat  on  the  Clyde,  making  a  steam  engine 
for  it  with  his  own  hands.  The  first  trial  took 
place  on  the  Clyde  in  January,  1812.  Three- 
horse  power  was  successfully  applied  at  first, 
subsequently  increased  to  six.  His  first  boat  is 
preserved  in  the  museum  of  Glasgow  univer- 
sity. The  city  of  Glasgow  settled  a  small  an- 
nuity on  him,  and  the  British  government  gave 
a  small  pension  to  his  widow.  A  monument 
to  his  memory  has  been  erected  on  the  rock  of 
Dunglass,  a  promontory  on  the  Clyde,  2J  m. 
from  Dumbarton. 

BELL,  John,  a  Scottish  physician  and  travel- 
ler, born  at  Antennony,  in  the  west  of  Scot- 
land, hi  1691,  died  July  1,  1780.  At  the  age  of 
23  he  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.,  and  went 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  presented  letters 
to  the  court  physician  of  Peter  the  Great,  Dr. 
Areskin,  through  whose  influence  he  received 
an  appointment  as  surgeon  to  an  embassy  about 
to  proceed  to  Persia.  Leaving  St.  Petersburg 
in  July,  1715,  he  did  not  reach  Ispahan,  where 
the  shah  held  his  court,  till  March,  1717.  He 


returned  to  St.  Petersburg' Dec.  30,  1718.  He 
departed  in  July,  1719,  attached  to  an  embassy 
to  China,  through  Moscow,  Siberia,  and  the 
great  Tartar  deserts,  to  the  great  wall  of  China, 
reaching  Peking  in  November,  1720.  After 
residing  half  a  year  in  Peking,  he  returned  to 
Moscow,  which  he  reached  in  January,  1722. 
The  czar  having  made  him  his  chief  physician, 
in  place  of  Areskin,  now  dead,  he  joined  in 
the  expedition  "headed  by  Peter  himself  to  as- 
sist the  shah  of  Persia  in  routing  the  rebel  Af- 
ghans, and  returned  with  him.  Soon  afterward 
he  revisited  Scotland,  but  was  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  December,  1737,  when,  negotiations 
for  peace  between  Russia  and  Turkey  having 
failed,  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  with  new 
proposals,  and  returned  to  St.  Petersburg  in 
May,  1738.  He  finally  settled  as  a  merchant  in 
Constantinople,  where  he  married  in  1746,  and 
soon  after  returned  to  Scotland,  fixing  his  resi- 
dence on  his  estate  of  Antermony.  His  "  Trav- 
els from  St.  Petersburg  in  Russia  to  Various 
Parts  of  Asia"  appeared  in  1763  (2  vols.  4to). 

BELL,  John,  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  in  Ed- 
inburgh, May  12,  1763,  died  in  Rome,  April  15, 
1820.  He  studied  for  his  profession  at  the 
medical  schools  of  his  native  city,  taught  a  pri- 
vate school  of  anatomy,  and  gave  lectures  on 
surgical  anatomy.  His  ideas  gave  offence  to 
the  established  professors,  but  notwithstanding 
an  active  opposition,  his  merits  secured  him  a 
large  class  of  pupils.  However,  his  rivals  man- 
aged to  exclude  him  and  his  class  from  the 
public  infirmary,  in  which  he  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  practise  gratuitously,  and  then  he 
gave  up  his  lectures,  and  addressed  himself  to 
private  practice  only.  His  works  are :  "  Anat- 
omy," afterward  completed  by  his  brother, 
Sir  Charles  Bell ;  "  Discourses  on  the  Nature 
and  Cure  of  Wounds"  (2  vols.  8vo) ;  and  "  The 
Principles  of  Surgery  (3  vols.  4to).  Besides 
these  he  wrote  letters  on  professional  educa- 
tion, and  a  posthumous  work  on  Italy. 

BELL,  John,  an  American"  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  18, 1797, 
died  at  Cumberland  Iron  Works,  Tenn.,  Sept. 
10,  1869.  He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  in  mod- 
erate circumstances,  who  gave  him  a  good  ed- 
ucation at  Cumberland  college  (now  Nashville 
university).  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1816,  settled  at  Franklin,  Williamson  county, 
and  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1817, 
when  only  20  years  old.  He  soon  saw  his 
error  in  entering  so  early  into  public  life,  and 
declining  a  reelection,  devoted  himself  for  the 
next  nine  years  to  his  profession.  In  1826  he 
became  a  candidate  for  congress  against  Felix 
Grundy,  one  of  the  most  popular  men  in  the 
state,  who  had  the  powerful  support  of  Andrew 
Jackson,  then  a  candidate  for  the  presidency. 
Mr.  Bell  was  nevertheless  elected  in  1827,  by 
1,000  majority,  and  continued  a  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives  for  14  years.  Though 
at  first  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  doctrine  of 
free  trade,  he  was  led  to  change  his  views,  and 
afterward  was  ever  an  earnest  advocate  of  the 


500 


BELL 


protective  system.  He  opposed  the  South 
Carolina  doctrine  of  nullification,  and  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  to  consider  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  subject.  For  10  years 
he  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  Indian 
affairs.  He  was  in  favor  of  a  United  States 
bank,  though  for  reasons  peculiar  to  the  time 
he  voted  against  the' bill  for  its  recharter  in 
1832.  He  protested  against  the  removal  of  the 
deposits,  and  refused  to  vote  for  a  resolution 
approving  that  measure.  This  refusal  was  one 
of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  subsequent 
breach  between  himself  and  President  Jackson 
and  the  democratic  party,  and  finally  to  his 
cooperation  with  the  whigs.  This  change  of 
party  relations  was  marked  by  his  election  as 
speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives  in  1834, 
hi  opposition  to  James  K.  Polk.  The  final 
separation  between  Mr.  Bell  and  Gen.  Jack- 
son took  place  in  1835,  when  Mr.  Bell  declared 
himself  in  favor  of  Judge  "White  for  the  presi- 
dency, in  opposition  to  Mr.  Van  Buren,  and 
strongly  aided  White  in  carrying  the  state  of 
Tennessee  for  almost  the  first  time  against  the 
democratic  party.  "When  the  question  of  the 
reception  of  petitions  for  the  abolition  of  slave- 
ry in  the  District  of  Columbia  was  agitated  in 
the  house  of  representatives  in  1836,  Mr.  Bell 
alone  of  the  Tennessee  delegation  favored  their 
reception,  and,  though  assailed  at  home,  was 
sustained  by  the  people.  In  1838,  when  Ath- 
erton's  anti-petition  resolutions  were  intro- 
duced, he  voted  against  them.  In  1841  Mr. 
Bell  became  secretary  of  war  in  President  Har- 
rison's cabinet.  With  the  rest  of  the  cabinet, 
Mr.  Webster  only  excepted,  he  resigned  office 
on  the  separation  of  President  Tyler  from  the 
whig  party,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year.  The 
whig  majority  in  the  next  Tennessee  legisla- 
ture which  met  after  his  withdrawal  from 
the  cabinet  offered  him  the  office  of  United 
States  senator.  This  he  declined,  and  remained 
in  voluntary  retirement  until  he  was  elected 
to  the  state  senate  in  184T.  The  same  year  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  State  senate,  and 
reflected  in  1853.  He  was  especially  promi- 
nent as  an  opponent  of  the  annexation  policy. 
In  1854,  when  the  Nebraska  bill  was  presented 
to  the  senate,  Mr.  Bell  protested  against  its 
passing ;  and  in  the  controversy  on  the  admis- 
sion of  Kansas,  in  March,  1858,  he  took  decided 
ground  against  the  so-called  Lecompton  con- 
stitution, and  in  an  elaborate  speech  charged 
that  it  tended  directly  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Union.  In  1860  he  was  nominated  by  the 
"  Constitutional  Union "  party  for  president, 
with  Edward  Everett  for  vice  president,  and 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee.  Mr.  Bell  now  retired 
from  active  public  life,  and  during  the  civil 
war  took  no  prominent  part  in  politics. 

BELL,  John,  an  English  sculptor  and  author, 
born  in  Norfolk  in  1800.  His  best  known  ar- 
tistic works  are  "The  Eagle  Slayer"  (1837), 
"Dorothea"  (1841),  "The  Babes  in  the  Wood," 
and  "  Andromeda  "  (1851).  For  the  new  houses 


BELLADONNA 

of  parliament  he  made  the  statues  of  Lord  Falk- 
land and  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  for  Guild- 
hall the  Wellington  monument.  His  "Guards 
Memorial"  is  in  Waterloo  place,  Pall  Mall, 
London ;  his  statue  of  "  Armed  Science  "  and 
his  "  Crimean  Artillery  Memorial "  are  at  Wool- 
wich ;  and  for  the  prince  consort's  memorial 
in  Hyde  Park  he  executed  the  group  of  "  The 
United  States  directing  the  progress  of  Amer- 
ica." He  originated  the  principle  of  entasis 
and  definite  proportions  applied  to  the  obelisk, 
for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  to  him  by  the 
society  of  arts  in  1859.  He  is  noted  for  not 
following  classical  models  and  for  his  realistic 
method.  He  has  published  "  Compositions  from 
the  Liturgy,"  a  "Free-hand  Drawing  Book  for 
the  Use  of  Artisans,"  "  Primary  Sensations  of 
the  Mind,"  and  "The  Drama  of  Ivan." 

BELL,  Luther  V.,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  American 
physician,  son  of  Gov.  Samuel  Bell  of  New 
Hampshire,  born  at  Chester,  N.  H.,  Dec.  20, 
1806,  died  near  Budd's  Ferry,  Md.,  Feb.  11, 
1862.  He  entered  Bowdoin  college  at  the  age  • 
of  12,  and  graduated  in  1821,  before  he  had 
completed  his  15th  year.  He  received  his 
medical  degree  from  the  Hanover  medical 
school  while  yet  under  20,  and  commenced 
practice  in  New  York,  but  returned  to  New 
Hampshire.  One  of  his  earlier  operations,  the 
amputation  of  the  femur,  was  successfully  per- 
formed, in  default  of  any  other  accessible  in- 
struments, with  the  patient's  razor,  a  tenon 
saw,  and  a  darning  needle  for  a  tenaculum. 
He  was  chosen  superintendent  of  the  McLean 
insane  asylum  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  entered 
upon  his  duties  there  in  January,  1837,  and 
continued  to  discharge  them  till  1856,  when  he 
resigned.  In  1852  he  was  nominated  as  the 
whig  candidate  for  congress,  and  received  the 
highest  vote;  but  there  were  three  candi- 
dates, and  a  majority  of  the  whole  vote  be- 
ing required,  a  second  trial  was  had,  in  which 
his  opponents  united  upon  one  candidate,  and 
he  was  defeated.  In  1850  he  was  a  member  of 
the  state  council,  and  in  1853  of  the  convention 
for  revising  the  state  constitution.  In  1856  he 
was  the  whig  candidate  for  governor,  but  was 
defeated.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out  he 
went  as  surgeon  to  a  regiment,  and  was  medi- 
cal director  of  a  division  when  he  died. 

BELL,  Thomas,  an  English  zoologist,  born  at 
Poole,  Dorsetshire,  Oct.  11,  1792.  He  is  the 
son  of  a  physician,  and  has  been  professor  of 
zoology  at  King's  college,  London,  since  1832, 
and  was  lecturer  at  Guy's  hospital  from  1816 
to  1860,  president  of  the  Ray  society  from  its 
foundation  to  1859,  secretary  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety from  1848  to  1853,  and  president  of  the 
Linnfflan  society  from  1853  to  1861.  He  has 
published  a  monograph  of  the  testiedinata  (7 
parts,  completed  in  1836),  a  "History  of  Brit- 
ish Reptiles"  (1839),  a  "History  of  British 
Stalk-eyed  Crustacea"  (1853),  and  "The  Anat- 
omy and  Diseases  of  the  Teeth." 

BELLADONNA  (Ital.,  literally,  beautiful  lady), 
a  name  given  to  several  different  plants,  as  to 


BELLADONNA 


BELLAMONT 


501 


the  atriplex  hortensis,  amaryllis  belladonna, 
and  the  atropa  belladonna.  The  amaryllis  is  a 
lily  of  great  beauty  and  blushing  appearance. 
It  grows  wild  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
is  well  known  in  cultivated  gardens  in  England 
and  France.  The  name  is  also  in  common  use 
for  the  medicinal  extract  of  the  atropa,  and  in 
the  pharmacopoeias  for  the  root  and  leaves 
of  that  plant,  from  which  the  extract  is  ob- 
tained. This  is  a  plant  of  the  tolanaceas  fam- 
ily, known  by  the  common  name  of  deadly 
nightshade.  In  England,  Germany,  and  north- 
ern France  it  is  met  with  in  shady  places  along 
the  sides  of  the  walls,  flowering  in  June  and 
July,  and  ripening  its  fruit  in  September.  In 
America  it  is  successfully  cultivated  in  gardens. 
It  grows  from  three  to  four  feet  in  height,  with 
straight  and  strong  stems.  The  leaves,  of  oval 
shape  and  pointed,  are  in  pairs  of  unequal  size ; 
the  flowers  are  large,  bell-shaped,  and  of  a 
dull  violet-brown  color.  The  fruit  resembles 
a  cherry,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mistaken 
by  children,  with 
fatal  consequences ; 
it  contains  nume- 
rous seeds,  and 
yields  a  violet-col- 
ored juice  of  sweet- 
ish taste.  All  parts 
of  the  plant  are 
highly  poisonous. 
The  leaves  are  most 
usually  employed 
for  the  extraction 
of  the  alkaloid  prin- 
ciple, though  the 
root  and  berries 
also  yield  it  to  al- 
cohol and  water. 
(SeeATEOPiA.)  Ex- 
tracts and  tinctures 
of  belladonna  are 
used  in  medicine,  as 
well  as  the  alka- 
loid. The  latter  should  be  used  with  great 
caution,  on  account  of  its  extreme  activity; 
but  it  is  preferable  to  the  other  preparations 
(which  vary  materially  in  strength),  on  account 
of  the  greater  precision  with  which  the  dose 
may  be  determined.  It  is  very  rapidly  absorbed 
either  from  the  stomach  or  when  administered 
subcutaneously.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  urine. 
One  of  the  most  characteristic  effects  of  atropia 
is  the  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  which  may  take 
place  from  -^  of  a  grain  or  a  corresponding 
amount  of  extract  of  belladonna.  The  accom- 
modation of  the  eye  is  also  paralyzed  by  it. 
An  eye  under  its  influence  is  able  to  see  at 
a  distance  with  perfect  distinctness,  but  near 
vision,  like  reading,  for  instance,  is  difficult  or 
impossible.  A  peculiar  dryness  of  the  fauces 
and  tongue,  and  a  marked  acceleration  of  the 
pulse,  result  from  moderate  doses,  -fa  to  -fa  gr. 
When  larger  doses  arc  taken,  delirium,  usually 
of  a  cheerful  or  whimsical  character,  and  some- 
times drowsiness,  are  added.  A  certain  amount 


Belladonna. 


of  diuresis,  masked  by  a  temporary  retention 
of  urine,  moisture  of  the  skin,  and  in  rare  cases 
a  scarlet  efflorescence,  are  further  symptoms. 
When  a  poisonous  dose  has  been  given,  these 
symptoms  increase,  and  death  takes  place,  with 
feeble  pulse,  subsultus,  coma  or  delirium,  and 
sometimes  convulsions.  It'is  somewhat  remark- 
able that  rabbits  are  hardly  at  all  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  belladonna.  It  is  sometimes 
used  medicinally  in  some  spasmodic  nervous 
affections,  as  epilepsy  and  chorea;  for  the  relief 
of  pain  either  of  the  visceral  or  cutaneous 
nerves;  in  cases  of  habitual  constipation  and 
of  incontinence  of  urine ;  and  to  check  certain 
secretions,  especially  of  the  mammary  glands, 
and  to  prevent  suppuration.  Its  power  for  the 
latter  purpose  cannot  be  regarded  as  fully 
proved.  As  an  anodyne  it  is  inferior  to  opium. 
The  claims  made  in  its  behalf  as  a  preventive 
of  scarlet  fever  have  not  been  sustained  by 
proof.  In  ophthalmic  surgery  it  finds,  when 
locally  applied,  extensive  use  in  dilating  the 
pupil. — In  poisoning  by  belladonna,  after  empty- 
ing the  stomach,  tannic  acid,  or  iodine  dissolved 
in  water  with  iodide  of  potassium,  may  be  used 
to  render  comparatively  inert  any  remaining 
portion  of  the  alkaloid.  The  caustic  alkalies 
decompose  atropia,  but  only  after  a  few  hours' 
interval ;  so  that,  although  they  should  not  be 
prescribed  with  it,  they  cannot  be  relied  upon 
as  antidotes.  The  antagonism  between  the 
physiological  effects  of  belladonna  and  opium 
exists  only  in  regard  to  a  portion  of  the  symp- 
toms, and  those  not  the  most  important ;  but 
the  question  as  to  the  efficacy  of  each  as  an 
antidote  to  the  other  in  cases  of  poisoning  can- 
not be  regarded  as  definitely  settled.  In  the- 
rapeutic doses  belladonna  may  be  used  with 
opium  to  avoid  some  of  the  unpleasant  after 
effects  of  the  latter  drug. 

BELLAMONT,  or  BeDomont,  Richard  Coote,  earl 
of,  royal  governor  of  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts, born  in  1636,  died  in  New  York,  March 
5,  1701.  He  was  the  second  Baron  Coote  in 
the  Irish  peerage,  was  a  member  of  parliament, 
and  one  of  the  first  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
prince  of  Orange.  For  this  he  was  attainted 
in  1689,  but  was  in  the  same  year  made  earl 
of  Bellamont  in  the  Irish  peerage  by  William 
III.,  and  appointed  treasurer  and  receiver  gen- 
eral to  Queen  Mary.  In  May,  1695,  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  York,  but  did  not 
arrive  there  till  May,  1698,  having  meantime 
received  a  commission  also  as  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, to  which  New  Hampshire  was  ad- 
joined in  1699.  He  went  from  New  York  to 
Boston  in  May,  1699,  and  was  received  by  20 
companies  of  soldiers  and  a  vast  concourse  of 
people.  He  took  every  means  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  the  people,  and  obtained  a  larger 
salary  than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  been 
able  to  get.  Though  but  14  months  in  the 
colony,  the  grants  made  to  him  were  £1,875. 
His  administration  was  occupied  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  pirates  who  infested  the  coast,  one  of 
whom,  the  notorious  Kidd,  he  secured  and  sent 


502 


BELLAMY 


BELL  AY 


to  England  in  1700.  Hutchinson  speaks  of 
Bellamont  as  being  a  hypocrite  in  a  pretended 
devotion  to  religion.  It  appears,  however, 
that  while  living  at  Fort  George,  in  New  York, 
he  passed  much  time  in  meditation  and  contri- 
tion for  his  youthful  excesses.  His  earldom 
expired  with  him,  but  was  afterward  revived 
in  his  family,  and  finally  expired  in  1800. 

BELLAMY,  Mrs.  George  Ann,  an  English  actress, 
bora  in  London,  April  23,  1733,  died  in  Edin- 
burgh, Feb.  15,  1788.  Her  mother,  who  had 
been  Lord  Tyrawley's  mistress,  married  Capt. 
Bellamy,  who  abandoned  her  on  the  birth  of 
this  child,  which  was  born  some  months  too 
soon  to  claim  consanguinity  to  him.  She  was 
educated  at  a  convent  in  Boulogne  from  the 
age  of  4  to  11,  when  she 'returned  to  England. 
Lord  Tyrawley,  her  actual  father,  took  notice 
of  her,  gave  her  a  house  near  London,  and  in- 
troduced her  to  his  friends.  When  he  went 
on  an' embassy  to  Eussia,  he  left  her  under  the 
protection  of  a  lady  of  rank,  with  an  annuity 
of  £100  so  long  as  she  held  no  intercourse 
with  her  mother,  who  had  seriously  offended 
him ;  but  she  preferred  to  reside  with  her 
mother,  and  forfeited  the  money.  Having  de- 
rived an  inclination  for  the  stage  from  her  as- 
sociates, she  was  introduced  to  Mr.  Rich,  mana- 
ger of  Covent  Garden  theatre,  who,  on  hear- 
ing her  recite  some  passages  in  "  Othello,"  en- 
gaged her  as  a  performer.  She  appeared  as 
Monimia  in  the  tragedy  of  "  The  Orphan,"  and 
her  performance  during  three  acts  was  dull  and 
spiritless.  In  the  fourth  act  (to  use  her  own 
words)  she  "blazed  out  at  once  in  meridian 
splendor."  From  that  time  her  professional 
career  was  brilliant.  After  many  alterations 
of  fortune,  a  free  benefit,  given  her  by  the 
players  in  1785,  took  her  out  of  the  debtors' 
prison,  to  which  she  was  remanded  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  She  published  an  "Apology  for 
her  Life  "  (6  vols.  12mo,  1785). 

BELLAMY,  Joseph,  D.  I  >..  an  American  theolo- 
gian, born  at  North  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  1719, 
died  at  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  March  6, 1790.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1735,  and  was  or- 
dained pastor  at  Bethlehem  in  1740.  He  re- 
mained in  studious  retirement  until  the  famous 
revival  of  1742,  when,  leaving  his  charge,  he  be- 
gan, in  the  manner  of  the  time,  a  constant  and 
extensive  course  of  preaching.  After  the  re- 
ligious excitement  had  passed  over,  he  returned 
to  his  parish  and  established  a  school  of  theologi- 
.  cal  instruction,  in  which  for  many  years  he  edu- 
cated numbers  of  pupils  for  the  ministry.  Sev- 
eral sermons  and  treatises  were  published  by 
him  from  1750  to  1762,  which  in  1811  were 
collected  in  three  volumes,  with  a  sketch  of 
his  life,  and  republished  in  1850.  His  system 
of  divinity  coincides  generally  with  that  of 
President  Edwards,  with  whom  he  was  inti- 
mate. 

KKI.L  IKMIY,  Robert  (ROBBETO  BBLLABMINO), 
an  Italian  theologian  and  cardinal,  born  of  a 
noble  family  at  Monte  Pulciano,  near  Florence, 
Oct.  4,  1542,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  17,  1621. 


He  was  the  nephew  of  Pope  Marcellus  II.,  and 
at  the  age  of  18  entered  the  society  of  the 
Jesuits.  St.  Francis  Borgia,  who  succeeded 
Laynez  as  general,  sent  him  to  Louvain,  where 
he  became  a  powerful  controversial  writer. 
Sixtus  V.  sent  him  with  his  legate  to  France 
during  the  wars  of  the  league,  and  after  his 
recall  he  was  employed  in  different  offices  at 
Rome.  Clement  VIII.  decorated  him  with  the 
Roman  purple  in  1598.  During  his  whole  ca- 
reer Bellarmin  lived  a  simple  ascetic  life.  In 
1601  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Capua,  where 
he  resided  and  administered  that  see  till  1605, 
when  Paul  V.  made  him  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can. He  spent  the  last  15  years  of  his  life  at 
Rome,  wholly  devoted  to  his  duties  there,  and 
to  the  study  of  theology.  At  the  conclave 
which  followed  the  death  of  Clement  VIII.,  he 
was  against  his  own  will  made  a  candidate  for 
the  tiara ;  and  at  the  subsequent  conclave  after 
the  short  reign  of  Leo  XI.  came  within  a  few 
votes  of  the  number  requisite  for  an  election. 
He  left  many  theological  works,  principally  of 
a  controversial  character. 

BELLARY.  I.  A  district  of  Madras,  British 
India,  situated  between  lat.  13°  40'  and  15° 
58'  N.,  and  Ion.  75°  44'  and  78°  19'  E. ;  area, 
11,352  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,200,000.  It  is 
noted  for  its  healthy  climate.  It  has  on  an 
average  less  rain  than  any  other  portion  of 
southern  Hindostan,  and  artificial  irrigation 
is  needed  in  some  districts  to  make  it  hab- 
itable. Hi  A  fortified  town,  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict, in  lat.  15°  5'  N.,  Ion.  76°  57'  E.,  270  m. 
N.  W.  of  Madras ;  pop.  about  30,000,  besides 
the  garrison.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
the  principal  towns  of  India.  The  fort  is  built 
on  a  granite  hill  2  m.  in  circumference  and 
450  ft.  high,  the  summit  of  which  constitutes 
the  upper  fort,  but  without  accommodations 
for  troops.  The  lower  fort  is  half  a  mile  in 
diameter,  and  contains  the  barracks,  arsenal, 
commissariat  stores,  and  a  Protestant  church. 
The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  many  pagodas, 
several  mosques,  missionary  establishments, 
schools,  and  a  Bible  society. 

lilll.l, A Y .  I.  Gnillanme  dn,  seigneur  de  Langey, 
a  French  soldier  and  diplomatist,  born  near 
Hontmirail  in  1491,  died  at  St.  Symphorien, 
Jan.  9,  1543.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  and  was  rapidly  promoted,  attracting  the 
attention  and  securing  the  confidence  of  Fran- 
cis I.,  who  employed  him  not  only  as  a  soldier — 
showing  such  skill  as  to  be  called  by  a  contem- 
porary the  greatest  captain  of  his  time — but  also 
in  special  diplomatic  missions  to  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  In  1537  he  was  made  viceroy 
of  Piedmont,  and  ruled  over  the  province  till 
the  end  of  1542,  when,  although  very  sick  and 
obliged  to  make  the  journey  in  a  litter,  he  set 
out  to  carry  some  important  news  to  the  king. 
He  died  on  the  way  at  the  castle  of  St.  Sym- 
phorien, without  delivering  his  message.  His 
Memoires  were  published  in  Paris  in  1569.  He 
wrote  a  work  on  the  art  of  war,  published  in 
1548 ;  and  also  an  Epitome  de  FantiquUe  del 


BELLAY 


BELLE-ISLE 


503 


Gaules  (Paris,  1566  and  1587),  in  which  he  en- 
deavored to  prove  the  French  descended  from 
the  Trojans.  We  owe  to  him  a  description  of 
the  field  of  the  cloth  of  gold,  where  he  witness- 
ed the  meeting  of  Francis  and  Henry  VIII.  in 
1520.  He  made  concerning  the  magnificent 
and  costly  dresses  of  the  courtiers  there  the 
remark  often  erroneously  attributed  to  Henry 
IV.,  that  "  many  carried  their  mills,  their  for- 
ests, and  their  meadows  on  their  shoulders." 

II.  Jean  dn,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  cardinal 
and  diplomatist,  born  hi  1492,  died  in  Rome, 
Feb.  16,  1560.     In  1527,  being  then  bishop  of 
Bayonne,  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  England, 
where  Henry  VIII.  had  already  begun  to  show 
signs  of  rebellion.     In  1532  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Paris,  and  in  1533  again  sent  to  England,  and 
induced  Henry  to  agree  that  he  would  not  fur- 
ther contend  against  the  church,  if  time  were 
given  him  to  prepare  a  defence  of  his  previous 
conduct.     Du  Bellay  secured  these  terms  from 
Pope  Clement  VII.,  hut  Henry  did  not  keep 
the  compact,  and  was  excommunicated.     Paul 

III.  made  him  a  cardinal  in  1535,  hut  ho  con- 
tinued to  reside  in  Paris,  and  when  Charles  V. 
entered  France,  and  the  king  left  the  capital  to 
march  against  the  enemy,  Du  Bellay  showed 
unexpected  talent  as  a  military  commander,  in 
putting  the  city  into  a  state  of  defence.  Through- 
out the  war  he  proved  himself  an  able  officer, 
holding  for  most  of  the  time  the  appointment  of 
lieutenant  general.     On  the  accession  of  Henry 
II.,  however,  he  found  himself  supplanted  by 
the  cardinal  de  Lorraine,  and  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.     He 
left  several  volumes  of  controversial  writings 
concerning  the  diplomatic  affairs  of  his  time ; 
and  many  letters,  of  which  a  few  have  been 
published  as  historical  documents  in  the  works 
of  other  authors.     Several  Latin  poems  from 
his  pen  were  also  published  in  Paris  in  1546, 
under  the  title  of  Poemata  Elegantiisima.    III. 
Joachim  (In,  a   French  poet,    canon  of  Notre 
Dame  de   Paris,  born  near  Angers  in  1524, 
died  Jan.  1,  1560.     He  was  a  favorite  with 
Francis  I.,  with  the  queen  of  Navarre,  and  with 
Henry  II.     Though  a  priest,  the  license  of  the 
times  allowed  him  to  devote  himself  to  a  lady 
named  Viole,  on  whom  he  wrote  a  collection 
of  115  sonnets,  which  he  called  his  canticles. 
They  were  very  successful.     Du  Bellay  was 
called  the  French  Ovid  ;  and  when,  after  spend- 
ing three  years  with  his  uncle  the  cardinal  du 
Bellay  at  the  papal  court,  he  published  183  son- 
nets entitled  Regrets,  and  47  on  the  antiquities 
of  Rome,  the  public  admiration  extended  across 
the  channel,   and  was  shared  by  the  English 
Spenser,  who  translated  and  paraphrased  sev- 
eral of  the  poems.     His  contemporary  Ronsard 
being  known  as  the  prince  de  Pode,  Du  Bellay 
was  spoken  of  as  the  prince  du  sonnet.     Du 
Bellay's  appointment  as  canon  of  Notre  Dame 
in   1555  was  probably  obtained  through  his 
uncle's  influence  at  Rome,  as  he  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  ecclesiastical  duties.    Du  Bellay's  poet- 
ical works  were  voluminous,  including,  besides 


those  already  named,  a  Diseours  de  la  poesie,  a 
metrical  translation  of  the  4th  and  5th  books 
of  the  ^Eneid,  and  numerous  odes,  elegies,  and 
minor  poems.  He  also  wrote  in  prose  a  cele- 
brated Defense  et  illustration  de  la  langue 
franfoise.  All  these  are  found  in  his  collected 
works  (Paris,  2  vols.  8vo,  1567)  ;  and  the  last 
named  was  published  in  1849. 

BELLE,  Jean  Francois  Joseph  de,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Voreppe,  in  Danphiny,  May  27, 
1767,  died  in  Santo  Domingo  in  June,  1802.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1789,  and  earned  rapid 
promotion ;  distinguishing  himself  before  Dus- 
seldorf,  he  was  made  general  in  1795.  He  was 
in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1799,  and  on  the 
fatal  day  of  Novi,  when,  Joubert  having  fallen, 
the  French  army  was  forced  to  retreat,  he 
directed  the  artillery.  In  1801  he  was  in  the 
army  which  sailed  under  command  of  Leclerc 
to  reduce  Santo  Domingo ;  he  participated  in  the 
action  which  compelled  Maurepas  to  capitulate, 
and  soon  after  attacked  the  army  of  Dessalines, 
forced  him  to  retreat,  and  pursued  the  fugitives 
into  the  fort  of  Crfete-d-Pierrot.  De  Belle  him- 
self, while  advancing  at  the  head  of  his  column, 
was  severely  wounded,  carried  from  the  field 
of  battle,  and  soon  died. 

BELLECHASSE,  an  E.  county  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  Canada,  bordering  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence opposite  the  island  of  Orleans,  and  sepa- 
rated from  Maine  by  the  8.  W.  branch  of  the 
St.  John ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
5,520.  It  is  traversed  by  several  small  rivers 
and  by  the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  Chief  town, 
St.  Michael. 

BELLE-ISLE.  I.  Charles  Loots  Angnste  Fon- 
quet,  duke  de,  a  French  soldier  and  statesman, 
born  at  Villefranche,  in  Rouergue,  Sept.  22, 
1684,  died  Jan.  26,  1761.  He  was  at  the  siege 
of  Lille  in  1708,  and  at  the  conference  of  Ras- 
tadt  in  1714.  In  1732  he  became  lieutenant 
general,  was  the  chief  negotiator  of  the  treaty 
of  1735,  by  which  France  acquired  Lorraine, 
and  was  afterward  governor  of  Metz  and  the 
three  Lorraine  bishoprics.  Cardinal  Fleury  in 
1741  appointed  him  marshal  and  plenipotenti- 
ary in  Germany,  where  he  assiduously  worked 
to  put  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Frankfort,  on  the  German  throne  as 
the  emperor  Charles  VII.  Schlosser  says  that 
"  he  and  his  brother  conducted  the  whole  aifairs 
of  Germany,  as  it  seemed  most  agreeable  to  the 
ambition  of  the  one  and  to  the  vanity  and  the 
pride  of  the  other,  but  by  no  means  to  the  true 
advantage  of  their  country."  In  the  war 
against  Maria  Theresa  and  her  allies,  he  took 
Prague,  Oct.  26,  1741,  but  finally  barely  es- 
caped, amid  great  disasters,  to  Eger,  Dec.  17, 
1742.  In  December,  1744,  while  proceeding 
to  Berlin,  he  was  arrested  by  the  English  at 
Hanover  and  detained  in  Windsor  castle  from 
Feb.  19  to  Aug.  12,  1745,  when  he  was  ex- 
changed. In  1746,  as  general-in-chief,  he 
operated  successfully  against  the  enemy  on  the 
French-Sardinian  frontier,  but  his  invasion  of 
Savoy  in  1747  ended  fatally.  He  was  never- 


504 


BELLE-ISLE 


theless  promoted  from  the  rank  of  count  to  that 
of  duke  and  peer  (1748),  became  a  member  of 
the  academy  (1749),  and  subsequently  minister 
of  war,  and  was  to  the  last  one  of  the  most  am- 
bitious, brilliant,  and  influential  of  the  unscru- 
pulous ministers  of  Louis  XV.  His  memoirs 
were  published  in  London  in  1760.  II.  Louis 
Charles  Armand  Fonqnet,  chevalier  de,  brother  of 
the  preceding  and  associated  with  him  in  diplo- 
matic and  military  life,  bora  in  1693,  killed  in 
battle,  July  15, 1747.  He  was  a  dashing  soldier, 
ambitious  intriguer,  and  dissolute  cavalier.  At 
Exilles,  Savoy,  at  the  head  of  50  battalions  of 
his  brother's  division,  he  attempted  against  the 
advice  of  his  most  experienced  officers  to  storm 
the  inaccessible  rocks  and  forts  behind  which 
the  Piedmontese,  though  numbering  only  21 
battalions,  were  impregnably  intrenched.  He 
perished  with  almost  all  his  officers  and  many 
of  the  men. 

BELLE  ISLE.  I.  North,  an  island  at  the  mouth 
of  the  strait  of  the  same  name,  between  Labra- 
dor and  the  extremity  of  Newfoundland,  16  m. 
'distant  from  the  nearest  part  of  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  in  lat.  52°  N.,  Ion.  55°  20'  W.  Its 
circumference  is  about  21  m.  On  the  N.  W. 
side  is  a  harbor  for  small  fishing  vessels,  and  a 
cove  on  the  E.  side  affords  shelter  for  shallops. 
II.  South,  an  island  off  the  E.  coast  of  the  N.  "W. 
peninsula  of  Newfoundland,  of  about  the  same 
size  as  the  preceding,  16  m.  E.  of  Canary  or 
Canada  bay ;  lat.  51°  N.,  Ion.  55°  35'  W. 

BELLE  ISLE,  Strait  of,  an  outlet  of  the  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  between  Labrador  and  the  N. 
W.  peninsula  of  Newfoundland ;  length,  about 
80  m. ;  breadth,  12  m.  Its  navigation  is  con- 
sidered to  be  hazardous.  The  Labrador  side 
is  indented  with  bays — Temple  bay,  Wreck 
cove,  Green  bay,  Red  bay,  and  Black  bay. 
The  opposite  coast  is  devoid  of  indentations. 

BELLE-ISLE-E1V-MER,  an  island  in  the  bay  of 
Biscay  on  the  "W.  coast  of  France,  a  little  N. 
W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  department  of 
Morbihan,  and  8  m.  S.  of  Quiberon  point ;  pop. 
about  10,000.  It  is  of  an  oblong  form  ;  length, 
about  11  m. ;  breadth,  6  m.  Its  surface  is 
about  160  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  treeless.  The 
island  is  noted  for  its  fine  breed  of  draught 
horses.  It  has  several  druidical  monuments. 
The  chief  place  is  Le  Palais,  on  the  N.  E.  coast 
(pop.  4,900). 

BELLENDEN,  William,  a  Scottish  writer  of  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  the  time  of  whose 
birth  and  death  is  uncertain.  He  is  famous  for 
pure  Latinity,  and  was  educated  at  Paris,  where 
he  became  professor  of  belles-lettres,  and  con- 
tinned  to  reside,  though  he  was  invited  to  Scot- 
land by  James  I.  before  the  latter  succeeded  to 
the  English  crown.  He  collected  in  1616  three 
treatises,  which  he  had  published  before  sep- 
arately, under  the  title  of  Bellendenus  de  Statu. 
This  work  was  republished  in  1787  by  Dr.  Parr, 
who  prefixed  to  it  a  long  introduction.  He 
also  wrote  De  tribus  Lumin-ibw  Romanorum, 
which  Dr.  Middleton,  in  his  "  Life  of  Cicero," 
was  accused  of  borrowing  from. 


BELLEVILLE 

BELLEROPHON,  a  hero  of  Grecian  mythology, 
whose  real  name  was  Hipponous,  was  a  son  of 
Glaucus,  king  of  Corinth,  and  Eurymede,  and 
a  grandson  of  Sisyphus.  He  was  called  Belle- 
rophon  in  consequence  of  having  slain  a  Corin- 
thian eupatrid  named  Bellerus.  After  this 
crime  he  fled  to  Prcatus,  king  of  Argos,  whose 
wife  became  enamored  of  him.  Bellerophon 
received  her  advances  coldly,  and  she  accused 
him  of  having  made  insulting  offers  to  her,  in- 
sisting that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Prce- 
tus,  not  wishing  to  violate  the  laws  of  hospital- 
ity by  slaying  a  man  who  was  his  guest,  des- 
patched him  with  a  letter  to  lobates,  king  of 
Lycia,  in  which  that  potentate  was  charged 
to  have  Bellerophon  killed.  lobates  hereupon 
sent  him  to  combat  the  monster  Chimttra. 
Bellerophon  first  caught  the  winged  horse  Peg- 
asus, with  the  aid  of  Minerva,  and  mounting 
him,  soared  into  the  air  and  slew  the  monster 
from  on  high.  lobates  next  sent  him  to  en- 
counter the  Solymi  and  the  Amazons,  but  the 
hero  still  proved  victorious.  Lastly,  lobates 
placed  a  band  of  the  bravest  Lycians  in  ambush 
to  attack  him  on  his  return.  This  device,  how- 
ever, was  fruitless,  for  Bellerophon  slew  them 
all.  The  Lycian  monarch,  now  perceiving  that 
he  was  invincible,  revealed  to  him  the  contents 
of  the  letter  which  he  had  brought  from  Prce- 
tus,  gave  him  his  daughter  Cassandra  in  mar- 
riage, and  made  him  heir  to  the  throne  of  his 
kingdom.  The  latter  days  of  Bellerophon  were 
unfortunate.  As  he  attempted  to  soar  to  heav- 
en on  the  back  of  Pegasus,  Zeus  sent  a  gad- 
fly which  so  stung  his  winged  steed  that  he  cast 
his  rider  to  the  earth,  where,  lame  and  blind, 
he  wandered  lonely  in  the  Aleian  fields. 

BELLEVAL,  Pierre  Richer  de,  a  French  botanist, 
born  in  Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1558,  died  in 
Montpellier  in  1623.  Henry  IV.,  learning  that 
the  medical  students  of  France  were  accus- 
tomed to  complete  their  education  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Italy,  where  the  professors  had 
botanical  gardens  under  their  charge,  founded 
by  royal  edict  in  1593  a  botanical  garden  at 
Montpellier,  in  which  he  appointed  Belleval  a 
professor.  Belleval  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  strictly  scientific  botany,  since  he 
was  among  the  first  to  consider  plants  accord- 
ing to  their  general  characteristics,  without  re- 
gard to  their  medicinal  properties.  He  had 
400  plates  engraved,  which  were  praised  by 
Tournefort  and  Linnseus,  but  have  been  nearly 
all  lost. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  St. 
Clair  co.,  Illinois,  85  m.  S.  of  Springfield  and 
14  m.  S.  E.  of  St.  Louis;  pop.  in  1860,  7,520  ; 
1870,  8,146.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  high 
ground.  The  surrounding  country  is  produc- 
tive and  populous,  and  contains  beds  of  coal. 
The  city  is  actively  engaged  in  trade  and  man- 
ufactures, and  contains  several  churches  and 
banks,  a  handsome  court  house,  and  27  public 
schools  (including  a  high  school),  attended  in 
1871  by  1,500  pupils.  There  is  also  a  Roman 
Catholic  academy,  with  12  instructors  and  180 


BELLEVILLE 


BELLINI 


505 


male  and  350  female  pupils.  A  daily  news- 
paper (German),  and  five  weeklies,  of  which 
two  are  in  German,  are  published.  The  St. 
Louis,  Alton,  and  Terre  Haute  (Belleville  and 
Southern  Illinois  division),  and  the  St.  Louis 
and  Southeastern  railroads  intersect  here. 

BELLEVILLE,  chief  town  of  the  county  of 
Hastings,  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  situated 
about  50  m.  W.  of  Kingston,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Moira,  which  here  debouches  into  the 
bay  of  Quint6 ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  a  port 
of  entry,  and  does  considerable  business  in  im- 
ports, and  also  in  the  export  of  lumber,  flour, 
and  other  agricultural  produce.  In  the  vicinity 
are  iron  works  and  quarries  of  valuable  marble. 
The  town  is  on  the  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway,  and  steamers  ply  regularly  between 
this  point  and  Kingston  and  Montreal. 

BELLEY  (anc.  Bellied),  a  town  of  Burgundy, 
France,  in  the  department  of  Am,  38  m.  S.  W. 
of  Geneya,  agreeably  situated  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley near  the  Rh6ne,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
a  suspension  bridge ;  pop.  in  1866,  4,624.  It 
was  a  place  of  note  in  the  time  of  Julius  Ceesar. 
It  was  burned  by  Alaric,  was  possessed  by  the 
dukes  of  Savoy  during  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
ceded  to  France  in  1601.  The  bishopric  of 
which  it  is  still  the  seat  was  founded  in  412. 
Lithographic  stones  are  obtained  from  neigh- 
boring quarries. 

BELLIARD,  Angustiu  Itonlel,  count,  a  French 
soldier,  born  at  Fontenay-le-Comte,  Poitou. 
March  25, 1769,  died  in  Brussels,  Jan.  28,  1832! 
He  entered  the  army  with  a  captain's  commis- 
sion, and  being  cashiered  for  having  served 
with  Dnmouriez,  under  whom  he  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Belgium,  especially  at 
Jemappes,  he  reentered  as  a  private,  fought 
under  Hoche  in  La  Vendee,  and  in  Italy  under 
Bonaparte,  acquiring  the  rank  of  general  on 
the  battlefield  of  Arcole.  He  was  prominent 
in  the  Egyptian  campaign,  and  though  obliged 
to  capitulate  at  Cairo,  he  was  promoted  in 
1801  to  the  command  of  a  division,  and  in  1805 
to  that  of  Mnrat's  staff.  After  aiding  hi  the 
occupation  of  Madrid,  he  remained  in  com- 
mand there  from  1808  till  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812,  in  which  he  covered  himself 
with  glory,  especially  at  the  battle  of  the 
Moskva.  Though  severely  wounded,  he  was 
active  in  reorganizing  the  French  cavalry  after 
its  return  to  Germany,  and  lost  an  arm  at 
Leipsic.  Winning  new  honors  at  Craonne,  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  cavalry,  and 
received  from  the  emperor,  April  3,  1814,  the 
grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honor.  Louis 
XVIII.  raised  him  to  the  peerage,  June  4,  and 
to  the  rank  of  major  general ;  but  having  dur- 
ing the  hundred  days  served  again  under 
Napoleon,  he  was  after  the  second  restoration 
kept  in  restraint  till  June  3, 1816,  and  deprived 
of  his  peerage  till  March  5,  1819.  In  March, 
1831,  Louis  Philippe  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
Brussels,  where  he  made  himself  very  useful  to 
the  cause  of  Belgian  independence.  His  towns- 
men honored  him  with  a  monument,  and  Vi- 


net  published  his  autobiography  {Memoirea  du 
general  Belliard,  ecrits  par  lui-meme,  3  vols., 
Paris,  1834). 

BELLING,  WUhelm  Sebastian  Tpn,  a  Prussian 
soldier,  born  Feb.  15,  1719,  died  at  Stolpe, 
Pomerania,  Nov.  28,  1779.  In  1739  he  was  a 
cornet,  in  1758  commander  of  a  regiment  of 
hussars,  and  having  been  successful  in  many 
campaigns,  especially  in  grappling  at  the  head 
of  a  small  force  with  the  whole  Swedish  army, 
he  was  made  major  general  in  1762,  lieuten- 
ant general  in  1776,  and  received  in  1778  the 
order  of  the  Black  Eagle.  He  was  the  most 
famous  hussar  officer  of  the  seven  years'  war. 
His  small  size  and  that  of  his  horse  made  him 
a  target  for  the  enemy ;  but  his  contempt  for 
danger  and  his  lively  manners  made  him  a 
special  favorite  with  Frederick  the  Great. 

BELLL\GUAM,  Rlehard,  colonial  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  born  in  1592,  died  Dec.  7,  1672. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  and  one  of  the  original 
patentees  of  the  colony,  to  which  he  removed 
in  1634.  In  1635  he  was  made  deputy  gov- 
ernor, and  in  1641  was  elected  governor  in 
opposition  to  Winthrop  by  a  majority  of  sis 
votes.  He  was  reelected  in  1654,  and  after  the 
death  of  Endicott  was  chosen  again  in  May, 
1666,  and  continued  in  the  executive  chair  till 
his  death,  having  been  deputy  governor  13  and 
governor  10  years.  He  was  chosen  major 
general  in  1664,  in  which  year  the  king  sent 
four  commissioners  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  colony,  when,  according  to  Hutchinson, 
Bellingham  and  others  obnoxious  to  James  II. 
were  required  to  go  to  England  to  account  for 
their  conduct,  but  refused,  the  king  being  ap- 
peased by  the  present  of  a  shipload  of  masts. 
His  wife  having  died,  in  1641  he  married  a 
second  time ;  an  event  of  which  a  contempo- 
rary speaks  thus:  "A  young  gentleman  was 
about  to  be  contracted  to  a  friend  of  his,  when 
on  a  sudden  the  governor  treated  with  her, 
and  obtained  her  for  himself."  The  banns  were 
not  properly  published,  and  he  performed  the 
marriage  ceremony  himself.  He  was  prose- 
cuted for  a  violation  of  the  law,  but  at  the 
trial  he  refused  to  leave  the  bench,  and  sat  and 
tried  himself,  thus  escaping  punishment.  In 
his  last  will  he  provided  that  after  the  decease 
of  his  wife  and  of  his  son  by  a  former  wife,  and 
his  granddaughter,  the  bulk  of  his  estate  should 
be  spent  for  the  yearly  maintenance  "  of  goodly 
ministers  and  preachers  "  of  the  true  church, 
which  he  considered  to  be  that  of  the  Congre- 
gationalists.  This  will  the  general  court  set 
aside  on  the  ground  that  it  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  his  family.  One  of  his  sisters,  Mrs. 
Anne  Hibbens,  was  executed  in  June,  1656, 
for  witchcraft. 

BELLINI.  I.  Jacopo,  an  early  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school,  born  in  Venice  about  1405, 
died  in  1470.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Gentile  da 
Fabriano,  and  is  said  to  have  been  taught  oil 
painting,  which  was  then  a  secret,  by  Andrea 
del  Castagno,  and  in  turn  taught  it  to  his  sons, 
Gentile  and  Giovanni.  Almost  all  his  works 


50G 


BELLINI 


BELLMAN 


have  perished;  one  supposed  to  he  authentic 
is  in  the  Manfrini  palace  at  Venice,  and  repre- 
sents the  portraits  of  Petrarch  and  Laura. 
II.  Gentile,  son  of  the  preceding,  horn  in  1421, 
died  in  1507.  He  was  employed  by  the  Vene- 
tian government  on  an  equal  footing  with  his 
brother  in  decorating  the  hall  of  the  grand 
council  in  the  doge's  palace,  and  was  also  cele- 
brated for  his  portraits.  His  fame  attracted 
the  notice  of  Mohammed  II.,  conqueror  of 
Constantinople,  and  Bellini  visited  the  grand 
seignior.  He  painted  a  number  of  pictures  for 
Mohammed,  and  also  struck  a  medal  for  him, 
the  sultan  presenting  him  with  a  gold  chain 
and  3,000  ducats.  III.  Giovanni,  second  son  of 
Jacopo,  and  generally  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  Venetian  school,  born  in  1426,  died  in 
1516  (according  to  some,  a  few  years  ear- 
lier). Some  of  his  earliest  works  were  por- 
traits, among  them  that  of  the  doge  Lore- 
dano.  He  was  employed  by  the  republic  to 
decorate  the  great  hafl  of  the  council  with  a 
series  of  historical  paintings,  covering  the 
entire  walls.  These  were  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1577.  He  also  painted  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  surrounded  by  saints,  for  the  church  of 
San  Zaccaria  in  Venice.  One  of  his  last  works 
was  a  Bacchanal ;  this  he  left  incomplete,  and 
it  was  finished  by  Titian. 

BELLINI,  Lanrentlo,  an  Italian  anatomist,  born 
in  Florence,  Sept.  3,  1643,  died  Jan.  8,  1704. 
He  was  instructed  in  mechanics  by  Borelli, 
and  at  the  age  of  22  attained  the  chair  of  phi- 
losophy and  theoretical  medicine,  and  contin- 
ued a  brilliant  career  in  this  position  for  nearly 
30  years.  When  50  years  of  age  he  abandoned 
his  professorship,  and  returned  to  Florence. 

BELLINI,  Vincenzo,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Catania,  Sicily,  Nov.  1  or  3,  1802,  died  at 
Puteaux,  near  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1835.  His 
father  and  grandfather  were  musicians  of  in- 
different reputation,  and  he  was  educated  in 
the  conservatory  of  Naples  at  the  expense  of 
his  native  town.  An  opera  entitled  Sianca  e 
Fernando,  produced  before  he  was  24  years 
old,  became  so  fashionable,  thanks  to  the  favor 
of  the  court,  that  he  was  immediately  engaged 
to  write  another  for  La  Scala  at  Milan.  This 
was  II  Pirata  (1827),  the  extraordinary  success 
of  which  was  owing  in  part  to  the  singing  of 
Eubini.  La  St/raniera  followed  in  1828,  with 
Tamburini  and  Madame  Meric-Lalande,  and  7 
Capuleti  ed  i  Montecchi  in  1830 ;  both  were 
well  received,  but  it  became  customary  to  sub- 
stitute for  the  third  act  of  the  latter  work  an 
act  from  Vaccai's  more  vigorous  Borneo  e  Giu- 
lietta.  The  next  productions  of  Bellini,  La 
Sonnambula  and  Norma,  both  brought  out  at 
Milan  in  1831,  showed  a  decided  advance. 
They  were  written  for  Madame  Pasta,  but 
Malibran  probably  did  more  for  Norma  than 
any  other  artist.  Beatrice  di  Tenda  (Venice, 
1833)  was  too  tragic  for  the  genius  of  Bellini, 
though  it  contains  some  admirable  numbers. 
The  composer  now  visited  England  to  superin- 
tend the  production  of  one  of  his  works,  and 


thence  went  to  Paris,  where  he  had  been  engag- 
ed to  write  an  opera  for  the  Thfiatre  Italien. 
The  fruit  of  this  contract  was  his  last  and  best 
work,  /  Puritani,  produced  with  Grisi,  Rubi- 
ni,  Tamburini,  and  Lablache  in  the  cast,  and 
received  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  He  had 
made  an  agreement  for  another  work  for 
Paris,  when  he  died  after  a  few  days'  sickness. 
Bellini  had  slight  knowledge  of  counterpoint ; 
his  scores  are  weak,  and  his  accompaniments 
commonplace;  but  he  excelled  as  a  fresh, 
graceful,  and  fertile  melodist,  and  surpassed  all 
other  Italian  composers  in  the  sympathetic 
character  of  his  music.  In  private  life  he  was 
estimable,  refined,  and  agreeable. 

I! I  I.I.I N/OV  \  (Ger.  £ellenz),  a  town  of  Switz- 
erland, capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
and  alternately  with  Lugano  and  Locarno  the 
capital  of  the  canton  of  Ticino,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ticino,  50  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Milan ; 
pop.  about  2,200;  of  the  district,  12,000.  It 
is  situated  between  two  rocky  heights  on  the 
Italian  slope  of  the  Alps,  at  the  union  of  the 
roads  from  the  St.  Gothard  and  San  Bernardino, 
and  Lakes  Maggiore  and  Lugano.  The  Ticino 
is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  14  arches  and 
restrained  by  a  long  stone  dam.  It  is  the  key 
of  the  Italian-German  boundary,  and  the  partly 
ruined  castles  on  the  Giori  rocks,  Castello  di 
Mezzo  and  Castello  Corbario,  which  overhang 
the  town,  have  been  strengthened  by  additional 
fortifications.  On  an  isolated  rock  stands  a 
third  castle,  the  Castello  Grande,  which  is 
used  as  an  arsenal  and  prison.'  The  church  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Stephen,  with  11  marble 
altars  and  a  high  cupola,  is  the  finest  in  the 
canton.  The  convent  of  the  Augustinians  is 
used  as  a  government  house.  The  inhabitants 
are  farmers  and  cattle  drivers,  and  many  of 
them  seek  employment  in  neighboring  Italian 
towns,  leaving  the  women  at  home  to  .till  the 
land.  There  is  an  active  transit  trade.  The 
town  long  belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Milan,  and 
has  been  often  a  bone  of  contention,  chiefly 
between  Swiss,  Italians,  and  Germans;  the 
Swiss  ruling  it  almost  uninterruptedly  since 
the  end  of  the  15th  century.  The  language 
spoken  is  an  Italian  dialect. 

BELLMAN,  Karl  MIekel,  a  Swedish  poet,  called 
the  Anacreon  of  Sweden,  born  at  Stockholm, 
Feb.  15, 1740,  died  Feb.  11, 1795.  He  publish- 
ed religious  poems  and  a  translation  of  the  fa- 
bles of  Gellert,  but  acquired  renown  only  by 
the  songs  which  he  was  accustomed  to  impro- 
vise at  banquet  tables.  His  songs  and  idyls, 
which  he  published  under  the  title  of  "  Letters 
of  Fredman,"  are  peculiarly  naive,  tender,  and 
charming.  His  longest  poem,  "  The  Temple  of 
Bacchus,"  is  of  an  elegiac  character,  and  mark- 
ed by  depth  and  brilliancy  of  thought.  In 
1829  a  monument  was  erected  at  Stockholm 
in  his  honor,  and  a  society  named  after 
him,  the  "Bellman,"  celebrates  there  an  an- 
nual festival  in  his  memory.  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Gothenburg  in  5 
vols.,  1836-'8. 


BELLONA 

BELLOXi,  the  Roman  goddess  of  war.  She 
is  sometimes  styled  the  colleague,  sometimes 
the  sister,  sometimes  the  wife  of  Mars.  Her 
temple  stood  in  the  Campus  Martius,  near  the 
circus  of  Flamiriius.  The  priests  of  Bellona 
were  called  Bellomarii,  and  originally  as  often 
as  they  sacrificed  to  their  goddess  they  were 
obliged  to  lacerate  their  arms  or  legs,  that  they 
might  he  able  to  offer  upon  her  altar  a  portion 
of  their  own  blood.  The  24th  of  March  in 
every  year  was  the  principal  day  of  her  wor- 
ship, and  that  day  was  distinguished  in  the  Ro- 
man Fasti  by  the  title  of  dies  sanguinis. 

BELLOT,  Joseph  Rene,  a  French  naval  officer, 
born  in  Paris  in  March,  1826,  lost  off  Cape 
Bowden,  Aug.  18,  1853.  He  was  a  midship- 
man in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1838,  and  a 
lieutenant  in  1851,  and  in  1852  obtained  per- 
mission to  serve  as  a  volunteer  in  the  English 
expedition  sent  out  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin, and  commanded  by  Captain  Belcher.  On 
one  occasion  he  offered  to  carry  despatches  by 
a  journey  over  the  ice.  Being  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  the  ice  on  which  he  was,  with  two  of 
his  companions,  was  severed  from  the  land. 
He  went  to  the  other  side  of  a  hummock  to 
reconnoitre,  and  was  never  seen  again.  His 
own  diary,  which  was  published  in  1855,  fur- 
nishes the  best  narrative  of  his  adventures. 

BELLOWS,  an  instrument  contrived  for  pro- 
pelling air  through  a  pipe,  employed  for  blow- 
ing fires,  supplying  air  to  ventilate  mines,  fill- 
ing the  pipes  of  an  organ  with  wind,  and  other 
purposes.  The  use  of  this  apparatus  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  very  early  period.  It  is  spoken 
of  by  Jeremiah  (vi.  29),  and  alluded  to  by  Eze- 
kiel  (xxii.  20).  When  Homer  describes  the  forg- 
ing of  the  iron  shield  of  Achilles,  he  speaks 
of  the  furnace  into  which  the  materials  were 
thrown  being  blown  by  20  pairs  of  bellows 
(Qiaat).  From  the  remarks  of  Plautus  in  his 
Fragment®,  and  of  Virgil  in  the  Georgics,  it 
would  appear  that  the  bellows  of  the  ancients 
were  made  wholly  of  leather.  The  first  ac- 
count we  have  of  wooden  bellows  is  by  Henry 
bishop  of  Bamberg,  in  1620,  when  one  named 
Pfannenschmidt  (bellows  smith)  commenced 
the  manufacture  of  them  in  the  Hartz  forest, 
and  by  his  success  excited  the  jealousy  of  those 
of  the  same  trade  in  the  place.  His  art  was 
disclosed  only  to  his  son,  and  the  monopoly  of 
the  forest  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  descen- 
dants to  this  century.  Hans  Losinger,  an  or- 
ganist of  Nuremberg,  is  by  some  supposed  to 
have  invented  the  wooden  bellows  in  1550. 
Among  many  primitive  nations  of  Asia  and 
Africa  this  machine  is  still  employed  in  its 
simplest  form  for  blowing  by  hand  the  fires  of 
rudely  constructed  furnaces,  probably  of  the 
same  form  as  those  in  use  in  the  times  of  Ho- 
mer and  of  the  Jewish  prophets. — As  ordina- 
rily constructed,  the  instrument  consists  of  two 
similar  plates  of  wood  connected  by  a  strip 
of  leather  fastened  around  their  edges,  which 
with  the  plates  completely  encloses  a  chamber 
for  air,  and  is  so  made  that  the  plates  may  be 


BELLOWS 


507 


made  to  approach  and  recede  by  folding  and 
unfolding  the  leather.  In  the  lower  plate  is 
fixed  a  valve  opening  inward,  through  which 
the  air  enters  as  the  plates  are  separated,  and 
which  closes  as  they  are  brought  together, 
forcing  the  air  to  seek  some  other  outlet.  This 
is  provided  in  a  tube  of  small  area  compared  to 
that  of  the  valve,  so  that  the  air  is  made  to 
rush  outward  with  great  velocity.  As  the  ac- 
tion of  this  machine  is  to  give  an  intermittent 
blast,  it  has  been  improved  by  introducing  a 
third  plate,  attached  to  the  lower  one  as  this 
was  to  the  upper,  thus  making  a  double  bel- 
lows. The  two  lower  plates  have  valves  open- 
ing upward,  and  the  pipe  or  nozzle  for  the  exit 
of  the  air  is  in  the  upper  of  the  two  chambers. 
The  middle  plate  is  worked  up  and  down  by  a 
lever  arm,  and  weights  are  placed  upon  the  top 
of  the  bellows  to  force  out  the  air  continuous- 
ly, and  others  are  suspended  from  the  bottom 
board  to  keep  the  lower  chamber  distended 
with  air.  A  circular  form  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  plates  or  boards,  and  the  air  chamber 
surrounded  by  the  leather  is  cylindrical.  When 
shut  together  it  is  very  compact  and  portable, 
which  renders  it  a  convenient  form  for  porta- 
ble forges.  The  inhabitants  of  Hindostan  make 
use  of  such  bellows  for  blowing  their  small  iron 
furnaces.  A  man  sits  down  between  two  of 
them,  and  with  one  hand  upon  each  works 
them  alternately  up  and  down,  producing  a 
tolerably  continuous  blast,  but  of  small  capaci- 
ty and  force. — The  bellows  used  by  the  Chinese 
is  a  simple  contrivance  for  forcing  air  with  any 
desired  pressure,  and  is  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple with  the  large  blowing  machines  now 
in  general  use.  It  is  a  -square  wooden  box 
or  pipe,  with  a  piston  rod  working  in  one  end, 
and  carrying  a  closely  fitting  piston,  by  the 
movement  of  which  the  air  is  pushed  through 
a  smaller  pipe  in  the  other  end.  On  the  re- 
verse motion  the  air  enters  through  valves  and 
refills  the  box. — Bellows  are  used  for  obtaining  a 
very  hot  flame  with  illuminating  gas.  The  blast 
of  air  is  directed  through  the  centre  of  the  yel- 
low gas  flame,  which  immediately  assumes  a  pale 
blue  color  and  a  long  pointed  form.  By  losing 
its  illuminating  power  the  available  heat  is  very 
much  increased.  Such  a  flame  is  made  use  of 
by  the  chemist  in  trying  experiments  which 
require  an  intense  heat  on  a  small  scale,  and  by 
the  glass  blower  in  making  the  melted  glass 
assume  the  desired  form.  A  very  good  form 
of  bellows  for  the  glass  blower,  which  until  re- 
cently was  only  made  in  Paris,  is  now  manu- 
factured in  this  country.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  cylinder  8  inches  in  diameter  and  14  inches 
high,  made  of  leather  or  india  rubber,  which 
has  three  horizontal  wooden  disks  or  dia- 
phragms, one  at  the  top,  one  a  little  below  the 
middle,  and  one  at  the  bottom ;  thus  dividing 
the  cylinder  into  two  compartments,  of  which 
the  lower  one  is  the  force  pump,  while  the  up- 
per is  the  reservoir  which  retains  the  air  and 
equalizes  the  blast.  The  details  are  as  follows  : 
The  middle  disk  alone  is  fixed  permanently  to 


508 


BELLOWS 


the  glass  blower's  table.  In  the  lower  disk  a 
check  valve  is  placed,  which  allows  the  air  to 
enter  but  not  to  leave  the  lower  compartment. 
The  centre  disk  has  a  valve  similarly  arranged, 
with  reference  to  the  upper  compartment.  The 
lower  disk  can  be  forced  upward  by  means  of 
a  lever  connected  with  a  treadle,  thereby  forc- 
ing the  contained  air  into  the  upper  compart- 
ment. The  upper  disk  is  continually  pressed 
downward  by  a  spiral  spring  which  compresses 
the  enclosed  air,  and  yields  in  consequence  a 
steady  and  powerful  blast  through  a  tube 
which  for  convenience  is  placed  on  the  upper 
•  surface  of  the  middle  disk. — The  useful  effect  of 
the  bellows  is  in  exciting  combustion,  by  furnish- 
ing a  continuous  stream  of  oxygen  in  the  fresh 
supplies  of  air,  and  in  removing  by  the  force  of 
the  blast  those  products  of  combustion  which 
ordinarily  exclude  the  approach  of  the  air  and 
impede  the  continuation  of  the  process.  Its 
power  of  rapidly  exciting  vivid  combustion  and 
intense  heat  is  well  seen  in  the  action  of  the 
smith's  bellows  in  common  use.  Excepting  for 
some  small  operations  for  metallurgic  purposes, 
and  for  other  objects  not  requiring  either  a 
large  volume  or  great  pressure  of  air,  the  an- 
cient bellows  is  now  for  the  most  part  replaced 
by  more  efficient  apparatus,  as  the  so-called 
blowing  machines  and  fan-blowers,  descriptions 
of  which  will  be  found  under  BLOWING  MA- 
CHINES. 

BELLOWS,  Henry  Whitney,  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Boston,  June  11,  1814.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  college  and  the  divin- 
ity school  in  Cambridge,  where  he  completed 
his  course  in  1837.  On  Jan.  2,  1838,  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  first  Congregational 
church  in  New  York,  afterward  called  All 
Souls'  church,  in  which  relation  he  still  re- 
mains (1873).  He  was  the  chief  originator  of 
the  "Christian  Inquirer,"  a  Unitarian  newspa- 
per of  New  York,  in  the  year  1846.  In  1854 
he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Harvard 
university.  Of  his  numerous  pamphlets  and 
published  discourses,  the  most  conspicuous  are 
his  "  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Oration,"  1853,  and  his 
noted  defence  of  the  drama,  1857.  His  occa- 
sional contributions  to  the  reviews,  and  espe- 
cially the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  are  marked 
by  independence  of  thought  and  boldness  of  ex- 
pression. In  1857  he  delivered  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  the  "  Treatment  of  Social  Diseases" 
before  the  Lowell  institute  in  Boston,  attract- 
ing much  attention  by  his  vigorous  remarks  on 
many  subjects  of  deep  interest.  In  1860  he 
published  in  New  York  a  volume  of  sermons 
on  "  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  in  1868-'9  the 
account  of  an  extended  European  journey, 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Old  World  in  its  New 
Face"  (2  vols.  12mo).  During  the  civil  war 
he  was  the  president  of  the  United  States  sani- 
tary commission. 

BELLOWS  FALLS,  a  village  of  Eockingham 
township,  Windham  county,  Vt,  on  the  Con- 
necticut river,  53  m.  by  rail  S.  8.  E.  of  Rut- 
land ;  pop.  in  1870,  697.  The  river  is  here  in- 


BELLOY 

terrupted  by  several  rapids  and  falls,  the  whole 
descent  being  about  44  feet.  These  are  the 
falls  concerning  which  Peters,  in  his  history, 
relates  that  the  water  becomes  so  hardened  by 
pressure  between  the  rocks  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  penetrate  it  with  an  iron  bar.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge,  212  feet  long, 
built  in  1812.  The  village  contains  several 
mills  and  manufactories,  and  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  being  the  point  of  junction  of 
the  Vermont  Central,  Rutland  and  Burlington, 
and  Cheshire  railroads. 

BELLOWS  FISH  (called  also  trumpet  fish  and 
sea  snipe),  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  lopho- 
branchiate  or  tufted-gilled  order,  and  genus 
centriscus  (Linn.).  In  this  genus  the  snout  is 
tubular,  with  a  very  small  mouth  at  the  end, 
without  teeth ;  the  body  oval  and  compressed, 
with  small  hard  scales  trenchant  on  the  abdo- 
men ;  a  spmous  dorsal  fin  very  far  back,  with 
a  strong  first  spine  and  a  soft  dorsal  behind  it ; 
ventrals  united.  The  C.  scolopax  (Linn.)  is 
common  in  the  Mediterranean ;  it  is  about  five 
inches  long,  reddish  on  the  back  and  sides, 


and  silvery  on  the  belly,  sometimes  with  a 
golden  tinge;  fins  grayish  white.  The  food 
consists  chiefly  of  minute  Crustacea,  which  are 
drawn  up  the  cylindrical  beak  as  water  is 
drawn  up  the  pipe  of  a  syringe,  or  air  up  the 
tube  of  a  bellows,  the  suction  power  depend- 
ing on  the  dilatation  of  the  throat.  Its  flesh 
is  considered  good.  It  prefers  muddy  bottoms, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  seaweeds,  in  moderate- 
ly deep  water. 

BELLOY,  Pierre  Laurent  Bulrette  de,  a  French 
dramatist,  born  at  St.  Flour,  in  Auvergne, 
Nov.  17,  1727,  died  in  Paris,  March  5,  1775. 
He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  became  an 
actor  at  St.  Petersburg  and  other  places. 
His  first  tragedy,  Titus  (Paris,  1759),  failed, 
and  his  Zelmire  (1769)  was  redeemed  only  by 
the  acting  of  Mile.  Clairon ;  but  his  Siege  de 
Calais  (1765)  was  successful,  being  the  first 
attempt  to  dramatize  French  history.  Voltaire 
joined  hi  the  applause  of  the  court  and  the 
people,  but  became  an  adverse  critic  after  the 
author's  death.  His  subsequent  plays  were 
not  equally  successful,  although  his  Gaston  et 
Bayard  (1771)  procured  for  him  a  seat  in  the 


BELLUNO 


BELOE 


509 


academy.  The  cold  reception  of  his  Pierre  le 
Cruel  (1772)  gave  a  shock  to  his  health  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  He  was  in  great 
pecuniary  distress  toward  the  close  of  his  life, 
and  Louis  XVI.  sent  1,000  francs  for  his  relief. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published 
in  6  vols.  (Paris,  1779-'87),  and  a  selected  edi- 
tion in  2  vols.,  with  a  biographical  notice  by 
L.  S.  Auger  (1811). 

BEI.I.l  V>.  I.  A  province  of  Venetia,  Italy, 
bounded  IT.  and  W.  by  Tyrol,  E.  by  the  prov- 
ince of  Udine,  and  S.  by  Treviso  and  Vicenza ; 
area,  1,263  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  175,370.  It 
is  situated  amid  the  rugged  ramifications  of  the 
Trentine  and  Oarnic  Alps.  The  principal  river, 
the  Piave,  is  united  by  a  canal  with  the  Taglia- 
mento.  The  pasturage  on  the  mountains,  the 
extensive  forests,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  and  to  some  extent  the  production  of 
wine,  are  the  main  sources  of  prosperity.  The 
grain  crops  are  limited,  and  the  mineral  wealth, 
though  extensive,  is  not  sufficiently  developed. 
The  chief  article  of  export  is  timber.  The  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Pieve  di  Ca- 
dore,  Agordo,  Auronzo,  Belluno,  Feltre,  Fon- 
zaso,  and  Longarone.  IL  A  walled  city  (anc. 
Bellunum  or  Eelunum),  capital  of  the  province, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Ardo  with  the  Piave,  48 
m.  N.  of  Venice ;  pop.  about  14,000.  The  city 
is  built  on  a  promontory  and  flanked  by  a  pre- 
cipitous hill,  the  scenery  being  remarkably 
fine.  The  cathedral,  built  by  Palladio,  contains 
a  bust  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  who  was  born 
here,  and  pictures  by  Bassano  and  other  artists. 
In  front  of  the  Gothic  church  of  St.  Stephen 
is  a  Roman  sarcophagus  of  the  4th  century. 
There  are  12  other  churches,  two  convents,  an 
academy  of  science  and  arts,  a  superior  gym- 
nasium, a  chamber  for  commerce  and  industry, 
a  fine  theatre,  and  an  aqueduct  6  m.  long.  A 
bishop,  formerly  called  count  of  Belluno,  re- 
sides here,  and  the  episcopal  chapter  or  council 
possess  an  excellent  library.  A  road  leads 
from  the  city  to  the  Agordo  copper  mines. 
There  is  an  active  trade  in  timber,  and  silk 
and  other  articles  are  manufactured  here.  The 
title  of  duke  of  Belluno,  conferred  on  the  French 
marshal  Victor,  is  derived  from  this  town. 

BEL-MERODACH.     See  MEEODAOH. 

BELJIONT,  an  E.  county  of  Ohio,  separated 
from  West  Virginia  by  the  Ohio  river,  several 
affluents  of  which  drain  it ;  area,  520  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  39,714.  The  surface  is  uneven 
and  hilly,  and  the  soil  excellent.  Coal  is  found 
in  large  quantities.  The  Central  Ohio  division 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  and  the 
Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh  railroad  traverse  the 
county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
305,205  bushels  of  wheat,  1,181,615  of  Indian 
corn,  481,803  of  oats,  48,763  of  barley,  142,569 
of  potatoes,  1,480,478  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  674,178 
of  wool,  830,906  of  butter,  and  69,885  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses;  value  of  orchard  prod- 
ucts, $129,582.  There  were  9,207  horses,  7,718 
milch  cows,  11,883  other  cattle,  162,787  sheep, 
and  22,991  swine.  Capital,  St.  Clairsville. 


BELMONT,  a  village  of  S.  E.  Missouri,  in  Mis- 
sissippi county,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  oppo- 
site Columbus,  Ky.  A  battle  was  fought  here, 
Nov.  7,  1861,  between  the  Union  forces  under 
Gen.  Grant,  and  the  confederates  under  Gen. 
Pillow.  Columbus  was  occupied  by  a  strong 
confederate  force  under  Gen.  Polk.  On  the 
6th  Gen.  Grant  with  2,800  men  dropped  down 
the  river  from  Cairo  to  make  a  reconnoissance 
toward  Columbus.  He  landed  near  Belmont^ 
which  was  occupied  by  a  small  body  of  con- 
federates, who  were  soon  driven  from  their 
position.  Gen.  Polk  sent  Gen.  Pillow  with  six 
regiments  across  the  river,  and  with  two  others 
himself  undertook  to  cut  Grant  off  from  his 
transports.  Belmont,  being  commanded  by 
the  guns  at  Columbus,  was  untenable,  and 
Grant,  being  greatly  outnumbered,  fell  back 
toward  his  transports,  repelling  several  vigor- 
ous attacks,  and  reembarked,  leaving  the  ene- 
my in  possession  of  the  field.  The  Union  loss 
was  84  killed,  288  wounded,  and  235  miss- 
ing. The  total  confederate  loss  is  not  officially 
stated ;  in  four  regiments,  out  of  the  six  actual- 
ly engaged,  it  was  65  killed,  187  wounded,  and 
108  missing. 

BELMONTET,  Louis,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Montauban,  March  26,  1799.  He  is  the  son  of 
a  Sardinian  soldier  who  gallicized  his  name  of 
Belmonte  and  settled  in  southern  France.  He 
early  glorified  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  and  his 
ode  on  the  funeral  of  Napoleon  I.  (1821) 
passed  through  several  editions.  In  Paris  he 
acquired  prominence  among  the  followers  of 
Victor  Hugo  by  his  poems  Les  tristes  (1824), 
Le  souper  d'Auguste  (1828),  and  by  his  tragedy, 
in  conjunction  with  Alexandre  Soumet,  Une 
fete  de  Neron  (1829),  which  met  with  great 
success  and  was  reproduced  in  1861.  For  a 
time  he  supported  himself  as  a  teacher  in  Paris, 
and  though  he  opposed  Louis  Philippe,  and 
continued  to  worship  the  Napoleons,  especially 
in  an  ode  DEmpereur  n'eat  pas  mart  (1841),  he 
accepted  an  office  from  the  king,  and  in  1846  a 
decoration  for  his  Nonibres  (Cor  (2d  ed.,  1855), 
a  didactic  poem.  From  1852  to  1870  he  was  a 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies.  He  has 
written  biographies  of  Louis  Napoleon  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  edited  the  memoirs  of 
Queen  Hortense,  and  has  composed  over  20 
odes  in  honor  of  imperialism  and  its  achieve- 
ments. His  other  productions  include  Le  luxe 
des  femmes  et  la  jeunesse  de  Fepoque*(185S), 
Lumieres  de  la  vie  (1861),  and  Poesies  des 
larmes  (1865). 

BELOE,  William,  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  born  at  Norwich  in  1756,  died  April 
11,  1817.  He  studied  under  Dr.  Parr  and  at 
Cambridge  university,  for  a  time  assisted  Dr, 
Parr  in  a  school  at  Norwich,  and  was  after* 
ward  curate  and  vicar  of  Eltham.  Finding  his 
income  insufficient,  he  removed  to  London,  and 
for  several  years  occupied  himself  by  writing 
for  periodicals.  During  the  American  revolu- 
tion he  advocated  with  his  pen  the  cause  of 
the  colonies,  but  when  the  French  revolution 


510 


BELOIT 


broke  out  he  took  the  conservative  side ;  and 
in  company  with  Archdeacon  Nares  he  com- 
menced in  1793  the  publication  of  the  "British 
Critic,"  which  strongly  supported  tory  views. 
In  1804  he  hecame  assistant  librarian  of  the 
British  museum,  but  was  soon  dismissed  on 
account  of  a  loss  sustained  by  the  institution 
through  his  mistaken  kindness  to  an  unworthy 
applicant.  He  made  a  translation  of  Herodo- 
tus (4  vols.  8vo,  1791)  which  had  for  a  time  a 
high  reputation,  but  has  been  superseded  by 
more  accurate  versions.  Besides  many  other 
translations,  he  published  "  Anecdotes  of  Liter- 
ature and  Scarce  Books"  (6  vols.  8vo,  1806- 
'12),  and  other  works;  and  after  his  death  ap- 
peared "The  Sexagenarian,  or  Memoirs  of  a 
Literary  Life"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1817). 

BELOIT,  a  city  of  Rock  county,  Wis.,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  Rock  river,  at  the  mouth  of 
Turtle  creek,  near  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  state,  65  m.  S.  W.  of  Milwaukee ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,396.  It  is  built  on  a  beautiful  plain, 
from  which  the  ground  rises  abruptly  to  a 
height  of  50  or  60  feet,  affording  excellent  sites 
for  residences.  It  is  the  seat  of  Beloit  college, 
founded  in  1847,  which  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Oongregationalists,  and  in  1871  had  9 
instructors,  133  students  in  the  preparatory 
and  64  in  the  academic  department,  and  a  li- 
brary of  7,200  volumes.  The  city  is  noted  for 
its  broad,  handsome  streets,  and  for  its  fine 
churches;  the  Congregational  church,  con- 
structed of  gray  limestone,  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  state.  Beloit  is  well 
supplied  with  water  power,  has  a  flourishing 
trade,  and  contains  several  manufactories  of 
woollen  goods,  of  reapers  and  fanning  mills, 
of  scales,  of  carriages,  an  iron  foundery  and 
machine  shop,  several  flouring  mills,  2  news- 
paper offices,  several  hotels,  a  bank,  a  high 
school,  and  4  grammar  and  8  primary  schools. 
It  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  and  the  Western  Union  rail- 
roads. A  fertile  prairie,  the  largest  in  the  state, 
lies  on  the  E.  side  of  Rock  river.  Beloit  was 
settled  about  1837,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1856. 

BEL01V,  Pierre,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Soulleti&re,  in  the  province  of  Maine,  about 
1517,  assassinated  in  Paris  in  April,  1564.  His 
early  studies  in  natural  history  were  facilitated 
by  the  bishop  of  Mans,  and  he  graduated  as 
doctor  of  medicine  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Ronsard  and  other  learned 
men.  On  his  return  from  Germany,  where  he 
had  travelled  with  the  botanist  Cordus,  he 
was  arrested  for  alleged  conversion  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther.  He  made  three  journeys  to 
the  East  and  other  countries  (1546-'9),  and  a 
pension  was  conferred  on  him  by  Henry  II., 
and  a  residence  in  the  chateau  de  Madrid,  in 
the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  by  Charles  IX.  Late 
one  evening  he  was  found  dead  in  the  wood, 
having  probably  been  killed  by  robbers.  He 
is  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  comparative  anatomy.  His  principal  work, 


BELOOCIIISTAX 

Observations  de  plusieurs  singularitez  et 
memorable*,  trounces  en  Qrece,  Asie,  Judee, 
Ifgypte,  Arabic  et  autres  pays  estranges  (in  3 
parts,  Paris,  1553),  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions, and  was  translated  into  Latin  and  Ger- 
man. Among  his  other  writings  are :  Ilwtoire 
naturelle  des  estranges  poissons  marine  (1551), 
Histoire  de  la  nature  des  oyseanx  (1553),  and 
Les  remonstrances  sur  le  default  du  labour  et 
culture  des  plantes,  &c.  (1558). 

BELOOCHISTAN,  or  Beloojtstan,  a  country  of 
Asia,  between  lat.  24°  50'  and  30°  20'  N.  and 
Ion.  57°  40'  and  69°  18'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Af- 
ghanistan, E.  by  Sinde,  S.  by  the  Indian  ocean, 
and  W.  by  Persia ;  area,  about  166,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  2,500,000.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  country  is  mountainous;  but  toward  the 
shore  of  the  Arabian  sea  on  the  south,  and 
toward  Persia  on  the  west,  there  are  extensive 
barren  plains.  The  Hala  mountains  on  the 
east  and  northeast,  running  from  the  months 
of  the  Indus  to  the  Solyman  mountains,  include 
a  quantity  of  comparatively  fertile  land,  of  val- 
ley and  upland  plain,  in  which  the  inhabitants 
raise  tropical  grains  and  fruits.  A  strip  of  ter- 
ritory to  the  east  of  the  Hala  chain,  which,  al- 
though within  the  Indus  valley,  belongs  to  Be- 
loochistan,  is  very  fertile,  producing  cereals  and 
rich  crops  of  jowarree  (a  grain  much  in  demand 
in  northern  India),  and  various  tropical  produc- 
tions. But  the  land  here  is  low  and  swampy, 
to  which  indeed  it  owes  its  fertility,  and,  though 
more  numerously  inhabited  than  the  other  re- 
gions, is  the  most  unhealthy  of  the  whole.  The 
remainder  of  the  country  is  a  barren  wilderness. 
On  the  N.  E.  boundary  are  situated  the  famous 
mountain  passes,  the  Bolan  and  Gimdawa. 
These  form  the  direct  road  to  Kelat,  the  capital, 
and  the  only  means  of  communicating  with  the 
interior  of  the  country,  from  the  plains  of  N. 
W.  India.  There  are  no  rivers  worthy  the 
name ;  a  few  mountain  brooks  attain  consider- 
able size  in  the  spring,  but  do  not  endure ;  and 
the  streams  emptying  from  the  southern  coast 
into  the  sea  are  insignificant.  The  northeast- 
ern and  eastern  provinces  or  districts  are  Sa- 
rawan,  Kelat,  Cutch-Gundava,  and  Jhalawan. 
On  the  south  along  the  seashore  are  the  dis- 
trict of  Loos  and  Mekran,  the  ancient  Gedrosia. 
In  the  northwest  are  Kohistan  and  Kalpoora- 
kan. — The  inhabitants  of  Beloochistan  consist 
of  two  great  varieties,  the  Belooches  and  the 
Brahooees,  which  are  subdivided  into  other 
tribes,  and  these  again  into  families.  Their 
origin  is  uncertain,  but  they  are  probably  a 
race  of  mixed  Tartar  and  Persian  descent. 
They  themselves  claim  to  belong  to  the  earlies! 
Mohammedan  conquerors  of  central  Asia,  and 
are  zealous  Sunnis,  tolerating  an  unbeliever  ra- 
ther than  a  Shiah.  Polygamy  is  allowed.  In 
their  nomadic  habits  they  resemble  Tartars  01 
Bedouins,  living  in  tents  of  felt  or  canvas,  ane 
wearing  a  woollen  cloth  on  their  heads,  wit! 
woollen  or  linen  outer  coats.  They  are  of 
slight  but  active  forms,  and  practise  arms  and 
warlike  exercises  for  amusement.  Their  wo- 


HELPER 


BELTRAMI 


511 


men  enjoy  considerable  freedom.  The  Bra- 
hooees  speak  a  dialect  resembling  those  of  the 
Punjaub,  and  are  shorter  and  stouter  than  the 
Belooches.  They  are  somewhat  less  addicted 
to  rapine  and  plunder  than  the  others,  and  are 
said  to  be  hospitable  and  observant  of  prom- 
ises. The  government  is  under  various  heads, 
of  whom  the  khan  of  Kelat  is  leader  in  time 
of  war,  and  a  kind  of  feudal  chief  in  peace. — 
Beloochistan  was  formerly  subject  to  Persia 
and  afterward  to  Afghanistan,  but  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  the  tribes  shook  oft" 
their  dependence  on  the  Afghans.  At  the 
time  of  the  British  expedition  into  Afghanis- 
tan the  British  forced  the  Bolan  pass.  The 
Belooches  harassed  the  troops  considerably ; 
and  in  1840  an  expedition  was  sent  against 
Kelat  to  chastise  them,  which  was  done  effect- 
ually, but  no  permanent  occupation  was  made. 

HELPER  (formerly  £eaupoire),  a  town  of 
Derbyshire,  England,  on  the  Derwent  and  the 
Midland  railway,  7  m.  N.  of  Derby ;  pop.  in 
1871,  11,156.  It  is  well  built,  and  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  towns  of  Derbyshire.  The 
Strutt  cotton  works  employ  over  2,000  persons, 
and  there  are  also  manufactories  of  silk  and 
cotton  hosiery,  nails,  and  brown  earthenware. 

BELSIIAM.  I.  Thomas,  an  English  Unitarian 
divine  and  author,  born  at  Bedford  in  April, 
1750,  died  at  Hampstead,  Nov.  11,  1829.  He 
was  educated  at  the  dissenters1  academy  at 
Daventry,  of  which  he  was  principal  from 
1781  to  1789,  also  preaching  at  Daventry.  In 
1789  he  embraced  Unitarianism,  and  after 
spending  nearly  11  years  as  pastor  of  the 
Gravel  Pit  congregation,  he  was  called  to  the 
metropolis,  and  settled  in  1805  as  pastor  of 
Essex  street  chapel,  London,  where  the  re- 
maining 24  years  of  his  life  were  spent.  Mr. 
Belsham  wrote  a  great  deal  in  assertion  and 
vindication  of  Unitarianism,  including  "Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Revelation,"  a  "Trans- 
lation of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle, 
with  an  Exposition  and  Notes,"  and  a  reply  to 
Mr.  Wilbertbrce's  "  Practical  View."  Among 
his  contributions  to  general  literature,  his 
"  Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind  and  of  Moral  Philosophy "  (London, 
1801),  in  which,  with  David  Hartley,  he  re- 
solves all  mental  phenomena  into  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  is  best  known.  II.  William,  a 
historical  writer,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Hammersmith  in  1752,  died  Nov.  17, 
1827.  He  was  a  whig  in  politics,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  leaders  of  that  party.  In 
1789  he  commenced  his  literary  course  by  pub- 
lishing "  Essays,  Historical,  Political,  and  Lit- 
erary "  (2  vols.).  To  these  succeeded  essays 
on  various  subjects,  chiefly  political,  and  sev- 
eral works  which  appeared  between  1793  and 
1801,  and  were  finally  reproduced  in  a  col- 
lective edition  as  a  "  History  of  Great  Britain 
to  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Amiens  "  (12 
vols.  8vo,  1806). 

BELSHAZZAR  (Chal.  BeMatztzar).  See  BAB- 
YLON. 

85  VOL.  ii.— 33 


BELSFNCE,  or  Belznnee,  Henri  Francois  Xavler 
de,  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at  Pe'rigord,  Dec.  4, 
1671,  died  in  Marseilles,  June  4,  1755.  At  an 
early  age  he  became  a  Jesuit,  was  made  grand 
vicar  of  Agen,  and  in  1709  bishop  of  Marseilles. 
During  the  pestilence  which  devastated  his  see 
in  1720-'21,  Belsunce  displayed  charity  and 
unselfishness  to  a  degree  that  drew  upon  him 
the  encomiums  of  all  Europe.  He  is  especially 
referred  to  in  Pope's  "Essay  on  Man."  In 
consideration  of  his  services  at  this  period,  he 
was  offered  the  bishopric  of  Laon,  and  also  the 
archbishopric  of  Bordeaux,  but  refused  both. 
He  was,  however,  the  recipient  of  many  hon- 
ors, both  from  the  pope  and  the  king.  In  his 
later  years  he  became  involved  in  disputes 
with  the  Jansenists,  whom  he  attacked  with 
much  zeal  in  various  writings.  He  founded 
a  Jesuit  college  which  bears  his  name. 

BELT,  Great  and  Little,  the  name  given  to 
two  of  the  three  channels  which  connect  the 
Baltic  with  the  Cattegat,  and  through  it  with 
the  North  sea.  The  Great  Belt  is  about  50 
m.  long,  18  m.  in  medium  width,  and  from 
6  to  26  fathoms  deep.  It  lies  between  the 
islands  of  Seeland  and  Funen,  the  shores  of 
which  present  no  striking  features,  but  are 
lined  with  safe  harbors.  Navigation  is  diffi- 
cult at  all  seasons  on  account  of  many  danger- 
ous shoals  and  sand  banks,  and  in  winter  it  is 
still  further  obstructed  by  floating  ice,  though 
the  swiftness  of  the  current  prevents  the  strait 
from  being  often  frozen  over.  Lighthouses 
have  been  erected  on  the  shores ;  and  on  the 
small  island  of  Sprogo,  which  lies  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  channel,  and  which  the  action  of  the 
waves  is  gradually  wearing  away,  there  is,  be- 
sides a  light,  a  small  building  for  the  shelter  of 
crews  of  such  small  vessels  as  may  be  ice- 
bound in  the  attempt  to  pass  through  the 
strait. — The  Little  Belt  separates  Funen  from 
Schleswig  and  Jutland.  It  is  also  about  50  m. 
long,  from  1,000  yards  to  12  ra.  wide,  and  from 
5  to  30  fathoms  deep.  The  shores  are  low  and 
regular,  and  the  current  rapid.  It  is  frozen 
over  from  December  to  April,  and  navigation 
at  other  seasons  is  attended  with  the  same  dan- 
gers as  in  the  Great  Belt.  Large  vessels  usu- 
ally pass  through  the  Sound,  which  is  the  only 
channel  except  the  Belts  between  the  Catte- 
gat and  the  Baltic. 

BELTANE,  or  Belteln,  a  kind  of  festival,  still 
celebrated  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  on 
the  1st  of  May,  and  supposed  to  be  as  old  as 
the  remotest  period  of  druidical  supremacy. 
The  name  signifies  the  fire  of  Bel  or  Baal,  and 
the  custom  was  probably  an  offshoot  and  rem- 
nant of  oriental  worship.  To  the  Beltane  may 
be  referred  the  practice  of  lighting  fires  on 
midsummer  eve  in  England,  in  honor  of  the 
summer  solstice. 

BELTIS,  or  ISilit,  a  goddess  of  the  Babylo- 
nians. See  MYLITTA. 

BELTRAMI,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Minnesota ; 
pop.  in  1870,  80.  Red  lake  in  the  N.  W.  part 
discharges  into  the  Red  river  of  the  North,  and 


512 


BELUR  TAGH 


several  lakes  in  the  west  discharge  into  Wild 
Kice  river,  which  flows  into  the  Red.  Itasca 
lake,  about  1,600  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea; 
in  the  S.  part  of  the  county,  is  the  source  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  which  in  its  course  through 
the  county  forms  several  lakes,  the  largest  being 
Cass  lake,  on  the  S.  E.  border.  Leech  lake,  a 
large  body  of  water  touching  the  S.  E.  corner, 
also  flows  into  the  Mississippi. 

BELUR  TAtU.     See  BOLOB  TAGH. 

BELL'S  (Heb.  Bel;  Gr.  Biy/lof),  the  GrsBcized 
form  of  the  Chaldee  Bel,  as  given  in  the  He- 
brew Scriptures,  or  Bil,  as  read  in  the  inscrip- 
tions, the  name  or  title  of  one  of  the  principal 
Babylonian  divinities.  The  name  Bel  is  sup- 
posed to  be  contracted  from  Heel,  a.  Chaldee 
equivalent  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  Baal 
(the  Lord).  (See  BAAL,  BABYLONIA,  and  ME- 
EODACH.)  The  attending  female  divinity  was 
Bilit  or  Mylitta.  (See  MTLITTA.)  The  Greeks 
adopted  Belus  among  their  divinities,  making 
him  the  son  of  Neptune,  and  the  ancestral  hero 
and  national  divinity  of  several  eastern  nations. 

BELUS,  Temple  of.     See  BABEL,  and  BABYLON. 

BELZONI,  Giovanni  Battlsta,  an  Italian  travel- 
ler and  explorer,  the  son  of  a  barber,  born  in 
Padua  about  1778,  died  in  Africa,  Dec.  3,  1823. 
He  was  educated  for  monastic  life;  but  the 
French  revolution  broke  up  this  design,  and 
after  wandering  for  some  time  about  the  con- 
tinent, he  went  to  England  in  1803.  Here 
he  at  first  gained  a  precarious  subsistence  by 
exhibiting  as  an  athlete  at  Astley's  circus, 
being  endowed  with  prodigious  strength.  To 
these  feats  were  added  scientific  experiments, 
as  he  had  paid  much  attention  to  natural  phi- 
losophy, particularly  to  hydraulics.  He  mar- 
ried in  England,  and  after  residing  there  for 
nine  years  visited  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Malta. 
Conceiving  the  idea  of  offering  his  services 
to  the  pasha  of  Egypt  in  constructing  water 
wheels  to  irrigate  the  fields  contiguous  to  the 
Nile,  he  arrived  in  Egypt  June  9,  1815.  He 
first  constructed  for  the  pasha  one  of  his  hy- 
draulic machines,  at  the  gardens  of  Subra, 
three  miles  from  Cairo.  Mehemet  Ali  himself 
appears  to  have  been  satisfied  with  it,  but  the 
cultivators  regarded  it  as  an  innovation,  and 
their  prejudices  obliged  Belzoni  to  abandon 
his  scheme  without  even  being  rewarded  by 
the  pasha.  His  curiosity  being  now  strongly 
excited  on  the  subject  of  Egyptian  antiquities, 
at  the  recommendation  of  Burckhardt  he  was 
employed  by  Mr.  Salt,  the  English  consul,  to 
remove  the  colossal  head,  generally  but  incor- 
rectly styled  the  young  Memnon.  This  Bel- 
zoni successfully  accomplished,  in  the  face  of 
great  difficulties,  transporting  it  to  Alexandria, 
and  thence  shipping  it  for  England.  In  the 
mean  time  he  made  excursions  to  the  mountain 
of  Gornoo,  to  Asswan  and  Phils,  and  at  Ip- 
sambul  he  was  the  first  to  open  the  great 
temple  which  had  been  discovered  by  Burck- 
hardt. In  1817  he  made  a  second  journey  to 
Upper  Egypt,  and  became  involved  in  a  quarrel 
with  Drovetti,  the  French  consul,  and  his  co- 


BEM 

adjutor  the  count  do  Forbin.  He  visited  the 
necropolis  of  Thebes,  and  made  excavations  at 
Karnak.  Belzoni  also  discovered  another  co- 
lossal head  of  granite,  which  is  now  in  the 
British  museum,  and,  in  the  valley  of  Biban- 
ul-Moluk,  the  most  perfect  of  known  Egyptian 
tombs,  a  model  of  which,  exhibited  by  him  in 
London  in  1821,  attracted  crowds  of  visitors. 
Before  leaving  Egypt  he  succeeded  in  1818, 
after  much  trouble,  in  exploring  the  second  of 
the  great  pyramids  of  Gizeh,  that  of  Chephren 
or  Sephres.  This,  ever  since  the  time  of  He- 
rodotus, was  believed  to  be  without  internal 
chambers.  After  30  days  of  persevering  labor, 
Belzoni  found  the  entrance,  and  penetrated 
to  the  central  chamber.  He  also  visited  the 
district  of  Fayoom,  the  oasis  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon,  and  Lake  Moeris,  and  discovered  the 
ruins  of  Berenice.  He  left  Egypt  in  Septem- 
ber, 1819,  and  visited  his  native  city  of  Padua, 
where  a  medal  was  struck  in  his  honor ;  and  on 
his  return  to  England  he  published  a  "Nar- 
rative of  the  Operations  and  recent  Discoveries 
within  the  Pyramids,  Temples,  Tombs,  and  Ex- 
cavations in  Egypt  and  Nubia  "  (3d  ed.,  2  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1822).  In  1823  he  formed  the 
design  of  penetrating  to  Timbuctoo  in  Africa, 
and  had  reached  the  bight  of  Benin,  but  was 
attacked  with  dysentery,  of  which  he  died  at 
a  small  place  in  Benin. 

BEJI,  Jozef,  a  Polish  general,  born  at  Tar- 
now,  Galicia,  in  1795,  died  at  Aleppo,  Dec.  10, 
1850.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  corps 
of  cadets  at  Warsaw,  and  received  his  military 
training  at  the  artillery  school  directed  by  Gen. 
Pelletier.  On  leaving  this  school  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  of  the  horse  artillery,  served 
in  that  capacity  nnder  Davonst  and  Macdon- 
ald  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  won  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honor  by  his  cooperation  in  the 
defence  of  Dantzic,  and  after  the  surrender  of 
that  fortress  returned  to  Poland.  As  the  czar 
Alexander  now  affected  a  great  predilection  for 
the  Polish  nation,  and  reorganized  the  Polish 
army,  Bern  entered  the  latter  in  1815  as  an 
officer  of  artillery,  but  was  soon  dismissed  for 
fighting  a  duel  with  a  superior;  but  he  was 
subsequently  appointed  military  teacher  at  the 
artillery  school  of  Warsaw  and  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  captain.  He  now  introduced  the 
use  of  the  Congreve  rocket  into  the  Polish 
army,  recording  the  experiments  made  in  a 
volume  originally  published  in  French.  He 
was  insubordinate,  and  from  1820  to  1825  was 
several  times  arraigned  before  courts  martial, 
punished  with  imprisonment,  and  at  last  sent 
to  Kock  under  strict  police  surveillance.  He 
did  not  obtain  his  discharge  from  the  Polish  ar- 
my until  the  death  of  Alexander  and  the  Peters- 
burg insurrection  made  Constantino  lose  sight 
of  him.  Leaving  Russian  Poland,  he  now 
retired  to  Lemberg,  where  he  became  an  over- 
seer in  a  large  distillery,  and  wrote  a  book  on 
steam  applied  to  the  distillation  of  alcohol. 
When  the  Warsaw  insurrection  of  1830  broke 
out  he  joined  it,  after  a  few  months  was  made 


BEM 


BEMBO 


513 


a  major  of  artillery,  and  in  June,  1831,  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka,  where  he  was 
noticed  for  the  skill  and  perseverance  with 
which  he  fought  against  the  vastly  superior  Rus- 
sian batteries.  When  the  Polish  army  had  been 
finally  repulsed  in  its  attacks  against  the  Rus- 
sians who  had  passed  the  Narew,  he  covered 
the  retreat  by  a  bold  advance.  He  was  now 
created  colonel,  soon  after  general,  and  called 
to  the  comraaiid-in-chief  of  the  Polish  artillery. 
After  the  fall  of  Warsaw,  in  the  defence  of 
which  he  took  part,  he  crossed  the  Prussian 
frontier  with  the  rest  of  the  army,  but  urged 
the  men  not  to  lay  down  their  arms  before  the 
Prussians,  and  thus  provoked  a  bloody  collision, 
called  at  that  time  the  battle  of  Fischau.  He 
then  abandoned  the  army  and  organized  in  Ger- 
many committees  for  the  support  of  Polish 
emigrants,  after  which  he  went  to  Paris. 
Travels  through  Portugal,  Spain,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, and  France  absorbed  his  time  during  the 
period  from  1834  to  1848.  On  the  first  ap- 
pearance in  March,  1848,  of  revolutionary 
symptoms  in  Austrian  Poland,  he  hastened  to 
Lemberg,  and  thence,  on  Oct.  14,  to  Vienna, 
which  had  risen  in  insurrection  on  the  6th. 
But  he  in  vain  exerted  all  his  energy  in  organ- 
izing the  insurgents.  After  a  remarkable  de- 
fence, Oct.  28,  1848,  of  the  great  barricade 
erected  in  the  Jagernzeile,  and  after  the  open- 
ing of  negotiations  between  the  Vienna  magis- 
trates and  Prince  Windischgratz,  he  disappear- 
ed, secretly  escaping  to  Pesth.  The  revolu- 
tionary Hungarian  government  gave  him  com- 
mand of  Transylvania.  Opening  the  first  cam- 
paign toward  the  end  of  December,  1848,  with 
a  force  of  about  8,000  ill-organized  and  badly 
armed  men,  he  finished  it  in  about  three  months, 
Laving  vanquished  Puchner  with  an  Austrian 
army  of  20,000,  Engelhardt  with  an  auxiliary 
force  of  6,000  Russians,  and  Urban  with  his 
freebooters.  But  during  the  next  summer  the 
war  was  renewed  by  the  Russians,  and,  after 
desperate  fighting  on  the  part  of  Bern  and  his 
army,  was  terminated  disastrously  for  them 
by  the  decisive  battles  of  Schassburg  (July 
31,  1849)  and  Temesv&r  (Aug.  9),  which  were 
speedily  followed  by  the  surrender  of  Gorgey. 
After  a  vain  attempt  to  make  a  last  stand 
at  Lugos  and  in  Transylvania,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  take  refuge  in  the  Turkish  territory. 
With  the  purpose  of  opening  to  himself  a  new 
field  of  activity  against  Russia,  Bern  embraced 
the  Mussulman  faith,  and  was  raised  by  the 
sultan  to  the  dignity  of  a  pasha,  under  the 
name  of  Amurath,  with  a  command  in  the 
Turkish  army;  but,  on  the  remonstrances  of 
the  European  powers,  he  was  relegated  to 
Aleppo.  Having  there  succeeded  in  repressing 
some  sanguinary  excesses  committed  in  No- 
vember, 18oO,  on  the  Christian  residents  by 
the  Mussulman  populace,  ho  died  about  a 
month  later,  of  a  violent  fever,  for  which  he 
would  allow  no  medical  aid. — His  publications 
include  Expose  general  de  la  methode  mnemo- 
nique  polonaise,  &c.  (Paris  and  Leipsic,  1839), 


part  of  which  work  served  as  a  basis  for  the 
"  Polish-American  System  of  Chronology,"  by 
Miss  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody  (New  York,  1852). 

BEMAN,  Nathaniel  S.  S.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in  1785, 
died  at  Carbondale,  111.,  Aug.  8, 1871.  He  grad- 
uated at  Middlehury  college  in  1807,  studied 
theology,  and  about  1810  was  ordained  pastor 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Portland,  Me. 
Two  or  three  years  later  he  went  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Georgia,  where  he  devoted  himself  es- 
pecially to  the  work  of  establishing  educational 
institutions.  In  1822  he  became  pastor  of  the 
first  (and  at  that  time  the  only)  Presbyterian 
church  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  He  retained  the  charge 
of  this  church  more  than  40  years,  and  became 
a  leading  member  of  his  denomination,  entering 
warmly  into  the  temperance,  moral  reform, 
revival,  and  anti-slavery  movements  of  his 
time.  In  1831  he  was  moderator  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church ; 
and  during  the  discussions  which  in  1837  led 
to  the  disruption  of  that  church  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  New  School  branch.  In  1863  he 
resigned  the  pastoral  office,  and  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  resided  in  Troy  or  with  his 
daughter  in  Illinois.  Dr.  Beman  was  among 
the  most  cultivated  scholars  and  eloquent 
preachers  of  the  American  church.  Many  of 
his  sermons,  addresses,  and  essays  have  been 
separately  printed ;  he  also  published  a  vol- 
ume containing  "Four  Sermons  on  the  Atone- 
ment," and  was,  by  appointment  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly,  one  of  the  compilers  of  the 
hymn  book  adopted  by  the  New  School  branch 
of  the  Presbyterian  church. 

BK.1IBO.  I.  Bonifazio,  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Valdarno,  was  employed  by  the  court  of 
Milan  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 
He  assisted  in  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral 
of  Cremona,  where  he  painted  the  "Purifica- 
tion" and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi."  His 
works  are  esteemed  for  their  brilliant  coloring, 
bold  attitudes,  and  splendid  drapery.  II.  Gio- 
vanni Francesco,  brother  and  pupil  of  the  pre- 
ceding, a  painter  of  the  Cremonese  school,  who 
of  all  his  contemporaries  departed  furthest 
from  the  antique  manner,  and  resembles  Fra 
Bartolommeo  in  coloring. 

BEMBO,  Pietro,  an  Italian  cardinal  and  au- 
thor, born  in  Venice,  May  20,  1470,  died  in 
Rome,  Jan.  18,  1547.  He  was  of  a  noble  fam- 
ily, and  at  an  early  age  studied  at  Florence, 
whither  his  father  was  sent  as  ambassador, 
and  afterward  at  Messina,  whence  he  returned 
in  1494  to  his  native  city.  Soon  after  he  wrote 
a  treatise  upon  Mount  Etna,  which  was  his  first 
publication.  He  then  frequented  the  courts 
of  Ferrara  and  U rbino,  pursuing  philosophical 
and  literary  studies,  and  admired  for  his  wit 
and  graceful  manners.  Learning  and  letters 
were  then  in  the  highest  esteem  in  the  noble 
families  of  Italy,  and  Bembo  had  many  power- 
ful patrons,  received  favors  from  Pope  Julius  II., 
and  accompanied  his  friend  Giovanni  de'  Medici 
on  his  way  to  Rome  to  be  crowned  pope  as  Leo 


BEN 


BENARES 


X.  lie  was  made  secretary  to  the  new  pope, 
enjoyed  the  acquaintance  of  many  distinguished 
men,  and  busied  himself  with  composition. 
The  beautiful  Morosina,  whom  he  loved,  and 
who  bore  him  three  children,  persuaded  him 
upon  the  death  of  Leo  X.  in  1521  to  retire 
from  public  aftairs,  and  to  spend  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  literary  elegance  at  Padua.  Here  he 
formed  an  extensive  library  and  collection  of 
medals,  and  enjoyed  the  society  of  his  learned 
friends.  He  sometimes  visited  Rome,  and  hav- 
ing become  a  cardinal  after  the  accession  of 
Paul  III.,  he  determined  to  embrace  another 
manner  of  life.  He  renounced  profane  letters, 
studied  the  fathers  and  theologians,  was  ad- 
vanced to  several  bishoprics,  and  died  in  senti- 
ments worthy  of  a  prince  of  the  church.  His 
writings,  consisting  of  letters,  poems,  dialogues, 
criticisms,  fragments,  and  a  history  of  Venice, 
are  distinguished  for  elegance  and  gracefulness 
of  style. 

BEJf,  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  word  for  son, 
often  used  in  forming  complements  of  names ; 
thus:  Shelomeh  ben  David  (Solomon  son  of 
David),  Mosheh  ben  Maimon  (Moses  Maimoni- 
des),  Ali  ben  Hassan.  In  Arabic,  and  after  it 
in  mediaeval  Hebrew,  the  form  ibn  is  used  in 
the  same  way,  being  in  rabbinical  names  often 
changed  into  aben.  The  qualifying  names  with 
the  prefixed  ben,  &c.,  are  also  used  independent- 
ly, thus:  Ibn  Batuta,  Ibn  Ezra,  Ben  Gabirol, 
Bendavid ;  like  the  similar  modern  names  Ja- 
cobson,  Mendelssohn,  and  Davison. 

liKMM  A/AK,  Sebastian  de,  the  first  conqueror 
of  Popayan,  New  Granada,  born  about  the  end 
of  the  15th  century  at  Benalcaz,  in  Estrema- 
dura,  Spain,  died  in  1550.  He  set  out  as  a 
common  sailor  in  the  train  of  Pedrarias,  the 
newly  appointed  governor  of  Darien,  in  1514. 
His  ability  and  daring  gained  for  him  the  con- 
fidence of  Pizarro,  who  sent  him  against  the 
Indian  leader  Euminahui.  At  the  moment  of 
engagement  the  volcano  of  Cochabamba  suf- 
fered an  eruption,  at  which  the  Peruvian  army 
was  more  frightened  than  the  Spaniards,  and 
fled  to  Quito.  Sebastian  then  possessed  him- 
self of  the  smoking  ruins  of  this  city.  Thence 
he  passed  northward  and  overcame  Popayan, 
a  chief  whose  name  he  transferred  to  the  con- 
quered territory.  Inflamed  by  the  speeches 
of  an  Indian  captive,  who  spoke  of  a  chief  fur- 
ther north  who  was  anointed  with  gold  pow- 
der, Benalcazar  and  his  band  determined  to 
visit  and  conquer  this  el  dorado,  or  "golden 
one."  After  traversing  vast  forests,  he  arrived 
in  1534  in  the  country  afterward  called  New 
Granada,  but  found  himself  forestalled  by  two 
other  Spanish  adventurers.  He  returned  to 
Popayan,  and  was  made  governor  of  that  prov- 
mce  by  a  decree  dated  1538.  But  when  La 
Gasca  succeeded  in  supplanting  Diego  Pizarro, 
he  deprived  Benalcazar  of  his  governorship, 
and  the  chagrin  he  felt  at  this  slight  is  said  to 
have- caused  his  death. 

BKVAKKS.  a  city  of  British  India,  celebrated 
as  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  the  Hindoos, 


situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  390 
m.  N.  W.  of  Calcutta,  and  75  m.  E.  of  Allaha- 
bad, in  lat.  25°  19'  N.,  Ion.  82°  55'  E.  ;  pop. 
about  200,000.  It  is  the  metropolis  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  which  forms  a  part  of 
the  Northwest  Provinces.  Although  so  far 
inland,  the  altitude  of  Benares  above  the  sea 
level  is  only  about  300  ft.  The  city  extends 
over  three  miles  along  the  Ganges,  and  one 
mile  from  it.  A  bridge  of  boats  crosses  the 
river  to  the  railway  station  on  the  opposite 
bank.  The  width  of  the  Ganges  here  varies 
with  the  season,  sometimes  exceeding  half  a 
mile.  The  ascent  from  the  river  margin  to  the 
city  is  very  steep,  and  is  for  the  most  part  oc- 
cupied by  long  and  handsome  flights  of  broad 
stone  steps,  called  ghauts.  These  terraces  are 
the  favorite  resort  of  the  Hindoos  in  all  their 
outdoor  pursuits.  Above  them  rise  the  pal- 
aces, mosques,  towers,  and  temples  of  the 
city,  which  as  seen  from  the  Ganges,  in  their 
massive  and  gorgeous  architecture,  present  a 
striking  and  impressive  picture  of  oriental 
grandeur.  The  interior  of  Benares,  however, 
is  by  no  means  so  attractive,  the  houses  being 
high  and  closely  built,  with  no  streets  wide 
enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  carriages.  The 
loftier  and  better  class  of  dwellings  are  built 
of  brick,  and  have  an  interior  courtyard  ;  but 
many  of  the  houses  are  simply  cabins  of  dried 
mud  roofed  with  tiles.  Benares  has  been  ap- 
propriately termed  the  Mecca  of  the  Hindoos. 
A  true  Brahman  regards  it  as  the  holiest  spot 
on  earth,  and  believes  that  future  blessedness 
is  secure  to  the  worst  of  men  who  is  fortunate 
enough  to  die  within  its  precincts.  Hundreds 
of  invalids  are  brought  here  to  be  sanctified  by 
so  enviable  a  death.  Even  the  water  of  the 
sacred  Ganges  is  holier  here  than  elsewhere, 
and  quantities  of  it  are  taken  from  the  ghauts 
and  conveyed  by  pious  pilgrims  to  every  part 
of  India.  Along  the  terraced  riverside  fires 
are  continually  burning,  on  which  smoulder  the 
bodies  of  the  recent  dead.  The  sacred  Brah- 
man bulls  roam  in  large  numbers  through  the 
narrow  streets  at  will,  frequently  disputing 
the  right  of  way  with  foot  passengers.  There 
are  not  fewer  than  1,000  Hindoo  temples  in 
the  city.  The  golden  temple  of  Shiva,  the 
reigning  deity  of  Benares,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated,  but  is  neither  very  beautiful  nor 
attractive.  The  Doorgha  Kond,  the  famous 
temple  of  the  sacred  monkeys,  although  os- 
tensibly devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess 
Doorgha,  is  in  reality  the  dwelling  of  swarms 
of  large  yellow  monkeys,  who  overrun  a  quar- 
ter of  the  city.  They  are  maintained  and 
carefully  tended  by  the  Brahmans,  who  imagine 
them  to  possess  certain  holy  attributes.  The 
temple  overlooks  one  of  the  finest  tanks  in  India. 
The  Hindoos  are  the  dominant  race  in  Benares, 
constituting  nine  tenths  of  the  entire  population. 
On  important  religious  occasions  throngs  of 
pilgrims,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  100,000, 
come  from  all  parts  of  Hindostan  to  visit  the 
holy  city.  The  Mohammedan  mosques  in  Be- 


BENARES 


BENBOW 


515 


nares  number  more  than  300,  that  built  by 
Aurungzebe  in  the  17th  century  being  the 
most  prominent.  It  occupies  the  site  of  an 
ancient  Hindoo  temple  in  the  centre  of  the 
city.  Its  28  minarets  rise  each  232  ft.  above 
the  surface  of  the  Ganges,  the  foundations  ex- 
tending to  the  water's  edge.  The  architecture 
of  the  building  is  variously  described  as  beau- 
tiful and  unattractive.  The  observatory  of  Jai 
Singh,  established  during  the  Mogul  supremacy, 
is  a  massive  structure,  furnished  with  curious 
astronomical  instruments  and  ancient  oriental 
drawings  of  the  celestial  heavens.  A  Hindoo 
Sanskrit  college  was  founded  in  1792,  to  which 
an  English  department  was  added  in  1832, 
providing  instruction  in  mathematics,  history, 
belles-lettres,  and  political  economy.  There 
are  other  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  schools, 
and  several  foreign  Christian  missions.  A 


court  of  civil  and  criminal  justice  is  maintained 
by  the  British  government.  Secrole,  the  Eng- 
lish settlement  containing  the  official  resi- 
dences and  cantonments,  lies  between  2  and  3 
m.  W.  of  the  native  town.  It  is  an  unhealthy 
station  and  much  dreaded  by  European  troops. 
The  manufactures  of  Benares  comprise  cottons, 
woollens,  silks,  and  magnificent  gold  brocades. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  a  large  provincial 
trade  in  fine  shawls,  muslins,  and  diamonds, 
which  articles,  in  addition  to  its  own  manu- 
factures, form  the  principal  exports.  It  is  also 
a  great  mart  of  distribution  for  European 
goods. — The  modern  city  of  Benares  dates  from 
the  period  of  Mohammedan  ascendancy  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  but  the  ruins 
found  in  the  vicinity  indicate  a  much  earlier 
origin.  The  Hindoos  believe  Benares  to  have 
been  founded  at  the  creation  of  the  world.  It 


Benares. 


is  noteworthy  that  three  great  religions  have 
flourished  there:  Buddhism,  the  founders  of 
which  there  began  to  propagate  their  faith; 
Mohammedanism,  which  was  temporarily  dom- 
inant ;  and  Brahmanism,  which  has  regained  its 
supremacy. — The  district  of  Benares  has  an 
area  of  about  1,000  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of 
about  800,000.  It  is  abundantly  watered  by  the 
Ganges,  Goomtee,  and  many  smaller  streams. 
The  climate  is  characterized  by  violent  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  with  a  mean  of  77°  F., 
and  an  annual  rainfall  of  more  than  30  inches. 
The  country  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  pro- 
ducing abundant  crops  of  sugar,  opium,  and 
indigo.  It  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany in  1775  by  the  king  or  nawanb  of  Oude, 
who  acquired  it  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Mogul  empire.  On  an  agreement  providing  for 
the  payment  of  certain  tribute,  the  East  India 


company  in  1776  granted  the  district  to  Kajah 
Oheyt  Singh.  This  agreement  was  broken  by 
Warren  Hastings  as  governor  general,  and  its 
violation  was  the  subject  of  one  of  the  charges 
on  which  he  jvas  subsequently  impeached. 

liKMtOH.  John,  an  English  admiral,  born  at 
Newport  in  1650,  died  in  Jamaica,  Nov.  4, 
1702.  He  was  reared  in  the  merchant  service, 
and  in  a  trip  to  the  Mediterranean  in  1686  he 
fought  so  desperately  against  an  African  cor- 
sair, that  he  was  invited  to  the  Spanish  court 
by  Charles  II.,  who  recommended  him  to 
James  II.  of  England.  The  latter  gave  him 
the  command  of  a  ship  of  war  to  protect  Brit- 
ish interests  in  the  English  channel,  and  subse- 
quently he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear 
admiral,  and  employed  in  blockading  and  bom- 
barding the  French  ports.  In  1701,  with  a 
squadron  under  his  command,  he  sailed  to  the 


516 


BENCOOLEN 


West  Indies.  His  success  was  commended  by 
the  house  of  commons,  and  in  1702,  on  a  second 
expedition,  he  encountered  the  French  fleet 
under  Ducasse,  and  for  five  days  maintained  a 
running  light  with  them.  He  succeeded  in 
bringing  the  enemy's  sternmost  ship  to  close 
quarters,  but  his  chief  officers  refused  to  second 
his  efforts.  Here  he  lost  a  leg  by  a  chain-shot, 
an  event  which,  though  it  did  not  abate  his  ar- 
dor, gave  occasion  for  some  of  his  captains  to 
agree  "  that  nothing  more  was  to  be  done."  On 
his  return  to  Jamaica  he  brought  the  delin- 
quents before  a  court  martial,  which  convict- 
ed them  of  disobedience  and  cowardice,  and 
caused  them  to  be  shot.  His  wound,  and  the 
emotion  caused  by  these  events,  concurred  with 
a  pulmonary  disease  to  hasten  his  death. 

BENCOOLEN  (Malay,  Banglca  [flu,  rolling  up- 
lands).    I.  A  Dutch  residency  on  the  8.  W. 
coast  of  Sumatra ;  area,  including  the  island  of 
Engano,  8,736  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  100,000.    The 
surface  is  hilly  and  undulating.     The  soil  is  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  island ; 
it  is  for  the  most  part  a  stiff  red  clay,  burnt 
nearly  to  the  state  of  a  brick  where  it  is  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.    The  chief  culture  was  pepper 
during  the  first  intercourse  of  Europeans  with 
this  country.    In  1798  the  clove  and  nutmeg 
were  introduced  from  the  Moluccas ;  but  the  lat- 
ter alone  has  succeeded,  and  that  only  by  ma- 
nuring and  much  labor  and  care.     Some  of  the 
forests  abound  in  gutta  percha  and  gutta  taban 
trees,  which  produce  a  gum  of  excellent  qual- 
ity.    Coffee  is  cultivated  to  considerable  ex- 
tent.   The  styrax  benzoin  tree,  from  which  the 
gum   benjamin   of  commerce   is  obtained,   is 
grown  in  plantations.     The  buffalo  and  goat 
are  the  only  large  animals  domesticated.     Ti- 
gers are  very  numerous,  and  materially  impede 
the  prosperity  of  the  country.     The  Rejangs, 
one  of  the  most  civilized  races  of  Sumatra, 
compose  the  greater  portion  of  the  population 
of  this  territory.     II.  The  chief  town  of  the 
residency,  in  lat.  3°  47'  S.,  Ion.   102°  19'  E. ; 
pop.  about   10,000.     The   British   East   India 
company  established  a   factory  at  this  point 
for  the  pepper  trade  in  1685.     In  1714  Fort 
Maryborough  was  founded,  3  m.  distant.     In 
1760  the  French  under  Count  d'Estaing  cap- 
tured and  took  possession  of  the  fort  and  fac- 
tory ;  but  they  were  restored  to  the  company 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763.     By  the  treaty 
of  London  in  1824,  the  English  government 
ceded  the  fort  and  factory,  and  establishments 
dependent  on  them,  which  then  embraced  a 
territory  of  about  12  sq.  m.,  to  the  Dutch,  in 
exchange  for  Malacca  and  its  territory,  and  a 
small  post  near  Madras.     Bencoolen  was  an  un- 
profitable dependency  of  the  Bengal  presidency, 
and  cost  the  East  India  company,  on  an  aver- 
age, about  $60,000  per  annum  during  the  whole 
period  of  its  possession ;   it  was   maintained 
partly  from  a  point  of  honor,  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  an  over-estimate  of  the  advantages 
expected  to  grow  out  of  the  pepper  trade. 
During  the  English  possession  the  town  con- 


BENDEMANN 

tained  20,000  inhabitants,  but  has  now  dwindled 
to  one  half  that  number,  composed  of  Eejangs, 
Malays,  Bughis,  and  a  large  number  of  Arabs 
and  Chinese.  A  Dutch  assistant  resident  is 
stationed  there. 

l'.i:\l* V.  I.  Franz,  a  German  violinist,  bom 
at  Old  Benatek,  in  Bohemia,  in  1709,  died  at 
Potsdam  in  1788.  He  acquired  an  extraordi- 
nary mastery  of  the  violin,  receiving  his  first 
lessons  from  a  blind  musician  in  a  band  of 
strolling  players.  In  1732  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Frederick  the  Great,  then  prince  royal, 
with  whom  he  remained  the  rest  of  his  long 
life.  He  founded  a  school  of  violinists,  whose 
method  of  playing  was  original  and  effective. 
He  also  published  some  excellent  solos  for  the 
violin,  il.  Georg,  a  composer,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Bohemia  in  1721,  died  at 
Kostritz  in  1795.  He  passed  many  years  of  his 
life  as  a  musician  in  the  service  of  the  courts 
of  Prussia  and  Gotha,  and  improved  his  style 
by  a  visit  to  Italy.  He  composed  a  number  of 
comic  operas,  and  two  of  a  serious  character  em 
titled  "Ariadne in Naxos"  and  "Medea,"  which 
are  written  with  much  feeling  and  taste.  Be- 
sides his  operas,  Benda  wrote  some  excellent 
sonatas  for  the  harpsichord. 

BEKDAYID,  Lazarus,  a  German  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  of  Jewish  parentage,  born 
in  Berlin,  Oct.  18, 1762,  died  there,  March  28, 
1832.  A  glass-cutter  by  trade,  he  attained 
great  proficiency  in  mathematics,  and  the 
highest  praise  was  awarded  by  Kastner  to  his 
first  published  disquisition  in  1785,  Theorieder 
Paralleten,  followed  in  1789  by  Dai  mathema- 
tische  Unendliche.  After  lecturing  in  Berlin 
and  studying  in  Gottingen,  he  delivered  in  Vi- 
enna for  about  four  years  lectures  on  Kantian 
philosophy  and  aesthetics  which  he  afterward 
published.  Persecuted  in  Vienna,  he  returned 
to  Berlin  in  1797,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
there,  engaged  in  lecturing  and  literary  labors, 
and  in  presiding  over  the  Jewish  free  school, 
which  under  his  direction  rose  to  great  excel- 
lence. His  works  include  Vorletttngen  itber 
die  Kritik  der  reinen  Vernwnft  (Vienna, 
1795;  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1802);  Venuch  uber 
das  Vergnugen  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1794);  Ver- 
such  einer  GescJtmaclislehre  (Berlin,  1798); 
Verivch  einer  EeeJttslehre  (1802) ;  Uebtr  den 
Ursprung  unserer  ErTcenntniai  (a  prize  essay, 
1802) ;  Ueber  die  Religion  der  Elraer  tor 
Moses  (1812) ;  and  Zvr  Berechmmg  des  judi- 
scTien  Calenders  (1817). 

i;i:M>l'H V\ V  Edoard,  a  German  painter,  of 
the  Dusseldorf  school,  born  in  Berlin,  Dec.  3, 
1811.  He  is  the  son  of  a  Jewish  banker,  and 
was  a  pupil  of  Schadow,  who  had  a  very  great 
influence  upon  his  style,  and  led  him  to  adopt 
many  characteristics  exhibited  in  nearly  all  his 
paintings.  Bendemann  was  only  21  years  of 
age  when  his  first  great  picture,  "  The  Mourning 
Jews,"  acquired  for  him  a  lasting  celebrity. 
In  1838  he  was  made  professor  at  the  academy 
of  art  in  Dresden.  He  was  also  chosen  to  dec- 
orate with  frescoes  the  principal  rooms  of  the 


BENDER 


BENEDETTI 


517 


royal  palace  there ;  and  the  paintings  he  exe- 
cuted are  among  the  best  of  his  works.  In 
1859  he  was  made  director  of  the  academy  at 
Diisseldorf,  which  position  he  still  holds  (1873). 
He  has  produced  a  very  great  numher  of  re- 
markable and  celebrated  works,  besides  the 
frescoes  with  which  he  lias  decorated  public 
buildings  in  Germany. 

BENDER  (Kuss.  Bendary),  a  fortified  town  of 
Russia,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  province  of 
Bessarabia,  on  the  right  bank  and  about  48  m. 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester,  35  m.  S.  E.  of 
Kishenev ;  pop.  in  1869,  24,443,  including  Jews, 
Russians,  Tartars,  Armenians,  and  Moldavians. 
The  town  is  partly  built  in  the  shape  of  a  cres- 
cent, and  is  separated  from  the  strong  citadel, 
which  stands  on  an  eminence,  by  a  large  space 
with  a  mound,  called  after  Suvaroft'.  There  are 
seven  gates  and  several  suburbs,  and  the  small 
houses  and  numerous  hovels  extend  far  into 
the  surrounding  steppe.  The  streets  are  dirty 
and  gloomy,  and  the  town  generally  has  an 
oriental  aspect,  enhanced  by  many  mosques, 
which  with  one  exception  are  now  appropriated 
to  secular  purposes.  The  natives  are  mostly 
occupied  in  agriculture  and  grazing.  Salt- 
petre, leather,  and  paper  are  manufactured 
to  some  extent.  The  Russians  are  the  most 
industrious.  The  chief  language  is  Rouma- 
nian. The  transit  business  with  Odessa,  Jas- 
sy,  and  other  places  is  very  active,  the  prin- 
cipal trade  being  in  grain,  wine,  wool,  cat- 
tle, tallow,  and  timber. — The  Genoese  had  a 
settlement  here  as  early  as  the  12th  century, 
but  the  town  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
thoroughly  established  till  the  14th  century. 
In  the  16th  it  passed  with  Moldavia  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  who  built  the  fortifications. 
After  the  battle  of  Poltava  (July  8,  1709) 
Charles  XII.  escaped  to  Bender,  and  was  per- 
mitted by  the  Turkish  authorities  to  reside  for 
several  years  in  the  neighboring  village  of 
Varnitza.  The  Russians  under  Panin  stormed 
and  burned  the  town  Sept.  26,  1770,  and  mas- 
sacred the  garrison  and  the  inhabitants,  killing 
about  30,000.  The  treaty  of  peace  of  1774 
restored  the  town  to  Turkey.  It  was  again 
taken  by  the  Russians  under  Potemkin,  Nov. 
15,  1789 ;  but  the  Turks  were  once  more  re- 
instated till  1806,  when  Meyendorff  retook  the 
place,  and  in  1812  it  was  by  the  treaty  of 
Bucharest  united  to  Russia  together  with  the 
rest  of  Bessarabia. 

BENDISH,  Bridget,  the  granddaughter  of  Oli- 
ver Cromwell  of  England,  and  the  daughter  of 
Gen.  Ireton,  born  about  1650,  died  in  1727. 
In  her  early  years  she  lived  at  Cromwell's 
court,  and  was  present  at  the  audiences  he  gave 
to  foreign  ambassadors.  She  bore  a  wonderful 
resemblance  to  the  protector,  physically  and 
morally ;  her  energy  was  immense  ;  she  would 
work  for  days  together  without  sleeping;  had 
uncommon  conversational  powers ;  was  liable 
to  periodic  attacks  of  religious  ecstasy ;  and 
managed  her  salt  works  at  Southtown,  in  Nor- 
folk, with  great  exactness.  She  could  never 


bear  to  hear  her  grandfather  evil  spoken  of, 
and  one  day  when  travelling  in  the  stage  coach 
a  tory  squire  so  committed  himself,  not  know- 
ing in  whose  presence  he  was;  she  jumped  out 
at  the  next  stage,  snatched  a  sword  from 
another  fellow  passenger,  and  challenged  the 
royalist  gentleman  to  a  duel.  She  would  some- 
times drive  her  carriage  into  Yarmouth,  and 
spend  an  evening  at  the  assembly  rooms  in  that 
city,  where  her  princely  manners,  venerable 
aspect,  and  imposing  energy  of  voice  and  man- 
ner recalled  the  protector.  A  memoir  of  her 
by  a  local  physician  has  been  preserved,  and 
translated  into  French  by  Guizot. 

BENEDEK,  Lndwig  von,  an  Austrian  soldier, 
born  at  Oedenburg,  W.  Hungary,  in  1804.  He 
is  the  son  of  a  physician,  studied  at  the  milita- 
ry academy  of  Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  entered 
the  army  as  a  cornet  in  1822,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  colonel  in  1843.  He  fought 
against  the  insurgents  in  Galicia  in  1846,  against 
the  Italians  in  1848,  and  in  1859  commanded  at 
Solferino  the  left  wing  of  the  Austrian  army, 
which  was  the  last  to  leave  the  field.  In  1860 
he  became  field  marshal  and  governor  general 
of  Hungary,  in  November  of  the  same  year  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  Italy,  and  in  1 866  in  the  war 
with  the  Prussians,  by  whom  he  was  crush- 
ingly  defeated  at  Sadowa,  July  3.  He  was 
superseded  by  the  archduke  Albert,  under 
whom  he  served  till  October,  when  he  was  put 
on  the  retired  list,  his  disastrous  generalship 
against  the  Prussians  destroying  his  reputation. 

BENEDETTI,  Vincent,  count,  a  French  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Corsica  about  1815.  He  is  of 
Greek  origin,  and  the  husband  of  a  wealthy 
Greek  lady,  was  French  consul  in  Cairo  and 
Palermo,  secretary  of  legation  in  Constanti- 
nople, director  of  the  political  department  in 
the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  secretary 
during  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1856).  His  acquaintance  with  Count  Cavour 
led  to  his  being  sent  in  1860  to  Turin  to  ne- 
gotiate the  final  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France ;  and  he  was  ambassador  there  in  1861-'2. 
In  1864  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Ber- 
lin, and  was  made  a  count  in  1869.  In  1870 
he  was  ordered  to  protest  against  the  candi- 
dature of  Prince  Leopold  of  Ilohenzollern  for 
the  throne  of  Spain.  The  Prussian  cabinet 
rejected  this  protest  July  4,  upon  which  Ben- 
edetti  appealed  in  person  to  the  king  of  Prussia 
at  Ems  on  July  9,  and  again  on  July  11,  but 
the  king  declined  to  interfere.  The  prince  of 
Hohenzollern  voluntarily  withdrew  from  the 
candidature  July  12.  Benedetti  was  neverthe- 
less instructed  to  insist  upon  King  William's 
apologizing  to  Napoleon  III.  for  having  sanc- 
tioned it,  and  upon  his  pledging  himself  against 
its  renewal ;  and  although  Count  Bismarck  de- 
clined to  entertain  this  demand,  the  French 
envoy  importuned  the  king  personally  in  the 
public  walks  at  Ems  July  13,  in  a  manner  so 
displeasing  that  he  was  informed  that  no  further 
interviews  would  be  granted  to  him.  He  there- 
upon left  Ems  (July  14)  for  Paris,  and  war 


518 


BENEDICT 


against  Prussia  was  virtually  declared  on  the 
following  day  by  a  resolution  of  the  corps 
ISgislatif,  and  formally  by  the  government  on 
July  19.  Benedetti  having  accused  Bismarck 
at  that  period  of  having  originated  in  1806  an 
alleged  Franco-Prussian  treaty  for  a  mutual 
cession  of  territory,  the  latter  had  documentary 
evidence  published  Aug.  10, 1870,  showing  that 
the  French  ambassador  initiated  these  negotia- 
tions on  Aug.  5,  1866,  by  the  direction  of  Na- 
poleon III.  Benedetti  published  in  1871  Ma 
mission  en  Prutse  (3d  ed.,  1872),  disavowing 
any  intentional  rudeness  toward  the  king,  and 
maintaining  that  he  acted  throughout  in  sim- 
ple obedience  to  his  instructions. 

BENEDICT,  the  name  of  several  popes  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  I.  Benedltt  II.,  elect- 
ed in  684,  died  in  685.  He  was  a  Roman, 
remarkable  for  Scriptural  science,  piety,  and 
kindness  to  the  poor.  He  caused  the  decrees 
of  the  sixth  general  council  (against  the  Mono- 
thelites)  to  be  accepted  by  the  Spanish  bishops, 
and  induced  the  Greek  emperor  to  give  up  the 
usurped  right  of  confirming  the  election  of 
the  pope.  II.  Benedict  III.,  a  Roman,  elected 
in  855,  died  April  8,  858.  He  is  praised  for 
meekness  and  benevolence,  built  and  beauti- 
fied churches  in  Rome,  and  in  concert  with 
Ethelwolf,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  establish- 
ed an  English  college  in  Rome.  He  confirmed 
the  deposition  of  Gregory,  the  unworthy  bishop 
of  Syracuse,  pronounced  by  Ignatius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  which  was  the  occasion  of 
the  subsequent  deposition  of  Ignatius  and  in- 
trusion of  Photius  in  his  place,  and  of  the  Greek 
schism.  III.  Benedict  VIII.,  son  of  the  count 
of  Tusculum,  and  cardinal  bishop  of  Porto, 
elected  June  17,  1012,  died  in  1024.  The  Ger- 
man emperor  Henry  II.  and  his  wife  St.  Cune- 
gunda  were  crowned  by  him.  He  made  two 
visits  to  Germany,  during  the  latter  of  which 
he  received  the  city  of  Bamberg  as  a  present, 
afterward  exchanged  for  Benevento.  During 
his  reign  the  Saracens  attacked  the  pontifical 
territory,  but  were  defeated  and  driven  away 
by  the  troops  of  Benedict,  after  a  bloody  and 
obstinate  battle  of  three  days.  The  Greeks 
afterward  invaded  Apulia,  but  were  driven  out 
by  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Henry.  Pope  Bene- 
dict introduced  the  custom  at  Rome  of  singing 
the  Nicene  creed  during  mass.  He  renewed  the 
ordinances  of  the  council  of  Nice  relative  to 
sacerdotal  celibacy.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  under  the  name  of  John  XIX.  IV. 
Benedict  XI.  (NICOL&  BOCOASINI),  born  in  Treviso 
in  1240,  died  in  Perugia,  July  6,  1304.  He  was 
general  of  the  Dominicans  when  Boniface  VIII. 
made  him  cardinal,  and  afterward  bishop  of 
Ostia  and  Viterbo,  and  employed  him  in  many 
important  affairs.  He  was  a  devoted  partisan 
of  Boniface,  and  remained  with  him  at  Anagni 
after  all  the  other  cardinals  had  fled.  Suc- 
ceeding Boniface  in  1303,  he  composed  the 
difficulties  with  France  and  Sicily,  both  of 
which  kingdoms  had  been  laid  under  an  inter- 
dict. He  was  remarkable  for  humility.  On 


one  occasion,  when  his  mother  presented  her- 
self at  his  court  splendidly  attired,  ho  refused 
to  recognize  her  until  she  had  resumed  the 
dress  suitable  to  her  humble  state  of  life.  He 
died  by  poison,  and  was  beatified  by  Benedict 
XIV.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Job,  the 
Psalms,  the  Apocalypse,  and  St.  Matthew.  V. 
Benedict  XII.  (JACQUES  DE  NOVELLIS  or  FOUR- 
NIER),  born  at  Saverdun,  France,  died  April 
25,  1342.  He  was  a  Cistercian,  and  a  nephew 
of  John  XXII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1334  at 
Avignon.  He  was  an  eminent  canonist  and 
theologian,  and  a  severe  reformer.  He  defined 
the  doctrine  that  the  beatitude  of  the  just  and 
the  punishment  of  the  wicked  commence  be- 
fore the  final  judgment.  VI.  Benedict  XIII.,  of 
the  princelv  house  of  Orsini,  born  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  in  1649,  died  Feb.  21, 1730.  He 
became  a  Dominican  at  an  early  age.  Having 
with  great  reluctance  accepted  the  dignities  of 
bishop  and  cardinal,  he  continued  to  live  as  a 
simple  monk,  and  devoted  all  his  leisure  hours 
to  study  and  prayer.  As  a  bishop  he  was  de- 
voted to  his  pastoral  duties,  and  universally 
loved ;  and  as  cardinal  he  led  what  was  called 
the  party  of  the  Zelasti,  who  were  pledged  to 
vote  at  the  conclave  for  the  candidate  deemed 
by  the  college  of  cardinals  the  most  worthy, 
without  regard  to  any  worldly  or  political  inter- 
est. He  was  chosen  to  succeed  Innocent  XIII. 
in  1724,  and  accepted  the  papal  dignity  under 
obedience  to  the  command  of  the  general  of 
his  order,  with  many  tears.  His  principal 
efforts  were  directed  to  restore  and  uphold  ec- 
clesiastical discipline.  He  wrote  homilies  on 
the  book  of  Exodus.  VII.  Benedict  XIII.,  anti- 
pope.  See  LUNA,  PEDRO  DE.  VIII.  Benedict 
XIV.  (PEOSPERO  LORENZO  LAMBERTINI),  born 
of  an  ancient  family  at  Bologna  in  1675,  died 
May  3,  1758.  From  his  youth  he  devoted  him- 
self to  study  and  science,  especially  to  canon 
law  and  theology.  After  a  long  and  laborious 
career  in  different  offices  of  the  Roman  pre- 
lature,  he  was  in  1728  made  cardinal  priest 
and  archbishop  of  Ancona  by  Benedict  XIII. 
In  1731  Clement  XII.  transferred  him  to  Bo- 
logna, where  he  remained  until  his  election  to 
the  papacy,  which  took  place,  most  unex- 
pectedly, Aug.  17,  1740.  He  was  then  65  years 
of  age,  and  he  reigned  18  years.  During  the 
intervals  of  public  business  he  contrived  to  ap- 
ply himself  to  his  favorite  studies,  and  main- 
tained a  correspondence  with  all  the  most 
eminent  writers  of  the  day.  He  was  a  great 
patron  of  science,  learning,  the  fine  arts,  and 
charitable  institutions.  The  complete  collec- 
tion of  his  works  fills  15  folio  volumes,  and  in- 
cludes treatises  on  the  beatification  and  can- 
onization of  saints,  on  the  mass,  on  the  church 
festivals,  and  on  canonical  and  moral  questions, 
besides  his  Institutiones  Ecclesiasticas,  and  sev- 
eral volumes  of  Miscellanea.  Many  of  these 
works  were  originally  written  in  Italian. 

BENEDICT,  surnamed  BISCOP,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic saint,  bora  in  England  in  628,  died  Jan.  12, 
690.  At  the  age  of  25  he  quitted  the  court  of 


BENEDICT 


BENEDICTINES 


519 


King  Oswin,  at  which  he  held  a  distinguished 
position,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology  and  monastic  discipline.  For  this 
purpose  he  made  three  journeys  to  Rome,  and 
then  founded  the  monasteries  of  Wearmouth 
and  Yarrow,  of  which  he  retained  the  direc- 
tion. He  encouraged  the  monks  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  learning,  especially  with  a  collection 
of  Greek  and  Roman  authors  which  he  had 
made  upon  his  travels,  and  in  chanting,  intro- 
ducing the  Gregorian  chant  into  England.  He 
also  built  a  stone  church  at  Wearmouth  in  the 
Italian  style,  and  furnished  its  windows  with 
glass  brought  from  France.  Among  his  wri- 
tings a  "  Treatise  on  the  Celebration  of  Feasts  " 
is  still  extant.  His  life  was  written  by  the 
Venerable  Bede,  who  was  one  of  his  disciples. 

BENEDICT,  abbot  of  Peterborough,  an  Eng- 
lish monk  and  historian,  died  in  1193.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  became  prior  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Christ  Church  in  Canterbury,  shared 
the  friendship  both  of  Becket  and  King  Henry, 
assisted  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.,  under 
whom  he  was  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and 
wrote  a  history  of  the  two  kings  and  a  life  of 
the  prelate,  which  are  still  extant. 

BENEDICT,  Sir  Julius,  a  German  composer, 
born  in  Stuttgart,  Nov.  27,  1804.  Having 
early  developed  a  talent  for  music,  he  was 
placed  by  his  father,  a  rich  Jewish  banker,  un- 
der the  instruction  of  Louis  Abeille,  concert 
master  to  the  king  of  Wiirtemberg.  At  the 
age  of  12  he  had  made  astonishing  progress 
upon  the  pianoforte,  but  his  father  insisted 
that  his  musical  pursuits  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  interfere  with  his  literary  studies. 
These  latter  being  concluded  in  1819,  Benedict 
was  sent  to  Weimar  and  placed  under  the  di- 
rection of  Hummel.  In  1820  he  went  to  Dres- 
den to  receive  lessons  from  Weber,  then  en- 
gaged in  the  composition  of  his  Euryanthe. 
With  this  composer  Benedict  formed  an  inti- 
mate friendship,  accompanying  him  to  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  other  cities  where  Weber's  operas 
were  produced.  In  1824  Benedict  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  German  opera  at  Vi- 
enna. He  went  to  Naples  in  1825,  and  directed 
music  at  one  of  the  theatres  in  that  city  for  sev- 
eral years,  producing  his  first  opera,  Oiticinta 
ed  Ernesto,  there  in  1827.  In  1830  he  went  to 
Paris  for  a  short  time,  and  finally  in  1835  to 
London,  which  city  thenceforth  became  his 
home.  He  was  soon  very  popular  there  as  a 
pianoforte  instructor,  and  held  successively 
and  for  short  periods  the  position  of  musical 
director  at  the  lyceum  and  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1838  he  produced  his  first  English  opera,  "  The 
Gypsy's  Warning,"  which  was  succeeded  by 
"  The  Brides  of  Venice  "  and  "  The  Crusaders," 
all  of  which  were  well  received  and  kept  the 
stage  for  long  periods.  In  1850  Benedict  accom- 
panied Jenny  Lind  as  accompanist  and  director 
of  the  orchestra  on  her  tour  in  the  United 
States.  Returning  to  Europe  in  1851,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  lose  both  his  wife  and  his 
eldest  child  in  the  same  year,  while  on  a  trip 


to  Italy.  Resuming  his  musical  labors  in  Lon- 
don in  1852,  he  devoted  himself  in  great  part  to 
composition,  producing  many  works  for  piano- 
forte, for  stringed  instruments,  and  for  orches- 
tra, and  acting  as  conductor  at  the  Italian 
opera  in  London  and  at  many  of  the  great 
English  festivals.  In  1860  his  cantata  "Un- 
dine "  was  produced  at  the  Norwich  festival. 
His  "  Lily  of  Killarney "  was  brought  out  in 

1862,  his  cantata  "Richard  Cosur  de  Lion"  in 

1863,  and  his  operetta  "  The  Bride  of  Song  "  in 

1864,  Among  his  later  works  are  a  concerto 
for  the  pianoforte,  his  "  Legend  of  St.  Cecilia," 
and  his  oratorio  of  "  St.  Peter,"  which  latter 
was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  festival  of 
1870.    In  1871  he  was  knighted. 

BENEDICT,  Saint,  born  at  Nursia  in  Umbria 
in  480,  died  March  21,  543.  His  parents  sent 
him  to  Rome  to  study,  but,  disgusted  with  the 
vices  and  temptations  he  found  there,  he  fled 
to  the  desert  of  Subiaco,  between  Tivoli  and 
Sora.  After  a  time  he  could  no  longer  con- 
ceal himself,  and  finally  built  a  monastery  on 
Monte  Casino,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  and  presided  as  abbot 
during  14  years. 

BENEDICT  OF  AMANE,  a  Roman  Catholic  saint, 
born  in  Languedoc  about  750,  died  near  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  Feb.  11,  821.  Having  forsaken  the 
court  of  Charlemagne,  he  established  himself 
in  a  hermitage  upon  the  bank  of  the  Aniane  in 
Languedoc.  Such  was  the  austerity  of  his  life 
that  disciples  gathered  around  him,  and  in  782 
he  constructed  a  monastery  for  their  reception. 
Here  he  instituted  a  reform  in  monastic  disci- 
pline which  was  extensively  adopted  in  other 
convents,  and  afterward  was  introduced  into 
all  the  monasteries  of  Aquitaine  in  pursuance  of 
authority  received  from  Louis  le  Debonnaire. 
He  finally  assumed  the  direction  of  a  monastery 
which  was  built  expressly  for  him  near  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  there  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  induced  the  monks  who  were  un- 
der his  control  to  copy  the  works  of  the  best 
authors,  and  thus  rendered  an  important  ser- 
vice to  the  cause  of  civilization.  His  code  of 
rules  was  published  at  Paris  in  1663. 

BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of  monks  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  rules  drawn  up 
by  St.  Benedict  gradually  superseded  those  of 
St.  Columban  and  others  which  had  previously 
prevailed.  His  order,  founded  early  in  the 
6th  century,  spread  rapidly  and  widely.  Its 
monks  planted  Christianity  in  Saxon  England, 
Friesland,  and  Germany,  and  Father  Boil,  a 
Benedictine,  was  sent  out  with  Columbus  on 
his  second  voyage  as  vicar  apostolic  of  the  new 
world.  The  order  claims  24  popes,  15,000 
bishops,  and  40,000  beatified  or  canonized 
saints.  The  rules  were  few  and  simple.  The 
Benedictines  were  at  first  laics,  and  employed  • 
chiefly  in  manual  labor ;  but  gradually  the 
order  became  a  body  of  learned  priests.  During 
the  middle  ages  they  were  the  great  preservers 
of  ancient  learning  and  assiduous  cultivators  of 
science  and  art,  copying  and  preserving  the 


520 


BENEDICTINES 


classics,  the  Scriptures,  and  writings  of  the 
early  fathers.  For  centuries  they  were  the 
principal  teachers  of  youth  in  all  branches  in 
their  colleges  and  schools.  As  ascetics  the 
Benedictines  were  less  studied  and  formal  than 
the  later  schools.  Down  to  the  establishment 
of  the  mendicant  orders  all  the  monastic  bodies 
in  the  West  based  their  rules  on  that  of  St. 
Benedict,  such  as  those  of  Cluny  and  Citeaux, 
with  the  Bernardines,  Feuillants,  and  Trap- 
pists,  in  France ;  Carthusians,  Camaldolen- 
sians,  Vallombrosians,  &c.  Besides  these  sep- 
arate orders,  reforms  were  made  from  time  to 
time  in  the  Benedictine  order  to  revive  the 
ancient  discipline.  The  order  of  St.  Benedict 
is  divided  into  congregations,  and  has  no  gen- 
eral superior.  Of  these  congregations,  that  of 
St.  Maur,  dispersed  by  the  French  revolution, 
is  well  known  for  its  learned  works,  including 


Benedictine  Monk. 

the  best  editions  of  the  fathers.  Those  in  Spain, 
long  reduced  to  the  single  monastery  at  Mont- 
serrat,  are  now  suppressed.  In  Italy,  previous 
to  the  conquests  of  Victor  Emanuel,  the  con- 
gregation of  Monte  Casino  was  very  flourish- 
ing, embracing  the  provinces  of  Rome,  Etruria, 
Lombardy,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Subiaco.  The 
Bavarian  congregation  comprises  five  monas- 
teries, the  Austrian  three,  the  Brazilian  seven, 
the  Mechitarist  two  provinces  with  several  mo- 
nasteries at  Venice  and  in  the  East,  the  French 
three  monasteries.  The  English  congregation, 
famous  for  its  ascetical  writers,  was  restored  in 
1603,  and  now  comprises  four  monasteries,  and 
•the  body  is  well  represented  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  of  England.  The  Bene- 
dictines were  introduced  into  the  United  States 
by  the  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer,  who  established 
a  house  at  Carrolltown,  Penn.,  in  October, 
T84G,  which  is  now  St.  Vincent's  abbey,  he 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 

being  mitred  abbot.  The  order  spread  rapidly, 
and  now  forms  the  American  Casinensian  con- 
gregation, comprising  two  mitred  abbots,  three 
monasteries,  six  priories  depending  on  abbeys, 
and  more  than  100  monks.  There  is  also  at 
St.  Meinrad's,  Indiana,  an  abbey  of  the  Ilel- 
veto-American  congregation,  a  filiation  of  Ein- 
siedeln,  founded  in  1853,  and  erected  into  an 
abbey  and  congregation  in  1870.  The  order 
includes  a  number  of  independent  houses, 
some  of  them  very  large  and  flourishing.  Of 
these  the  most  famous  are  Our  Lady  of  Her- 
mits at  Einsiedeln  in  Switzerland,  and  St. 
Peter  and  Paul  near  Melk  in  Austria.  The 
number  of  Benedictines  was  estimated  in  1869 
at  2,089.— Benedictine  Nuns.  St.  Scholastica, 
sister  of  St.  Benedict,  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  foundress  of  the  Benedictine  nuns.  They 
took  part  in  the  conversion  of  Germany,  and 
St.  Walpurga  is  looked  upon  as  the  foundress 
of  all  the  convents  there.  Convents  of  this 
rule  exist  in  almost  all  parts  where  monks  are 
established.  There  are  in  the  United  States  12 
convents  of  Benedictine  nuns,  devoted  to  edu- 
cation, in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  Ne- 
braska. The  oldest  is  that  of  St.  Mary's, 
Pennsylvania,  a  filiation  of  St.  Walpurga's  at 
Eichstadt,  Germany,  established  in  1853. 

IM:M:DI\.  Julius  Koderich,  a  German  drama- 
tist, born  in  Leipsic,  Jan.  21,  1811.  He  was  an 
actor  and  singer  in  early  life,  and  in  1841, 
while  manager  of  the  Wesel  theatre,  he  pro- 
duced a  highly  successful  comedy,  Dai  lemoos- 
te  Haupt  ("  The  Old  Fogy  "),  which  has  been 
followed  by  about  30  popular  plays^  several  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  foreign  lan- 
guages. A  complete  edition  of  his  dramatic 
works  has  been  published  at  Leipsic  (22  vols., 
1846-'69).  lie  has  also  edited  a  literary  jour- 
nal, published  popular  works  on  German  legends 
(6  vols.,  1839-'40)  and  the  German  war  of  in- 
dependence (1841)  ;  a  novel  entitled  "Pictures 
from  the  Life  of  Actors ; "  and  works  on  elo- 
cution and  German  rhythm.  He  has  been 
manager  of  the  theatres  of  Elberfeld  (1844-'5), 
Cologne  (1847-'8),  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
(1855-'8);  and  since  1858  he  has  been  devoted 
to  literature  at  Leipsic. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY,  in  English  criminal 
law,  the  prmlegium  clericals,  exemption  of 
the  clergy  from  penalties  imposed  by  law  for 
certain  crimes.  This  privilege  was  for  many 
centuries  an  important  element  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  criminal  law.  It  had  its  origin  in 
the  claim  made  by  the  ecclesiastics  for  the  en- 
tire exemption  of  their  order  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  common  law  courts.  Before  the 
Norman  conquest  the  greater  part  of  the  civil 
business  of  the  kingdom  was  transacted  in  the 
county  courts,  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
presided  in  them  with  the  sheriff  of  the  coun- 
ty ;  and  these  courts  thus  possessed  both  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  But  the  foreign 
clergy  who  came  over  with  the  Normans  ob- 
tained from  William  the  Conqueror  a  separa- 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


BEXEVEXTO 


521 


tion  of  the  ecclesiastical  from  the  civil  courts. 
In  the  reign  of  Stephen  sole  jurisdiction  was 
given  to  the  bishop  over  ecclesiastical  persons 
and  causes.  This  gave  rise  to  a  contest  be- 
tween the  spiritual  and  temporal  courts.  The 
claim  of  exclusive  jurisdiction  was  not  success- 
fully maintained,  except  in  respect  to  ecclesias- 
tical causes,  but  the  persons  of  the  clergy 
were  exempted  from  penalties  for  certain 
crimes  in  cases  specifically  provided  for  by 
common  law  or  statute.  The  exemption  was 
not  allowed  in  high  treason,  nor  in  petit  lar- 
ceny, nor  any  mere  misdemeanor  (by  which 
was  meant  petty  crimes  less  than  felony),  and 
was  as  a  general  rule  allowable  only  in  capital 
felonies,  but  not  in  all  even  of  that  class.  The 
exemption  was  mainly  founded  on  the  statute 
25  Edward  III.,  by  which  it  was  provided  that 
clerks  convicted  of  treason  or  felonies  touch- 
ing other  persons  than  the  king  himself  should 
have  the  privilege  of  holy  church.  By  the 
common  law,  benefit  of  clergy  was  denied  in 
three  kinds  of  felony,  viz. :  lying  in  wait  for 
one  on  the  highway  (inridiatio  viarum),  rav- 
aging a  country  (depopulatio  agrorum),  and 
burning  of  houses  (combustio  domorum)  •  and 
in  all  these  cases,  even  after  the  statute  above 
mentioned,  the  privilege  continued  to  be  de- 
nied. It  was  enacted  afterward,  in  various  | 
statutes,  that  certain  crimes  should  be  without 
benefit  of  clergy,  as  murder,  rape,  burglary, 
larceny  from  the  person,  or  from  a  dwelling 
house,  any  one  being  therein,  and  many  other 
offences.  As  to  the  persons  entitled  to  ben- 
efit of  clergy,  it  was  originally  limited  to  such 
as  had  the  habitus  et  tonsura  clericalis,  that 
is,  the  regular  clergy ;  but  the  claim  being 
made  in  behalf  of  the  retainers  of  ecclesiastics, 
and  other  laymen,  who  were  not  entitled  to  it, 
only  such  as  could  read  were  at  last  allowed 
the  privilege.  But  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
it  was  found  that  there  were  as  many  laymen 
as  divines  who  had  an  exemption  by  this  test, 
and  a  law  was  then  passed  making  a  distinction 
between  lay  scholars  and  such  as  were  in  or- 
ders. Lay  scholars  were  not  allowed  to  take 
the  benefit  of  clergy  but  once,  and  upon  being 
admitted  to  the  privilege  were  burned  in  the 
hand,  probably  in  order  that  they  might  not 
set  up  a  claim  to  it  again.  The  distinction  was 
abolished  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  but  re- 
vived again  by  the  statute  1  Edward  VI.  It 
was  also  enacted  by  this  statute  that  peers 
having  a  place  in  parliament  should  have  the 
benefit  of  peerage,  equivalent  to  that  of  clergy, 
for  the  first  offence,  although  they  could  not 
read,  and  without  being  burnt  in  the  hand,  for 
all  offences  then  clergyable  to  commoners,  and 
also  for  the  crimes  of  house-breaking,  high- 
way robbery,  horse-stealing,  and  robbing  of 
churches — a  significant  indication  of  the  state 
of  morals  and  education  among  the  highest  no- 
bility in  that  era.  In  the  duchess  of  Kingston's 
case,  it  was  held  that  peeresses  were  entitled  to 
the  benefit  of  the  statute.  All  these  provisions 
required,  as  the  condition  of  exemption,  that 


the  person  claiming  exemption  should  be  able 
to  read,  so  that  those  who  could  not  read  (ex- 
cept peers)  were  hanged.  To  remedy  this  un- 
equal severity,  it  was  enacted  by  5  Anne  that 
the  benefit  of  clergy  should  bo  granted  to  all 
who  were  entitled  to  it  without  requiring  them 
to  read.  Finally,  by  statutes  7  and  8  George 
IV.,  the  benefit  of  clergy  was  entirely  abolish- 
ed.— In  the  United  States  this  privilege  has 
never  been  recognized  as  existing.  There  is, 
however,  a  statute  (act  of  congress,  April  30, 
1790)  in  which  it  is  provided  that  benefit  of 
clergy  shall  not  be  allowed  for  any  offences 
punishable  by  death. 

BEiVEKE,  Friedrich  Ednard,  a  German  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Berlin,  Feb.  17,  1798,  disappear- 
ed March  1,  1854,  his  body  being  found  more 
than  two  years  afterward  in  a  canal  at  Char- 
lottenburg.  After  serving  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  campaign  of  1815,  he  studied  theology  and 
philosophy.  In  1820  he  lectured  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Berlin  as  a  private  teacher,  but  the 
continuance  of  his  lectures  was  forbidden  in 
1822,  on  account  of  his  departure  from  the  phil- 
osophical principles  of  Hegel.  He  then  taught 
for  a  few  years  in  Gottingen,  but,  upon  return- 
ing to  Berlin  in  1827,  he  received  permission 
to  lecture  in  the  university  again,  and  was  elect- 
ed extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  after 
Hegel's  death  in  1831.  In  that  capacity  he 
labored  with  marked  success  till  1853,  when 
he  began  to  suffer  severely  from  physical  dis- 
orders. He  taught  that  philosophy  must  be 
founded  upon  a  strict  and  careful  examination 
of  the  phenomena  of  consciousness.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  :  Erziehungs-  uhd  Unter- 
richtelehre  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1835-'6  ;  3d  ed.,  by 
Dressier) ;  Grundlinien  des  naturlichen  Sys- 
tems der  praktischen  Philosophic  (3  vols.,  1837 
-'41) ;  System  der  Logik  als  Kunstlehre  det 
Denkem  (2  vols.,  1842) ;  Pragmatische  Psy- 
chologic, oder  Seelenlehre  in  der  Anwendung 
auf  das  Leben  (2  vols.,  1850). 

BENEVENTE,  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
province  of  Espiritu  Santo,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  forming  a  good  harbor, 
47  m.  S.  of  Victoria ;  pop.  of  the  town  and  its 
district  about  4,000.  The  port  is  one  of  the 
most  frequented  in  the  province,  and  many 
ships  are  built  there.  Agriculture  and  the 
coasting  trade  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
district. 

BENEVENTO.  I.  A  province  of  Italy,  traversed 
by  the  W.  ridges  of  the  Neapolitan  Apeninnes 
and  the  river  Galore ;  area,  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  231,878.  The  former  papal  delegation 
of  Benevento  contained  only  an  area  of  barely 
100  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  little  over  20,- 
000 ;  but  when  it  became  a  province  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy  it  was  considerably  enlarged  by 
the  addition  of  territory  formerly  belonging  to 
the  Neapolitan  kingdom.  Benevento  now  com- 
prises three  districts,  one  of  its  own  name  con- 
taining nearly  half  of  the  total  population  of  the 
province,  and  those  of  Cerreto  Sannita  and  Bar- 
tolommeo  in  Galdo.  Cereals,  fruits,  wine,  oil, 


522 


BENEVENTO 


and  game  abound,  and  are  extensively  exported. 
!!.  A  city  (anc.  Jieneventum),  capital  of  the 
province,  at  the  junction  of  the  Calore  and 
Sabbato  rivers,  and  on  the  railway  from  Naples 
to  Foggia,  32  m.  N.  E.  of  Naples ;  pop.  in  1872, 
20,133.  The  Porta  Aurea,  one  of  the  gates  of 
the  city,  which  once  spanned  the  Appian  Way 
and  now  leads  to  Foggia,  is  formed  by  the  fa- 
mous arch  of  Trajan,  with  bass  reliefs  repre- 
senting his  exploits,  and  one  of  the  finest  and 
best  preserved  monuments  of  the  kind  in  Italy. 
The  Corso  extends  along  the  ridge  on  which 
the  city  is  built,  from  the  cathedral  to  the  castle. 
In  the  piazza  Orsini  is  a  fountain  with  a  statue 
of  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  Most  of  the  streets, 
though  narrow  and  steep,  contain  mansions  of 
old  families  and  other  fine  residences.  There 
are  many  convents  and  churches.  The  vast 
and  interesting  cathedral  had  its  interior  com- 
pletely restored  in  the  17th  century.  In  the 
episcopal  palace  are  various  antiquities  and 


Benevento,  Italy. 

two  fragments  of  Egyptian  obelisks  in  hiero- 
glyphics. The  castle  is  used  as  the  official  resi- 
dence of  the  local  authorities,  and  Latin  in- 
scriptions abound  all  over  the  city,  as  well  as 
bass  reliefs  and  esteemed  fragments  of  ancient 
statuary.  Among  other  relics  are  the  remains 
of  an  amphitheatre,  portions  of  the  Roman 
walls,  and  an  ancient  bridge  over  the  Calore. 
Few  Italian  cities  present  greater  archaeologi- 
cal and  historical  interest  than  Benevento. 
Traditions  of  a  mysterious  walnut  tree,  where 
the  itreghe  di  Benevento,  as  the  witches  of  S. 
Italy  were  popularly  called,  met  at  night,  still 
linger  among  the  people.  Gold  and  silver 
ware,  leather,  and  parchment  are  manufactured, 
and  the  corn  trade  is  considerable. — The  origin 
of  the  city  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  Dio- 
medes  and  to  Auson,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe. 
It  first  appears  in  history  as  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Samnium,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans  in  the  3d  century  B.  C.,  when  Pyr- 


BENEZET 

rhns  was  defeated  here  (275) ;  and  about  the 
same  period  the  name  of  Beneventum  -was 
adopted  in  place  of  the  previous  appellation  of 
Maleventum.  Under  the  Romans  Beneventum 
retained  great  importance  till  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  on  account  of  its  wealth  and  pros- 
perity and  its  position  on  the  Appian  Way. 
Under  the  Lombards  it  became  the  capital  of 
a  duchy,  including  many  of  their  conquests  in 
S.  Italy,  and  afterward  of  a  principality  with 
extended  dominion,  which  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes,  and  became  extinct  in  1077 
with  the  death  of  Landulph  VI.  The  Normans 
then  seized  the  territory,  while  the  city  came 
under  the  sway  of  the  pope.  Four  councils 
were  held  here  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries. 
On  Feb.  26,  1266,  Manfred  of  Naples  was  de- 
feated here  by  Charles  of  Anjou  in  a  celebrated 
battle,  which  has  been  commemorated  by  Dante. 
Early  in  the  15th  century  the  city  was  for  a 
tune  under  Neapolitan  rule,  till  Ferdinand  I. 
returned  it  to  the  pope. 
In  1688  it  was  devas- 
tated by  an  earthquake, 
and  its  restoration  was 
due  to  the  archbishop 
of  Benevento,  after- 
ward Pope  Benedict 
XIII.  The  papal  pow- 
er was  almost  uninter- 
ruptedly sustained  till 
1798,  when  the  French 
took  the  place  and  sold 
it  to  Naples.  Cardinal 
Ruffo  routed  here  in 
1799  a  body  of  French 
troops.  In  1806  Bene- 
vento was  made  a  prin- 
cipality by  Napoleon  I. 
for  the  benefit  of  Tal- 
leyrand, but  it  was  re- 
stored to  the  pope  in 
1815.  An  insurrection 
in  1820  was  speedly  put 
down;  and  Benevento 

had  no  share  in  the  revolutionary  outbreak  of 
1848-'9.  In  1860  it  was  united  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  together  with  Naples. 

BENEVOLENCE,  in  England,  first  a  voluntary 
gratuity  voted  to  Edward  IV.  by  his  subjects. 
It  was  afterward  a  species  of  forced  loan  levied 
by  the  kings  in  violation  of  Magna  Charta. 
The  exaction  aroused  great  indignation,  and 
led  to  the  insertion  of  an  article  in  the  petition 
of  rights,  3  Charles  I.,  by  which  it  was  provi- 
ded that  no  man  should  be  compelled  to  yield 
any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such  like 
charge,  without  common  consent  by  act  of 
parliament.  By  the  statute  1  William  and 
Mary,  it  is  declared  that  levying  money  for 
or  to  the  use  of  the  crown,  by  pretence  of  pre- 
rogative, without  grant  of  parliament,  or  for 
longer  time  or  in  other  manner  than  the  same 
is  or  shall  be  so  granted,  is  illegal. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  an  American  philanthro- 
pist, born  at  St.  Quentin,  France,  Jan.  31, 1713, 


BENFEY 


BENGAL 


523 


died  in  Philadelphia,  May  5,  1784.  His  father's 
family,  who  were  Protestants,  removed  in  1715 
to  London,  where  they  became  Quakers,  and 
in  1731  to  Philadelphia.  In  1742  Anthony 
gave  up  the  mercantile  business  for  which  he 
had  been  educated,  and  became  instructor  of 
the  Friends'  English  school.  He  published 
(1762-'7)  tracts  in  opposition  to  the  slave  trade, 
and  carried  on  an  extensive  correspondence  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  about  its  abolition. 
He  founded  a  school  for  the  instruction  of  per- 
sons of  African  descent,  and  devised  his  property 
for  its  benefit  after  the  death  of  his  wife.  His 
funeral  was  attended  by  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons of  all  religious  denominations,  among 
whom  were  several  hundred  negroes. 

BENFEY,  Theodor,  a  German  philologist  and 
orientalist,  born  at  Norten,  near  Gottingen, 
Jan.  28,  1809.  He  studied  in  Gottingen  and 
Heidelberg,  and  has  been  since  1834  professor  of 
Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Gottingen.  He  translated  the  come- 
dies of  Terence  into  German  (1837),  and  re- 
ceived the  Volney  prize  from  the  academy  of 
Berlin  for  his  OriecJiisches  Wurzellexikon  (2 
vols.,  1839-'42).  Among  his  chief  publications 
are:  Die  perauchen  Keilimchriften  (Leipsic, 
1847);  Die  Hymnen  des  Samateda,  with  a 
translation  and  notes  (1848);  Vollstandige 
Grammatik  der  SantTcritsprache  (1852) ;  Chres- 
tomathie  (2  vols.,  1853-'4) ;  Kurze  Grammatik 
der  Sanikritspraehe  (1855),  an  English  edition 
of  which  was  published  in  Berlin  in  1863  under 
the  title  of  "  A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  San- 
skrit Language ;  "  a  translation  of  the  Pantcha- 
tantra  (2  vols.,  1859),  upon  which  he  has  since 
published  a  commentary,  as  well  as  upon  other 
Hindoo  poetry,  in  various  periodicals,  and  in 
his  collection  entitled  Orient  und  Occident  (2 
vols.,  Gottingen,  1863-'4) ;  a  Sanskrit-English 
dictionary  (London,  1866);  and  Geschichte  der 
Sprachwissensehaft  und  orientalischen  PTiilolo- 
gie  in  Deutschland  seit  dem  Anfange  des  19. 
Jahrhunderts  (Munich,  186f). 

BENGAL,  a  province  of  British  India,  often 
erroneously  termed  a  presidency.  It  formerly 
comprised  only  the  level  region  watered  by  the 
Ganges  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  which 
is  now  known  as  Bengal  proper.  No  such 
territorial  division  as  the  presidency  of  Bengal 
has  ever  in  fact  existed.  The  application  of 
that  title  to  the  region  appears  to  have  origi- 
nated, by  some  mistake,  from  the  early  acts 
of  the  British  parliament  concerning  India,  in 
which  "the  presidency  of  Fort  William  in 
Bengal "  is  spoken  of.  At  first  this  term  was 
evidently  intended  to  describe  a  district  more 
limited  than  Bengal  itself,  and  included  within 
it,  but  it  was  subsequently  applied  to  a  much 
greater  extent  of  territory.  In  1833  the  pres- 
idency of  Fort  William,  thus  enlarged,  was  di- 
vided for  administrative  purposes  into  two 
parts,  one  of  which  was  placed  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  officer  known  as  the  lieuten- 
ant governor  of  Bengal,  and  forms  the  subject 
of  this  article.  It  constitutes  one  of  the  ten 


great  political  provinces  of  India,  and  lies  be- 
tween lat.  19°  and  29°  N.  and  Ion.  82°  and  97° 
E.,  bounded  N.  by  Nepaul  and  Bootan,  E.  by 
Burmah,  S.  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  W.  by 
the  Northwestern  and  Central  Provinces.  It 
is  divided  into  regulation  and  non-regulation 
districts.  The  regulation  districts  extend  over 
the  low,  fertile,  and  densely  populated  basin 
of  the  Ganges,  and  are  subject  to  a  strict  and 
systematic  official  administration ;  they  include 
Bengal  proper,  the  native  province  of  Behar, 
and  the  maritime  districts  of  Orissa.  The 
wilder  outlying  countries  are  comprised  in  the 
non-regulation  districts,  which  embrace  the 
hill  region  of  Orissa,  the  territory  S.  of  Behar 
called  the  Southwest  Frontier,  and  the  great 
country  of  Assam,  through  which  flow  the 
Brahmapootra  and  its  tributaries.  Here  civil- 
ization is  far  less  advanced  than  in  the  regula- 
tion districts,  and  the  government  is  compara- 
tively informal.  Four  native  states  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Bengal  government :  1, 
a  country  on  the  S.  W.  frontier,  inhabited  by 
aboriginal  tribes  and  little  known ;  2,  the  Gar- 
row  and  Cossyah  or  Khasia  hills,  mountainous 
districts  which  rise  to  a  height  of  from  5,000 
to  6,000  ft.,  between  Assam  and  Bengal  proper ; 
3,  Tipperah,  and  4,  Munepoor,  two  extensive 
tracts  bordering  upon  Burmah.  The  area  and 
population  of  Bengal,  according  to  the  official 
returns  for  1872,  are  as  follows : 


DIVISIONS. 

Arem  In  *<[.  in.. 
excl.  of  riven, 
wastes,  an  J  forests. 

Population. 

89,488 

36,769,785 

Behar                          .  ... 

42417 

19.786,101 

Orissa  

28,1)01 

4,817,999 

8.">  1HH 

2,207,488 

48,901 

8,825,671 

Total  

280,882 

66,856,859 

— Bengal,  forming  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Hindo- 
stan,  consists  mainly  of  a  level  plain  of  vast 
extent  and  little  elevation,  intersected  by  the 
Ganges,  the  Brahmapootra,  and  their  tributa- 
ries. The  two  main  streams  flow  across  it  to- 
ward the  bay  of  Bengal  and  each  other,  the 
Ganges  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  the  Brahmapootra 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  Their  waters  partially 
mingle  before  reaching  the  coast,  as  the  main 
trunk  of  the  Brahmapootra  unites  with  an  arm 
of  the  Ganges  at  a  point  about  80  m.  inland ; 
but  they  enter  the  sea  by  different  mouths, 
though  not  more  than  two  miles  apart  at  some 
points  in  their  course.  According  to  Sir  Charles 
Lyell,  the  area  of  the  delta  of  the  combined 
rivers  is  considerably  more  than  double  that 
of  the  Nile.  The  head  of  the  delta,  or  point 
where  the  first  arm  is  given  off,  is  in  the  case 
of  each  river  about  200  m.  from  the  sea. 
Along  the  coast  of  the  bay  of  Bengal  for  a  dis- 
tance of  180  m.  is  a  perfect  labyrinth  of  streams 
and  inlets  surrounding  the  extensive  tract  of 
islands  denominated  the  Sunderbunds,  a  wilder- 
ness equal  in  area  to  Wales,  overspread  with 
jungle  and  infested  by  wild  beasts.  Here  the 


BENGAL 


water  is  salt,  but  it  is  fresh  in  the  Hoogly,  the 
main  outlet  of  the  Ganges,  on  which  Calcutta 
is  situated.  This  channel,  the  Ilauringotta  arm, 
and  that  which  bears  the  name  of  the  river 
itself  are  all  navigable.  The  annual  inunda- 
tions in  Bengal  cover  an  immense  region,  and 
not  unfrequently  attain  the  dimensions  of  dis- 
astrous floods,  occasioning  great  loss  of  life 
and  destruction  of  property.  Enormous  dikes 
are  constructed  to  restrain  the  rising  waters. 
It  is  said  that  every  year,  from  the  15th  of 
June  to  the  15th  of  September,  the  plains  of 
upper  Assam  are  completely  overspread  by  the 
floods.  Among  the  most  destructive  of  the 
inundations  are  those  which  sometimes  occur 
when  a  high  spring  tide  in  the  bay  of  Bengal 
combines  with  a  heavy  gale  of  wind  to  check 
the  descending  outflow  of  the  rivers. — There 
are  but  few  lakes  in  Bengal,  the  most  impor- 
tant being  the  Chilka  lake  in  Orissa,  a  very 
curious  body  of  water  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  that  subdivision  of  the  present 
province,  formerly  a  province  itself.  It  is  a 
shallow  inland  sea  from  3  to  5  ft.  in  depth,  44 
m.  long,  and  varying  in  width  from  5  to  20 
m.,  separated  from  the  ocean  only  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  sand  scarcely  exceeding  200  yards  in 
breadth,  through  which  the  sea  forces  its  way,  at 
a  single  point,  in  a  channel  a  few  hundred  yards 
wide.  This  peculiar  lacustrine  formation  is  at- 
tributed to  the  never-ceasing  adverse  action 
going  on  between  the  rivers  and  the  sea.  The 
•  water  of  the  lake  is  salt  or  brackish  except  in 
the  rainy  season,  when  it  becomes  temporarily 
fresh. — The  extreme  heat  of  the  climate  of 
Bengal  renders  it  very  unhealthy  to  Europeans. 
There  are  three  seasons :  the  cold  season,  from 
November  to  February,  with  an  average  tem- 
perature of  about  68°  F.,  and  prevailing  north- 
erly winds ;  the  hot  season,  beginning  in  March 
and  lasting  till  the  end  of  May,  during  which 
the  terrific  heat,  sometimes  100°  and  110°  F.  in 
the  shade,  is  occasionally  mitigated  by  tremen- 
dous thunder  storms  of  rain  and  hail ;  and  the 
rainy  season,  which  sets  in  with  the  commence- 
ment of  the  S.  W.  monsoon,  early  in  June,  and 
lasts  till  October.  The  average  annual  fall  of 
rain  at  Calcutta  is  64  inches,  and  at  Cuttack, 
on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  only 
50  inches;  while  it  rises  to  80  inches  at  Go- 
wahatty  in  Assam,  and  600  inches  among 
the  Cossyah  hills.  During  the  cold  season 
the  climate  is  comparatively  pleasant ;  but 
the  continual  rain  and  constantly  recurring 
fogs  which  prevail  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
wet  season  make  it  very  disagreeable.  The 
nights  are  the  only  comfortable  portion  of  the 
warmer  months.  The  higher  officials,  and  such 
other  residents  of  Calcutta  as  are  able  to  do 
so,  annually  resort  during  this  period  to  the 
attractive  sanatoriums  which  the  government 
has  established  among  the  hill  regions  of  the 
northern  provinces. — The  soil  of  the  country 
is  alluvial,  and  consists  of  a  rich  black  mould 
resting  upon  a  sandy  clay.  There  is  no  sub- 
stance so  coarse  as  gravel  to  be  found  in  the 


great  delta,  or  indeed  within  400  m.  of  the 
coast.  Geological  borings  at  Calcutta  have 
afforded  strong  evidence  that  what  was  once  a 
forest-covered  land  occupying  the  present  del- 
taic area  has  in  process  of  time  subsided  to  a 
depth  of  300  ft.;  terrestrial  organic  remains, 
animal  and  vegetable,  having  been  found  at 
even  a  greater  distance  below  the  surface. 
The  valley  of  the  Ganges  is  famed  for  its  fer- 
tility, and  the  productive  power  of  its  lands 
is  renewed  without  expense  to  the  cultivator 
by  the  annual  river  deposits.  Rice  is  the  lead- 
ing cereal  production  and  an  important  article 
of  export.  Wheat  and  barley  are  raised,  but 
only  in  the  higher  districts,  where  millet  and 
maize  are  also  raised  for  the  food  of  the  poorer 
classes.  Peas  and  beans  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  growth 
of  grains  which  yield  oil,  as  mustard,  sesamum, 
and  linseed.  The  principal  vegetable  produc- 
tions, commercially  speaking,  in  addition  to 
rice,  are  cotton,  indigo,  opium,  sugar,  and  to- 
bacco. The  civil  war  in  America  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  Bengal, 
and  the  quantity  exported  in  1863-'4  was  val- 
ued at  £3,074,403,  against  an  export  value  of 
£76,536  in  1860-'61.  The  indigo  furnished  by 
Bengal  alone  amounts  to  five  sixths  of  the  en- 
tire quantity  which  the  world  produces.  The 
best  quality  is  grown  between  lat.  23°  and  27°  N. 
and  Ion.  84°  and  90°  E.,  the  crop  elsewhere  be- 
ing inferior.  About  1,250,000  acres  are  devoted 
to  indigo  cultivation,  yielding  about  60,000,000 
Ibs.,  at  a  gross  profit  of  40  per  cent.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  poppy  is  carried  on  principally 
in  Behar,  the  opium  being  manufactured  at 
Patna,  and  known  in  commerce  as  Patna  opium. 
No  one  is  permitted  to  engage  in  it  except  on 
account  of  the  government,  which  makes  ad- 
vances to  the  cultivators  and  purchases  the 
whole  crop  from  them  at  an  established  pries 
(in  1869  about  3s.  M.  per  lb.),  and  sells  it,  for 
exportation  from  Calcutta  to  China,  at  an  enor- 
mous profit!  The  growth  of  coffee  has  been 
successfully  introduced,  and  large  tracts  in  As- 
sam are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  tea 
plant.  Fruits  are  numerous,  and  comprise  the 
orange,  pomegranate,  pineapple,  banana,  lime, 
and  cocoanut.  The  gigantic  banian  is  the  most 
remarkable  tree  of  the  dense  forests  which 
cover  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
country.  The  methods  of  agriculture  are  ex- 
ceedingly primitive,  the  implements  being  of 
the  simplest  and  rudest  sort,  and  the  na- 
tives knowing  almost  nothing  about  econom- 
ical husbandry.  Each  ryot,  or  native  culti- 
vator of  the  soil,  usually  occupies  about  6 
acres  of  land,  and  seldom  more  than  24  acres. 
There  are  two  harvests :  one,  of  rice  only, 
known  as  the  great  harvest ;  and  the  little 
harvest,  when  the  less  important  grains  are 
garnered.  Fences  are  entirely  wanting,  and 
the  crops  are  therefore  grown  without  enclo- 
sures.— Among  the  wild  animals,  the  Bengal 
tiger  is  the  most  formidable,  and  the  largest 
specimens  are  believed  to  attain  a  stature  con- 


BENGAL 


525 


siderably  exceeding  that  of  the  largest  lions. 
It  is  much  dreaded  by  the  natives,  and  tiger 
hunting  constitutes  a  favorite  sport  among  the 
British  army  officers  and  residents.  The  pan- 
ther, striped  hyiena,  jackal,  and  true  civet  cats 
are  also  found.  One  species  of  the  rhinoceros 
(/?.  Irulicus)  is  met  with  in  the  valley  of  the 
Brahmapootra.  The  Bengal  elephant  (elephas 
Indicus),  which  occurs  in  great  numbers,  is 
extensively  domesticated  and  employed  as  a 
beast  of  burden  for  military  and  other  pur- 
poses. Bears,  foxes,  antelopes,  Indian  buffaloes, 
and  monkeys  abound.  Four  species  of  the 
crocodile  are  found  in  the  Ganges  and  contigu- 
ous streams,  one  of  which,  the  gavial,  lives 
only  in  fresh  water  and  preys  exclusively  on 
fish ;  the  others,  however,  frequent  the  Sun- 
derbund  region,  and  attack  bathers,  and  cattle 
when  they  come  down  to  drink.  The  number 
of  venomous  snakes  is  proportionately  small  as 
compared  with  the  entire  number  of  serpents; 
but  the  terrible  cobra  de  capello  is  among  them. 
Birds  of  beautiful  plumage  are  abundant,  and 
crows,  storks,  the  common  domestic  fowl  of  Eu- 
rope, and  many  varieties  of  game  birds  are  found 
everywhere.  As  a  rule,  the  native  horses,  cat- 
tle, and  swine  are  of  inferior  breeds  and  poor ; 
their  sheep  and  goats  are  rather  finer  animals. — 
The  administration  of  the  province  is  intrusted 
to  a  lieutenant  governor,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  governor  general  of  India  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  crown.  The  local  divisions, 
each  presided  over  by  a  commissioner  (hence 
called  commissionerships),  with  their  respec- 
tive districts,  each  under  an  officer  denomi- 
nated magistrate  and  collector,  are  as  follows : 
The  Presidency — Calcutta,  the  24  Pergunnahs, 
Nuddea,  Jessore,  the  Sunderbunds.  Burdwan 
— Burdwan,  Beerbhoom,  Bancoorah,  Hoogly, 
Howrah,  Midnapore.  Rajshahye — Maldah,  Di- 
nagepore,  Rungpore,  Bograh,  Rajshahye,  Pub- 
na.  Moorshedabad — Bhangulpore,  Moorsheda- 
bad,  Monghyr,  Purneah,  the  Sonthal  Pergun- 
nahs. Patna— Patna,  Shahabad,  Behar,  Sa- 
run,  Chumparum,  Tirhoot.  Guttack— Cut- 
tack,  Pooree,  Balasore,  the  Tributary  Mehals. 
Dacca — Dacca,  Mymensing,  Sylhet,  Cachar, 
Furreedpore,  Backergunge.  Chittagong — 
Chittagong,  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts,  Tipperah, 
Bulloah.  Assam — Kamroop,  Durrung,  Now- 
gong,  Seebsagur,  Luckimpore,  Naga  Hills, 
Cossyah  and  Jynteah  Hills.  Chota  Nagpore— 
Lohardugga,  Hazareebaugh,  Singbhoom,  Maun- 
bhoom,  the  Tributary  States.  Cooch  Behar — 
Gowalpurrah  (with  the  Eastern  Dooars),  the 
Western  Dooars,  the  Garrow  Hills,  Darjeeling, 
the  native  state  of  Cooch  Behar.  The  pub- 
lic revenue  is  mainly  derived  from  the  land 
tax,  which  differs  in  Bengal  from  that  im- 
posed in  other  parts  of  India.  It  was  insti- 
tuted by  Lord  Cornwallis,  then  governor  gen- 
eral, in  1793,  by  a  permanent  settlement  with 
the  principal  landowners,  called  zemindars,  by 
which  they  agreed  to  pay  to  the  government  a 
sum  about  equal  to  one  half  of  that  which  they 
receive  as  rent  from  their  own  tenants.  Another 


principal  source  of  revenue  is  the  government 
monopoly  in  the  growth  and  manufacture  of 
opium.  The  amount  exported  in  1864-'5  was 
valued  at  £4,724,300.— The  commerce  of  Ben- 
gal is  carried  on  principally  with  Great  Britain. 
Raw  cotton,  rice,  indigo,  saltpetre,  and  silk 
are  the  chief  articles  of  export.  The  silk  prod- 
uct is  large,  but  of  inferior  quality,  the  manu- 
factured silk  goods  of  Bengal  being  surpassed 
by  those  of  China.  Muslins  are  extensively 
manufactured  in  the  province.  The  imports 
into  Bengal  for  the  year  ending  March  31. 
1870,  represented  a  value  of  £19,496,082,  and 
the  exports  for  the  same  year  a  value  of  £20,- 
971,121,  against  £13,656,506  in  1861.  Com- 
mercial intercourse  was  formerly  carried  on 
almost  exclusively  by  water,  the  roads  being 
very  poor,  and  the  fine  causeways  construct- 
ed by  the  old  native  rulers  having  fallen  into 
ruins.  The  introduction  of  railways,  however, 
has  somewhat  changed  the  lines  of  internal 
trade,  as  well  as  given  it  a  vast  impetus.  In 
1859  there  were  only  142  m.  of  railway  in 
Bengal ;  1,510  m.  were  open  for  traffic  there  in 
1870.  The  East  Indian  line,  which  is  the 
grand  trunk  route  to  Delhi  and  the  highlands 
of  northern  India,  traverses  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges  from  Calcutta  upward. — Calcutta,  the 
provincial  capital  and  seat  of  government  of 
the  British  East  Indian  empire,  is  the  most  im- 
portant city  in  Bengal.  According  to  the  last 
official  enumeration,  which  was  made  in  1866, 
the  population  is  377,924.  The  cities  next  in 
rank  are  Patna  (284,000),  Moorshedabad  (147,- 
000),  Dacca  (67,000),  and  Burdwan  (54,000). 
These  figures,  being  merely  estimates,  are  only 
approximations  to  the  true  number  of  inhabit- 
ants. The  population  is  made  up  principally 
of  native  Hindoos  and  the  Mohammedan  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Mogul  or  Mongol  in- 
vaders, in  the  proportion  of  about  four  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter.  The  Mohamme- 
dans, who  abhor  the  religious  rites  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Hindoos,  are  most  numerous  in  the 
eastern  districts.  On  the  whole  the  Bengalese 
have  generally  been  regarded  as  a  weak, 
treacherous,  and  intriguing  people. — In  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  when  the  East 
India  company  of  England  established  their 
first  trading  factories  in  Bengal,  the  country 
was  under  the  sway  of  a  viceroy  of  the  Mogul 
emperor  of  Hindostan.  Their  settlements  were 
small,  and  they  occupied  their  limited  territory 
as  tenants  holding  under  the  native  rulers.  In 
1746,  however,  the  war  between  England  and 
France  extended  to  southern  India,  and  during 
the  succeeding  ten  years  there  was  a  constant 
increase  of  British  military  power  in  that  re- 
gion; so  that  when  in  1756  news  reached 
Madras  that  the  company's  settlers  on  the 
Hoogly  had  been  attacked  by  the  nawaub 
Nazim,  the  reigning  viceroy,  and  that  146  of 
them  had  been  thrust  into  the  black  hole  at 
Calcutta,  where  123  died,  Lord  Clive  was  at 
once  despatched  with  an  adequate  force  to 
their  relief.  He  landed  in  Bengal  in  Febru- 


526 


BENGAL 


ary  of  the  following  year,  and  on  June  23  de- 
feated the  nawaub  in  the  famous  battle  of 
Plassey,  which  established  English  ascendancy 
in  India.  The  history  of  Bengal  since  that 
date  will  be  found  under  the  title  INDIA. 

BENGAL,  Bay  of  (Lat.  Gangeticiu  Sinus),  a 
gulf  of  the  Indian  ocean,  embraced  between 
the  peninsula  of  Hindostan  on  the  west  and  the 
coast  of  Lower  Siam,  Tenasserim,  Pegu,  and 
Aracan  on  the  east.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Arabian  sea,  it  is  the  largest  indentation  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Asia,  its  width  at  the 
broadest  part,  from  Cape  Comorin  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Hindostan  to  the  same  latitude 
on  the  coast  of  Siam,  being  1,400  m.  From 
this  point  it  continues  of  nearly  uniform  width 
to  the  parallel  of  Cape  Negrais,  lat.  16°  1'  N., 
whence  it  contracts  until  the  opposite  coasts 
are  but  250  m.  apart,  and  terminates  in  an  inlet 
or  indentation  of  its  N.  shore,  about  50  m.  wide, 
and  thickly  studded  with  islands.  All  that  part 
of  the  bay  lying  S.  of  the  parallel  of  Cape  Ne- 
grais is  distinguished  by  some  hydrographers 
as  the  sea  of  Bengal.  The  bay  (in  its  wider 
meaning)  receives  the  waters  of  many  im- 
portant rivers,  among  which  are  the  Ganges, 
Brahmapootra,  Hoogly,  Irrawaddy,  Godavery, 
and  Kistnah.  The  tide  in  some  places  rises 
at  times  70  or  80  feet.  On  the  W.  coast 
there  are  no  good  harbors,  and  no  soundings 
at  the  distance  of  30  m.  from  land;  but  on 
the  E.  side  there  are  several  safe  ports,  and 
soundings  within  2  m.  of  the  shore.  The  S.  W. 
monsoon  begins  to  blow  on  the  W.  or  Coro- 
mandel  coast  about  the  end  of  March  or  early 
in  April.  In  June  it  acquires  its  greatest 
strength  and  regularity ;  in  September  it  sub- 
sides ;  and  in  October  the  N.  E.  monsoon  com- 
mences, from  which  time  till  Dec.  1  navigation 
in  the  gulf  is  fraught  with  great  danger.  Dur- 
ing the  prevalence  of  both  these  winds  a  heavy 
surf  rolls  along  the  entire  W.  coast,  rendering 
access  to  the  rivers  extremely  difficult. 

BENGEL,  Johann  Albreeht,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Winnenden,  Wiirtemberg,  June 
24,  1687,  died  December  2,  1752.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Tubingen  as  a  Greek  schol- 
ar, early  exhibited  a  predilection  for  critical 
study,  and  was  the  author  of  several  important 
works ;  hut  that  on  which  his  fame  as  a  scholar 
principally  depends  is  his  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  which  was  published  in  1734. 
It  was  severely  criticised  by  many  eminent 
scholars,  such  as  Michaelis,  Baumgarten,  and 
others;  but  the  acnteness,  patience,  and  judg- 
ment with  which  he  compared  the  ancient 
copies  of  the  New  Testament  writings,  aided 
materially  in  the  grouping  of  the  original  man- 
uscripts into  families  which  was  afterward 
carried  out.  His  short  notes  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament, published  in  the  Gnomon  Nom  Testa- 
menti,  have  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  are  still  held  in  great  esteem.  They 
form  the  basis  of  John  Wesley's  "Notes  on  the 
New  Testament,"  which  is  one  of  the  standard 
books  of  Wesleyan  Methodism.  Bengel  also 


BENGUELA 

wrote  a  work  on  the  Apocalypse.  He  consid- 
ered the  Apocalypse  as  the  key  to  all  prophecy, 
and  believed  that  any  right  exposition  of  it 
would  unseal  the  entire  future  history  of  the 
world  up  to  the  end  of  time.  He  thought  he 
discovered  in  the  mystical  figures  of  the  seer 
of  Patmos  that  the  world  would  end  in  1836. 

BMGER,  Elizabeth  Ogilvy,  an  English  author- 
ess, born  in  Wells  in  1778,  died  Jan.  9,  1827. 
She  wrote  poetry,  dramas,  and  fiction,  but  her 
reputation  was  due  mainly  to  works  of  a 
historical  and  biographical  character.  She 
wrote  memoirs  of  Mrs.  E.  Hamilton,  of  John 
Tobin  the  dramatist,  of  Klopstock  and  his 
friends,  of  Anne  Boleyn,  of  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots,  and  of  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia; 
and  when  she  died  she  had  made  some  pro- 
gress in  memoirs  of  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

BENGHAZI  (anc.  Hesperis,  afterward  Bere- 
nice), a  town  of  Barca,  Africa  (the  Cyrenaica  of 
the  Greeks),  the  seat  of  a  bey,  on  the  E.  shore 
of  the  Greater  Syrtis  or  gulf  of  Sidra,  in  lat. 
32°  7'  N.,  Ion.  20°  3'  E. ;  pop.,  including  neigh- 
boring localities,  about  7,000,  many  of  whom 
are  Jews  and  negro  slaves.  It  stands  on  the 
verge  of  a  large  plain,  sandy  and  barren  for 
nearly  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  but  beyond 
having  a  fertile  but  rocky  soil  to  the  foot  of  the 
Cyrenaic  mountains,  14  m.  S.  E.,  where  cattle 
abound.  The  port,  formerly  capacious,  is  now 
accessible  only  to  small  craft,  being  filled  up 
with  sand  washed  into  it  by  the  annual  rains, 
from  January  till  March.  At  the  entrance  is  a 
large  hut  dilapidated  castle.  The  principal 
building  is  the  new  Franciscan  convent  with  a 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  miserable  houses 
are  built  of  very  small  stones  cemented  with 
mud,  and  are  generally  washed  away  during 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  streets  are  con- 
verted into  rivers,  and  thousands  of  sheep  and 
goats  perish.  Drinking  water  has  to  be  brought 
from  a  neighboring  village,  annoying  insects 
abound,  and  severe  diseases  prevail.  Ancient 
reservoirs  may  be  traced,  with  stone  conduits ; 
and  besides  vestiges  of  deep  quarries,  there  are 
remarkable  chasms  with  luxuriant  vegetation, 
so  beautifully  situated  that  many  of  the  ancient 
writers  placed  here  the  gardens  of  the  Hespe- 
rides.  Some  of  these  chasms  have  become 
deep  lakes,  and  there  are  several  caves,  one  of 
which  is  said  to  contain  a  large  body  of  fresh 
water  at  a  depth  of  80  feet.  The  latter  is  iden- 
tified by  some  writers  with  the  Lathon  river 
of  antiquity,  and  the  large  salt-water  lake  S.  of 
the  town  with  the  Tritonis  of  Strabo.  Owing 
to  the  condition  of  the  harbor,  commerce  has 
declined,  and  the  inhabitants  support  them- 
selves mainly  by  agriculture  and  cattle  raising. 
Large  quantities  of  dates  are  produced.  No- 
madic Arab  tribes  wander  over  the  territories 
S.  and  E.  of  Benghazi.  Interesting  antiquities 
are  found  upon  excavation.  (See  BERENICE.) 

BENGUELA.  I.  A  country  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  the  possession  of  which  is  claimed  by 
Portugal.  (See  ANGOLA.)  Its  limits  are  not 
well  defined,  but  it  is  commonly  described  as 


BENI 


BENIN 


527 


lying  between  lat.  9°  and  16°  S.  and  Ion.  12°  and 
17°  E.,  and  extending  from  the  river  Coanza 
on  the  north  to  near  Cape  Negro  on  the  south. 
The  land  along  the  coast  is  low  and  flat,  but  it 
rises  in  a  series  of  terraces  toward  the  inte- 
rior, and  further  back  into  mountains  of  con- 
siderable height.  The  low  ground  near  the 
coast,  especially  during  the  rainy  season,  is 
extremely  unwholesome.  On  the  high  ground 
and  among  the  mountains  the  air  is  pure  and 
healthful.  Numerous  rivers  descend  from  the 
mountains ;  of  these  the  Copororo  or  Rio  San 
Francisco,  the  Cuvo,  and  the  Longa  are  the 
most  important.  Sulphur,  copper,  and  petro- 
leum are  found  in  the  mountains,  and  also  gold 
and  silver  in  small  quantities.  Vegetation  is 
luxuriant,  and  both  tropical  fruits  and  Eu- 
ropean vegetables  grow  well.  Hyamas  and 
lions  venture  down  to  the  city  of  Benguela. 
Elephants,  butfaloes,  zebras,  antelopes,  and 
other  animals  are  found.  Cattle  are  not  raised 
to  any  great  extent.  The  inhabitants  belong 
to  the  Congo  race,  and  use  the  Bunda  lan- 
guage. They  are  naturally  harmless,  but  have 
become  brutalized  where  they  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  Portuguese  slave  traders. 
Their  religion  is  a  form  of  fetishism.  The  chief 
towns  are  Benguela,  Caconda  (in  the  interior), 
Novo  Redondo,  and  Mossamedes.  Mossamedes 
is  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  South  Ben- 
guela, and  was  founded  in  1840.  It  is  favor- 
ably situated  and  prosperous.  II.  Sao  F«Up«  de 
Bengnfla,  the  Portuguese  capital  of  the  country, 
is  situated  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Catumbela,  in  lat.  12°  83'  S.,  Ion.  13°  25' 
E. ;  pop.  3,000.  It  is  so  unhealthful  that  no 
Europeans  can  withstand  the  climate.  It  is 
especially  fatal  to  women.  The  most  unwhole- 
some months  are  March  and  April,  the  rainy 
months,  and  next  to  them  January  and  May. 
The  harbor  is  commodious  and  safe,  but  diffi- 
cult of  access.  Ivory,  panther  skins,  and  the 
other  productions  of  the  country  are  brought 
into  the  city,  and  it  is  visited  occasionally  by 
Portuguese  and  Brazilian  trading  vessels.  The 
city  was  formerly  the  principal  slave  market 
for  the  trade  with  Brazil.  It  is  under  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  governor  general  of  Angola, 
who  resides  at  St.  Paul  de  Loanda. 

1!K\I,  or  Venl,  a  department  of  Bolivia,  trav- 
ersed by  the  river  Beni,  and  embracing  the 
lofty  mountains  and  immense  wooded  plains 
which  cover  the  northern  portion  of  the  re- 
public. These  plains  are  watered  by  large 
rivers,  which  during  the  floods  overflow  their 
banks,  inundating  and  fertilizing  the  surround- 
ing regions.  Its  capital  is  Trinidad,  and  it  is 
divided  into  the  three  provinces  of  Mqjos,  Yura- 
cares,  and  Caupolican.  The  probable  area  is 
150,000  sq.  m.,  with  perhaps  54,000  inhabit- 
ants of  European  origin,  besides  some  10,000 
Indians,  but  few  of  whom  are  civilized.  Gold 
is  found  in  some  parts  along  the  banks  of  the 
Beni.  Large  quantities  of  coca  are  produced, 
and  some  of  the  European  grains  and  fruits. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  hi  winter  even  cold. 


BENI,  T*ni,  or  Paro,  a  river  of  Bolivia,  formed 
by  a  number  of  head  streams  rising  in  the 
Andes,  N.  W.  of  Cochabamba.  After  flowing 
N.  W.  300  m.,  and  receiving  the  waters  of  the 
Queloto,  Tipuani,  Mapuri,  and  other  large 
rivers,  it  bends,  and  holds  a  N.  E.  course  to 
the  frontier  of  Brazil,  where  it  swells  the 
united  streams  of  the  Mamor6  and  Itenez  to 
form  the  Madeira,  the  principal  tributary  of 
the  Amazon.  The  whole  valley  of  the  Beni 
not  having  been  yet  explored,  little  else  is 
known  than  that  the  river  waters  extensive 
plains  of  great  fertility  in  the  departments  of 
La  Paz  and  Beni. 

liKVK  AKLO.  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Castellon,  on  the  Mediterranean,  80  m.  N. 
E.  of  Valencia,  on  the  railroad  to  Barcelona ; 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
and  has  a  ruined  castle,  a  fishing  port,  and  a 
church  with  an  octangular  tower.  It  is  an  ill- 
bnilt  and  dirty  town,  chiefly  noted  for  the  red 
and  full-flavored  wine  produced  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, which  is  largely  exported  to  Bor- 
deaux, to  enrich  poor  clarets  for  the  English 
and  American  market. 

BENICIA,  a  town,  capital  of  Solano  co.,  Cali- 
fornia, and  formerly  of  the  state,  on  the  strait 
of  Carquinez,  which  connects  San  Pablo  and 
Snisun  bays,  30  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco ; 
pop.  in  1870, 1,656.  The  land  for  about  a  mile 
from  the  town  is  level  or  gently  undulating. 
The  valleys  are  capable  of  cultivation,  but  in 
and  around  the  town  there  is  not  a  tree  to  be 
seen.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  and  present  a 
neat  and  respectable  appearance.  The  harbor 
is  capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  ships. 
It  is  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  regular 
lines  of  steamers.  Arrangements  have  been 
made  (1872)  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad 
from  Benicia  up  the  Sacramento  river  to 
Red  Bluff,  with  a  branch  to  Sacramento.  It 
has  extensive  cement  works,  tanneries,  and  a 
large  flouring  mill.  The  place  contains  the 
government  depot  of  arms  and  supplies  for  the 
military  stations  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  has 
extensive  barracks,  storehouses,  magazines,  and 
shops  for  the  manufacture  and  repair  of  army 
material.  It  has  also  a  law  school,  a  collegiate 
institute,  St.  Augustine's  theological  school 
(Episcopal),  with  6  professors  and  7  students, 
a  convent,  a  female  seminary  with  8' instructors 
and  45  students,  and  a  Catholic  and  an  Episco- 
pal church. 

BENIN.  I.  A  kingdom  of  Africa,  on  the 
Guinea  coast,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Yoruba,  W. 
by  Egba,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the  Niger  and  its 
E.  branch,  the  Bonny.  The  name  was  for- 
merly applied  to  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  the 
gulf  of  Guinea,  and  the  kingdom  was  supposed 
to  be  very  large  and  powerful.  The  coast  is 
low,  swampy,  and  cut  up  by  numerous  arms  of 
the  Niger.  The  soil  is  fruitful,  yielding  rice, 
yams,  sugar,  and  in  general  all  the  products  of 
Guinea.  Palm  trees  grow  luxuriantly.  The 
population  is  dense.  The  king  is  worshipped 
as  fetish.  The  chief  towns  are  Benin  and  Wari 


86 


VOL.  ii. — 34 


528 


BENIOWSKY 


or  "Warrali,  situated  115  m.  further  S.  upon  an 
arm  of  the  Niger.  Wari  seems  to  be  the  chief 
city  of  a  negro  kingdom  which  is  subject  to 
the  king  of  Benin.  No  European  settlements 
are  now  found  upon  the  coast  of  Benin.  Even 
the  port  of  Gato  (Agathon),  which  was  situated 
46  m.  below  Benin  on  the  Formosa,  and  once 
had  a  number  of  European  factories,  has  dis- 
appeared from  the  map.  Benin  was  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  Diogo  Cam  in  1484,  and 
was  visited  in  1486  by  Alfonso  Aveiro.  In  1786 
the  French  made  settlements  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  which  were  destroyed  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1792.  II.  A  town,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
westernmost  arm  of  the  Niger,  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  an  independent  stream  and  called 
the  Benin  or  Formosa  river ;  pop.  15,000.  The 
town  occupies  a  large  surface,  and  has  an 
active  trade,  though  since  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Guinea  slave  trade  it  has  been  surpassed  in 
commercial  prosperity  by  Bonny,  at  the  E. 
mouth  of  the  delta.  III.  Bight  of,  the  N.  part 
of  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  W.  of  the  delta  of  the 
Niger,  on  the  Slave  Coast. 

BENIOWSK.Y,Moritz  Angnst,  count,  a  Hungarian 
soldier  and  adventurer,  born  at  Verbo  in  the 
county  of  Neutra,  in  1741,  died  May  23,  1786. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  Austrian  general,  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  seven  years'  war,  and  after- 
ward studied  navigation  at  Hamburg,  Amster- 
dam, and  Plymouth.  Having  joined  the  Poles 
in  the  war  against  Russia,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  exiled  to  Kamtchatka  in  1770.  On  his 
voyage  thither  he  saved  the  vessel  from  de- 
struction by  storm,  and  this  service,  with  his 
skill  in  chess,  procured  for  him  a  kind  recep- 
tion from  the  governor  of  Kamtchatka,  who 
appointed  him  instructor  of  his  children  in 
French  and  German.  Having  promised  to 
colonize  the  southern  extremity  of  Kamtchatka 
with  his  countrymen,  he  received  in  marriage 
the  hand  of  Aphanasia,  the  governor's  daugh- 
ter, though  he  had  another  wife  in  Europe. 
With  her  assistance  he  made  his  escape  in 
1771,  with  a  number  of  companions,  first  de- 
feating a  detachment  of  Russians  and  captur- 
ing a  fortress  with  a  large  treasure.  He  first 
went  to  Formosa  and  then  to  Macao,  where 
many  of  his  company  died,  and  among  them 
Aphanasia.'  He  then  took  passage  for  France, 
entered  the  army,  obtained  the  command  of  a 
regiment  of  infantry,  and  afterward  received  a 
commission  to  plant  a  colony  in  Madagascar, 
where,  having  ingratiated  himself  with  the  na- 
tives, he  was  made  king  of  one  of  the  tribes  in 
1776.  In  order  to  obtain  assistance  for  his  colony 
he  returned  to  France,  but  was  treated  with  so 
much  severity  by  the  French  ministry  that  he 
went  into  the  service  of  Austria,  and  was  in  the 
engagement  between  the  Austrians  and  Prus- 
sians at  Habelschwerdt  in  1778.  In  1783  he 
organized  an  expedition  for  Madagascar,  obtain- 
ing some  of  the  funds  which  he  needed  from 
private  individuals  in  London,  but  the  larger 
part  from  a  mercantile  house  of  Baltimore.  He 


BENJAMIN 

set  sail  with  his  expedition  in  October,  1784. 
In  Madagascar  he  provoked  hostilities  with  the 
French,  and  finally  lost  his  life  in  a  fight  with 
French  troops,  which  were  sent  against  him 
from  the  Isle  of  France.  Translations  of  his 
autobiography,  which  was  written  in  French, 
were  published  by  Nicholson  in  England  (2 
vols.,  1790),  and  by  Forster  and  Ebeling  in 
Germany.  Kotzebue's  play,  "  The  Conspiracy 
of  Kamtchatka,"  and  an  opera  of  Boleldieu, 
were  founded  upon  the  events  of  his  life. 

BENJAMIN,  a  Hebrew  patriarch,  the  youngest 
son  of  Jacob,  full  brother  of  Joseph,  these  being 
the  only  children  by  Rachel.  His  mother,  dying 
in  childbed,  called  him  Ben-oni,  meaning  "son 
of  my  torment"  (cause  of  my  misfortune),  or 
"  son  of  my  wealth  "  (my  treasure) ;  but  his 
father  changed  the  name  to  Ben-yamin,  "  son 
of  the  right  hand  "  (my  support,  or  perhaps  in 
reference  to  Rachel).  The  Samaritan  code  has 
Ben-yamim,  "  son  of  days,"  that  is,  "  son  of  old 
age."  Benjamin  was  an  infant  at  the  time  of 
the  abduction  of  his  brother  Joseph,  and  as  he 
grew  up  became  the  favorite  son  of  his  aged 
father.  Jacob,  in  his  dying  address  to  his  chil- 
dren, says  that  "  Benjamin  will  ravin  as  a  wolf, 
devouring  prey  in  the  morning,  and  dividing 
spoil  at  night ; "  allusions  to  a  fierce  and  un- 
governable disposition,  a  characteristic  which 
his  tribe  seems  to  have  manifested  during  its 
whole  existence.  The  sons  of  Benjamin  out- 
numbered those  of  any  of  his  brothers ;  but  at 
the  exodus  the  tribe  was  the  smallest  of  all 
except  that  of  Levi.  The  territory  in  Canaan 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  between 
Judah  and  Ephraim,  and  Dan  and  the  Jordan, 
was  comparatively  small,  but  in  ancient  times 
noted  for  fertility.  It  included  the  stronghold 
of  Jebus,  afterward  Jerusalem,  Jericho,  Bethel, 
Gibeah,  Ramah,  and  Mizpeh.  The  Benjamites 
became  noted  for  their  expertness  in  the  use  of 
arms,  especially  of  the  sling.  During  the  period 
of  the  judges  the  tribe  was  almost  exterminated 
in  a  reckless  struggle  with  the  others ;  but  in 
time  it  recovered  from  the  blow.  Saul,  the  first 
king  of  Israel,  was  a  Benjamite ;  and  after  his 
death  the  tribe  adhered  to  his  son  Ishbosheth  in 
opposition  to  David,  who  had  become  king  of 
Judah.  The  assassination  of  Abner  by  Joab,  and 
David's  public  disclaimer  of  all  part  in  it,  decided 
the  Benjamites  in  his  favor,  and  they  thence- 
forward entered  into  the  closest  relations  with 
Judah  ;  and  when  the  disruption  of  the  king- 
dom took  place,  Benjamin  and  Judah  alone 
adhered  to  the  house  of  David,  the  other  ten 
tribes  going  off  with  Jeroboam.  From  this 
time  the  general  history  of  the  tribe  becomes 
merged  in  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
although  it  appears  that  some  sort  of  tribal 
organization  was  ever  maintained,  for  the  tribe 
is  separately  mentioned  wherever  the  statistics 
of  the  kingdom  are  given,  down  to  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

BENJAMIN,  Judah  Phillips,  an  American  lawyer 
and  senator,  born  in  Santo  Domingo  in  1812, 
of  Jewish  parents,  who  emigrated  to  Savannah 


BENJAMIN 


BENNET 


529 


in  1816.  He  entered  Yale  college  in  1825,  but 
5  eft  without  graduating.  In  1831  he  went  to 
New  Orleans,  studied  law,  supporting  himself 
by  teaching,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834, 
and  rose  rapidly  to  a  high  position  in  the  pro- 
fession, lie  also  became  prominent  as  a  poli- 
tician, attaching  himself  to  the  whig  party.  In 
1852  he  was  chosen  to  the  senate  of  the  United 
States,  where  he  soon  allied  himself  with  the 
democratic  party,  in  consequence  of  the  action 
of  the  two  parties  on  the  slavery  question.  In 
1859  he  was  reflected  to  the  senate,  his  col- 
league being  John  Slidell.  On  Dec.  81,  1860, 
in  a  speech  in  the  senate,  he  avowed  his  ad- 
hesion to  the  southern  cause;  and  on  Feb.  4 
he  withdrew  from  the  senate,  and  was  at  once 
appointed  attorney  general  in  the  provisional 
government  of  the  southern  confederacy.  In 
August  he  was  appointed  acting  secretary  of 
war,  but  resigned  in  February,  1862,  on  ac- 
count of  having  been  censured  by  a  congres- 
sional committee.  He  however  stood  high  in 
the  confidence  of  Jefferson  Davis,  and  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state,  which  position  he 
held  until  the  downfall  of  the  confederacy.  He 
then  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  where 
he  entered  successfully  into  the  practice  of  the 
legal  profession,  and  in  1866  published  "A  Trea- 
tise on  the  Law  of  Sale  of  Personal  Property." 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  born  in  Demerara,  British  Guiana, 
Aug.  14,  1809,  died  in  New  York,  Sept.  12, 
1864.  His  father  was  of  Welsh  descent,  but 
was  born  in  Connecticut,  whence  he  removed 
to  Demerara  and  carried  on  business  there. 
Park  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  his  father's 
home  in  New  England  for  medical  advice  and 
to  be  educated.  He  studied  two  years  at  Har- 
vard college,  graduated  at  Trinity  college, 
Hartford,  in  1829,  began  to  practise  law  in 
Boston  in  1832,  and  was  one  of  the  original 
editors  of  the  "New  England  Magazine."  In 
1837  he  removed  to  New  York,  edited  in  con- 
nection with  0.  F.  Hoffman  the  "  American 
Monthly  Magazine,"  and  subsequently  was  as- 
sociated with  Horace  Greeley  in  editing  the 
"  New  Yorker."  He  was  soon  after  employed 
in  connection  with  Epes  Sargent  and  Rufus  W. 
Griswold  as  editor  of  the  "  New  World,"  a 
weekly  literary  journal.  In  1844  he  withdrew 
from  this  publication,  and  during  the  rest  of  his 
life  resided  in  New  York,  devoted  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  contributed  both  in  prose  and  verse 
to  various  periodicals,  and  delivered  lectures 
and  read  poems  in  public.  Mr.  Benjamin  was 
in  person  a  man  of  full  chest  and  powerful 
arms,  but,  either  in  consequence  of  an  illness 
in  childhood  or  from  birth,  was  completely 
lame  below  the  hips.  No  collected  edition  of 
his  writings  has  been  published. 

BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  noted 
in  history  as  the  first  western  traveller  who 
penetrated  into  the  remoter  regions  of  the 
East,  born  at  Tndela  in  Navarre,  died  about 
1173.  He  made  a  journey  from  Saragossa  by 
way  of  Italy,  Greece,  Palestine,  and  Persia,  to 


the  confines  of  China,  and  returned  home  by 
way  of  Egypt  and  Sicily.  Many  of  his  descrip- 
tions of  places  seem  however  to  have  been 
derived  from  other  sources  than  personal  travel 
and  observation.  The  specific  object  of  his 
journey  was  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  state 
of  his  brethren  in  the  East.  His  "Itinerary," 
though  marred  by  many  errors  of  fact,  and  be- 
traying in  general  a  lack  of  critical  inquiry, 
contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information. 
It  was  first  written  in  Hebrew,  but  has  been 
published  also  in  Latin,  French,  Dutch,  Ger- 
man, and  English.  The  first  Hebrew  edition 
was  published  in  1543,  at  Constantinople ;  the 
best  is  that  of  Asher  (2  vols.,  London,  1841), 
embracing  an  English  translation  and  extensive 
critical  notes. 

BEN  LOMOND,  a  mountain  of  Scotland,  in 
the  N.  W.  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the  E.  side  of 
Loch  Lomond.  It  forms  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  Grampians  or  central  Scottish  highlands, 
rises  to  a  height  of  3,192  ft.,  and  is  covered 
with  vegetation  to  the  summit.  On  the  N.  side 
it  terminates  by  an  abrupt  precipice  2,000  ft. 
high,  while  the  S.  E.  side  is  a  gentle  declivity. 
The  view  from  the  summit  is  unsurpassed. 

BENNET,  Henry,  earl  of  Arlington,  an  Eng- 
glish  statesman,  born  at  Arlington,  in  Middle- 
sex, in  1618,  died  July  28,  1685.  Devoting 
himself  to  the  cause  of  Charles  I.,  he  was  ap- 
pointed under-secretary  of  state,  fought  in 
several  battles,  and  was  wounded  at  Andover. 
After  the  battle  of  Worcester  he  retired  to 
Spain.  Upon  the  restoration  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services  by 
being  appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  and 
shortly  afterward  secretary  of  state.  In  1664 
he  was  created  Baron  Arlington,  and  in  1672 
earl  of  Arlington.  He  was  one  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries sent  to  Utrecht  to  negotiate  a 
peace  between  Austria  and  France.  This  mis- 
sion not  being  successful,  an  endeavor  was 
made  by  his  colleagues  to  cast  the  odium  of 
the  failure  upon  Arlington ;  he,  however,  de- 
fended himself  before  the  house  of  commons, 
and  was  acquitted.  The  war  with  Holland, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  the 
machinations  of  the  "  cabal "  of  which  he  was 
a  member,  lost  to  Arlington  the  favor  of  the 
king  and  people;  but  he  received  the  office 
of  chamberlain.  In  1679  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council,  and  retained  his  office  of 
chamberlain  on  the  accession  of  James  II. 

BENNET,  Thomas,  an  Anglican  theologian 
and  controversialist,  born  in  Salisbury,  May 
7,  1673,  died  Oct.  9,  1728.  He  was  exten- 
sively acquainted  with  the  Greek,  Latin,  and 
oriental  literatures,  and  composed  verses  in  He- 
brew. In  1700  he  became  rector  of  St.  James's, 
Colchester,  which  position  he  held  till  1714, 
when  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  re- 
moved to  London,  where  he  was  presented  to 
the  vicarage  of  St.  Giles's,  Cripplegate.  Be- 
sides his  works  in  confutation  of  popery, 
schism,  Quakerism,  and  the  principles  of  the 
nonjurors,  he  wrote  tracts  on  baptism,  litur- 


530 


BENNETT 


gies,  and  clerical  rights,  and  an  examination  of 
Clark's  "  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity." 

BENNETT,  J»mes  Gordon,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, founder  and  proprietor  of  the  "  New 
York  Herald,"  born  at  New  Mill,  Keith,  in 
Banffshire,  Scotland,  Sept.  1, 1795,  died  in  New 
York,  Juno  1,  1872.  He  remained  at  school 
in  his  native  place  till  he  was  14  or  15  years  of 
age,  when  he  went  to  a  Roman  Catholic  semi- 
nary in  Aberdeen,  with  a  view  to  preparing 
for  holy  orders  in  that  church,  of  which  his 
parents  were  members.  At  this  institution  he 
pursued  the  usual  routine  of  academic  life  for 
two  or  three  years,  when  he  abandoned  the 
intention  of  entering  upon  an  ecclesiastical 
career,  and  soon  after  determined  to  emigrate 
to  America.  He  embarked  with  a  youthful  com- 
panion in  April,  1819,  and  arriving  in  Halifax 
with  but  scanty  pecuniary  resources,  took  up  the 
occupation  of  teaching.  He  was  led  to  this  em- 
ployment by  necessity  rather  than  inclination, 
and  after  a  brief  experience  of  its  annoyances 
left  Halifax  for  Portland,  and  thence  made  his 
way  to  Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1819,  and  ob- 
tained the  situation  of  a  proof-reader  in  the 
publishing  house  of  Wells  and  Lilly.  During 
his  residence  in  Boston  he  published  several 
poetical  compositions.  In  1822  he  went  to 
New  York,  and  soon  accepted  the  offer  of  Mr. 
"Wellington,  the  proprietor  of  the  "  Charleston 
Courier,"  to  employ  him  as  a  translator  from 
the  Spanish-American  papers.  He  also  pre- 
pared original  articles  for  the  "Courier." 
After  a  few  months  he  returned  to  New  York, 
and  issued  proposals  for  the  establishment  of 
a  commercial  school.  This  plan  was  not  car- 
ried into  effect,  and  his  next  step  was  the  de- 
livery of  a  course  of  lectures  on  political  econ- 
omy, in  the  vestry  of  the  old  Dutch  church  in 
Ann  street.  In  1825  Mr.  Bennett  first  became 
the  proprietor  of  a  public  journal,  having  pur- 
chased a  Sunday  newspaper  called  the  "  New 
York  Courier."  The  enterprise  was  not  suc- 
cessful, and  he  obtained  employment  as  a 
writer  and  reporter  for  several  journals  of  the 
city.  In  1826  he  became  connected  with  the 
"  National  Advocate,"  a  democratic  newspaper 
published  by  Mr.  Snowden.  After  the  state 
election  of  that  year  he  began  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics,  vehemently  opposing  the  tariff, 
and  discussing  banks  and  banking.  In  the 
spring  of  1827  he  discontinued  his  connection 
with  the  "National  Advocate,"  which,  after 
having  changed  proprietors,  espoused  the 
cause  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  while  Mr.  Ben- 
nett was  a  warm  partisan  of  Martin  Van 
Buren,  then  in  the  senate  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  next  engaged  with  Mordecai  M.  Noah 
as  associate  editor  of  the  "Enquirer,"  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Tammany  society. 
During  the  presidential  canvass  of  1828  he  was 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  Gen.  Jackson,  re- 
siding at  "Washington  as  correspondent  of  the 
"  Enquirer."  After  the  fusion  of  that  journal 
with  the  "Courier,"  in  1829,  he  continued  to 
write  in  the  editorial  department  of  the 


"Courier  and  Enquirer,"  and  in  the  autumn  of 
the  same  year  became  an  associate  editor.  In 
1831  he  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  the  hank- 
ing system  of  the  United  States,  and  coop- 
erated with  Gen.  Jackson  and  the  democratic 
party  in  their  opposition  to  the  recharter  of 
the  United  States  bank.  In  1832,  the  senior 
editor,  J.  W.  Webb,  having  determined  to 
support  the  United  States  bank,  Mr.  Bennett 
withdrew  from  the  paper,  and  in  October  of 
the  same  year  issued  the  first  number  of  a  new 
journal  called  the  "New  York  Globe."  This 
was  published  precisely  one  month,  during 
which  time  it  was  strenuously  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren.  Mr.  Ben- 
nett then  purchased  a  share  in  the  "Pennsyl- 
vanian,"  a  daily  journal  of  Philadelphia,  and 
became  its  principal  editor.  In  1834  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  and  in  May,  1835,  issued 
the  first  number  of  the  "  New  York  Herald." 
Mr.  Bennett  began  the  enterprise  with  a  cap- 
ital of  $500,  and  was  once  robbed  and  twice 
burned  out  within  the  first  15  months,  but 
at  the  end  of  that  time  found  himself  worth 
nearly  $5,000.  As  his  capital  increased  he 
spent  money  freely  in  promoting  the  interests 
of  his  paper,  which  by  this  means  and  through 
Mr.  Bennett's  wit,  originality,  and  industry 
speedily  became  celebrated  and  achieved  great 
success.  Four  months  after  the  fire  which  de- 
stroyed his  office  there  was  a  great  fire  in  Wall 
street  and  its  neighborhood.  The  "Herald" 
largely  increased  its  prosperity  by  publishing 
full  accounts  of  it,  illustrated  with  a  map  of  the 
burnt  district  and  a  woodcut  of  the  exchange 
on  fire.  It  was  the  first  newspaper  that  pub- 
lished a  daily  money  article  and  the  stock  lists. 
In  1837  it  set  up  a  ship  news  establishment, 
consisting  of  a  row  boat,  manned  by  a  captain 
and  two  men,  which  intercepted  ships  as  they 
arrived  and  got  from  them  their  news  and  the 
passenger  lists.  In  1838  steam  communication 
with  Europe  was  opened  by  the  arrival  of  the 
Sirins  and  Great  Western.  Mr.  Bennett  sailed 
in  the  Sirius  on  its  return  trip,  and  made  ar- 
rangements for  correspondence  from  all  parts 
of  Europe.  The  first  speech  ever  reported  in 
full  by  telegraph,  that  of  Mr.  Calhoun  on  the 
Mexican  war,  was  transmitted  to  the  "  Herald." 
That  journal  was  independent  in  politics,  but 
generally  supported  the  democratic  party,  and 
advocated  the  compromise  of  1850  and  the 
fugitive  slave  law.  But  it  adhered  to  Fre- 
mont and  the  republican  party  in  1856,  pub- 
lishing articles  against  the  extension  of  sla- 
very, and  supported  the  government  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1871  an  expedition  to  search 
for  Dr.  Livingstone  in  Africa  was  sent  out  by 
the  "  Herald ; "  and  Mr.  Stanley,  its  head,  ar- 
rived in  England  the  following  year,  report- 
ing that  he  had  succeeded.  (See  LIVING- 
STONE.) The  profits  of  the  "Herald"  at  the 
time  of  Mr.  Bennett's  death  were  estimated 
as  being  from  one  half  to  three  quarters  of 
a  million  dollars  per  annum.  Mr.  Bennett  was 
married  in  1840.  He  died  in  the  Roman  Cath- 


BENNETT 


BENNINGSEN 


531 


olic  faith,  receiving  the  last  sacrament  from 
Archbishop  McCloskey.  He  bequeathed  the 
"  Herald  "  to  his  only  son,  JAMES  GORDON  BEN- 
SETT,  jr.,  who  is  now  its  editor  and  proprietor. 

BENNETT,  John  Hughes,  an  English  physician, 
born  in  London,  Aug.  31,  1812.  He  studied 
surgery  under  William  Sedgwick  and  medicine 
in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  took 
his  degree  in  1837,  receiving  a  medal  for  the 
best  surgical  report,  while  Sir  Charles  Bell 
highly  commended  his  thesis  on  the  "Physi- 
ology and  Pathology  of  the  Brain."  He  after- 
ward studied  two  years  at  Paris  and  two  years 
in  Germany.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  pathol- 
ogist to  the  royal  infirmary,  Edinburgh ;  and 
in  1848  he  succeeded  Dr.  Allen  Thomson  as  pro- 
fessor of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in  Edinburgh 
university.  He  was  (1841)  the  first  in  Great 
Britain  to  advocate  the  use  of  cod-liver  oil  for 
the  cure  of  consumption,  scrofula,  and  kindred 
diseases,  and  to  deliver  lectures  on  histology. 
He  discovered  a  disease  of  the  blood  which  he 
called  leucocythaornia  or  white-cell  blood.  He 
also  proved  that  the  hemlock  of  the  present 
day  is  the  same  drug  by  which  Socrates  was 
poisoned.  His  publications  include  "  Inflam- 
mation of  the  Nervous  Centres,"  "Treatise 
on  Inflammation,"  "Cancerous  and  Cancroid 
Growths,"  "  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Mo- 
lecular Consumption,"  "Treatment  of  Pulmo- 
nary Consumption,"  "  Lectures  on  Molecular 
Physiology,  Pathology,  and  Therapeutics," 
"Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  and 
"Pneumonia."  His  most  important  work, 
"On  Clinical  Medicine"  (1856),  has  passed 
through  many  editions  in  both  hemispheres, 
and  has  been  translated  into  many  languages. 

BENNETT,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  an  English 
composer,  born  in  Sheffield,  April  13,  1816. 
He  is  the  son  of  Mr.  Robert  Bennett,  for  many 
years  organist  of  the  parish  church  at  Sheffield. 
At  the  age  of  eight  he  was  entered  as  chorister 
at  King's  college,  Cambridge,  where  his  mater- 
nal grandfather,  James  Donn,  was  curator  of 
the  royal  botanical  garden,  and  two  years  later 
commenced  his  musical  studies  at  the  royal 
academy  of  music.  He  at  first  chose  the  violin 
as  his  instrument,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for 
the  piano.  His  studies  in  composition  were 
begun  early  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Crotch ; 
and  while  still  at  the  academy  his  first  sym- 
phony, in  E  flat,  was  produced,  and  this  was 
speedily  followed  by  his  pianoforte  concertos. 
At  the  academy  his  master  in  pianoforte  in- 
struction was  Cipriani  Potter,  but  after  leav- 
ing it  he  became  the  pupil  of  Moscheles.  In 
London  he  met  Mendelssohn,  to  whom  he  be- 
came ardently  attached,  and  whose  influence 
upon  his  method  of  composition  is  very  marked. 
Under  Mendelssohn's  advice  he  determined  to 
continue  his  musical  studies  in  Germany,  where 
he  could  have  the  benefit  of  the  counsel  and 
instruction  of  that  celebrated  composer;  and 
the  years  1836-'8  were  passed  at  Leipsic.  At 
the  Gewandhans  concerts  in  that  city  his  over- 
ture to  the  Naiades,  his  concerto  in  C  minor, 


and  other  works  were  performed  under  the 
personal  direction  of  Mendelssohn.  Returning 
to  London,  Bennett  commenced  his  career  as 
musical  instructor,  director  of  concerts,  and 
composer.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  music  at  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
and  received  the  degree  of  Mus.  Doc.  the  same 
year.  In  1869  he  received  the  degree  of  M.  A., 
and  in  1870  he  was  created  D.  C.  L.  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  From  1856  to  1868  he  con- 
ducted the  philharmonic  concerts,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter year  was  made  principal  of  the  royal  acad- 
emy of  music.  In  1871  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood was  conferred  upon  him.  The  principal 
works  of  this  composer  are  his  operas,  "  The 
Wood  Nymphs  "  and  "  Parisina ;"  his  cantatas, 
"The  May  Queen"  and  "The  Woman  of  Sa- 
maria ;"  and  several  concertos  for  piano  and 
orchestra.  He  has  composed  many  minor 
works  for  the  pianoforte  in  connection  with 
stringed  instruments,  and  for  that  instrument 
alone ;  also  a  number  of  songs ;  and  he  has 
written  a  treatise  on  harmony,  and  one  en- 
titled "  Classical  Practice  for  Pianoforte  Stu- 
dents." 

BEN  NEVIS,  a  mountain  of  Inverness-shire, 
Scotland,  the  highest  summit  in  Great  Britain. 
It  rises  abruptly  from  the  narrow  plain  which 
separates  it  from  Loch  Eil  to  a  height  of  4,406 
ft.  Its  outline  is  well  defined ;  its  circumference 
at  the  base  exceeds  24  m.  The  lower  portion 
consists  of  granite,  and  is  usually  covered  with 
rich  grass ;  while  the  upper  part  is  a  mass  of 
porphyry.  In  places  near  the  summit  snow 
lies  the  year  round.  When  the  atmosphere 
is  clear  the  summit  commands  a  view  of  25  m. 
in  every  direction,  extending  from  sea  to  sea. 

BENNINGSEN.  I.  Levin  August  Theophil,  count, 
a  Russian  general,  born  in  Brunswick,  Feb.  10, 
1745,  where  his  father  served  as  colonel  in  the 
guards,  died  Oct.  3,  1826.  He  was  a  page  at 
the  Hanoverian  court  of  George  II.,  and  after- 
ward a  captain  in  the  Hanoverian  army,  re- 
signing his  commission  to  marry  the  daughter 
of  the  Austrian  ambassador  at  Hanover.  Hav- 
ing squandered  his  fortune  and  lost  his  wife,  he 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  under  Catha- 
rine II.  distinguished  himself  as  a  cavalry 
officer,  and  was  richly  rewarded.  Disgraced 
by  Paul  I.,  he  entered  into  Count  Pahlen's  con- 
spiracy, and  led  the  way  when  the  assassins 
broke  into  the  czar's  bedchamber.  Paul  hid 
himself  in  the  chimney.  Benningsen  dragged 
him  down,  and  when  the  conspirators  hesitated 
untied  his  own  sash,  rushed  upon  the  czar,  and 
with  the  help  of  the  others  succeeded  in  stran- 
gling him.  Benningsen  expedited  the  murder 
by  striking  Paul  on  the  head  with  a  heavy  sil- 
ver snuff  box.  From  Alexander  I.  Benningsen 
received  an  important  military  command.  In 
the  war  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  England  against 
France  in  1806,  he  repulsed  Lannes  and  Berna- 
dotte  at  Pultusk,  and  extricated  the  Russians 
from  a  critical  position  into  which  they  had 
been  brought  by  Marshal  Kamensky.  Soon 
after  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 


532 


BENNINGTON 


army  then  in  the  field  against  Napoleon,  and 
fought  the  French  at  Eylau,  Feb.  7-8,  1807,  but 
on  June  14  he  was  beaten  at  Friedland.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Borodino  (1812) 
as  aid  to  Gen.  Kutuzoff.  On  Oct.  18  of  the 
same  year  he  gained  a  brilliant  advantage  by 
surprise  over  Murat  at  Tarutino.  He  left  the 
service  on  account  of  difficulties  with  Kutuzoff, 
but  reentered  it  on  Kutuzoff 's  death.  He  had 
an  important  part  at  the  taking  of  Leipsic,  and 
was  in  command  of  the  army  which  was  be- 
sieging Hamburg  when  Napoleon  was  over- 
thrown in  1814.  After  the  peace  of  1815  the 
command  of  the  second  army,  which  was  sta- 
tioned in  the  south  of  Russia,  was  given  to 
him.  He  resigned  in  1818,  and  died  poor  and 
blind.  II.  Alexander  Levin,  count,  a  Hanoverian 
statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Zakret, 
near  Wilna,  July  21,  1809.  Pie  occupied  the 
highest  positions  in  the  cabinet  and  the  cham- 
bers from  1841  to  1866,  when  Hanover  was 
annexed  to  Prussia.  Hit  Uuilolf  vcn,  a  Hano- 
verian statesman,  belonging  to  a  junior  branch 
of  the  same  family,  born  in  Luneburg,  July  20, 
1824.  After  many  able  but  ineffectual  attempts, 
as  a  member  of  the  chambers  and  in  other 
capacities,  to  protect  Hanover  against  the  fatal 
course  of  George  V.,  he  was  elected  in  1866, 
after  the  annexation  of  his  country  to  Prussia, 
to  the  North  German  diet  and  the  Prussian 
assembly  of  delegates,  and  became  vice  presi- 
dent of  these  bodies  and  a  statesmanlike  leader 
of  the  liberal  national  party.  He  has  presided 
since  the  close  of  1868  over  the  local  adminis- 
tration of  the  province  of  Hanover,  and  at- 
tended the  conferences  at  Versailles  in  Decem- 
ber, 1870,  in  respect  to  the  formation  of  the 
new  German  empire. 

BEXNINGTON,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Vermont, 
bordering  on  New  York  and  Massachusetts; 
area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,325. 
It  is  skirted  by  the  Green  mountains  on  the 
east,  and  watered  by  the  Battenkill,  Hoosick, 
and  smaller  streams.  In  the  N.  part  of  the 
county,  especially  in  Dorset  township,  large 
quantities  of  marble  are  quarried,  some  varie- 
ties of  which  are  very  white  and  fine,  and  take 
a  high  polish.  The  county  is  crossed  by  the 
Harlem  Extension,  Troy  and  Boston,  and 
Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  108,537  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  161,876  of  oats,  196,791  of  pota- 
toes, 35,542  tons  of  hay,  416,655  Ibs.  of  cheese, 
412,092  of  butter,  146,419  of  wool,  and  170,- 
268  of  maple  sugar.  There  were  2,529  horses, 
5,659  milch  cows,  4,543  other  cattle,  82,068 
sheep,  and  2,592  swine.  Capitals,  Bennington 
and  Manchester. 

BENNINGTON,  a  township  in  the  S.  W.  part 
of  Bennington  co.,  Vt.,  102  m.  S.  by  W.  of 
Montpelier;  pop.  in  1870,  5,760.  It  is  on  the 
Harlem  Extension  and  Troy  and  Boston  rail- 
roads, and  includes  the  villages  of  Bennington, 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  county,  Bennington 
Centre  or  Old  Bennington,  North  Bennington, 
and  Bennington  Iron  Works.  It  has  impor- 


BENSON 

tant  manufactories  of  fine  porcelain  and  Parian 
ware,  material  in  abundance  and  of  excellent 
quality  being  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town. 
—On  Aug.  16,  1777,  Gen.  Stark,  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  New  Hampshire  militia,  defeated 
in  Bennington  a  detachment  of  Burgoyne's 
army  under  Col.  Bauin.  Shortly  after  the  re- 
treat of  the  latter  the  battle  was  renewed  by 
a  British  reenforcement,  which  in  turn  retreat- 
ed on  the  approach  of  darkness.  The  British 
lost  200  killed,  600  prisoners,  and  1,000  stand 
of  arms;  the  Americans,  14  killed  and  42 
wounded.  No  trace  now  remains  to  indicate 
the  precise  locality  of  the  engagement. 

BEANO,  Saint,  bishop  of  Meissen,  born  at 
Hildesheim  about  1010,  died  June  16, 1107.  He 
was  a  Benedictine  of  Hildesheim  when  in 
1051  he  was  appointed  canon  of  the  church 
in  Goslar,  whence  he  was  promoted  by  Henry 
IV.  to  the  bishopric  of  Meissen.  In  the  war 
between  that  emperor  and  Pope  Gregory  VII., 
he  ultimately  declared  for  the  pope,  and  was 
several  times  made  a  prisoner.  When  in  1085 
he  supported  in  a  council  the  excommunica- 
tion pronounced  against  the  emperor,  the  latter 
took  from  him  his  bishopric,  which  was  after- 
ward restored  by  the  antipope  Clement  III. 
In  the  15th  century  pilgrimages  were  made  to 
his  tomb,  and  in  1523  he  was  canonized. 

BENOOWE,  Benne,  or  Binoe  (the  mother  of 
waters),  a  river  of  central  Africa,  the  main 
tributary  of  the  Quorra  or  Niger,  formerly 
known  as  the  Chadda,  Tchadda,  or  Tsadda, 
because  it  was  supposed  to  be  an  outlet  of 
Lake  Tchad  ;  but  there  is  probably  no  connec- 
tion between  it  and  that  lake.  It  rises  in  an 
unexplored  region  in  the  interior  of  Soodan, 
flows  W.  through  Adamawa  or  Fumbina,  receiv- 
ing its  three  principal  branches,  the  Kebbi  and 
the  Gongola  from  the  north  and  the  Faro  from 
the  sonth,  turns  S.  W.  and  joins  the  Niger 
just  above  the  town  of  Igbebe,  250  m.  from 
the  sea.  The  Benoowe  is  more  than  700  m. 
long.  It  was  seen  by  the  Lander  brothers  in 
1830,  and  explored  for  104  m.  by  Richard  Lan- 
der, Allen,  and  Oldfield  in  1833.  Dr.  Earth, 
while  travelling  in  Adamawa  in  1851,  came 
upon  the  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Faro,  as- 
certained its  true  name,  and  says  it  was  800 
feet  wide  at  that  point.  In  consequence  of 
his  reports,  an  expedition  under  Dr.  Baikie, 
fitted  out  at  the  joint  expense  of  Mr.  Macgre- 
gor  Laird  and  the  English  government,  sailed 
up  the  Benoowe  in  a  steamer  in  1854,  to  a 
point  about  400  m.  from  the  Niger  and  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Faro.  Dr.  Baikie  made  a 
second  expedition  in  1857,  but  added  little 
to  the  stock  of  knowledge  already  possessed. 
During  the  rainy  season,  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember, the  volume  of  water  poured  by  the 
Benoowe  into  the  Niger  is  enormous.  The 
right  bank  of  the  river  and  part  of  the  left  is 
in  the  power  of  the  Fellatahs. 

BENSON,  George,  an  English  dissenting  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  in  Great  Salkeld  in 
1699,  died  in  1763.  From  1721  to  1763  he 


BENSON 


BENTHAM 


533 


held  pastoral  charges  first  at  Abingdon,  Berk- 
shire, next  at  Southwark,  and  finally  as  col- 
league of  Dr.  Lardner  in  the  congregation  of 
Crutched  Friars.  Among  his  works  are :  "  A 
Treatise  on  Prayer "  (1781),  "  Comments  on 
some  of  the  Epistles,"  "  History  of  the  first 
Planting  of  Christianity"  (1735),  "Reasona- 
bleness of  the  Christian  Religion,"  "  History  of 
the  Life  of  Christ,"  and  "  An  Account  of  the 
Burning  of  Servetns,  and  of  the  concern  of 
Calvin  in  it."  In  his  early  ministerial  career 
he  was  Calvinistic  in  theology ;  later  he  became 
an  Arian,  and  endeavored  to  suppress  some  of 
his  former  publications. 

BENSON,  Joseph,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Melmerby,  Cumberland,  Jan.  25,  1748,  died 
Feb.  16,  1821.  He  was  educated  for  the  es- 
tablished church,  but  at  the  age  of  16  was  con- 
verted under  the  influence  of  the  Methodists, 
and  soon  after  joined  their  denomination. 
Such  was  his  proficiency  in  the  ancient  lan- 
guages that  at  the  age  of  18  Wesley  appointed 
him  classical  master  at  Kingswood  school.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  a  student  at  St.  Ed- 
mund's Hall,  Oxford.  In  1769  he  was  called 
to  the  head  mastership  of  Lady  Huntingdon's 
theological  school  at  Trevecca,  but  was  soon 
dismissed  because  he  could  not  agree  with  the 
Calvinistic  views  of  the  founder.  His  appli- 
cation to  enter  orders  in  the  established 
church  having  been  rejected,  he  was  admitted 
in  1771  into  the  Methodist  conference,  and  for 
many  years  occupied  the  most  important  sta- 
tions of  the  church.  After  the  death  of  Wes- 
ley he  was  chosen  president  of  the  conference. 
While  in  this  office  his  congregations  some- 
times numbered  20,000.  For  many  years  he 
was  editor  of  the  "Weslyan  Magazine,"  the 
chief  organ  of  the  Methodist  church  in  Eng- 
land, conducting  it  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
His  chief  writings  are:  "A  Defence  of  the 
Methodists"  (1793),  "A  Further  Defence  of 
'  the  Methodists  "  (1794),  "  Vindication  of  the 
Methodists"  (1800),  "Apology  for  the  Method- 
ists "  (1801),  "  Sermons  on  Various  Occasions  " 
(2  vols.),  "Life  of  John  Fletcher,"  and  "A 
Commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  "  (5  vols. 
4to.).  See  Macdonald's  "Life  of  Benson," 
and  Trefry's  "  Memoirs  of  Rev.  Joseph  Ben- 
son." 

BENT,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Colorado,  bordering 
on  Kansas ;  area,  about  2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  592.  The  Arkansas  river  forms  the 
greater  part  of  its  S.  boundary,  and  one  of  its 
branches,  the  Big  Sandy,  crosses  the  E.  end. 

BENTQ1M,  Jeremy,  an  English  juridical  phi- 
losopher, born  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1748,  died 
in  Queen-square  place,  Westminster,  his  resi- 
dence for  40  years  previously,  June  6,  1832. 
His  great-grandfather,  a  prosperous  London 
pawnbroker  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  had  ac- 
quired some  landed  property,  which  remained 
in  the  family.  His  grandfather  was  a  London 
attorney;  his  father,  who  followed  the  same 
profession,  was  a  shrewd  man  of  business,  and 
added  considerably  to  his  patrimony,  princi- 


pally by  fortunate  purchases  of  land  and  leases. 
These  London  Benthams  were  probably  an  off- 
shoot from  an  ancient  Yorkshire  family  of  the 
same  name,  which  boasted  a  bishop  among  its 
members ;  but  Jeremy  did  not  trouble  himself 
much  to  trace  his  genealogy  beyond  the  pawn- 
broker. His  mother,  Alicia  Grove,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  retired  Andover  shopkeeper. 
Jeremy  Bentham,  the  eldest  and  for  nine 
years  the  only  child  of  this  marriage,  was  for 
the  first  16  years  of  his  life  exceedingly  puny, 
small,  and  feeble.  At  the  same  time  he  exhib- 
ited a  remarkable  precocity,  which  greatly 
stimulated  the  pride  as  well  as  affection  of  his 
father.  He  had  a  decided  taste  for  music,  and 
at  five  years  of  age  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
musical  notes  and  learned  to  play  the  violin. 
At  four  or  earlier,  having  previously  learned 
to  write,  he  was  initiated  into  Latin  grammar, 
and  in  his  seventh  year  entered  Westminster 
school.  Meanwhile  he  was  taught  French  by 
a  private  master  at  home,  and  at  seven  read 
Telemaque,  a  book  which  strongly  impressed 
him.  Learning  to  dance  was  a  much  more  se- 
rious undertaking ;  he  was  so  weak  in  the  legs 
as  to  make  it  laborious  and  painful.  Young  as 
he  was,  he  acquired  distinction  at  Westminster 
as  a  fabricator  of  Latin  and  Greek  verses,  the 
great  end  and  aim  of  the  instruction  given 
there.  When  12  years  old  he  was  entered  as 
a  commoner  at  Queen's  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  spent  the  next  three  years.  The  young 
Bentham  had  not  been  happy  at  school.  He 
had  suffered  from  the  tyranny  of  the  elder 
boys,  though  he  escaped  the  discipline  of  cor- 
poral punishment,  and  was  but  once  forced  into 
a  boxing  match.  Neither  was  he  happy  at  Ox- 
ford. _  Though  regarded  by  others  and  taught 
from  infancy  to  regard  himself  as  a  prodigy,  he 
was  yet  exceedingly  diffident,  and  to  the  high- 
est degree  sensitive  of  any  slight  or  neglect — 
peculiarities  which,  as  weU  as  his  high  estimate 
of  himself,  clung  to  him  through  life.  His  tutor 
was  morose,  the  college  dull,  while  his  sensitive 
pride  suffered  much  from  the  mingled  penurious- 
ness  and  meddlesomeness  of  his  father,  who  kept 
him  on  very  short  allowance,  and  who,  in  spite 
of  all  his  affection  for  his  son,  of  whose  ultimate 
distinction  he  had  formed  the  highest  hopes, 
failed  entirely  to  comprehend  the  boy's  delicacy 
and  diffidence,  and  never  gained  either  his  con- 
fidence or  his  love.  His  mother  had  died  two 
years  before  he  entered  the  university,  leaving 
him  an  only  brother,  afterward  Sir  Samuel  Ben- 
tham. Several  years  after  his  father  married 
for  a  second  wife  the  widow  of  a  clergyman, 
already  the  mother  of  two  boys,  of  whom  the 
eldest,  Charles  Abbott,  was  afterward  speaker 
of  the  house  of  commons,  and  finally  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Colchester.  There  were 
no  children  by  this  second  marriage,  yet  it  was 
a  source  of  great  vexation  to  Bentham,  to  whom 
his  stepmother  was  far  from  being  agreea- 
ble. Though  very  uncomfortable  at  Oxford, 
Bentham  went  through  the  exercises  of  the 
college  with  credit  and  even,  with  some  dis- 


534: 


BENTHAM 


tinction.  Some  Latin  verses  of  his  on  the  ac- 
cession of  George  III.  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention as  the  production  of  one  so  young.  Into 
the  disputations  which  formed  a  part  of  the 
college  exercises  he  entered  with  much  satisfac- 
tion ;  but  he  never  felt  at  home  in  the  univer- 
sity, of  which  he  retained  the  most  unfavorable 
recollection.  In  his  old  age  he  seldom  spoke 
either  of  Westminster  school  or  Oxford  but 
with  asperity  and  disgust.  In  1763,  while  not 
yet  16,  he  took  his  degree  of  A.B.  Shortly 
after  he  commenced  eating  his  commons  in  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  but  went  back  to  Oxford  to  hear 
Blackstone's  lectures.  To  these  lectures  he 
listened  without  the  presumption,  at  that  time, 
to  set  himself  up  as  a  critic,  yet  not  without 
some  occasional  feelings  of  protest.  Returning 
to  London,  he  attended  as  a  student  the  court 
of  king's  bench,  then  presided  over  by  Lord 
Mansfield,  of  whom  he  continued  for  some 
years  not  only  a  great  admirer,  but  a  profound 
worshipper.  Among  the  advocates,  Dunning's 
clearness,  directness,  and  precision  most  im- 
pressed him.  He  took  his  degree  of  A.  M.  at 
the  age  of  18,  the  youngest  graduate,  so  says 
Dr.  Southwood  Smith,  that  had  been  known  at 
either  of  the  universities;  and  in  1772  he  was 
called  to  the  bar.  Bentham's  grandfather  had 
been  a  Jacobite;  his  father,  educated  in  the 
same  opinions,  had,  like  others  of  that  party, 
transferred  his  sentiments  of  loyalty  to  the 
reigning  family.  The  young  Bentham  had 
breathed  from  infancy,  at  home,  at  school,  at 
college,  and  in  the  courts,  an  atmosphere  con- 
servative and  submissive  to  authority.  Yet  in 
the  progress  of  his  law  studies,  beginning  to 
contrast  the  law  as  it  was  with  law  such  as  he 
conceived  it  might  be  and  ought  to  be,  lie  came 
gradually  to  abandon  the  position  of  a  submis- 
sive and  admiring  student,  anxious  only  to 
make  of  the  law  a  ladder  by  which  to  rise  to 
wealth  and  eminence,  for  that  of  a  sharp  critic, 
an  indignant  denouncer,  a  would-be  reformer. 
His  father,  who  fondly  hoped  to  see  him  lord 
chancellor,  had  some  cases  in  nurse  for  him  on 
his  admission  to  the  bar,  and  took  every  pains 
to  push  him  forward.  But  it  was  all  to  no  pur- 
pose. His  temperament,  no  less  than  his  moral 
and  intellectual  constitution,  wholly  disquali- 
fied him  for  success  as  a  practising  lawyer.  He 
soon  abandoned  with  disgust,  to  the  infinite  dis- 
appointment of  his  father,  all  attempts  in  that 
line.  With  a  feeling  in  the  highest  degree  dis- 
tressing of  having  failed  to  fulfil  the  great  expec- 
tations formed  of  him  by  his  friends,  and  enter- 
tained by  himself,  he  continued  for  years,  to 
borrow  his  own  words,  "  to  pine  in  solitude  and 
penury  in  his  Lincoln's  Inn  garret,"  living  on  a 
very  narrow  income,  drawn  partly  from  some 
legacies,  and  partly  from  a  small  property  con- 
veyed to  him  by  his  father  at  the  time  of  his 
second  marriage.  Still,  however,  he  continued 
a  diligent  student  and  serious  thinker,  amusing 
himself  with  chemistry,  then  a  new  science, 
though  mainly  devoted  to  jurisprudence,  but 
rather  as  it  should  be  than  as'it  was.  The  writ- 


ings of  Hume  and  Ilelve'tius  had  led  him  to 
adopt  utility  as  the  basis  of  morals,  and  espe- 
cially of  legislation ;  and  already  he  began  to 
write  down  his  ideas  on  this  subject — the  com- 
mencement of  a  collection  of  materials  for  and 
fragments  of  a  projected  but  never  completed 
code,  which,  for  the  whole  remainder  of  his 
long  life,  furnished  him  with  regular  and  almost 
daily  employment.  In  the  controversy  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  her  American  col- 
onies, which  became  at  this  time  a  leading 
topic  of  public  discussion,  Bentham  did  not 
take  any  great  interest.  His  tory  education, 
and  his  idea  of  the  law  as  it  was,  led  him,  un- 
warped,  as  he  says,  by  connection  or  hopes,  to 
favor  the  government  side.  In  the  arguments 
on  behalf  of  the  colonies,  used  on  either  side 
of  the  water,  he  saw  nothing  to  change  his 
mind.  "The  whole  of  the  case,"  to  borrow 
his  own  statement,  "  was  founded  on  the  as- 
sumption of  natural  rights,  claimed  without  the 
slightest  evidence  of  their  existence,  and  sup- 
ported by  vague  and  declamatory  generalities." 
Had  the  argument  been  placed  on  the  ground 
of  the  impossibility  of  good  government  at 
such  a  distance,  and  the  benefits  that  would 
accrue  to  both  parties  from  a  separation — 
grounds  more  in  accordance  with  his  ideas  of 
the  true  basis  of  laws — it  would  then  have 
attracted  his  attention.  As  it  was,  ho  had  some 
hand,  though  small,  in  a  book,  "  Review  of  the 
Acts  of  the  13th  Parliament,"  published  in 
1776,  by  a  friend  of  his,  one  John  Lind,  in 
defence  of  Lord  North's  policy.  The  next  year 
he  ventured  to  print  a  book  of  his  own,  under 
the  title  of  "A  Fragment  on  Government." 
He  had  contemplated  a  critical  commentary  on 
the  commentaries  of  Blackstone,  then  lately 
published ;  but  in  this  piece  he  confined  himself 
to  what  Blackstone  says  of  the  origin  of  gov- 
ernment. Rejecting  the  fiction  of  an  original 
contract,  suggested  by  Locke  and  adopted  by 
Blackstone,  he  found  government  sufficiently 
warranted  and  justified  by  its  utility ;  while  in 
place  of  conformity  to  the  laws  of  God  and 
nature,  which  appeared  to  him  to  rest  too  much 
in  vague  assertion  and  opinion,  ho  suggested 
"  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber "  as  a  precise  and  practicable  test  of  right 
and  wrong,  both  in  morals  and  laws.  This 
pamphlet,  for  it  was  scarcely  more,  appeared 
anonymously,  and  attracted  at  first  some  at- 
tention. It  was  even  ascribed  to  Mansfield, 
to  Camden,  and  to  Dunning.  The  impatient 
pride  of  Bentham's  father  having  led  him  to 
betray  the  secret  of  its  authorship,  the  pub- 
lic curiosity,  which  had  been  aroused  by  the 
work,  not  in  its  character  of  a  philosoph- 
ical treatise  but  of  a  personal  attack,  speed- 
ily subsided.  A  second  pamphlet,  published 
in  1778,  a  criticism,  though  on  the  whole  a 
friendly  one,  on  some  amendments  to  the  law 
of  prison  discipline,  prepared  in  the  form  of  a 
printed  bill,  with  a  preface  by  Mr.  Eden  (after- 
ward Lord  Auckland),  assisted  by  Blackstone, 
did  not  attract  much  more  attention.  He  was 


BENTHAM 


535 


also  disappointed  in  an  attempt  wlrich  he  made 
at  this  time  to  be  appointed  secretary  of  the 
commission  sent  out  by  Lord  North  to  pro- 
pose terms  to  the  revolted  American  colonies. 
Meanwhile  his  writings,  though  neglected  at 
home,  yet  served  to  make  him  known  at  Paris, 
whence  he  received  letters  addressed  to  him  in 
the  character  of  a  philosopher  and  reformer 
from  D'Alembert,  Moreljet,  Ohastellux,  Bris- 
sot,  and  others.  They  also  gained  for  him  the 
acquaintance  and  friendship  of  Lord  Shel- 
burne,  who  in  1781  paid  him  a  visit  in  his 
Lincoln's  Inn  garret.  After  much  urging, 
Shelburne  at  length  prevailed  upon  him  to 
become  a  visitor  at  his  country  seat  of  Bo- 
wood.  The  ice  once  broken,  Benthain  be- 
came a  frequent  inmate  there,  and  a  great 
favorite,  especially  with  Lady  Shelburne.  He 
was  indeed  more  noticed  by  the  ladies,  whose 
musical  performances  he  accompanied  on  the 
violin,  than  by  Camden,  Barr6,  and  other  great 
men  of  the  day  whom  he  met  there.  Still  this 
introduction  to  Bowood  was  a  great  thing  for 
Bentham.  It  raised  him,  as  he  himself  express- 
ed it,  from  the  "  bottomless  pit  of  humiliation  " 
into  which  he  was  fast  sinking,  and  inspired 
him  with  new  confidence  in  himself  and  new 
zeal  for  his  favorite  studies.  He  had  also  the 
additional  excitement  of  falling  in  love.  A  very 
young  lady  whom  he  met  there,  whose  frank 
simplicity  was  in  strong  contrast  with  the  stiff- 
ness and  prudery  which  was  the  prevailing  style 
at  Bowood,  made  an  impression  on  his  heart, 
which,  though  it  did  not  result  in  marriage, 
yet  lasted  through  life.  Already  before  his 
acquaintance  with  Lord  Shelburne  he  had 
printed  part  of  an  introduction  to  a  penal  code 
which  he  had  undertaken  to  construct;  but 
the  unfavorable  or  lukewarm  opinion  of  his  un- 
dertaking expressed  by  Oamden  and  Dunning, 
to  whom  Shelburne  had  shown  the  sheets;  and 
by  some  other  friends  whom  he  consulted, 
joined  to  his  ill  success  in  finishing  the  work  to 
his  mind,  long  kept  this  printed  fragment  un- 
published.— In  1785  he  left  England  on  a  visit 
to  his  younger  brother,  then  employed,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  Russian  army,  in 
the  service  of  Prince  Potemkin,  in  an  abortive 
scheme,  of  which  Krikov  on  the  Don  was  the 
seat,  for  introducing  English  methods  in  manu- 
factures and  agriculture  into  that  barbarous 
region.  Furnished  with  funds  by  a  maternal 
uncle,  Bentham  proceeded  by  way  of  Paris,  his 
third  visit  thither,  across  the  Alps  to  Leghorn. 
There  he  embarked  in  an  English  ship  for 
Smyrna,  and  from  Smyrna  sailed  in  a  Turkish 
vessel  to  Constantinople.  After  passing  sev- 
eral weeks  in  that  city,  he  travelled  by  land 
through  Bulgaria,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  the 
Ukraine,  to  his  destination  in  White  Russia. 
Here  he  spent  a  year  and  a  half,  living  most 
of  the  time  a  very  solitary  life,  occupied  amid 
many  annoyances  and  privations,  among  which 
was  want  of  books,  with  his  favorite  studies. 
Tired  out  at  last,  in  the  absence  of  his  brother, 
detained  at  Kherson  by  an  expected  attack 


from  the  Turks,  he  started  for  home  by  way  of 
Poland,  Germany,  and  Holland,  and  reached 
England  in  the  spring  of  1788.  While  resid- 
ing at  Krikov  he  had  written  his  "  Letters  on 
Usury,"  occasioned  by  the  report  that  the  legal 
rate  of  interest  was  to  be  lowered.  He  sent 
the  manuscript  to  England  ;  his  father  caused 
It  to  be  printed  while  he  still  remained  absent, 
and  it  proved  with  the  English  public  the  most 
successful  of  his  works.  Renewing  his  visits  to 
Bowood,  he  there  met  Romilly,  whom  he  had 
known  slightly  before,  and  with  whom  he  now 
formed  an  intimacy  which  lasted  as  long  as 
Romilly  lived.  He  now  also  first  formed  the  ac- 
quaintance of  the  Swiss  Dumont,  who  had  been 
domesticated  at  Lord  Shelburne's  during  his 
absence.  Bentham  had  become  so  much  dis- 
gusted at  his  failure  to  attract  attention  in  Eng- 
land that  he  had  adopted  the  idea  of  publishing 
in  French,  and  had  made  some  essays  in  that 
language.  Romilly  had  shown  some  of  these 
French  sketches  to  Dumont,  who,  very  much 
impressed  by  them,  offered  his  services  to  cor- 
rect and  rewrite  them  with  a  view  to  publica- 
tion. Another  friend  of  Bentham's,  with  whom 
he  had  kept  up  a  correspondence  while  absent 
in  Russia,  had  written  to  him  of  Paley's  success 
in  applying  the  principle  of  utility  to  morals, 
and  had  urged  him  to  set  to  work  to  complete 
some  of  his  own  treatises,  or  at  least  to  publish 
the  already  printed  part  of  his  introduction  to 
his  unfinished  penal  code.  These  sheets,  after 
lying  in  hand  for  eight  years,  were  now  at  length 
published  under  the  title  of  "An  Introduction 
to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation," 
but  they  attracted  very  little  attention.  Du- 
mont, however,  who  about  this  time  went  to 
Paris  and  became  connected  with  Mirabeau, 
aided  to  spread  Bentham's  reputation,  and  in 
the  Oourrier  de  Provence,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  editors,  gave  publicity  to  some  of  his 
manuscripts.  Meanwhile  Bentham,  with  the 
idea  of  aiding  the  deliberations  of  the  states- 
general,  then  about  to  meet,  drew  up  and  print- 
ed, but  did  not  publish,  his  "  Parliamentary 
Tactics,"  and  with  the  same  object  in  view  pre- 
pared and  printed  a  "  Draft  of  a  Code  for  the 
Organization  of  the  Judicial  Establishment  in 
France ;  "  services  which  the  national  assembly 
recognized,  by  conferring  on  him  the  citizen- 
ship of  France,  in  a  decree  (Aug.  23,  1792)  in 
which  his  name  was  included  with  those  of 
Priestley,  Paine,  Wilberforce,  Clarkson,  Mackin- 
tosh, Anacharsis  Clootz,  Pestalozzi,  Washington, 
Klopstock,  Kosciuszko,  and  several  others.  In 
this  character  of  French  citizen  Bentham  next 
year  addressed  to  the  national  convention  a 
new  pamphlet,  "  Emancipate  your  Colonies," 
the  first  work  which  laid  down  the  principle  of 
ranking  colonies  as  integral  parts  of  the  mother 
country. — While  residing  at  Krikov,  Bentham's 
attention  had  been  attracted  by  an  architectural 
idea  of  his  brother's,  who  was  a  person  of  great 
mechanical  genius,  though  like  himself  given  to 
running  from  one  thing  to  another  without  stop- 
ping to  finish  anything.  This  idea  was  that  of 


53(5 


BENTHAM 


a  circular  building  so  constructed  as  that  from 
the  centre  all  the  inmates  could  be  overlooked. 
The  younger  Bentham  had  attempted  to  realize 
it  with  a  view  to  the  oversight  of  his  Russian 
workmen.  The  elder  brother  seized  upon  it,  in 
connection  with  his  study  of  penal  legislation, 
as  applicable  to  prison  discipline.  He  gave  to 
this  building  the  name  of  panopticon,  and  while 
still  in  Russia  wrote  a  series  of  letters  in  expla- 
nation of  its  construction  and  its  uses.  These 
letters,  after  his  return,  were  printed  at  Dublin 
by  the  Irish  parliament,  the  adoption  of  his 
prison  discipline  scheme  having  been  proposed 
there.  In  1791  they  were  brought  out  at  Lon- 
don, with  additions,  under  the  title  of  "Pan- 
opticon, or  the  Inspection  House."  In  1792 
Bentham's  father  died,  leaving  him  the  family 
mansion  in  Queen's-square  place,  Westminster, 
where  he  chiefly  resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  a  freehold  and  leasehold  property  of  be- 
tween £500  and  £600  a  year.  He  left  about 
an  equal  amount  to  the  younger  brother,  who 
by  this  time  had  returned  from  Russia,  and 
had  zealously  entered  with  his  elder  brother 
into  the  perfecting  of  the  panopticon,  with  a 
view  to  applying  it  to  prison  discipline.  Being 
now  possessed  of  means,  Bentham,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother,  submitted  plans  to  Mr. 
Pitt  for  taking  charge  of  1,000  convicts,  in  a 
building  to  be  erected  for  that  purpose  at  the 
expense  of  the  government,  but — upon  certain 
conditions,  and  at  a  certain  rate  of  pay  for  each 
convict — to  be  under  the  entire  control  of  the 
Benthams  for  their  joint  lives.  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Dnndas,  Mr.  Rose,  and  others,  entered  with 
much  enthusiasm  into  the  idea,  and  in  1794  an 
act  of  parliament  authorized  the  contract.  The 
Benthams  obtained  an  advance  from  the  treas- 
ury, and  spent  several  thousand  pounds  of  bor- 
rowed money  on  the  strength  of  this  arrange- 
ment, involving  themselves  thereby  in  great 
embarrassments,  but  from  some  mysterious 
"cause  could  not  get  any  further  advances,  nor 
a  signature  of  the  contract.  The  ministers, 
however,  continued  favorable,  and  made  use  of 
a  parliamentary  committee  in  1797  to  urge  the 
completion  of  the  contract,  when  at  length  the 
hitherto  mysterious  delay  was  explained,  and  the 
affair  again  brought  to  a  standstill,  by  the  refusal 
of  the  king  to  sign  a  treasury  warrant  for  a  sum 
of  money  needed  to  perfect  the  title  to  the  land 
on  which  the  building  was  to  be  erected,  and 
for  which  considerable  expenditures  had  already 
been  made.  George  III.  had  taken  an  antip- 
athy to  Bentham,  partly,  as  Bentham  believed, 
from  having  looked  into  his  treatise  on  the  or- 
ganization of  the  French  judiciary,  and  partly 
because  he  had  discovered  him  to  be  the  author 
of  two  newspaper  articles  signed  "  Anti-Machi- 
avel,"  and  published  in  1787,  attacking  the 
policy  of  a  war  with  Russia,  which  the  king 
had  much  at  heart.  Thirteen  years  more  were 
spent  in  vain  solicitations,  till  finally,  in  1811, 
an  act  of  parliament  annulled  the  contract, 
and  provided  for  the  erection  of  a  prison  on  a 
different  plan,  and  at  much  greater  expense  to 


the  public.  In  order  to  get  a  conveyance  of 
the  land,  the  imperfect  title  of  which  stood  in 
Bentham's  name,  this  act  provided  for  an 
award  on  the  question  of  damages,  under  which 
the  Benthams  three  years  after  received  the 
sum  of  £32,000.  It  may  well  be  supposed  that 
Bentham's  experience  in  this  matter  could  not 
but  embitter  him  against  the  existing  manage- 
ment of  public  concerns. — Meanwhile  Dnmont, 
having  returned  to  England,  had  obtained  from 
Bentham  all  his  manuscripts,  and  had  applied 
himself  with  zeal  to  the  task  of  extracting 
from  them  and  his  printed  works  a  vivid  and 
popular  statement,  in  French,  of  Bentham's 
system  and  ideas.  This  labor  of  love  Dumont 
performed  with  remarkable  success;  and  the 
first  fruits  of  it,  published  at  Paris  in  1802, 
during  the  peace  of  Amiens,  under  the  title  of 
Traites  de  legislation  civile  et  penale — a  pub- 
lication in  which  Talleyrand  took  a  great  inter- 
est, offering  himself,  if  necessary,  to  bear  the 
whole  expense — speedily  made  Bentham  known 
and  famous  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe 
as  the  philosopher  of  jurisprudence.  In  Eng- 
land, too,  he  acquired  some  new  disciples  and 
cooperators.  Brougham  joined  Romilly  in  ac- 
knowledging his  genius,  and  accepting  many  of 
his  ideas.  In  1808  he  formed  the  acquaintance 
of  James  Mill,  who,  next  to  Dumont,  did  most 
to  diffuse  his  doctrines.  Mill  lived  for  several 
years,  a  large  part  of  the  time,  in  Bentham's 
house,  who  still  labored  away  some  six  or 
eight  hours  daily  on  his  codes,  stopping,  how- 
ever, as  occasion  offered,  to  launch  forth  vehe- 
ment attacks  on  the  English  system  of  juris- 
prudence. Such  were  his  "  Scotch  Reform 
compared  with  English  Non-Reform,"  pub- 
lished in  1808,  and  his  "  Elements  of  the  Art 
of  Packing  as  applied  to  Special  Juries,"  print- 
ed in  1808,  but  which  he  was  dissuaded  by 
Romilly  from  publishing,  lest  it  might  expose 
him  to  a  prosecution  for  libel.  Some  difficulty 
was  even  met  with  in  finding  a  publisher  for 
the  "Rationale  of  Judicial  Evidence,"  edited 
by  Mill  from  Bentham's  manuscripts,  lest  that, 
too,  especially  the  part  of  it  assailing  the  whole 
technical  method  of  English  judicial  procedure, 
might  be  regarded  as  a  libel  on  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  This  work,  indeed,  did  not 
appear  till  1827,  when  it  was  published  in  5 
vols.  8vo.  Confirmed,  meanwhile,  by  his  grow- 
ing reputation,  in  his  always  strong  interior 
faith  in  himself,  Bentham  became  anxious  to 
bring  out,  not  as  a  mere  draft,  but  as  an  actual 
body  of  law,  his  ideal  code,  on  which  he  had 
been  laboring  all  his  life,  but  which  yet  existed 
only  in  his  brain  and  in  an  immense  mass  of 
fragmentary  manuscripts.  He  had  hoped,  on 
the  strength  of  promises  from  Miranda,  to  be- 
come the  legislator  of  Venezuela,  to  which 
country  he  had  even  thoughts  of  removing. 
But  Miranda's  project  failed.  In  1811 — Dumont 
having  in  that  year  brought  out  a  new  French 
work,  edited  from  his  manuscripts,  Theorie 
des  peines  et  des  recompenses — he  addressed  an 
elaborate  letter  to  President  Madison,  offering, 


BENTHAM 


53T 


upon  the  receipt  of  a  letter  importing  the 
president's  approbation,  and,  as  far  as  de- 
pended upon  him,  acceptance  of  his  proposi- 
tion, to  forthwith  set  about  drawing  up  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States,  or  suck  of  them  as 
might  accept  it,  "  a  complete  body  of  law  ;  in 
one  word,  a  pannomion,  or  as  much  of  it  as 
the  life  and  health  of  a  man,  whose  age  wanted 
little  of  four  and  sixty,  might  allow  of,"  asking 
and  expecting  no  reward  beyond  the  employ- 
ment and  the  honor  of  it.  This  letter,  besides 
a  sketch  of  his  plan,  which  embraced  not  mere- 
ly the  text  of  a  code,  but  a  perpetual  running 
commentary  of  reasons,  included  also  a  vig- 
orous attack  upon  the  existing  system  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  jurisprudence,  and  an  answer 
to  certain  anticipated  objections,  both  to  the 
plan  and  to  himself  as  legislator.  Mr.  Brougham 
wrote  at  the  same  time  to  some  American 
friends,  expressing  his  opinion  that  no  person 
in  Europe  was  so  capable  as  Bentham  of  such 
a  task.  No  answer  had  been  received  to  this 
letter  when,  in  1814,  Mr.  Gallatin  was  a  little 
while  in  England,  in  his  capacity  of  commis- 
sioner, to  treat  for  peace.  Not  only  had  Gal- 
latin received  from  Dumont,  who  was  his 
countryman,  a  presentation  copy  of  the  Traites 
de  legislation,  but  he  had,  as  he  told  Bentham, 
who  had  an  interview  with  him,  been  his  dis- 
ciple for  25  years,  in  consequence  of  having 
read,  soon  after  its  publication,  a  copy  of  the 
"  Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation,"  put  into  his  hands  by  Col.  Burr. 
We  may  mention  by  the  way  that  Burr  him- 
self, when  in  England  six  years  before,  had  ob- 
tained an  introduction  to  Bentham  from  Du- 
mont, and  had  even  passed  a  considerable  time 
under  his  roof — one  object  of  Bentham  doubt- 
less being  to  avail  himself  of  Burr's  knowledge 
of  American  affairs.  In  consequence  of  this 
interview  with  Gallatin,  Bentham  was  led,  in 
a  letter  to  Governor  Snyder  of  Pennsylvania, 
enclosing  a  printed  copy  of  his  letter  to  Madi- 
son and  a  letter  of  introduction  from  Gallatin, 
to  renew  his  offer  of  himself  as  a  codifier.  At 
length,  in  1816,  Madison  returned  a  courteous 
reply  to  Bentham's  letter  of  1811,  referring  to 
the  intervening  war  as  an  apology  for  his  long 
silence,  stating  that  a  compliance  with  Ben- 
tham's proposals  was  "not  within  the  scope 
of  his  proper  functions,"  suggesting  some  ob- 
stacles to  the  proposed  codification,  and  ob- 
jections to  it,  but  fully  admitting  the  desirabil- 
ity of  such  a  reform.  This  letter  was  conveyed 
to  London  by  J.  Q.  Adams,  appointed  American 
minister  to  England,  and  who  became  during 
his  residence  there  intimate  with  Bentham. 
When  Adams  returned  home  in  1817,  to  assume 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  he  became  the 
bearer  of  a  circular  letter,  addressed  by  Ben- 
tham to  the  governors  of  the  states,  accom- 
panied by  copies  of  the  letter  to  Madison,  and 
a  renewal  of  his  offer  of  himself  as  legislator. 
Bentham's  proposals,  which  he  followed  up  by 
a  series  of  short  letters  on  the  same  subject, 
addressed  to  the  people  of  the  states,  were  laid 


before  the  legislatures  of  Pennsylvania  and  New- 
Hampshire.  He  received  appreciative  letters 
from  Governors  Snyder  and  Plumer  of  those 
states,  but  nothing  further  resulted.  Several 
years  later,  Edward  Livingston  sent  him  a  copy 
of  his  draft  of  a  penal  code  for  Louisiana,  with 
strong  expressions  of  admiration  for  his  genius, 
and  acknowledgments  of  the  instruction  re- 
ceived from  the  study  of  his  works.  Mean- 
while, in  1814,  Bentham  had  made  an  offer  of 
his  legislative  aid  to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  in 
the  language  of  which  country  two  translations 
had  appeared  of  the  Traites  de  legislation, 
one  of  them,  it  was  said,  by  the  special  pro- 
curement of  the  government.  The  emperor 
replied  in  a  letter  written  by  his  own  hand,  in 
which  he  promised  to  submit  Bentham's  pro- 
posal to  the  commission  at  work  on  a  code  for 
the  empire.  He  sent  at  the  same  time  a  valu- 
able ring,  which  Bentham  returned,  sending 
with  it  a  second  letter,  in  which  he  gave  reasons 
why  nothing  could  be  expected  to  come  of  the 
reference  of  his  proposals  to  a  commission 
which,  in  one  shape  or  another,  had  been  in 
session  for  more  than  a  century  without  any 
result.  In  the  expectation  that  Prince  Adam 
Czartoryski,  who  was  one  of  his  disciples, 
would  be  appointed  regent  of  Poland,  he  had 
hopes  of  legislating  for  that  country  ;  but  an- 
other person  was  appointed,  and  this  hope 
failed.  The  revolutions  in  1820,  which  estab- 
lished liberal  governments  in  the  Spanish  pen- 
insula, gave  Bentham  new  and  stronger  hopes. 
Dumont's  compilations  had  been  translated  in- 
to Spanish,  and  were  well  known  to  the  lead- 
ing liberals  of  Spain  and  Spanish  America. 
The  Portuguese  cortes  caused  them  to  be 
translated  into  Portuguese.  In  1822  he  pub- 
lished also  his  "Codification  Proposal,"  ad- 
dressed to  all  nations  professing  liberal  opin- 
ions, tendering  his  services  as  legislator,  and 
arguing  in  favor  of  a  code  emanating  from  a 
single  mind.  He  was  consulted  on  the  Spanish 
penal  code,  on  which  in  1822  he  published 
some  letters  addressed  to  the  conde  de  Torefio ; 
and  similar  applications  were  made  to  him 
from  Spanish  America.  But  the  downfall  of 
liberalism  in  the  peninsula,  and  the  protracted 
civil  wars  in  the  late  Spanish  colonies,  disap- 
pointed his  expectations  in  that  quarter. — 
While  thus  seeking  the  office  of  legislator,  an- 
other idea  had  engrossed  much  of  his  atten- 
tion. He  had  taken  a  great  interest  in  the 
educational  system  of  Bell  and  Lancaster,  and 
in  1817  he  had  published,  under  the  title  of 
"  Chrestomathia,"  a  proposal  to  apply  this 
system  to  the  higher  branches  of  education. 
There  was  even  a  scheme  for  erecting  a  build- 
ing in  his  garden  on  the  panopticon  system, 
in  which  the  experiment  was  to  be  tried ; 
but,  like  so  many  other  of  his  plans,  it  did 
not  go  on. — Though  Bentham  had  always 
boasted  of  being  a  man  of  no  party,  as  well 
as  of  all  countries,  he  had  come  at  length  to 
occupy  at  home  the  position  of  a  party  chief. 
He  espoused  with  characteristic  zeal  and  ea- 


533 


BENTHAM 


thusiasm  the  ideas  of  the  radicals,  who  now 
first  appeared  as  a  political  party.  He  went 
indeed  the  full  length,  not  merely  of  repub- 
licanism, but  on  many  points  of  democracy. 
He  wrote  pamphlets  and  drew  up  plans  in  be- 
half of  parliamentary  reform  and  other  move- 
ments of  the  radicals,  and  became  a  sort  of 
spiritual  head  of  the  party.  It  was  he  who 
furnished  the  money  to  set  up  the  "  Westmin- 
ster Review,"  established  in  1823  as  the  organ 
of  the  radicals.  The  political  editor  was  Mr. 
Bowring  (afterward  Sir  John  Bowring),  with 
whom  Bentham  had  formed  an  acquaintance 
through  their  mutual  interest  in  the  Spanish 
liberal  movement.  That  acquaintance  speedily 
ripened  into  a  very  close  intimacy  and  friend- 
ship, which  lasted  to  the  end  of  Bentham's  life. 
His  connection  with  the  radicals,  and  his  ve- 
hement attacks  on  law  abuses  and  the  lawyers, 
had  rather  cooled  off  Lord  Brougham,  but  in 
his  place  Bentham  acquired  a  new  disciple  and 
pupil  in  the  person  of  Daniel  O'Connell.  Mr. 
Peel,  in  his  movements  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons for  the  amendment  of  the  criminal  law, 
seemed  to  be  starting  in  Bentham's  direction. 
Bentham  even  entertained  the  hope  that  he 
might  persuade  the  duke  of  Wellington,  with 
whom  he  corresponded,  to  undertake,  in  addi- 
tion to  Catholic  emancipation,  those  reforms 
in  the  administration  of  justice  which  Crom- 
well had  attempted,  but  in  which  the  lawyers 
had  baffled  him. — The  acknowledgment  of  his 
genius  by  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  times, 
his  world-wide  reputation,  and  the  share  he 
was  now  taking  in  the  actual  movement  of 
affairs,  more  than  made  up  for  the  sneers,  to 
which,  indeed,  he  paid  no  attention,  cast  at 
him  as  a  visionary  schemer ;  and  the  satisfac- 
tion and  even  gayety  of  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  formed  a  strong  contrast  with  the  gloom 
of  his  youth  and  early  manhood.  In  his  last 
ten  years  he  seldom  left  his  own  home,  taking 
exercise  in  his  garden.  He  retained  to  the 
last  his  love  of  music,  of  pet  animals,  cats  par- 
ticularly, and  of  flowers,  but  spent  regularly 
six  or  more  hours  a  day  in  composition,  em- 
ploying generally  two  secretaries.  He  saw  no 
company  except  at  dinner.  His  hour  of  dining 
was  V ;  his  table  was  delicately  spread,  but  ad- 
mission to  it,  though  he  generally  had  two  or 
three  guests,  was  only  obtained  as  a  particular 
favor.  Dinner  was  followed  by  music  on  the 
organ.  He  was  of  a  gay  and  lively  temper, 
hopeful,  enthusiastic,  and  in  spirit  young  to 
the  last.  His  last  published  work  was  his 
"  Constitutional  Code,"  of  which  a  volume  ap- 
peared in  1830.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  engaged  with  Bowring  in  an  attempt  to 
present  his  fundamental  ideas  in  a  more  popu- 
lar form.  This  work  was  published  in  1834, 
after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "  Deontology." 
Bentham  gave  a  practical  exemplification  of 
his  principles  by  bequeathing  his  body  to  his 
friend  Dr.  Southworth  Smith,  for  the  purpose 
of  dissection.  A  collection  of  his  works,  in  11 
vols.  8vo,  published  at  Edinburgh  under  the 


supervision  of  Bowring,  his  executor,  was  com- 
pleted in  1843.  It  includes,  at  the  end,  a  me- 
moir made  up  principally  of  letters  and  of  Ben- 
tham's reminiscences,  as  noted  down  by  Bow- 
ring,  very  badly  put  together,  hut  containing 
a  great  deal  of  interesting  matter.  Dumont, 
just  before  his  own  death,  edited  and  published 
at  Brussels,  in  1828,  a  complete  collection  of  his 
compilations  from  Bentham  in  6  double  vol- 
umes, demi-octavo.  A  translation  into  English 
by  Eichard  Hildreth  of  the  Traites  de  legisla- 
tion was  published  at  Boston  in  1840,  under 
the  title  of  "  Theory  of  Legislation."  It  is  from 
this  work  (a  translation  of  which,  with  some 
additions  from  Bentham's  manuscripts,  is  includ- 
ed in  Bowring's  edition  of  Bentham's  works) 
that  the  general  reader  will  best  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  Bentham's  system. — In  his  earlier 
writings,  and  in  many  of  his  pamphlets,  Ben- 
tham expresses  himself  with  great  terseness 
and  energy,  but  in  his  didactic  works  he  often 
loses  himself  in  parentheses,  and  protracts  his 
sentences  to  a  tedious  length.  In  his  later 
writings  he  sacrificed  everything  to  precision, 
for  which  purpose  he  employed  many  new 
words,  some  of  which,  such  as  international, 
codify,  codification,  maximize,  minimize,  &c., 
have  become  permanent  additions  to  the  lan- 
guage. His  analysis  of  human  nature,  on 
which  he  based  his  system,  can  hardly  rank 
him  high  as  a  metaphysician ;  his  employment 
of  the  exhaustive  method  of  reasoning  frequent- 
ly led  him  into  useless  subdivisions  and  un- 
necessary refinements ;  but  he  had  a  very  acute 
intellect,  a  thorough  devotion  to  truth,  and  a 
strong  spirit  of  benevolence,  unwarped  by  any 
selfish  or  party  views.  Unawed  by  authority, 
he  appealed  to  reason  alone,  and,  having  devo- 
ted his  whole  life  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence, 
his  works  abound  with  suggestions  and  ideas  as 
novel  as  they  are  just.  "  Nobody  has  been  so 
much  plundered  as  Bentham,"  said  some  one 
to  Talleyrand.  "  True,"  he  replied ;  "  yet  how 
rich  he  still  is."  In  the  improvements  intro- 
duced of  late  years  into  the  administration  of 
the  law,  both  in  England  and  America,  many 
of  his  suggestions  have  been  followed,  often 
without  acknowledgment,  or  even  knowledge 
perhaps,  of  the  source  whence  they  originated. 
There  are  many  more  of  his  ideas  that  may  yet 
be  put  to  use.  The  4th  part  of  his  treatise  on 
the  penal  code,  as  published  by  Dumont,  of 
which  the  subject  is  the  indirect  means  of  pre- 
venting offences,  contains  a  mine  of  wisdom, 
which  legislative  bodies  might  explore  with 
advantage. 

ISKYI'ilAM,  Thomas,  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Sherburn,  Yorkshire,  in  1513,  died  in  1578. 
He  was  deprived  of  a  fellowship  at  Magdalen 
college,  Oxford,  in  1553,  for  knocking  the  cen- 
ser out  of  the  hands  of  the  officiating  priest  at 
mass,  "  in  order  to  prevent  incense  being  offer- 
ed to  idols."  He  then  travelled  on  the  conti- 
nent, preached  at  Basel  to  the  English  exiles, 
and  returning  to  England  before  the  close  of 
Mary's  reign,  ministered  privately  to  a  Protes- 


BENTINCK 


539 


tent  congregation  in  London,  where  he  nearly 
involved  himself  in  fresh  difficulties  by  his 
boldness  of  speech.  On  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth he  was  appointed  to  the  pulpit  of  Paul's 
Cross,  and  in  1559  to  the  see  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventry.  He  published  an  exposition  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  translated  into  Eng- 
lish some  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

BENTIXCK,  an  English  noble  family,  with 
extensive  connections  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
— WILLIAM,  son  of  the  lord  of  Diepenheim,  in 
Overyssel,  Holland,  was  page  and  afterward 
confidential  adviser  to  William  of  Orange,  who 
in  1689,  on  becoming  king  of  England,  made 
him  earl  of  Portland.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  and  in  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick,  and  died  Nov.  23, 1709. — His  son  HENRY 
was  in  1716  made  duke  of  Portland,  and  died 
in  Jamaica,  of  which  he  was  governor  and 
captain  general,  July  4,  1726. — WILLIAM,  sec- 
ond duke,  born  in  1708,  married  Margaret 
Cavendish,  only  daughter  and  heir  of  the  sec- 
ond earl  of  Oxford,  and  died  May  1,  1762.— 
WILLIAM  HENRY  CAVENDISH,  third  duke,  born 
April  14,  1738,  died  Oct.  30,  1809.  He  was 
twice  prime  minister  under  George  III.  (1783 
and  1807-'9),  and  viceroy  of  Ireland  for  a  short 
time  in  1782. — WILLIAM  CHABLEB  CAVENDISH, 
second  son  of  the  preceding,  born  Sept.  14, 
1774,  died  in  Paris,  June  17,  1839.  Entering 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  he  served  in  Flanders 
with  the  duke  of  York,  and  was  colonel  be- 
fore he  was  21.  In  1799  he  joined  the  Russian 
army  under  Suvaroff  in  Italy,  where  he  con- 
tinued in  active  service  till  1801 ;  went  out  to 
India  as  governor  of  Madras  in  1803 ;  was 
made  major  general  on  his  return  in  1805  ;  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Spanish  court  in  1808, 
relative  to  the  French  invasion  of  Spain ;  com- 
manded a  brigade  under  Sir  John  Moore  at 
Corunna,  in  January,  1809;  went  to  Sicily  in 
1810  as  plenipotentiary  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  English  troops  there ;  bestowed  a 
constitution  on  that  island  in  1812;  conducted 
the  expedition  from  Sicily  to  Catalonia  in  1813, 
to  operate  in  the  rear  of  the  French  armies, 
hut  was  compelled  to  make  a  hasty  retreat; 
took  possession  of  Genoa  in  1814,  when  the 
inhabitants  revolted  from  the  French,  and 
threw  up  his  commission  in  disgust  when  the 
Genoese  (who  claimed  the  reestablishment  of 
their  republic  under  England,  under  the  con- 
vention which  had  been  made)  were  given 
over  to  Piedmont.  By  this  time  he  was  lieu- 
tenant general.  Returning  to  England,  he  was 
elected  member  of  parliament  for  Nottingham, 
and  voted  with  the  liberal  party.  He  was 
subsequently  raised  to  the  rank  of  full  general, 
and  was  in  1827,  under  the  government  of  Mr. 
Canning  (a  family  connection  by  marriage), 
sent  to  India  as  governor  general,  in  which 
capacity  he  continued  till  1835,  when  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  resign.  The  results  of  his 
Indian  rule  were :  the  reduction  of  the  latta 
(allowances  made  to  the  troops  on  the  march), 
much  to  the  discontent  of  the  army ;  the  aboli- 


tion of  flogging  among  the  native  troops,  Brit- 
ish soldiers  serving  in  the  same  country  remain- 
ing subject  to  it;  the  prohibition  of  the  suttee, 
or  burning  alive  of  the  widow  on  the  funeral 
pile  of  her  husband  ;  the  granting  Englishmen 
leave  to  settle  in  India,  though  not  belonging 
to  the  military  or  civil  service ;  the  upholding 
of  the  native  population  as  far  as  possible  ;  and 
the  protection  of  the  liberty  of  the  press.  Some 
of  these  alterations  were  made  by  order  of  the 
East  India  directors  in  England,  and  some  were 
carried  out  contrary  to  the  wish  of  the  direc- 
tors. In  1834  he  made  war  on  the  rajah  of 
Coorg,  annexed  his  territory,  and  pensioned 
him  off.  When  he  quitted  India,  the  natives, 
who  had  looked  upon  him  as  the  best  friend 
they  had  had  since  the  time  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings, expressed  their  regret  at  a  public  meet- 
ing in  Calcutta,  and  testified  their  respect 
by  erecting  an  equestrian  statue  of  him.  He 
reentered  the  house  of  commons  in  1836, 
for  the  city  of  Glasgow. — GEORGE  FREDERICK 
CAVENDISH,  known  as  Lord  George  Bentinck, 
third  son  of  the  fourth  duke  of  Portland, 
born  Feb.  27,  1802,  died  unmarried  Sept.  21, 
1848.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
army,  became  private  secretary  of  Canning, 
who  had  married  his  aunt,  and  was  member 
of  parliament  for  King's  Lynn  from  1827  till 
his  death.  He  voted  in  favor  of  the  Catholic 
relief  bill  of  1829,  supported  Lord  Grey's  re- 
form bills,  and  denounced  the  alliance  between 
O'Connell  and  the  whigs,  which  he  termed  the 
Lichfield  house  compact,  and  which  drove  from 
office  Sir  Robert  Peel,  whom  he  had  zealously 
supported.  In  1846,  when  that  statesman  an- 
nounced his  intention  to  favor  the  repeal  of  the 
corn  laws,  Lord  George,  who  had  always  been 
regarded  as  a  silent  member,  made  a  powerful 
speech  which  placed  him  at  once  at  the  head 
of  the  protectionists,  and  he  was  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  the  first  man  on  the  opposition  side 
in  the  commons.  Mr.  Disraeli  was  his  disciple, 
and  afterward  became  his  biographer  (1851). 
Lord  George  was  a  famous  patron  of  the  turf. 
— The  still  existing  junior  branch  of  the  Ben- 
tinck family  was  founded  by  WILLIAM  (1701- 
'73),  the  eldest  son  of  William  Bentinck,  the 
first  earl  of  Portland,  by  the  father's  second 
marriage  with  Lady  Berkeley.  He  became 
lord  of  Rhoon  and  Pendrecht,  president  of  the 
states  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  count  of  the  empire,  and 
by  his  marriage  with  Carlotta  Sophi.a,  only 
daughter  and  heir  of  Anthony  II.,  the  last 
count  of  Aldenbnrg,  he  came  into  possession  of 
the  letter's  extensive  entails,  including  those  in 
Oldenburg.  By  his  descendants  this  yonngei 
Dutch  branch  of  the  Bentincks  was  split  into 
various  branches  on  the  continent  and  one  in 
England.  Count  WILLIAM  CHRISTIAN  FRED- 
ERICK (1787-1855)  was  chamberlain  to  ths 
king  of  Holland.  His  brother  CHARLES  AN- 
THONY FERDINAND  (1792-1864)  acquired  dis- 
tinction as  lieutenant  general  in  the  English 
army,  and  Sir  HENEY  JOHN  WILLIAM,  another 


540 


BENTIVOGLIO 


brother,  born  Sept.  8,  1796,  as  general  in  the 
Crimea. 

BESTIVOGLIO,  the  name  of  an  Italian  family 
once  sovereign  in  Bologna,  and  claiming  de- 
scent from  a  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Frede- 
rick II.  Giovanni  was  proclaimed  lord  of  Bo- 
logna in  1401,  but  was  expelled  and  killed  the 
next  year.  Annibale,  his  grandson,  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  government  there  in  1438, 
and  was  murdered  by  a  rival  faction  in  1445. 
Giovanni,  his  son,  was  for  44  years  at  the  head 
of  the  commonwealth,  adorned  Bologna  with 
several  fine  buildings,  and  collected  many 
manuscripts,  paintings,  and  statues.  In  1506 
he  fled  with  his  family  to  the  Milanese  ter- 
ritory to  escape  the  army  of  Pope  Julius  II., 
and  died  hi  1508.  The  French  placed  his  two 
sons  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  1511,  but  in  1512 
Bologna  again  surrendered  to  the  pope,  and  the 
Bentivoglios  emigrated  to  Ferrara.  Several 
members  of  the  family  afterward  attained  dis- 
tinction. I.  Ertole,  grandson  of  Giovanni,  born 
in  Bologna  in  1506,  died  in  Venice,  Nov.  6, 1573. 
He  lived  in  Ferrara,  and  was  employed  in  diplo- 
matic affairs  by  the  princes  of  Este.  He  wrote 
several  satires  and  comedies,  and  was  distin- 
guished as  a  lyric  poet.  His  poetical  works 
were  published  in  Paris  in  1719.  II.  Guido, 
born  in  Ferrara  in  1579,  died  Sept.  7,  1644. 
In  1621  he  was  created  cardinal,  was  nuncio  to 
France,  and  after  his  return  was  intrusted  by 
Louis  XIII.  with  the  care  of  French  affairs  in 
Rome.  He  was  the  chief  adviser  of  Pope  Urban 
VIII.,  whose  successor  it  was  generally  believed 
he  would  be ;  but  he  died  at  the  opening  of 
the  conclave.  He  left  several  works,  of  which 
a  complete  edition  was  published  in  Venice  in 
1668  ;  among  them  were  letters  and  memoirs, 
"  A  History  of  the  Civil  "Wars  of  Flanders,"  and 
"  An  Account  of  Flanders."  III.  Cornelto,  bora 
.  in  Ferrara  in  1668,  died  in  Rome,  Dec.  30, 1732. 
Under  Clement  XI.  he  was  archbishop  of  Car- 
thage and  nuncio  at  Paris,  where  he  showed 
great  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  bull  Unigenitut,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  received  many  favors 
>  from  Louis  XIV.  He  was  created  cardinal  in 
1719,  and  was  afterward  nuncio  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  patron  of  literature,  and  was  learned  in 
the  law  and  sciences,  as  well  as  in  theology. 

BEXTLEY,  Richard,  an  English  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Oulton,  near  Wakefield,  Jan.  27, 
1662,  died  July  14, 1742.  He  was  entered  as  a 
sizar  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  at  the 
age  of  14,  graduated  with  honors  corresponding 
to  those  of  third  wrangler  in  the  present  sys- 
tem, and  in  1682  was  appointed  by  his  college 
to  the  head  mastership  of  Spalding  grammar 
school,  which  he  quitted  after  a  year  for  the 
situation  of  domestic  tutor  to  the  son  of  Dr. 
Stillingfleet,  then  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  ac- 
companied his  pupil  to  Oxford  in  1689,  and 
there  pursued  his  own  studies  in  the  Bodleian 
library,  especially  in  the  oriental  languages. 
His  first  publication,  in  1691,  a  Latin  epistle  to 
Dr.  John  Mill  on  an  edition  of  the  "  Chronicle  " 
of  John  Malala,  at  once  established  his  reputa- 


BENTLEY 

tion  as  a  scholar  and  a  critic.  He  took  holy 
orders  in  1690,  and  in  1692  obtained  the  first 
nomination  to  the  lectureship  just  founded 
under  the  will  of  Robert  Boyle,  in  defence  of 
religion  against  infidels.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  at 
Worcester;  in  April,  1694,  keeper  of  all  the 
king's  libraries,  and  Boyle  lecturer  for  a  second 
time;  in  1695  one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordinary 
to  William  III. ;  and  in  1696  he  took  the  degree 
of  D.  D.  at  Cambridge,  and  assisted  his  friend 
Gr»vius  in  preparing  an  edition  of  Callimachus. 
Charles  Boyle  (afterward  earl  of  Orrery)  pub- 
lished a  new  edition  of  the  "  Epistles  of  Pha- 
laris  "  early  in  1695,  and  complained  in  his  pre- 
face of  some  alleged  want  of  courtesy  on  the 
part  of  Bentley  respecting  the  loan  of  a  manu- 
script in  the  king's  library.  Bentley  courte- 
ously assured  Boyle  that  his  statement  was 
erroneous,  and  expected  the  complaint  to  be 
withdrawn ;  but  this  was  not  done,  and  he  took 
his  revenge  two  years  later,  when,  in  an  appen- 
dix to  the  second  edition  of  Wotton's  "  Reflec- 
tions upon  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning,"  he 
published  his  "  Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles 
of  Phalaris,  Themistocles,  Socrates,  Euripides, 
and  others,  and  the  Fables  of  ^Esop,"  demon- 
strating the  spuriousness  of  all  these  produc- 
tions, and  dissecting  Mr.  Boyle's  labors  with 
contemptuous  severity.  The  leading  scholars 
of  Oxford,  headed  by  Atterbury,  united  in  a 
reply  to  Bentley,  which  was  published  in  1698, 
with  the  name  of  Charles  Boyle  on  the  title 
page.  Pope,  Swift,  and  Gay  joined  in  the  con- 
troversy. General  opinion  set  strongly  against 
Bentley,  who  was  disliked  for  his  arrogance ; 
but  in  1699  Bentley  issued  that  immortal  dis- 
sertation, as  it  was  called  by  Person,  in  which 
he  disposed  of  the  question  at  once  and  for  ever, 
with  a  splendid  display  of  learning,  skill  in 
argument,  and  no  slight  wit.  To  this  disserta- 
tion a  rejoinder  was  promised,  but  never  ap- 
peared. Early  in  1700,  at  the  age  of  38,  Dr. 
Bentley  was  made  master  of  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  an  office  of  large  emolument  and 
vast  responsibility.  In  January,  1701,  he 
married  Joanna,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Bernard, 
a  baronet  in  Huntingdonshire.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Ely.  As 
actual  head  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  he 
introduced  many  necessary  reforms,  put  the 
university  press  on  a  better  footing  than  be- 
fore, encouraged  scholars  and  scholarship,  im- 
proved the  discipline  of  his  college  and  the 
modes  of  examination  for  scholarships  and  fel- 
lowships, and  extended  the  college  library. 
Many  abuses  which  he  reformed  were  sup- 
ported by  the  fellows  of  his  college,  from  whose 
society  he  kept  aloof,  and  his  general  conduct, 
even  when  morally  and  legally  correct,  was 
arbitrary.  In  1709  the  vice  master  of  Trinity 
and  some  of  the  senior  fellows  accused  him  of 
malappropriation  of  the  college  funds.  Out  of 
this  arose  a  long  litigation,  in  which  Bentley, 
supported  somewhat  by  the  junior  fellows,  but 
more  strongly  by  his  own  determination,  bold- 


BENTLEY 


BENTON 


5-11 


ness,  and  adroitness,  succeeded  in  keeping  his 
office  after  sentence  of  deprivation  had  been 
pronounced  against  him,  and  retained  it  until 
his  death.  In  1717  the  regius  professorship  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  by  far  the  richest  in 
Europe,  became  vacant.  Bentley,  notwith- 
standing the  doubt  whether,  as  master  of 
Trinity,  he  could  also  hold  that  office,  procured 
himself  to  be  elected.  His  opening  lecture 
treated  of  the  text  (1  John  v.  7)  on  the  three 
heavenly  witnesses.  He  maintained  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  but  decidedly  rejected  the 
verse,  of  which  he  gave  the  history.  When 
George  I.  visited  Cambridge,  and  several  per- 
sons were  nominated  to  the  degree  of  D.  D., 
Bentley  exacted  four  guineas  from  each  candi- 
date in  addition  to  the  usual  fees.  For  this  he 
was  tried  in  the  court  of  the  vice  chancellor  of 
the  university,  degraded,  and  deprived  of  all 
his  degrees,  in  October,  1718.  He  appealed  to 
the  law,  and  after  more  than  five  years'  litiga- 
tion the  court  of  king's  bench  issued  a  man- 
damus compelling  the  university  to  reinstate 
him. — Amid  all  these  litigious  and  troublesome 
years  Bentley  pursued  his  scholastic  labors  as 
eagerly  as  if  nothing  else  had  been  on  his  mind. 
After  publishing  the  appendix  to  the  Chronicle 
of  Malala  he  began  to  prepare  editions  of  Phi- 
lostratus,  of  Hesychius,  and  of  the  Latin  poet 
Manilius;  but  the  Philostratus,  though  ready 
for  the  press,  never  appeared,  nor  is  it  'known 
what  has  become  of  it.  In  1695  he  assisted 
Evelyn  in  the  revision  of  his  Numismata.  In 
1696  he  wrote  the  notes  and  made  the  emenda- 
tions of  the  text  of  Callimachus.  He  wrote  in 
1708  three  critical  epistles  on  the  "  Plutus  "  and 
the  "Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  to  assist  his 
friend  Ludolf  Kuster  in  his  edition  of  that  poet. 
In  1710  he  prepared  emendations  on  323  pas- 
sages in  the  "Fragments  of  Menander  and 
Philemon,"  which  had  been  edited,  but  with 
great  ignorance  of  Greek,  by  Le  Clerc.  In  1711 
he  completed  his  edition  of  Horace,  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  publications.  In  1713  he  re- 
plied to  Anthony  Collins's  "  Discourse  on  Free 
Thinking."  In  1716  he  proposed,  in  a  letter  to 
Archbishop  Wake,  to  restore  the  original  text 
of  the  New  Testament,  exactly  as  it  was  at  the 
time  of  the  council  of  Nice,  using  the  Vulgate 
to  correct  the  Greek  text.  The  project,  which 
was  severely  attacked  by  Dr.  Conyers  Middle- 
ton,  was  never  proceeded  with.  In  1726  he 
published  annotated  and  revised  editions  of 
Terence  and  Phaadrus.  Toward  the  close  of 
1731  he  undertook  his  edition  of  "Paradise 
Lost,"  and  published  it,  with  notes  and  correc- 
tions of  the  text,  in  January,  1732.  It  has 
some  marks  of  ability,  but,  as  a  whole,  is  not 
worthy  of  his  pen.  In  1726  he  had  noted  and 
corrected  the  whole  of  Homer,  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  the  restoration  of  the  digainma  to  its 
place  and  functions  in  the  metre.  In  1732 
he  seriously  applied  himself  to  complete  this 
edition.  It  was  never  published,  but  the  MS. 
was  finally  transmitted  to  Gottingen  by  Trinity 
college,  for  the  use  of  Heyne,  who  in  his  own 


edition  of  Homer  acknowledged  the  profound- 
est  obligations  to  it,  ,and  made  the  world  cir- 
cumstantially acquainted  with  its  merits.  Four- 
teen years  after  Bentley's  death  Horace  Wai- 
pole  published  at  his  private  press  an  edition 
of  Lucan,  illustrated  by  the  notes  of  Bentley, 
combined  with  those  of  Grotius.  The  sugges- 
tions contained  in  it  for  the  emendation  of  the 
text  are  excellent. — Bentley  had  an  overween- 
ing opinion  of  his  own  dignity  and  rights,  and_ 
a  determination  in  upholding  both,  which  op-' 
position  only  increased.  In  private,  though  his 
manner  was  stately,  if  not  severe,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  having  been  amiable.  He  was  perhaps 
the  best  classical  scholar  England  has  ever  pro- 
duced. By  the  close  attention  to  verbal  details, 
of  which  he  set  an  example,  the  facts  have  been 
collected  upon  which  the  modern  science  of 
comparative  philology  is  founded.  His  life, 
by  Dr.  J.  H.  Monk,  first  bishop  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol  (4to,  1830),  is  an  elaborate  pro- 
duction, leaning  rather  against  Bentley. 

BENTLEY,  Robert,  an  English  botanist,  born 
at  Hitchin,  Herts,  in  1823.  He  early  became 
a  member  of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons,  and 
subsequently  professor  of  botany  in  King's  col- 
lege, London,  as  well  as  of  materia  rnedica 
and  botany  to  the  pharmaceutical  society  of 
Great  Britain,  dean  of  the  medical  faculty,  and 
president  of  the  British  pharmaceutical  con- 
gress in  1866  and  1867.  He  applies  botany  to 
medicine,  was  one  of  the  editors  of  Pereira's 
"  Manual  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics," 
and  has  published  a  "  Manual  of  Botany,"  which 
recently  reached  a  second  edition. 

BENTON,  the  name  of  counties  in  eight  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  W.  central  county  of  Mis- 
sissippi, bordering  on  Tennessee,  bounded  S. 
W.  by  the  Tallahatchee  river,  and  watered  by 
Tippah  creek  and  Wolf  river ;  organized  since 
the  census  of  1870.  According  to  state  re- 
ports, the  county  in  1870  produced  3,030  bales 
of  cotton.  The  Mississippi  Central  railroad 
passes  through  the  N.  W.  corner.  II.  The  N. 
W.  county  of  Arkansas,  bounded  N.  by  Mis- 
souri and  W.  by  the  Indian  territory;  area, 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,831,  of  whom  182 
were  colored.  It  is  watered  by  the  White  and 
Illinois  rivers  and  affluents  of  the  N eosho  and 
Elk.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  84,- 
779  bushels  of  wheat,  340,046  of  Indian  corn, 
40,569  of  oats,  85,280  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  13,740 
of  wool,  and  20,132  gallons  of  sorghum  molas- 
ses. There  were  4,336  horses,  829  mules  and 
asses,  3,337  milch  cows,  540  working  oxen, 
2,978  other  cattle,  7,987  sheep,  and  24,202 
swine.  Capital,  Bentonville.  III.  A  N".  W. 
county  of  Tennessee,  bounded  E.  by  the  Tennes- 
see river  and  N.  W.  by  the  Big  Sandy ;  area, 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,234,  of  whom  452 
were  colored.  The  Nashville  and  Northwest- 
ern railroad  passes  through  the  county,  and 
the  N.  W.  corner  is  crossed  by  the  Memphis 
and  Louisville  railroad.  The  soil  is  good.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  25,753  bushels 
of  wheat,  357,403  of  Indian  corn,  412,435  Ibs. 


BENTON 


of  tobacco,  10,288  of  wool,  25,692  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses,  and   696  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,747  horses,  819  mules  and  asses, 
2,028  milch  cows,  1,075  working  oxen,  2,719 
other  cattle,  7,790  sheep,  and  20,016  swine. 
Capital,  Camden.     IV.  A  W.  county  of  Indiana, 
bordering  on  Illinois,  watered  by  Pine   and 
Sugar  creeks;  area,  414  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,615.     The  surface  is  mostly  fertile  prairie, 
and  about  one  fifth  of  it  is  covered  with  forests 
of  oak,  ash,  sugar  maple,  and  walnut.      The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  50,513  bushels 
of  wheat,  458,857  of  Indian  corn,  121,842  of 
oats,  6,659  tons  of  hay,  and  20,097  Ibs.  of  wool. 
There  were  3,115  horses,  314  mules  and  asses, 
1,906  milch  cows,  8,248  other  cattle,  6,143 
sheep,  and  8,506  swine.     Capital,  Oxford.     V. 
An  E.  central  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Mississippi  river ;  area,  400  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,558.     Little  Rock,  Elk,  and  St. 
Francis  rivers,  and  a  branch  of  Rum   river 
drain  the  county.     A  branch  line  of  the  St. 
Paul  and  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the 
S.  W.  corner,  and  a  line  is  in  progress  from 
Sauk  Rapids  running  N.  through  the  county  to 
connect  with  the  Northern   Pacific  railroad. 
The    chief   productions   in  1870   were   3,541 
bushels  of  wheat,  5,036  of  Indian  corn,  7,672 
of  oats,  and  1,535  tons  of  hay.     There  were 
99  horses,  217  milch  cows,  331  other  cattle,  261 
sheep,  and  168  swine.     Capital,  Sauk  Rapids. 
VI.  An  E.  central  county   of  Iowa,  drained 
by  Cedar  and  Iowa  rivers ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  22,454.     The  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  the  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids, 
and  Minnesota  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  surfape  is  undulating  and  occupied  by 
prairies  and  woodlands.     Fine  building  stone 
abounds.     The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,254,947  bushels  of  wheat,  1,516,420  of  Indian 
corn,  468,543  of  oats,  68,103  of  barley,  98,133 
of  potatoes,  32,473  tons  of  hay,  18,674  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  570,126  of  butter.     There  were  8,878 
horses,  394  mules  and  asses,  8,000  milch  cows, 
10,158  other  cattle,  6,127  sheep,  and  21,921 
swine.     Capital,  Vinton.     VII.  A  W.  central 
county  of  Missouri,  intersected  by  the  Osage 
and  its  branches,  the  Pomme  de  Terre  and 
Grand  rivers;  area,  770  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
11,322,  of  whom  320  were  colored.     The  sur- 
face, which  is  somewhat  uneven,  is  occupied 
by  alternate  tracts  of  fertile  prairie  and  wood- 
land.    Lead  is  the  most  important  mineral. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  122,852 
bushels  of  wheat,  358,959  of  Indian  corn,  120,- 
918  of  oats,  36,238  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  30,238  of 
wool,  and  25,896  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  5,825  horses,  1,035  mules  and  asses, 
4,780  milch  cows,  955  working  oxen,  7,928 
other  cattle,  15,685  sheep,  and  17,991  swine. 
Capital,  Warsaw.    VIII.  A  W.  county  of  Ore- 
gon, bordering  on  the  Pacific,  and  bounded  E. 
by  the  Willamette  river ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,584.     The  surface  is  mountain- 
ous, and  the  soil  fertile  and  suited  to  agricul- 
ture and  grazing.     The  chief  productions  in 


1870  were  196,598  bushels  of  wheat,  2,343  of 
Indian  corn,  146,235  of  oats,  3,124  of  flaxseecl, 
and  68,970  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  2,263 
dorses,  2,665  milch  cows,  3,564  other  cattle, 
12,957  sheep,  and  8,081  swine.  Capital,  Cor- 
vallis. 

BENTON,  a  post  village  of  Lafayette  county, 
Wisconsin,  13  m.  N.  of  Galena,  111.,  in  a  region 
abounding  in  lead  mines,  which  are  extensive- 
ly worked;  pop.  in  1870,  1,723.  It  contains 
smelting  furnaces  and  several  churches. 

i;i:\TOV  Thomas  Bart,  an  American  states- 
man, born  near  Hillsborough,  Orange  co.,  N. 
C.,  March  14,  1782,  died  in  Washington,  April 
10,  1858.  His  father  died  when  he  was  eight 
years  old,  and  he  enjoyed  few  advantages 
of  education.  His  -mother  having  removed 
to  Tennessee,  he  studied  law  there,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature,  where  he  obtained 
the  passage  of  a  law  for  the  reform  of  the  judi- 
cial system  of  the  state,  and  another  by  which 
the  right  of  trial  by  jury  was  given  to  slaves. 
In  the  war  of  1812  he  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Gen.  Jackson,  and  also  raised  a  regiment  of 
volunteers,  by  which  he  acquired  the  title  of 
colonel.  His  friendly  relations  with  Gen.  Jack- 
son were  broken  off  by  a  quarrel  and  a  per- 
sonal conflict,  and  they  remained  enemies  for 
many  years.  When  peace  was  declared  in 
1815  Col.  Benton  took  up  his  residence  in  St. 
Louis,  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law,  and 
soon  afterward  established  the  "Missouri  In- 
quirer," by  which  he  involved  himself  in  seve- 
ral duels,  in  one  of  which  he  killed  his  oppo- 
nent, Mr.  Lucas.  The  "  Inquirer"  urged  the 
admission  of  Missouri  with  a  slavery  constitu- 
tion, and  after  the  establishment  of  the  state 
government  Col.  Benton  was  chosen  United 
States  senator  in  1820.  In  1824, 1826,  and  1828 
he  advocated  the  granting  of  preemptive  rights 
to  actual  settlers,  a  periodic  reduction  in  the 
price  of  public  land  proportioned  to  the  time 
that  it  had  been  in  the  market,  and  a  donation 
of  homesteads  to  certain  persons.  He  presented 
a  bill  embracing  these  features,  and  renewed  it 
every  year,  until  it  took  hold  upon  the  public 
mind,  and  was  at  length  substantially  embodied 
in  one  of  Gen.  Jackson's  messages,  which  se- 
cured its  final  adoption.  Col.  Benton  also 
caused  the  adoption  of  a  bill  throwing  the 
saline  and  mineral  lands  of  Missouri  which  be- 
longed to  the  United  States  open  for  occupancy. 
In  the  session  of  1829-'30  he  delivered  an  elab- 
orate argument  against  the  salt  tax,  and  fol- 
lowed it  up  with  such  success  that  the  tax  was 
repealed.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  advo- 
cates of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  He  favored 
the  opening  of  trade  with  New  Mexico,  the 
establishment  of  military  stations  in  Missouri 
and  throughout  the  interior,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  amicable  relations  with  the  Indians. 
When  the  charter  of  the  United  States  bank 
expired,  Col.  Benton  urged  the  adoption  of  a 
gold  and  silver  currency  as  the  true  remedy 
for  the  embarrassments  of  the  times.  It  was 
from  the  financial  policy  enunciated  in  his 


BENTON 


BENZIE 


543 


speeches  on  this  topic  that  he  obtained  the  so- 
briquet of  "  old  Bullion."  He  was  the  mover 
of  the  famous  "expunging  resolutions,"  by 
which,  after  a  great  struggle,  the  minute  of 
the  vote  censuring  Gen.  Jackson  was  expunged 
from  the  journals  of  the  senate  (1837).  During 
Mr.  Van  Huron's  administration  Col.  Benton 
defended  the  new  financial  policy  then  just  in- 
troduced. From  1841  to  1852,  under  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Tylerx  Polk,  and  Taylor,  he 
participated  in  the  discussions  that  arose  in 
regard  to  the  Oregon  boundary,  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  and  other  important  subjects. 
The  democratic  administration  of  Mr.  Polk  was 
in  favor  of  lat.  54°  40'  N.  as  the  boundary  of 
Oregon,  but  was  opposed  with  so  much  force 
by  Col.  Benton,  that  Mr.  Polk  acquiesced  in  his 
views  and  accepted  lat.  49°  N.  as  the  line. 
During  the  Mexican  war  the  policy  of  a  "  mas- 
terly inactivity,"  at  first  determined  upon  by 
the  president,  was  abandoned  npon  the  recom- 
mendation of  Col.  Benton,  and  that  of  a  vigor- 
ous prosecution  of  the  war  adopted  in  its 
stead.  At  one  time  it  was  proposed  by  Presi- 
dent Polk  to  confer  upon  him  the  title  of  lieu- 
tenant general  with  full  command  of  the  war, 
in  order  that  he  might  carry  out  his  concep- 
tions in  person.  Questions  in  regard  to  slavery 
were  brought  on  by  the  acquisition  of  Mexican 
territory.  These  were  adjusted  by  the  com- 
promise acts  of  1850,  which  were  introduced 
by  Mr.  Clay.  They  were  opposed  by  Col. 
Benton  and  defeated  as  a  whole,  but  passed 
separately.  In  the  controversy  and  quarrel 
between  Gen.  Jackson  and  Mr.  Calhoun,  Col. 
Benton  had  been  upon  Gen.  Jackson's  side. 
Mr.  Calhoun  having  propounded  the  doctrine 
of  nullification,  Col.  Benton  became  his  most 
formidable  democratic  opponent  in  the  senate. 
They  became  bitter  enemies,  and  their  hostility 
lasted  as  long  as  they  lived.  The  Oalhoun 
doctrine  was  introduced  into  the  discussion  of 
the  abolition  petitions  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives in  1835.  It  was  definitely  presented 
in  the  session  of  1846-'T.  On  Feb.  19,  1847, 
Mr.  Calhonn,  in  answer  to  the  "  Wilmot  Pro- 
viso," which  excluded  slavery  from  all  territory 
subsequently  to  be  acquired,  introduced  reso- 
lutions which  embodied  his  doctrine  as  to  state 
rights.  Col.  Benton  denounced  them  as  "  fire- 
brand resolutions."  They  never  came  to  a  vote 
in  congress,  but  were  adopted  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  some  of  the  slave  states  and  made  the 
basis  of  political  action ;  and  the  legislature  of 
Missouri  made  them  the  basis  of  instructions 
to  the  senators  of  the  state.  When  the  instruc- 
tions were  received  by  Col.  Benton  he  de- 
nounced them  as  containing  disunion  doctrines 
and  as  not  expressing  the  true  sense  of  the  peo- 
ple. Upon  the  adjournment  of  congress  he  im- 
mediately returned  to  Missouri  and  canvassed 
every  section  of  the  state  in  a  series  of  speeches 
famous  for  their  bitterness  of  denunciation, 
strength  of  exposition,  and  caustic  wit.  The 
legislature  of  1849-'50  was  largely  democratic, 
but  Col.  Benton,  as  a  candidate  for  senator,  was 
87  TOL.  it.— 35 


defeated  by  a  coalition  between  his  democratic 
opponents  (known  as  "  anties  ")  and  the  whigs. 
At  the  close  of  his  term  he  therefore  re- 
tired from  the  senate,  after  six  successive  elec- 
tions and  30  years'  continuous  service,  during 
all  of  which  time  he  had  been  one  of  the 
most  prominent  and  active  members.  In 
1852  he  was  elected  to  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, where  he  at  first  sustained  the  ad- 
ministration of  President  Pierce;  but  when 
the  Calhoun  party  obtained  the  ascendancy  he 
withdrew  his  support.  He  made  a  memorable 
speech  in  opposition  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  but  the  bill  was  passed,  and  at  the  next 
election  he  lost  his  seat  in  congress.  He  then 
devoted  two  years  to  study  and  literary  pur- 
suits, and  in  1856  canvassed  the  state  as  a  can- 
didate for  governor.  He  was  received  with 
great  popular  enthusiasm,  but  a  third  ticket, 
nominated  by  the  "  Native  Americans,"  drew 
off  so  many  votes  from  him  that  Mr.  Trusten 
Polk  (national  democrat)  was  elected  by  a 
small  plurality.  In  the  presidential  election  of 
the  same  year  Col.  Benton  supported  Mr.  Bu- 
chanan in  opposition  to  his  own  son-in-law,  Col. 
Fremont. — After  Col.  Benton's  defeat  he  re- 
sumed his  literary  pursuits.  The  first  volume  of 
his  "  Thirty  Years'  View  "  of  the  working  of  our 
government  had  been  published  in  1854.  The 
second  and  last  appeared  in  1856.  He  then 
undertook  the  task  of  condensing,  revising,  and 
abridging  the  debates  of  congress  from  the 
foundation  of  the  government.  Although  at 
the  advanced  age  of  76,  he  labored  at  this  task 
daily.  He  lived  long  enough  to  bring  the 
work  down  to  the  conclusion  of  the  great  com- 
promise debate  of  1850,  in  which,  with  Clay, 
Calhoun,  Webster,  and  Seward,  he  had  himself 
borne  a  conspicuous  part,  the  last  pages  being 
dictated  in  whispers  after  he  had  lost  the 
power  of  speaking  aloud.  It  was  published 
under  the  title  of  "  An  Abridgment  of  the  De- 
bates of  Congress  from  1789  to  1856  "  (15  vols. 
SVQ.,  New  York). 

BEVTZEL-STERNAU,  Christian  Ernst,  count,  a 
German  author  and  statesman,  born  at  Mentz, 
April  9,  1767,  died  in  Switzerland,  Aug.  13, 
1850.  He  entered  public  life  in  1791  as  coun- 
cillor of  the  electorate  of  Mentz  at  Erfurt,  and 
in  1812  was  appointed  minister  of  state  and 
finance  of  the  recently  established  grand  duchy 
of  Frankfort.  When  this  was  abolished  in  1814 
he  retired  to  Switzerland,  and  resided  there  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the 
privileges  of  the  clergy  and  hereditary  nobles, 
and  became  a  Protestant  in  1827.  He  wrote  a 
great  number  of  romances,  some  poetry,  and  a 
few  plays,  and  was  editor  of  the  Jason  from 
1808  to  1811.  The  first  of  his  romances  which 
attracted  attention  was  Das  goldene  Kalb  (4 
vols.,  Gotha,  1802-'4).  Among  the  most  noted 
of  his  other  novels  were  Der  steinerne  Oast  (4 
vols.,  1808)  and  Der  alte  Adam  (4  vols.,  1819- 
'20).  His  novels  are  satirical  and  humorous. 

l!l  \/ll .  a  N.  W.  county  of  Michigan,  on 
Lake  Michigan ;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 


544 


BENZINE 


2,184.  Crystal  lake,  a  large  body  of  water,  is 
situated  in  the  W.  part.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  8,906  bushels  of  wheat,  15,079 
of  Indian  corn,  48,263  of  potatoes,  658  tons 
of  hay,  and  40,508  Ibs.  of  maple  sugar.  Capital, 
Benzonia. 

BK\ZI\E,  or  Benzene,  a  light  oil  of  petroleum. 
Mitscherlich  in  1833  obtained  an  oil  by  the  dis- 
tillation of  benzoio  acid  with  an  excess  of  caus- 
tic lime,  to  which  he  applied  the  name  of  ben- 
zine. The  same  body  had  been  discovered  by 
Faraday  in  1825,  and  named  by  him  bicarbu- 
retted  hydrogen.  Liebig,  in  reprinting  Mit- 
scherlich's  article  in  his  Annalen,  objected  to 
the  termination  in,  and  changed  it  into  ol,  and 
thus  introduced  the  now  name  benzol.  For  a 
long  time  therefore  benzin  and  benzol  were 
used  synonymously  by  different  authors — the 
French  adhering  to  Mitscherlich  and  calling 
the  substance  benzine,  while  the  English  called 
it  benzole.  After  the  discovery  of  petroleum 
the  word  benzole  or  benzine  was  applied  to  a 
liquid  of  a  totally  different  chemical  constitu- 
tion, though  analogous  in  some  of  its  proper- 
ties. As  soon  as  it  was  ascertained  by  careful 
chemical  analysis  that  the  series  of  hydrocar- 
bons derived  from  petroleum  were  different  from 
those  obtained  from  coal  tar,  scientific  men  and 
oil  refiners  began  to  recognize  a  distinction 
between  benzole  and  benzine,  and  by  general 
agreement  the  latter  word  was  applied  to  the 
light  oils  of  petroleum,  while  benzole  was  re- 
served to  designate  the  original  oil  discovered 
by  Faraday,  and  now  made  in  enormous  quan- 
tities from  coal  tar  to  be  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  aniline  colors.  Commercial  benzine  is 
a  mixture  of  various  hydrocarbons,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  assign  a  constant  composition  or 
chemical  formula  to  the  article  sold  under  this 
name.  The  following  table  will  exhibit  some 
of  the  products  derived  from  petroleum : 

Rhtgoline,  specific  grav.  0-60         (90"B.).  goes  over  at  100'F. 
Gasoline,       "         "       0-68-0-61  (80-90'B.)    "       "      170° 
Naphtha,      "         "       0-67-0-68  (70-SO'B.)    "       "      280° 
Benzine,        "         "       0-78-0-67  (60-70°B.)    "       "      800° 
Kerosene,     "         "       0-78-0-72  (50-60°B.)    "       "      400° 

Above  400°  F.,  mineral  sperm  and  paraffine  oil, 
with  specific  gravity  72  to  85,  are  produced.  In 
the  United  States  the  petroleum  refiners  apply 
the  trade  name  benzine  to  the  naphtha  that 
comes  over  at  300°  F.,  and  has  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  0-73  to  0-67=60  to  70°  Baume.  In  Eng- 
land the  term  "benzene"  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  volatile  naphtha  obtained  in  the  rectifica- 
tion of  coal  tar,  and  also  to  petroleum  ether. — 
Benzine  is  a  colorless,  ethereal  liquid,  volatile  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  so  that  its  vapor  takes 
fire  at  a  distance,  the  same  as  that  of  ether; 
its  specific  gravity  is  0-70;  it  boils  at  140°  F. 
(benzole,  176°  F.);  it  has  never  been  frozen 
(benzole  freezes  at  37°  F.).  It  increases  the 
illuminating  power  of  gases,  but  is  inferior  to 
benzole  in  this  respect;  it  burns  with  a  smoky 
flame.  It  does  not  mix  with  water  or  methylic 
alcohol,  but  does  so  readily  when  warmed  with 
absolute  alcohol,  fatty  and  essential  oils,  and 


BENZOIC  ACID 

bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  dissolves  fats,  wax, 
and  paraffine ;  india  rubber  swells  up  and  finally 
goes  into  solution ;  mastic,  damar,  colophonium, 
and  pitch  are  with  difficulty  attacked  by  it,  and 
amber,  copal,  and  shell  lac  scarcely  at  all.  If 
asphaltum  or  pitch  be  covered  in  a  test  tube 
with  benzole,  it  is  rapidly  dissolved  into  a  tarry 
liquid ;  whereas  benzine  is  after  the  lapse  of  a 
few  hours  scarcely  colored  by  the  pitch.  Fine 
benzole  can  in  this  way  be  distinguished  from 
benzine. — Benzine  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  varnishes  and  paints;  to  remove  grease 
spots;  to  extract  oils  and  essential  principles 
from  seeds  and  plants;  to  make  water-proof 
leather ;  to  carbonize  illuminating  gas  in  the 
manufacture  of  air  gas ;  to  preserve  anatomical 
specimens;  as  a  substitute  for  turpentine  in 
paints;  in  the  manufacture  of  lampblack;  and 
as  a  highly  explosive  and  dangerous  burning 
fluid.  It  has  been  used  to  adulterate  kerosene, 
and  this  abuse  of  the  article  has  cost  hundreds 
of  lives.  The  wholesale  price  of  benzine  in  the 
United  States  in  1870,  according  to  the  report 
of  Dr.  Chandler  to  the  board  of  health  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  was  from  12  to  16  cents  a 
gallon.  Benzole  cost  at  the  same  time  about 
$1  a  gallon. — Benzine  is  not  acted  upon  by 
nitric  acid,  and  hence  cannot  be  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  aniline  colors.  Chlorine, 
bromine,  and  iodine  also  produce  no  particular 
compounds  with  it.  On  comparison  of  benzole 
with  benzine,  it  will  thus  be  found  that  they 
differ  widely  from  each  other  in  boiling  and 
freezing  point,  in  molecular  composition,  in 
chemical  reactions,  in  solvent  properties,  in 
specific  gravity,  and  in  their  origin  and  uses. 

BENZOIC  ACID  (II,  C,H6O4),  an  acid  which 
is  abundant  in  the  balsamiferous  plants,  and  is 
produced  artificially  from  bitter-almond  oil, 
hippuric  acid,  and  naphthaline.  Gum  benzoin, 
the  product  of  the  ityrax  benzoin  of  the  Asiatic 
archipelago,  is  the  principal  source  of  the  sup- 
ply of  benzoic  acid.  Common  benzoin  occurs 
in  reddish  lumps,  which  sometimes  have  a  la- 
mellated  fracture,  and  certain  whitish  opaque 
masses.  When  recent  it  emits  an  odor  of  bitter 
almonds.  Gum  benzoin  appears  to  be  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  three  varieties  of  resin,  with 
benzoic  acid  and  a  small  quantity  of  a  fragrant 
essential  oil.  Only  one  of  the  resins  is  soluble 
in  ether ;  a  second  is  soluble  in  alcohol  only. 
The  white  opaque  masses  appear  to  consist  of 
the  resin  which  is  soluble  in  ether;  they  yield 
less  benzoic  acid  than  the  brown  portions. — 
Benzoic  acid  may  be  extracted  from  powdered 
benzoin  by  boiling  it  for  some  hours  with  milk 
of  lime,  filtering  the  solution  of  benzoate  of  lime 
from  the  insoluble  compound  of  resin  and  lime, 
and,  after  concentrating  the  filtrate,  adding  hy- 
drochloric acid.  Benzoic  acid  is  thus  precipita- 
ted, and  may  be  purified  by  sublimation.  The 
acid  is,  however,  generally  extracted  by  the  less 
economical  but  simpler  process  of  direct  subli- 
mation from  gum  benzoin,  which  contains  14 
or  15  per  cent,  of  the  acid.  If  the  resin  be 
coarsely  powdered  and  exposed  to  a  tempera- 


BENZOIN 


545 


tnre  of  about  302°  F.,  the  acid  which  exists 
ready  formed  in  it  is  expelled,  and  may  be  con- 
densed in  suitable  receivers.  Mohr's  plan  of 
conducting  the  sublimation  is  the  simplest  and 
best.  His  method  is  to  place  the  gum  in  a 
shallow  iron  pan,  which  is  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  filtering  paper,  over  which  a  cone  or 
hat  of  writing  paper  is  fastened;  on  applying  a 
regulated  sand  heat,  the  acid  is  decomposed, 
and  the  benzoic  acid  is  converted  into  vapors ; 
it  passes  through  the  bibulous  paper,  and  rises 
into  the  chamber  formed  by  the  paper  cone, 
where  it  is  condensed,  and  is  prevented  from 
falling  back  into  the  pan  beneath  by  the  inter- 
posed sheet  of  filtering  paper.  This  method  of 
sublimation  is  applicable  in  many  other  cases 
of  a  similar  kind,  as  for  example  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pyrogallic  acid.  The  resins  of  tolu 
and  benzoin,  when  treated  with  boiling  nitric 
acid,  yield  an  amorphous  form  of  benzoic  acid, 
colored  yellow  with  a  resinous  matter  which 
accompanies  it  into  its  salts,  and  hinders  them 
from  crystallizing.  Balsam  of  tolu  often  yields 
nearly  half  its  weight  of  this  acid.  This  res- 
inous acid  is  completely  soluble  in  boiling 
water.  When  this  form  of  the  acid  is  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays,  it  becomes  covered  with 
white  crystals  of  pure  benzoic  acid ;  and  when 
sublimed,  the  ordinary  crystalline  acid  is  ob- 
tained. Benzoic  acid  is  now  prepared  arti- 
ficially on  a  large  scale  from  naphthaline  and 
from  hippuric  acid,  and  is  employed  in  the 
treatment  of  tobacco,  as  a  mordant  in  calico 
printing,  and  especially  in  the  production  of 
aniline  colors. — Benzoic  acid  assumes  the  form 
of  white,  glistening,  extremely  light,  flexible 
needles,  which  usually  have  an  agreeable  aro- 
matic odor  and  a  hot  bitterish  taste.  The 
odor,  however,  is  not  due  to  the  acid,  but  to 
the  presence  of  a  trace  of  essential  oil  which 
accompanies  the  acid  during  the  sublimation. 
Benzoic  acid  melts  at  248°  F.  (120°  0.) ;  it  sub- 
limes at  293°  F.  (145°  0.),  and  boils  at  462°  F. 
(239°  0.).  Its  vapors  are  acrid  and  irritating; 
when  kindled  in  the  open  air,  they  burn  with 
a  smoky  flame.  The  acid  requires  about  200 
parts  of  cold  water,  and  25  of  boiling  water, 
for  its  solution ;  but  it  is  readily  dissolved  by 
alcohol  and  by  ether.  Benzoic  acid  yields  a 
series  of  salts  called  benzoates,  mostly  soluble 
in  water.  The  benzoate  of  ammonia  is  some- 
times used  as  a  means  of  separating  iron  from 
nickel  and  cobalt. — When  prepared  in  the  usual 
way  by  sublimation,  benzoic  acid  contains  a 
portion  of  the  volatile  oil.  It  is  used  in  a  few 
officinal  preparations,  especially  in  campho- 
rated tincture  of  opium.  When  given  inter- 
nally, it  is  excreted  by  the  urine,  which  it  ren- 
ders acid,  in  the  form  of  hippuric  acid.  It  has 
been  employed  as  a  local  haemostatic,  though 
without  proved  utility. 

I.KV/OI  V  (Malay,  kam.inian),  the  gum  benja- 
min of  commerce,  an  odorous  resin  extracted 
from  the  styrax  benzoin,  a  tree  which  attains  a 
considerable  height,  and  is  the  peculiar  pro- 
duct of  Bencoojen,  Batak,  and  Palembang  ter- 


ritories, in  Sumatra,  and  Brunai  territory  in 
Borneo.  The  tree  is  cultivated  and  raised  from 
the  small  brown  nut  which  it  produces.  When 
the  plant  has  attained  its  fourth  year  and  its 
stem  has  a  diameter  of  eight  inches  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Sumatra,  and  six  years  and  ten  inches 
diameter  on  the  W.  coast,  it  begins  to  yield  its 
best  sap,  which  flows  from  the  bark,  and  which 
is  obtained  by  making  an  incision  therein  near 
the  ground.  That  obtained  during  the  first 
two  years  after  tapping  is  of  a  creamy  or  light 
saffron  tint,  and  is  soft  and  fragrant ;  for  two 
or  three  years  more  it  produces  an  inferior 
quality,  of  reddish  hue,  and  harder  than  the 
best ;  after  this  time  the  sap  ceases  to  flow,  the 
tree  is  cut  down,  and  a  very  inferior  resin  is 
obtained  by  scraping  the  inner  surface  of  the 
bark  and  the  stem.  From  the  Batak  country  it 
is  brought  to  the  markets  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Sumatra  in  cakes  called  tampany,  of  different 
weights,  and  these 
cakes  constitute  the 
chief  currency  of  the 
Bataks,  who  do  not 
make  use  of  coined 
money.  The  ben- 
zoin obtained  in  Pa- 
lembang territory  is 
mainly  collected  by 
wild  tribes  in  the 
lowest  state  of  civi- 
lization, the  Kubu  in 
the  Kawas  and  Ba- 
tang-Lekoh  districts, 
and  the  Kumring  fur- 
ther south.  The  Pa- 
lembang resin  is  gen- 
erally of  an  inferior 
quality,  being  mostly 
spontaneous  exuda- 

Styra*  benzoin.  tions  of   wild   trees- 

collected    by    these 

wild  tribes.  The  resin  is  used  as  an  incense  in 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  It  is 
sometimes  employed  in  medicine,  being  consid- 
ered a  valuable  expectorant  and  stimulant,  and 
still  more  in  perfumery.  The  odor  of  the  best 
resin  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  vanilla 
bean.  Being  soluble  in  spirits,  and  not  in  water, 
it  is  erroneously  called  a  gum.  Its  density  varies 
according  to  quality,  from  1'063  to  1'092.  Be- 
sides benzoic  and  cinnamic  acid  and  a  small 
quantity  of  essential  oil,  it  contains  three  differ- 
ent kinds  of  resins,  which  have  not  yet  been 
employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  used  in  several 
kinds  of  fine  varnishes  and  lacquer  work,  on 
canes  and  snuff-boxes,  which  emit  a  faint 
vanilla  odor  when  warmed  with  the  hand. — 
Benzoin  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  the 
malabathrum  of  the  ancients.  Pliny  and  Dios- 
corides  describe  it  very  accurately ;  and  men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Periplus  of  the  Erythraean 
sea  of  malabathrum,  an  article  of  commerce  on 
the  Malabar  coast,  said  to  be  brought  from  a 
country  farther  east.  Importations  into  the 
United  States  are  prohibited  unless  the  drug 


646 


BENZOLE 


yields  80  per  cent,  of  resin,  or  20  per  cent,  of 
benzole  acid. 

BENZOLE,  a  peculiar  product  of  coal  tar,  im- 
portant in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  colors. 
(See  BENZINE.)  Its  chemical  formula  is012 
H6  (old),  or  C6IIS  (new).  Its  synonymes  are 
henzol,  benzin,  benzene,  bicarburetted  hydro- 
gen, and  hydrite  of  phenyl  (Fr.  phene).  There 
are  numerous  methods  for  the  preparation  of 
benzole,  but  the  only  one  of  practical  value, 
invented  by  Mansfield  in  1847,  is  founded  upon 
the  distillation  of  coal  tar.  The  crude  tar,  as 
it  comes  from  the  gas  works,  is  first  subjected 
to  regulated  distillation,  so  as  to  obtain  sep- 
arately naphtha  or  light  oil  (oily  liquid  lighter 
than  water);  secondly,  after  all  the  naphtha 
has  passed,  dead  oil  or  heavy  oil  (oily  liquid 
sinking  in  water);  and  thirdly,  pitch,  which 
remains  behind  in  the  retort.  From  the  light 
oil  the  benzole  is  separated  by  further  frac- 
tional distillation.  The  resulting  product,  which 
is  fur  from  being  absolutely  pure,  is  the  well 
known  preparation  for  removing  grease  stains 
from  articles  of  dress.  It  is  also  extensively 
used  as  a  solvent  of  caoutchouc  and  resins. 
When  required  for  the  production  of  aniline,  it 
must  be  rectified  by  subjecting  it  to  further 
operations.  The  boiling  point  of  pure  benzole 
is  80°  0.  (176°  F.),  whereas  commercial  benzole 
boils  from  80°  to  120°  0.,  and  is  therefore  a 
mixture  of  several  compounds.  The  transfor- 
mation of  benzole  into  nitro-benzole  is  accom- 
plished by  dissolving  benzole  in  fuming  nitric 
acid  and  mixing  the  clear  liquid  with  water, 
when  the  nitro-benzole  is  precipitated  as  a 
dense  yellow  liquid.  Nitro-benzole  has  for 
some  years  been  sold  under  the  trade  name  of 
essence  de  mirbane,  or  artificial  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds. Nitro-benzole  when  submitted  to  the 
action  of  reducing  agents  is  converted  into 
aniline.  The  successive  changes  of  benzole  are 
thus  expressed  in  chemical  symbols : 

First  change,  transformation  of  benzole  into  nitro-benzole : 
C,H,     +     4NOS     =     C,H6NO,        +    H,O. 
Benzole.    Nitric  acid.    Nitro-benzole.         Water. 

Second  change,  transformation  of  nttro-benzolo  Into  aniline: 

CjH.NO.,     +      811,8    =    C,H,N    +    2H,,O    +    89. 
Nitro-benzole.   Sulphuretted   Aniline.       Water.    Sulphur, 
hydrogen. 

On  the  large  scale,  instead  of  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, nascent  hydrogen  produced  from  iron 
turnings  and  acetic  acid  is  employed  as  the  re- 
ducing agent.  The  inhalation  of  nitro-benzole 
produces  insensibility  to  pain,  but  from  some 
slight  irritation  it  was  found  to  occasion  when 
the  experiments  were  made,  it  has  not  come 
into  general  use  as  an  anaesthetic. — At  ordinary 
temperatures  benzole  is  a  limpid,  colorless, 
strongly  refracting  oil,  of  specific  gravity  0'85 
at  15-5°  C.  When  cooled  to  +3°  0.  it  solidi- 
fies into  fern -like  tufts  or  into  masses  like  cam- 
phor, which  melt  at  5-5°  C.,  expanding  one 
eighth  of  their  volume,  and  freezing  again  at 
0°  0.  Prof.  Hoffmann  takes  advantage  of  the 
freezing  of  benzole  to  obtain  it  pure.  For  this 
purpose  the  impure  article  is  placed  hi  a  tin  or 


BERANGEK 

brass  vessel,  in  which  an  iron  rod,  having  at- 
tached a  close-fitting  piston  perforated  with 
numerous  small  holes,  is  made  to  play.  On 
forcing  down  the  plunger  the  liquid  portions 
ascend  and  can  be  drawn  off,  and  on  melting 
the  frozen  benzole  it  will  be  found  to  be  near- 
ly pure.  Cooled  to  — 18°  C.,  benzole  becomes 
so  hard  and  brittle  that  it  can  be  pulverized  in 
a  mortar.  It  boils  at  80°  C.,  and  volatilizes 
undecomposed.  The  oil  has  a  pleasant  ethereal 
smell,  and  when  breathed  produces  insensi- 
bility attended  by  convulsions;  internally  it 
acts  as  a  violent  poison.  The  density  of  its  va- 
por is  2'75  (calculated  2'704).  It  is  not  soluble 
in  water,  although  it  imparts  a  color  and  odor 
to  that  liquid.  Alcohol,  wood  spirit,  acetone, 
and  ether  are  good  solvents  of  benzole.  It  dis- 
solves fats,  the  fixed  and  essential  oils,  cam- 
phor, wax,  india  rubber,  gutta  percha,  resins, 
asphaltum,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine,  and 
picric  acid;  gum  lac,  copal,  anim£,  and  gam- 
boge in  small  quantity;  quinine,  somewhat 
readily ;  strychnine  and  morphine  in  small 
quantity ;  cinchonine,  not  at  all.  It  is  inflam- 
mable, and  burns  with  a  bright  smoky  flame ; 
and  when  its  vapor  is  added  to  illuminating 
gas,  it  materially  contributes  to  the  illuminating 
power;  hence  it  finds  extensive  application  in 
carburetting  or  carbonizing  poor  gas,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  "air  gas."  The  namephene 
was  proposed  for  it  by  Laurent  in  allusion  to 
its  high  value  as  an  illuminating  agent,  from 
^eiveiv,  to  emit  light.  It  is  now  nearly  super- 
seded for  this  purpose  by  petroleum  benzine, 
on  account  of  the  comparatively  great  expense 
of  benzole.  A  mixture  of  one  volume  of  ben- 
zole with  two  volumes  of  alcohol  forms  a  very 
good  lamp  oil;  more  benzole  gives  rise  to  a 
smoky  flame.  When  benzole  is  passed  through 
a  red-hot  tube,  it  is  decomposed  into  solid 
carbon  and  a  gaseous  hydrocarbon.  Under 
favorable  circumstances  100  Ibs.  of  coal  will 
yield  lOf  Ibs.  tar,  8£  oz.  tar  naphtha,  3  oz.  ben- 
zole, 4£  oz.  nitro-benzole,  and  2£  oz.  aniline. 
Benzole  has  been  found  ready  formed  in  the 
native  petroleum  of  Rangoon,  and  has  been 
made  synthetically  by  Prof.  Schulze  by  the 
direct  oxidation  of  carbon  by  means  of  per- 
manganate of  potash.  As  benzole  acid,  from 
which  benzole  was  originally  distilled  by  Mit- 
scherlich,  has  also  been  made  artificially,  it  is 
not  impossible  that  a  synthetical  method  for 
the  manufacture  of  benzole  may  eventually  be 
discovered. 

BEOWl'LF,  Tale  of.  See  ANGLO-SAXONS,  LAN- 
GUAGE AND  LITERATURE  OF  THE,  vol.  i.,  p.  504. 

BERANGER,  Pierre  Jean  de,  a  French  lyric 
poet,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  19,  1780,  died  there, 
July  16,  1857.  His  father  was  bookkeeper  to 
a  grocer,  and  married  a  milliner,  the  daughter 
of  a  tailor  of  the  name  of  Champy,  who  kept 
a  small  shop  in  the  rue  Montorgueil.  Here  the 
future  bard  came  into  the  world,  which  fact  he 
commemorated  in  one  of  his  most  sprightly 
songs,  Le  tailleur  et  la  fee.  He  sprang  thus 
from  the  people,  and  in  spite  of  the  particle  de, 


BERANGER 


547 


which,  owing  to  his  father's  prejudice,  re- 
mained prefixed  to  his  patronymic,  he  never 
missed  an  opportunity  of  proclaiming  his  ple- 
beian birth.  Je  suu  vilain,  et  tres  vilain,  is 
the  burden  of  one  of  his  earliest  songs.  In 
1789  he  was  sent  to  a  school  in  the  faubourg 
St.  Antoine;  and  from  the  roof  of  the  house 
he  witnessed  the  taking  of  the  Bastile  by  the 
people,  which  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
his  mind,  as  appears  from  a  song,  Le  quatorze 
juillet,  written  40  years  later.  Ilia  father,  un- 
able to  pay  his  board  at  school,  sent  him,  with- 
out previous  notice,  to  a  sister,  a  widow  with- 
out children,  who  kept  a  small  inn  near  Pe- 
ronne,  in  Picardy.  Under  the  guidance  of  this 
worthy  woman,  Pierre  received  lessons  intended 
to  make  him  a  good  man  and  a  thorough  re- 
publican. His  republicanism  was  also  devel- 
oped by  the  training  to  which  he  was  submitted 
at  a  school  established  by  M.  Ballue  de  Bel- 
langlise,  who  had  been  formerly  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly,  and  who  was,  accord- 
ing to  Beranger  himself,  a  sort  of  republican 
Fenelon,  and  a  true  philanthropist.  In  this 
school  the  boys  were  formed  into  a  kind  of 
democratic  association,  and  elected  officers, 
such  as  mayor,  councillors,  and  justices  of  the 
peace.  They  debated  political  questions;  on 
important  occasions  speeches  were  publicly 
delivered  by  the  young  politicians,  and  more 
than  once  they  sent  up  addresses  to  the  con- 
vention and  to  Robespierre.  Beranger  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  clear  and  cogent  speaker. 
Patriotism,  which,  as  he  says,  was  the  great  if 
not  the  only  passion  of  his  life,  was  already 
burning  in  the  heart  of  the  boy,  and  he  feel- 
ingly narrates  his  emotions  when  he  heard  of 
the  victories  or  the  reverses  of  the  French 
armies.  When  the  time  came  for  him  to  learn 
a  trade,  he  entered  the  printing  office  of  Lainez, 
a  bookseller,  and  was  treated  with  great  kind- 
ness by  him.  Beranger  did  not  acquire  marked 
proficiency  as  a  printer,  but  showed  an  incli- 
nation to  poetry,  and  made  at  that  time  some 
rough  attempts  at  rhyme.  Toward  the  end  of 
1796  he  was  called  back  to  Paris  by  his  father, 
who  was  then  engaged  in  stockjobbing  and 
financiering  speculations,  as  well  as  in  Bourbon 
conspiracies,  and  was  known  as  the  "banker 
of  the  royalists."  Young  Beranger  became 
the  assistant  of  his  father,  and  evinced  much 
tact  and  ability  in  the  business.  But  in  1798 
the  firm  failed,  and  the  young  man  found  him- 
self in  very  straitened  circumstances.  "My 
poverty,"  he  says,  "was  not  barren  of  plea- 
sure. I  lived  in  an  attic  on  the  boulevard  St. 
Martin,  and  the  most  magnificent  sight  opened 
before  my  eyes.  I  had  no  money,  no  hope,  no 
prospect  of  fortune,  it  is  true ;  but  I  was  free 
from  all  the  trouble  and  disgust  connected 
with  the  business  in  which  I  had  been  engaged 
against  my  taste  and  feelings.  To  live  alone 
and  make  verses  at  my  ease,  I  considered  to 
be  true  happiness."  Friendship  and  love  con- 
tributed to  embellish  his  life ;  and,  as  far  as  his 
slender  means  would  allow,  he  heartily  joined 


in  popular  amusements.  Graceful  remem- 
brances of  that  time  are  to  be  traced  in  several 
of  his  pieces,  such  as  Le  grenier  and  Man  habit. 
This  careless  life  lasted  several  years,  during 
which  he  sketched  the  projects  of  many  great 
works,  and  wrote  some  poems  and  several  com- 
edies, two  of  which  were  five-act  plays.  At 
the  end  of  1803  starvation  stared  him  in  the 
face ;  his  watch  and  other  valuables  had  been 
pawned  long  ago;  his  clothing  was  in  the 
poorest  condition,  and  none  of  his  friends  were 
well  enough  off  to  offer  him  relief.  In  this  ex- 
tremity he  wrote  a  letter  to  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
brother  of  the  first  consul,  sending  him,  as 
specimens  of  his  literary  attainments,  two 
poems,  Le  retablissement  du  culte  and  Le 
deluge.  It  was  the  only  instance  of  solicitation 
in  a  long  life  of  independence.  Lucien  an- 
swered him  kindly,  invited  him  to  an  inter- 
view, and  when  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
France  authorized  the  young  poet  to  receive 
his  pension  as  a  member  of  the  French  in- 
stitute, amounting  to  nearly  $200.  The  next 
year,  1805,  Beranger  was  engaged  by  the 
painter  Landon  to  write  the  notices  for  the 
Annales  du  mwee,  an  illustrated  publication, 
giving  outline  engravings  of  the  great  paintings 
in  the  Louvre  gallery.  This  added  for  two 
years  $350  to  his  annual  income,  and  enabled 
him  to  help  his  father  and  contribute  to  the 
comfort  of  his  grandmother,  who  had  been  en- 
tirely ruined.  In  1809,  being  introduced  to 
Fontanes,  the  grand  master  of  the  imperial 
university,  by  his  friend  Arnault,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  an  office  worth  about  $200,  which 
salary  was  gradually  increased  to  $400.  Be- 
ranger's  life  now  began  to  take  a  more  regular 
shape,  and  his  talent  to  flow  in  its  proper 
channel.  He  had  occasionally  written  songs, 
mostly  of  a  gay  turn,  as  they  were  designed  to 
enliven  his  joyous  meetings  with  his  friends 
whom  he  visited  at  Peronne ;  but  he  was  not 
conscious  that  the  writing  of  songs  was  his  true 
calling,  and  would  ultimately  secure  him  dura- 
ble fame.  At  this  time,  however,  he  began  to 
pay  more  attention  to  lyrical  poetry,  and  to  feel 
that  it  might  be  made  to  take  rank  as  one  of 
the  higher  branches  of  literature.  Some  of  the 
pieces  which  he  wrote  during  the  following 
years,  being  circulated  in  manuscript,  created 
a  sensation — Le  senateur,  Le  petit  homme  grig, 
Les  gueux,  Le  roi  d'Yvetot,  among  the  num- 
ber. This  success  procured  for  him  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Desaugiers,  the  well  known 
song  writer  of  the  time,  and  a  very  kind-heart- 
ed man.  Desaugiers  took  a  decided  fancy  for 
his  young  competitor,  and  prevailed  upon  him 
to  become  a  member  of  the  celebrated  club 
Le  caveau,  which  had  been  reestablished  about 
1811.  The  disasters  of  1814  and  1815,  and  the 
two  invasions  of  France  by  European  armies, 
caused  a  bitter  pang  to  the  patriotic  heart  of 
Beranger,  and  contributed  to  give  a  new  and 
higher  direction  to  his  poetical  vein.  He  be- 
came the  popular,  or  rather  the  truly  national 
bard  of  France.  His  shafts  were  chiefly  directed 


648 


BERANGER 


BERARD 


against  the  Bourbons,  and  he  was  not  conspic- 
uous for  his  opposition  to  the  Napoleonic  dy- 
nasty. The  first  volume  of  B6ranger's  songs 
was  published  in  1815.  It  contained  few  polit- 
ical pieces,  but  its  popularity  excited  suspicion 
in  the  administrative  department  in  which 
Beranger  was  employed,  and  a  recommendation 
to  stop  such  publications  for  the  future  was 
addressed  to  him  by  his  chief.  But  Beranger 
was  now  fairly  launched  on  his  new  course 
and  paid  no  attention  to  this  notice.  He  went 
on  to  produce  new  pieces,  which,  like  their 
predecessors,  were  at  first  extensively  circu- 
lated by  singing.  They  were  published  in  book 
form  in  1821,  Beranger  having  resigned  his 
office  before  issuing  the  volume.  The  sale  was 
immense,  and  the  songs  resounded  all  over  the 
country.  Judicial  proceedings  directed  against 
the  poet  only  added  to  his  popularity  and 
promoted  the  diffusion  of  the  volume.  Brought 
before  the  courts,  he  was  sentenced  to  three 
months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  500  francs. 
This  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  his  inspiration ; 
new  songs  issued  from  the  jail,  and  were  re- 
peated from  one  end  of  France  to  the  other. 
Beranger  had  become  a  political  power.  A 
third  volume,  which  appeared  in  1825,  though 
scarcely  less  bold  than  the  preceding,  was 
treated  with  more  forbearance  by  the  govern- 
ment; but  the  fourth,  published  in  1828,  was 
severely  dealt  with,  the  author  being  impris- 
oned nine  months  and  fined  10,000  francs. 
This  was  the  most  brilliant  period  of  his  career. 
Beranger  had  secured  great  influence  among 
the  chiefs  of  the  opposition  party ;  his  advice 
was  sought  for  and  respected  ;  his  known  dis- 
interestedness, his  freedom  of  speech,  •which 
was  always  united  with  the  utmost  courtesy, 
his  want  of  personal  ambition,  his  generous 
disposition,  and  his  marked  sympathy  for  young 
men,  endeared  him  to  all,  and  peculiarly  to 
the  inferior  classes.  He  aided,  through  his 
songs,  in  bringing  about  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  took  an  active  part  with  his  friends  Lafitte 
and  Lafayette  in  placing  Louis  Philippe  upon 
the  throne,  but  refused  all  the  appointments 
proffered  by  the  king  and  his  ministers.  He 
desired  to  live  as  a  philosopher,  contented  with 
the  little  income  secured  by  the  sale  of  his 
songs,  and  preserving  his  personal  indepen- 
dence. His  fifth  volume  was  published  in  1833. 
Although  he  acted  as  if  willing  to  be  forgotten, 
there  was  no  abatement  in  his  popularity  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe ;  and  when  the 
revolution  of  February,  1848,  broke  out,  the 
name  of  Beranger  was  still  among  the  brightest 
in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  He  was  returned  by 
the  votes  of  more  than  200,000  electors  to  the 
constituent  assembly.  In  acknowledgment  of 
the  honor,  he  took  his  seat,  and  then  sent  in 
his  resignation.  His  last  years  were  passed  in 
retirement,  amid  his  intimate  friends ;  but  the 
admiration  which  he  inspired  drew  around  him 
numerous  visitors,  whom  he  tried  to  avoid  by 
living  as  privately  as  possible  in  various  vil- 
lages or  provincial  towns.  On  the  news  of  his 


last  illness,  the  street  in  which  he  lived,  at 
Passy,  was  filled  by  a  multitude  of  persons 
anxious  to  show  their  sympathy  for  him.  His 
death  threw  a  veil  of  sorrow  not  only  over 
Paris,  but  over  all  France;  and  his  funeral 
was  attended  by  a  host  of  mourners.  His 
songs  have  been  reprinted  under  every  possible 
form,  and  millions  of  copies  have  been  circu- 
lated among  all  classes  of  Frenchmen.  They 
are  familiar  even  to  those  who  are  unable  to 
read.  Besides  the  songs  published  by  Beran- 
ger himself,  he  left  92  songs  written  from  1 834 
to  1851,  and  a  memoir  of  himself,  which  were 
published  a  few  months  after  his  death.  The 
autobiography  is  admirable,  and  furnishes  con- 
vincing evidence  that  in  him  simplicity,  hon- 
esty, and  goodness  of  heart  were  united  to 
genius. — See  Beranger  et  son  temps,  by  Jules 
Janin  (Paris,  1806). 

BEBAR,  or  Nagpore,  one  of  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  British  India,  bounded  N.  by  theNer- 
bndda  territory,  E.  by  the  presidency  of  Ma- 
dras, and  S.  and  W.  by  the  dominions  of  the 
Nizam,  extending  from  lat.  17°  48'  to  22°  43' 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  75°  24'  to  82°  48'  E. ;  area, 
76,474,  sq.  m. ;  pop.  4,650,000,  of  whom  4,000,- 
000  are  Brahmanical  Hindoos,  100,000  Mo- 
hammedans, and  550,000  Gondees.  It  consists 
mainly  of  an  elevated  tract,  adjoining  the  Vin- 
dhya  and  Sautpoora  ranges.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Wurda,  Wynegunga,  Khahan,  Taptee,  and 
Mahanuddy.  The  soil  of  the  extensive  tract 
along  the  left  bank  of  the  Wurda  is  very  fertile, 
and  well  suited  to  grain,  tobacco,  sugar,  and 
especially  cotton,  of  which  it  sent  233,000  bales 
to  England  in  1869.  The  wheat  is  considered 
the  best  in  India. — The  ancient  country  of 
Berar  was  one  of  the  five  original  independent 
kingdoms  of  the  Deccan.  In  the  17th  century 
it  was  part  of  the  Mogul  empire,  and  on  the 
fall  of  that  empire  it  was  overrun  by  the  Mah- 
rattas  and  divided  between  the  Peishwa  and 
the  rajah  of  Nagpore.  The  latter  prince,  hav- 
ing joined  with  Dowlat  Row  Sindia  against  the 
British  in  1803,  was  forced  to  cede  to  them  the 
province  of  Cuttack,  together  with  Sumbul- 
poor  and  Patna,  and  to  the  Nizam  some  prov- 
inces on  the  frontier  of  Hyderabad.  On  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  succession  in 
1853,  the  country  was  seized  by  the  British  and 
placed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  gover- 
nor general  until  the  organization  of  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces  in  1861.  Chief  city,  Nagpore. 

BEBABD.  I.  Joseph  Frederic,  a  French  phy- 
sician, born  in  Montpellier,  Nov.  8,  1789,  died 
there,  April  16,  1828.  He  was  educated  at 
Montpellier,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
champion  of  the  theories  of  the  medical  school 
of  that  city  against  the  materialism  of  the  school 
of  Paris.  He  spent  some  years  at  the  capital, 
where  he  assisted  in  editing  the  Dictionnaire 
des  sciences  medicates,  analyzed  the  experiments 
of  Le  Gallois  on  the  vital  principle,  and  op- 
posed the  phrenological  theories  of  Gall.  Re- 
turning to  Montpellier,  he  became  professor  of 
therapeutics  there,  and  afterward  of  hygiene. 


BERAT 


BERBERS 


549 


He  published  an  Essai  sur  les  anomalies  de  la 
variole  et  de  la  varicelle  (1818) ;  a  treatise  on 
the  Doctrine  medicale  de  I'ecole  de  Montpellier 
(1819);  with  Rouzet,  a  commentary  on  the 
Maladies  chroniques  of  Dumas  (2  vols.,  1823); 
and  Doctrine  des  rapports  du  physique  et  dw 
moral  (1823),  in  which  he  fully  exposes  his 
philosophical  system  and  combats  the  doctrines 
of  Oabanis.  II.  Pierre  Honore,  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Lichtenberg  in  1797,  died  in  1858.  He 
was  elected  professor  of  physiology  to  the  fac- 
ulty of  medicine  of  Paris  in  1831,  became 
dean  of  that  faculty  in  1848,  and  in  1852  was 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  republic  in- 
spector general  of  the  medical  schools,  and 
entered  into  the  new  upper  council  of  public 
instruction.  He  published  a  Cours  de  physio- 
logie  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1848-'54),  edited  the  Nou- 
veaux  elements  de  physiologie  of  Richerand 
(1832),  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  sickness 
and  death  of  Cuvier.  III.  August*1,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  a  French  surgeon,  born  at  Var- 
rains,  near  Saumur,  Aug.  2,  1802,  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  15,  1846.  He  studied  at  Paris  under  his 
brother,  became  professor  of  clinical  surgery 
to  the  faculty  of  Paris,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  society  of  surgery.  He  wrote 
Sur  le  diagnostic  cJiirurgical  (1836),  Struc- 
ture dw  poumon  (1836),  and  various  other 
treatises,  and  began  with  Denonvilliers  the 
elaborate  Compendium  de  ekirurgie  pratique, 
continued  after  his  death  by  Denonvilliers  and 
Gosselin. 

BERAT,  or  Arnant  Beligrad,  a  town  of  Albania, 
European  Turkey,  in  the  eyalet  and  88  m. 
N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Janina,  on  the  river 
Usumi ;  pop.  about  10,000,  of  whom  two  thirds 
are  Greeks  and  the  rest  Turks.  It  is  the  resi- 
dence of  an  archbishop  and  of  a  pasha,  who  is 
lieutenant  governor  of  central  Albania.  Mt. 
Tomor  towers  above  it.  The  upper  town 
contains  the  vizier's  palace,  several  Greek 
churches,  and  about  250  houses.  The  lower 
town  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Turks,  and  has 
numerous  mosques  and  a  good  bazaar. 

BERBER  (BERBER  EL-MUSHERRIF  or  EL-ME- 
KHEIB),  a  town  of  Nubia,  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name  belonging  to  Egypt,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  lat.  17°  59'  N.,  Ion.  33°  59' 
E.,  25  m.  N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara,  and 
190  m.  N.  of  Khartoom  ;  pop.  about  8,000.  The 
streets  are  unpaved  and  dirty,  and  the  flat- 
roofed  houses  are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks. 
The  town  is  subject  to  sudden  and  destructive 
whirlwinds.  It  usually  contains  a  garrison  of 
about  1,500  men.  It  carries  on  considerable 
traffic  with  Egypt  and  the  interior  of  Africa 
in  spices,  ivory,  leather,  tobacco,  liquors,  and 
European  manufactures. 

BEKBERA  (anc.  Males),  a  trading  place  of 
Africa,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Aden,  in 
the  territory  of  the  Somauli,  and  directly  S.  of 
Aden.  In  summer  it  is  a  spot  of  barren  sand. 
In  winter  a  market  is  held  there,  and  it  be- 
comes a  commercial  city  of  more  than  20,000 
inhabitants,  dwelling  in  tents.  The  market 


commences  about  Nov.  1,  increases  in  activity 
till  March,  and  closes  in  May.  The  export  is 
mostly  of  cattle,  sheep,  gold  dust,  hides,  coffee, 
myrrh,  benzoin,  ostrich  feathers,  elephants' 
tusks,  and  gum  arable,  which  are  sent  to  Ber- 
bera  from  the  interior.  Vessels  bring  to  it 
cotton  and  silk  goods,  beads,  wire,  sugar,  rice, 
copper,  iron,  and  zinc,  from  Arabia  and  other 
parts  of  Asia.  The  climate  is  wholesome,  the 
water  good,  and  the  harbor  excellent. 

BERBERINA,  an  alkaloid  which  receives  its 
name  from  having  been  found  in  the  berberis 
vulgaris  or  common  barberry,  but  which  has 
been  obtained  from  many  other  plants,  among 
which  are  the  columbo  root,  false  columbo 
(coscinium),  gold  thread  (coptis),  yellow  root 
(xanthorrhiza),  yellow  puccoon  (hydrastis),  and 
probably  the  prickly  ash  (xanthoxylum).  Some 
of  these  vegetables,  all  of  which  have  yellow 
root  wood,  were  used  by  the  Indians  for  dye- 
ing. The  alkaloid,  having  the  formula  C«oHiT 
NOs,  occurs  in  the  form  of  minute  yellow 
crystals,  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  forms  difficultly 
soluble  salts  with  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  and  a  readily  soluble  acetate.  The  im- 
pure muriate  is  used  by  the  eclectic  practitioners 
under  the  name  of  hydrastin,  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  colorless  alkaloid  hydras- 
tia,  also  found  in  the  hydrastis  Canadensis. 
The  effects  of  berberina  are  probably  those  of  a 
pure  bitter,  though  it  is  less  employed  in  medi- 
cine, except  in  the  form  of  the  impure  muriate 
just  mentioned,  than  the  drugs,  especially  co- 
lumbo, which  contain  it. 

BERBERS,  the  race  which  originally  peopled 
the  whole  northern  part  of  Africa,  embra- 
cing the  nations  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  as  Mauri,  Gaatuli,  Numidians,  Nasa- 
mones,  Phazanians,  and  Libyans.  The  Bar- 
bary  states  derive  their  name  from  them.  Some 
writers  have  derived  the  name  from  the  Arabian 
word  bar,  desert;  others  from  berberat,  mur- 
muring, as  descriptive  of  the  sound  of  the 
North  African  language ;  others  from  Ber,  the 
son  of  one  of  the  shepherd  kings  of  Egypt.  The 
Berbers  call  themselves  Amazirghs,  either  from 
their  progenitor  or  as  a  generic  name  signifying 
noble  or  freemen.  They  have  been  conquered 
in  succession  by  the  Phoenicians,  Romans,  Van- 
dals, and  Arabs.  The  Arabs  in  the  7th  century, 
like  the  former  conquerors,  took  chiefly  posses- 
sion of  the  northern  portions  of  their  territory, 
and  dispersed  them  over  the  interior,  between 
Egypt  and  the  Atlantic.  The  principal  rem- 
nants of  the  race  consist  of  three  groups :  the 
Shelloohs,  found  in  Morocco,  the  Kabyles  in 
Algeria,  and  the  Tuariks  in  the  desert.  Their 
language  is  classed  by  modern  philologists 
among  the  Hamitic  tongues.  By  some  it  is 
specifically  designated  as  Libyan.  Their  num- 
ber is  estimated  at  between  3,000,000  and 
4,000,000.  They  are  light  brown  in  com- 
plexion, of  middle  stature,  and  sparely  but 
strongly  built.  They  have  dark  hair,  little 
beard,  dark  and  piercing  eyes,  and  are  proud, 
suspicious,  implacable,  and  generally  at  war. 


550 


BERBICE 


BERBICE.  I.  A  river  of  British  Guiana, 
which  rises  about  lat.  3°  30'  K.  and  Ion.  57° 
30'  W.,  and  flows  generally  N.  to  New  Am- 
sterdam, where  it  falls  into  the  Atlantic  through 
an  estuary  3J  m.  wide,  crossed  hy  a  bar  having 
but  7  ft.  of  water  at  low  tide.  The  mouth  is 
divided  by  Crab  island  into  two  channels, 
both  pretty  deep.  The  river  is  navigable  by 
vessels  drawing  12  ft.  for  165  m.,  where  the 
influence  of  the  tide  ceases,  and  above  which 
point  numerous  cataracts  impede  navigation. 
Larger  vessels  can  reach  Fort  Nassau,  45  m. 
from  the  sea.  At  new  moon  shipping  is  im- 
perilled by  a  formidable  bore.  The  river  is 
studded  with  bowlders  and  abounds  in  cay- 
mans, and  its  banks  are  generally  low  and  cov- 
ered with  luxuriant  vegetation.  In  a  basin  of 
this  river  Schomburgk  in  1837  discovered  the 
magnificent  water  lily,  the  Victoria  regia.  II. 
The  eastern  of  the  two  counties  into  which 
British  Guiana  is  now  divided,  bounded  E.  by 
Dutch  Guiana,  and  having  a  coast  line  on  the 
Atlantic  of  about  150  m. ;  area,  about  21,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  50,000.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Berbice  and  several  smaller  rivers.  The 
interior  is  principally  inhabited  by  aborigines, 
numbering  about  30,000.  The  surface  is  most- 
ly covered  with  water  during  the  rainy  seasons 
(April  to  July,  and  December  and  January), 
and  the  cultivated  portions  are  narrow  strips 
along  the  coast  and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  for 
some  distance  inland.  Sugar,  coffee,  cacao, 
and  cotton  are  the  staple  productions ;  rum  and 
molasses  are  exported  in  large  quantities  ;  and 
dye  and  other  valuable  woods,  spices,  and  fruits 
are  plentiful.  Travelling  is  chiefly  done  by 
boats  on  the  rivers.  Berbice  was  Brst  settled 
by  the  Dutch,  but  was  several  times  seized 
upon  (last  in  1803)  by  the  British,  to  whom  it 
was  finally  ceded  in  1814.  It  was  united  with 
Essequibo  and  Demerara  under  one  govern- 
ment in  1831.  Capital,  New  Amsterdam. 

BERCHTESGADEJV.  I.  A  principality  of  S.  E. 
Bavaria,  in  the  circle  of  Upper  Bavaria,  between 
the  valleys  of  the  Salzach  and  the  Saalach,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  but  the  N.  W.  by  the  Aus- 
trian duchy  of  Salzburg ;  area,  155  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  9,500.  Only  a  small  portion  is  fit 
for  cultivation.  Cattle  are  fed  on  the  Alpine 
meadows,  and  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  all  rock, 
forest,  and  mountain,  comprising  the  "W.  half 
of  the  Salzburg  Alps,  and  in  it  Mount  Watz- 
mann,  above  9,000  ft.  high.  The  mountain  sce- 
nery and  that  of  the  Konigs  or  Bartholomaus 
lake  rival  Switzerland  in  picturesqueness.  The 
lake  is  walled  on  almost  all  sides  by  moun- 
tains, and  on  its  shores  is  St.  Bartholomii 
with  a  chapel  for  pilgrims  and  a  royal  hunting 
box.  Chamois  are  sometimes  driven  by  peas- 
ants into  the  lake,  when  they  are  shot  from 
boats.  In  this  locality  is  an  ice  chapel,  a 
drifted  heap  of  snow  which  remains  unmelted 
even  in  summer.  Enormous  fishes  have  been 
at  times  caught  in  the  lake,  which  chiefly 
abounds  in  the  char  (salmo  Alpinus).  Besides 
'salt,  the  products  are  marble,  gypsum,  lead, 


BEKDITCHEV 

and  other  minerals.  The  inhabitants  are  noted 
for  their  quaint  manners  and  costumes,  and  for 
their  skill  in  manufacturing  toys  of  wood,  bone, 
and  ivory,  and  other  handiwork,  known  as 
Berchtesgaden  ware.  The  former  ecclesias- 
tical territory  of  Berchtesfraden  was  secular- 
ized in  1803  as  a  principality  of  the  electorate 
of  Salzburg.  In  1805  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Austrian  crown,  and  in  1810  into 
that  of  Bavaria.  II.  A  small  town  in  the 
district  of  Traunstein,  capital  of  the  princi- 
pality, 12  m.  S.  of  Salzburg,  on  the  Ache  or 
Albe,  an  affluent  of  the  Konigs  or  Bartholo- 
maus lake,  which  is  3  m.  distant;  pop.  about 
1,800.  The  former  convent,  a  stately  building 
on  a  rocky  elevation,  has  become  a  royal 
chateau.  The  late  King  Maximilian  had  a 
hunting  villa  built  here  in  1852.  Adjoining 
the  town  are  the  extensive  Sudhauser  or  boil- 
ing houses,  which  produce  annually  over  150,- 
000  quintals  of  various  kinds  of  salt.  The  salt 
mine  is  about  1  m.  below  Berchtesgaden,  and 
the  deposit  is  supposed  to  be  a  continuation 
of  the  celebrated  llallein  mine  near  Salzburg, 
though  rock  salt  is  here  found  in  larger  masses. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  wood,  most  of  the 
brine  is  conveyed  in  pipes  to  Reichenhall,  11 
m.  distant.  The  superfluous  brine  is  raised  by 
an  ingenious  system  of  pumps  over  mountains 
nearly  2,000  ft.  high.  The  total  length  of  the 
brine  conduit  or  aqueduct  from  Berchtesgaden 
and  Reichenhall  to  Traunstein  is  nearly  60  m. 
The  salt  manufacture  has  been  in  active  opera- 
tion since  the  end  of  the  12th  century. 

BERCY,  formerly  a  French  village,  forming 
since  1860  part  of  Paris,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Seine ;  pop.  about  14,000.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  wine,  brandy,  oil,  and  vinegar,  con- 
ducted by  more  than  1,000  wholesale  dealers; 
and  there  are  also  sugar  refineries,  lumber 
yards,  and  tanneries. 

BERDIMSK,  a  seaport  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the  N.  shore 
of  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  on  the  cape  of  Ber- 
diansk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Berda,  150 
m.  N.  E.  of  Simferopol ;  pop.  in  1867,  12,465. 
It  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  sea  of  Azov,  and 
carries  on  a  large  trade  with  Kertch.  There 
are  several  tallow  factories  and  brick  kilns,  a 
custom  house,  and  a  theatre.  Near  the  town 
are  valuable  coal  mines  and  two  salt  lakes 
from  which  large  quantities  of  salt  are  made. 
The  exports  are  grain,  linseed,  rape  seed, 
hemp,  butter,  tallow,  hides,  and  wool ;  the  im- 
ports, coffee,  oil,  olives,  pepper,  and  fruits.  In 
the  vicinity  are  large  colonies  of  Mennonites. 
Berdiausk  in  1828  was  an  insignificant  village, 
and  owes  its  development  to  Prince  Voron- 
tzoff.  In  1855  the  English  and  French  fleets 
destroyed  the  Russian  vessels  in  the  port  and 
burned  the  suburbs. 

BERDITCHEV  (Pol.  Berdyczew),  a  city  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  and  about  85  m.  W.  S. 
W.  of  Kiev  ;  pop.  in  1867,  53,787,  mostly  Polish 
Jews.  It  is  the  centre  of  trade  between  south- 
ern Russia  and  Germany.  Five  annual  fairs 


BEREG 


BERENGER 


551 


are  held  in  the  city,  the  greatest  of  which  are 
those  in  June  and  August.  Large  herds  of 
horses  and  horned  cattle  are  brought  thither 
hy  Russians,  Tartars,  and  Kirghizes,  besides 
furs,  silks,  fancy  stuffs,  glass,  wood,  and  iron 
ware,  salt,  fish,  corn,  and  beet  sugar,  by  mer- 
chants from  different  parts  of  the  country  and 
from  Poland.  Berditchev  has  wide  streets  with 
large  squares,  well  built  houses,  an  exchange, 
many  warehouses,  10  tobacco  factories,  and 
factories  for  silk,  perfumes,  tallow  candles,  oil, 
wax,  and  leather.  Many  pilgrims  are  attracted 
by  a  miraculous  image  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
Carmelite  convent.  In  1765  King  Stanislas 
Augustus  of  Poland,  to  which  country  the 
town  then  belonged,  established  10  markets  in 
Berditchev,  since  which  time  the  city  has  been 
growing  in  commercial  importance. 

BEREG,  a  county  of  N.  E.  Hungary,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  the  Carpathians  and  S.  W.  by  the 
Theiss;  area,  1,439  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
139,223,  over  half  of  whom  are  Ruthenians, 
5,000  Jews,  2,800  Germans,  600  Slovaks,  and 
the  rest  Magyars.  The  N.  part  is  mountainous 
and  rather  barren,  but  the  county  is  fertile  in 
fruits,  especially  in  the  south,  which  produces 
wine  little  inferior  to  Tokay.  The  forests 
abound  with  game  and  cattle,  and  the  numer- 
ous streams,  all  tributaries  of  the  Theiss,  with 
fish  and  water  fowl.  Gold  is  no  longer  found, 
but  there  is  abundance  of  iron  ore,  porcelain 
clay,  and  alum,  the  last  of  which  is  extensively 
refined.  The  principal  towns  are  Munkacs, 
and  Boregszasz,  the  capital  (pop.  in  1870, 
6,272). 

BEREXGARIIS  (BBEENQKR),  an  ecclesiastic 
who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  llth  cen- 
tury as  an  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  supposed  to  have  been  born  at 
Tours  in  998,  and  to  have  died  there  in  1088. 
He  resided  at  Tours  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  life,  and  held  a  canonry  in  the  church  of 
St.  Martin,  though  he  was  at  the  same  time 
archdeacon  of  Angers.  His  opponents,  Guit- 
mund  and  Berthold,  describe  him  as  a  man 
of  shallow  intellect  and  little  erudition,  whose 
chief  dialectic  weapons  were  the  use  of  terms 
in  a  novel  signification,  and  the  employment 
of  opprobrious  epithets.  It  is  difficult  to  dis- 
cover precisely  what  was  his  doctrine  of  the 
eucharist,  although  it  is  certain  that  he  denied 
transubstantiation.  He  commenced  his  attack 
on  this  dogma  in  1045,  and  was  supported  at  first 
by  several  bishops,  the  chief  of  whom  were 
Bishop  Bruno  of  Angers  and  Bishop  Proliant 
of  Senlis,  as  well  as  by  a  still  larger  number 
of  the  inferior  clergy  and  students.  Philip  I., 
king  of  Prance,  countenanced  him  for  a  time, 
from  political  reasons.  The  bishops  aban- 
doned him,  however,  at  a  later  period,  and  all 
political  countenance  was  withdrawn  from  him. 
The  opinion  of  Berengarius,  together  with  that 
of  John  Scotus  Erigena,  whom  he  professed  to 
follow,  was  first  condemned  by  a  council  at 
Rome.  A  public  dispute  which  he  held  with 
two  monks  of  Bee,  before  William  of  Norman- 


dy, ended  also  unfavorably  for  him.  Soon 
after  (1050)  two  synods  were  held,  the  first  at 
Vercelli,  the  second  at  Paris,  to  both  of  which 
he  was  invited,  and  where,  on  his  failing  to 
appear,  his  doctrine  was  condemned.  In  1054 
a  synod  was  held  at  Tours,  by  the  papal  legate 
Hildebrand  (afterward  Gregory  VII.),  where 
Berengarius  retracted  his  doctrine,  and  signed 
the  formula  of  faith  presented  to  him,  without 
any  attempt  to  defend  himself.  As  he  contin- 
ued, however,  to  preach  and  propagate  his 
doctrine,  it  was  condemned  again  by  Victor  II. 
in  1055;  by  Nicholas  II.  and  a  synod  of  113 
bishops  at  Rome  in  1059,  where  Berengarius 
made  a  new  retraction ;  by  the  French  synods 
of  Angers,  Rouen,  St.  Maixent,  and  Poitiers, 
between  1062  and  1076 ;  by  two  synods  at 
Rome  in  1078  and  1079;  and  finally  by  the 
synod  of  Bordeaux  in  1080.  At  these  last 
three  synods  Berengarius  renewed  his  recanta- 
tion in  the  most  precise  language,  but  after 
each  one,  except  the  last,  -continued  to  teach 
his  doctrine  as  before.  After  the  last  recanta- 
tion he  certainly  abstained  from  attacking  the 
doctrine  of  the  Roman  church,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  died  in  her  communion.  The  remains 
of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections 
of  D'Ache'ry  and  Martene,  and  in  a  more  re- 
cent publication  by  Vischer  (Berlin,  1834). 

BEREiVGER  I.,  king  of  Italy  from  888  to  924. 
His  father  was  Eberhard,  duke  of  Friuli ;  his 
mother  a  daughter  of  Louis  le  D6bonnaire  of 
France.  Upon  the  deposition  of  Charles  the 
Fat,  Berenger  was  recognized  as  king  of  Italy 
by  one  assembly  of  the  states,  and  Guido,  duke 
of  Spoleto,  by  another.  Civil  war  ensued,  but 
Guido,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  king  and 
emperor,  died  in  894,  and  his  son  Lambert, 
who  also  assumed  these  titles,  died  in  898. 
Another  competitor  for  the  throne  arose  in 
Arnulph,  king  of  Germany ;  but  he  died  in 
899.  The  nobles  then  called  in  Louis,  son  of 
Boson,  king  of  Provence,  who  marched  into 
Italy ;  but  Berenger  surrounded  him  and  forced 
him  to  take  an  oath  never  to  reenter  Italy.  He 
violated  his  oath,  returned,  and  was  crowned. 
Berenger  surprised  him  near  Verona,  took  him 
prisoner,  caused  him  to  be  blinded,  and  sent 
him  back  to  Provence.  Berenger  was  now 
crowned  by  Pope  John  X.  as  king  and  em- 
peror, and  gained  considerable  successes  over 
the  Saracens  and  Hungarians,  who  had  in- 
vaded his  dominions.  The  nobles,  jealous  of 
his  growing  power,  set  up  another  competi- 
tor, Rudolph,  king  of  Burgundy,  who  invaded 
Italy  in  921.  A  decisive  battle  took  place  at 
Firenzuola,  July  29,  923.  At  the  moment 
when  the  army  of  Rudolph  was  on  the  point 
of  rout,  his  brother-in-law  brought  up  large 
reinforcements ;  and  Berenger,  in  turn  de- 
feated, was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Verona, 
where  he  was  assassinated,  in  March,  924,  by 
a  man  named  Lambert,  to  whose  son  he  was 
godfather. — Berenger  II.,  king  of  Italy  from 
950  to  961,  son  of  Gisela,  daughter  of  Berenger 
I.,  and  of  Adalbert,  marquis  of  Ivrea.  His 


552 


BERENICE 


stepmother,  Ermengarda,  had  placed  upon  the 
throne  her  brother  Hugh,  count  of  Provence, 
who  at  length  ordered  Berenger  to  be  seized 
and  blinded.  He  escaped,  and  took  refuge 
in  Germany  with  Otho  the  Great,  and  in  943 
began  to  excite  the  Italians  against  Hugh,  and 
in  945  entered  Italy  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
upon  the  invitation  of  the  nobles  and  bishops. 
Hugh  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Lothaire, 
who  received  the  title  of  king,  but  Berenger 
exercised  the  real  authority.  Lothaire  died,  it 
is  supposed  by  poison,  in  950.  Berenger  was 
now  crowned  together  with  his  son  Adal- 
bert, to  whom  he  wished  to  marry  Adelaide, 
the  widow  of  Lothaire.  She  sought  the  pro- 
tection of  Otho,  who  in  951  marched  into 
Italy,  penetrated  without  opposition  to  Pavia, 
the  capital  of  Berenger,  and  married  Adelaide. 
The  next  year  Otho  returned  to  Germany, 
whither  he  was  followed  by  Berenger,  who 
besought  him  to  restore  to  him  the  crown 
upon  any  conditions,  and  whom  he  finally  re- 
established as  a  feudatory  of  the  German  em- 
pire. But,  scarcely  on  his  throne  again,  Beren- 
ger undertook  to  punish  those  of  his  subjects 
who  had  taken  part  with  Otho.  The  German 
emperor  thereupon  sent  an  army  under  his 
son  Ludolph,  who  speedily  overran  nearly  all 
Italy,  but  died  the  next  year.  In  961  Otho 
himself  took  the  field.  Berenger  shut  himself 
up  in  the  fortress  of  St.  Leo,  where  he  stood  a 
long  siege,  but  was  starved  out  in  964,  and 
forced  to  surrender.  He  and  his  wife  were 
imprisoned  at  Bamberg,  where  he  died  in  966. 
His  son  Adalbert  troubled  the  Germans  for  a 
while,  but  was  at  last  forced  to  flee  and  take 
refuge  in  Constantinople. 

BERENICE,  the  name  of  several  Egyptian  and 
Syrian  queens  and  princesses.  I.  Daughter  of 
Lagus  and  Antigone,  went  to  Egypt  in  the 
tram  of  Eurydice,  second  wife  of  Ptolemy  I. 
(Soter),  became  herself  his  third  wife,  and  in- 
duced him  to  make  her  son,  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  his  successor  in  preference  to  an  elder 
son  by  Eurydice.  Her  wisdom  and  virtue 
were  celebrated  by  Plutarch  and  Theocritus, 
and  after  her  death  divine  honors  were  decreed 
to  her.  II.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  II.  (Phila- 
delphus),  and  wife  of  Antiochus  II.  (Theos), 
king  of  Syria.  Antiochus  entered  into  a  treaty 
in  249  B.  0.,  by  which  he  agreed  to  put  away 
his  wife  Laodice  and  marry  Berenice ;  but 
upon  the  death  of  Philadelphia,  two  years 
afterward,  Antiochus  took  Laodice  back  and 
put  Berenice  away  in  turn.  Laodice,  however, 
distrusted  Antiochus  and  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned.  Berenice  fled  to  Daphne,  where  she 
was  murdered  together  with  her  son  and  at- 
tendants by  Laodice's  partisans.  III.  Grand- 
daughter of  Berenice  I.,  daughter  of  Magas, 
king  of  Cyrene,  and  wife  of  Ptolemy  III. 
(Euergetes)  of  Egypt.  Her  father  promised 
her  in  marriage  to  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  and  soon 
afterward  died.  Her  mother,  Arsinoe,  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  match,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  it  offered  her  in  marriage 


to  Demetrius  the  Delicate,  son  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  But  upon  the  arrival  of  Demetrius 
in  Cyrene  to  receive  her,  Arsinou  herself  fell  in 
love  with  him,  and  Berenice,  indignant  that 
her  mother  was  preferred  by  Demetrius,  caused 
him  to  be  murdered  in  the  arms  of  the  queen. 
She  then  went  to  Egypt  and  married  Euer- 
getes, to  whom  she  had  been  originally  be- 
trothed. Upon  the  return  of  her  husband 
from  an  expedition  into  Syria,  in  fulfilment  of 
a  vow,  she  offered  up  her  hair  to  Venus.  The 
hair  was  said  to  have  been  changed  into  the 
seven  stars  of  the  constellation  Leo,  known  as 
the  Coma  or  Crinis  Berenices.  She  was  put 
to  death  by  order  of  her  son  Ptolemy  IV. 
(Philopator)  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
IV.  Also  called  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy VIII.  (Lathyrus)  of  Egypt,  and  wife  of 
Alexander  II.  (Ptolemy  X.).  She  was  placed 
upon  the  throne  by  the  Alexandrians  after  the 
death  of  her  father  (81  B.  C.) ;  and  Alexander, 
who  had  been  appointed  king  by  Sulla,  agreed 
to  marry  her  and  share  the  sovereignty.  He 
performed  his  agreement,  but  caused  her  to  be 
assassinated  19  days  after  their  marriage, 
whereupon,  it  is  said,  the  Alexandrians  rose 
against  him  and  put  him  to  death.  V.  Daughter 
of  Ptolemy  XI.  (Auletes)  and  eldest  sister  of 
the  celebrated  Cleopatra.  She  was  proclaimed 
queen  upon  the  deposition  of  her  father,  58  B. 
C.,  and  wishing  to  marry  a  prince  of  royal 
blood,  she  sent  to  Syria  for  Seleucus  Cybio- 
sactes,  who  pretended  to  be  of  the  royal  race 
of  the  Seleucidre.  Finding  him  to  be  a  man 
of  mean  character,  she  caused  him  to  be  stran- 
gled a  few  days  afterward.  She  then  married 
Archelaus  of  Comana,  who  claimed  to  be  a 
son  of  Mithridates  Eupator.  Aulus  Gabinus, 
having  undertaken  to  restore  Auletes  to  the 
throne,  defeated  her  and  her  husband  in  three 
successive  battles,  55  B.  C.,  and  Archelaus 
was  slain.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  Auletes 
after  his  restoration  was  to  cause  his  daughter 
to  be  put  to  death.  VI.  Daughter  of  Costoba- 
rns  and  Salome,  sister  of  Herod  the  Great, 
king  of  Judea,  married  her  cousin  Aristobulus. 
The  latter  reproached  her  with  the  inferiority 
of  her  birth,  and  her  complaints  of  this  to  her 
mother  increased  the  hostility  against  her  hus- 
band. After  his  execution  (6  B.  C.)  she  mar- 
ried Theudion,  the  maternal  uncle  of  Antipater, 
the  eldest  son  of  Herod.  After  the  death  of 
Theudion  she  went  to  Rome  with  her  mother 
and  remained  till  her  death.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Agrippa  I.  VII.  The  eldest  daughter 
of  Agrippa  I.,  married  her  uncle  Herod,  king 
of  Chalcis,  and  had  two  sons  by  him.  Upon 
his  death  in  A.  D.  48  she  lived  with  her 
brother  Agrippa  for  some  time,  and  then  mar- 
ried Polemon,  king  of  Cilicia.  She  left  him, 
and  was  again  living  with  her  brother  when 
Paul  pleaded  before  him  at  Ca:sarea.  Titus 
was  captivated  by  her  beauty  at  the  siege  of  Je- 
rusalem and  carried  her  to  Rome.  He  desired 
to  marry  her,  but  was  compelled  by  the  public 
sentiment  at  Rome  to  send  her  back  to  Judea, 


BERENICE 


BERESINA 


553 


against  her  wishes  as  well  as  his  own.  Their 
parting  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  tra- 
gedy by  Racine. 

BERENICE.  I.  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt, 
on  a  gulf  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Red  sea,  an- 
ciently called  Sinus  Immundus,  in  lat.  23°  56' 
N.,  Ion.  35°  34'  E.,  155  m.  E.  by  8.  of  Syene 
(Asswan).  The  city  stood  upon  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  between  the  shore  and  a  range  of  hills. 
It  was  probably  founded  by  Ptolemy  II.,  and 
being  the  terminus  of  a  great  road  from  Ooptos 
on  the  Nile,  210  m.  distant,  became  the  empo- 
rium of  commerce  between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt 
on  the  one  hand  and  Syria  and  India  on  the 
other,  and  so  continued  under  the  Romans.  The 
population  was  about  10,000.  Some  ancient 
remains  exist.  II.  An  ancient  city  of  Oyrenaica, 
situated  upon  the  promontory  of  Pseudopenias, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  small  stream  Lathon,  near 
the  E.  extremity  of  the  Great  Syrtis.  It  was 
originally  called  Hesperis  because  the  garden 
of  the  Hesperides  was  supposed  to  be  in  its 
neighborhood.  It  acquired  importance  under 
the  Ptolemies,  and  was  named  Berenice  from 
the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  Many  of  its 
inhabitants  were  Jews.  Its  prosperity  received 
a  blow  from  the  insurrection  of  the  Jews  during 
the  reign  of  Trajan,  from  which  it  never  re- 
covered. Under  Justinian  it  was  fortified  and 
adorned  with  baths.  Benghazi  now  occupies 
its  site. 

BERESFORD,  James,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Upham,  Hampshire,  in  1764,  died  in  Sep- 
tember, 1840.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  rector  of  Kibworth,  Leicester- 
shire. He  was  the  author  of  various  indepen- 
dent works  and  of  contributions  to  the  "  Look- 
er-on," a  periodical  published  in  1792-'3.  His 
most  noted  work  was  "  The  Miseries  of  Human 
Life,"  a  prose  satire  often  reprinted. 

BERESFORD,  William  Carr,  viscount,  a  British 
general,  born  in  Ireland,  Oct.  2,  1768,  died  in 
Kent,  Jan.  8,  1854.  He  was  the  illegitimate 
son  of  the  first  marquis  of  Waterford,  and  en- 
tered the  army  at  an  early  age.  While  in 
Nova  Scotia  he  lost  an  eye.  He  served  at  Tou- 
lon, in  Corsica,  the  West  and  East  Indies,  and 
in  Ireland,  and  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Thence  he  was  detach- 
ed in  1806  in  command  of  the  land  forces  of 
an  expedition  against  Buenos  Ayres,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  took  the  place, 
but  was  obliged  to  surrender  it  with  his  corps, 
and  soon  afterward  made  his  escape.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  force  which  captured 
Madeira  in  1807  and  took  possession  of  the 
island.  In  1808  he  was  sent  to  Portugal  with 
the  rank  of  major  general  and  intrusted  with 
the  organization  of  the  Portuguese  army.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  upon  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  terms  of  the  convention  of  Cintra. 
He  accompanied  Sir  John  Moore  into  Spain, 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Corunna,  and  cov- 
ered the  embarkation  of  the  troops.  In  1809 
he  was  appointed  marshal  and  generalissimo  of 
the  Portuguese  army,  which  he  reorganized  and 


brought  into  a  state  of  great  efficiency.  He 
supported  Wellington  throughout  the  peninsu- 
lar war,  and  took  part  in  all  the  principal  bat- 
tles. On  May  4,  1811,  he  invested  the  fortress 
of  Badajoz,  but  considered  it  advisable  to  raise 
the  siege,  and  on  the  16th  defeated  Soult  at  the 
battle  of  Albuera,  rather,  however,  through  the 
courage  of  his  soldiers  than  through  his  own 

feneralship.  He  took  part  in  the  victories  of 
alamanca,  Vitoria,  Bayonne,  Orthez,  and  Tou- 
louse, and  was  created  field  marshal  of  Portu- 
gal, duke  of  Elvas,  and  marquis  of  Santo  Cam- 
po.  In  1810  he  was  chosen  member  of  parlia- 
ment, but  never  took  his  seat.  In  1814  he  was 
created  Baron  Beresford  of  Albuera  and  Dun- 
gannon,  and  went  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Brazil ;  and  in  1817  he  suppressed  an  insurrec- 
tion in  Brazil,  on  behalf  of  the  Portuguese 
government.  After  his  return  to  England  he 
was  made  viscount  (1823)  and  general  of  the 
army  (1825).  From  1828  to  1830  he  was  mas- 
ter general  of  the  ordnance.  Having  assisted 
in  forwarding  English  troops  to  Dom  Miguel, 
he  was  deprived  by  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment of  the  rank  of  field  marshal.  In  politics 
he  was  a  decided  tory.  He  married  in  1832  his 
cousin  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  archbishop  of 
Tuam  and  widow  of  Thomas  Hope,  but  died 
without  children,  his  titles  becoming  extinct. 

BERESINi,  or  Berezina,  a  river  of  Russia,  gov- 
ernment of  Minsk,  rises  in  lat.  55°  10'  N.,  Ion. 
27°  50'  E.,  and  flows  S.  E.  through  a  level 
country,  and  empties  into  the  Dnieper  above 
Retchitza.  By  the  canal  which  connects  it 
with  the  Diina  the  Baltic  communicates  with 
the  Black  sea.  The  river  is  memorable  for  the 
battle  fought  upon  its  hanks  in  November, 
1812.  The  army  of  Napoleon  on  its  retreat 
from  Moscow,  hard  pressed  by  Kutuzpff  and 
Wittgenstein,  was  about  to  cross  the  river  by 
the  bridge  at  Borisov,  but  found  that  it  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  Russians  under  Tchitcha- 
goff.  Napoleon  then  constructed  two  bridges 
at  Studienka,  a  small  village  N.  W.  of  Borisov. 
In  the  afternoon  of  the  26th  the  passage  was 
commenced,  and  continued  through  the  27th 
undisturbed  by  the  enemy.  On  the  morning 
of  the  28th  the  Russians  attacked  the  French 
in  force.  The  remnants  of  the  corps  command- 
ed by  Ondinot,  Ney,  and  Davonst  fought  with 
desperation,  and  gradually  made  their  way 
across,  but  the  Russians  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing a  battery  of  12  guns  which  commanded 
the  bridge.  Very  great  confusion  and  loss  of 
life  was  caused  among  the  French,  especially  in 
the  unfortunate  rear  guard  commanded  by  Vic- 
tor. Many  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  and 
stragglers  remained  upon  the  left  bank,  but  on 
the  morning  of  the  20th  preparations  were 
made  by  the  French  to  burn  the  bridge.  After 
it  had  been  set  on  fire,  those  who  remained  be- 
hind rushed  upon  it  and  perished  in  the  flames 
or  in  the  river.  It  is  said  that  when  the  ice 
broke  up  in  the  spring  12,000  bodies  of  the 
French  were  found  upon  the  banks.  The 
Russians  took  about  15,000  prisoners. 


554 


BEREZOV 


BERGAMO 


BEREZOV.  I.  Also  called  Bertzovsk,  a  village 
of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Perm,  on  the 
E.  slope  of  the  Ural  mountains,  about  10  m. 
N.  E.  of  Yekaterinburg,  noted  for  its  gold 
mine,  which  employs  6,000  men;  pop.  in  1867, 
1,567.  II.  A  small  town  of  Siberia,  in  the 
government  of  Tobolsk,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Sosra,  a  branch  of  the  Obi,  in  lat.  64°  3'  N.,  Ion. 
65°  E. ;  pop.  about  1,500.  It  is  the  sole  station 
for  traffic  in  furs  in  a  vast  extent  of  territory, 
and  the  annual  fair  held  here  is  well  attended. 
Berezov  is  noted  in  Russian  history  as  a  place 
of  exile. 

BERG,  an  ancient  duchy  of  Germany,  on  the 
lower  Rhine.  In  1 108  Adolph  and  Ebrard,  the 
two  counts  of  Teisterband,  were  created  by  the 
emperor  Henry  V.  counts  of  Berg  and  Altena. 
One  of  their  descendants  divided  his  territory 
between  his  two  sons,  and  made  one  count  of 
Berg  and  the  other  of  Altena.  It  was  subse- 
quently connected  with  Limburg,  and  still 
later  with  Cleves  and  Julich.  In  1666,  after 
long  disputes,  Cleves  was  given  to  Branden- 
burg, and  Julich-Berg  to  the  Palatinate.  After 
many  new  changes  Julich  was  annexed  to 
France  by  the  wars  of  the  revolution,  and 
Berg  to  Prussia.  In  1806  Berg  too  was  ceded 
to  France.  In  1 808  it  was  enlarged  and  erected 
into  a  grand  duchy  by  Napoleon,  and  given  first 
to  Murat  and  afterward  to  the  eldest  son  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  king  of  Holland.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  1815  with  Prussia  under  the 
treaty  of  Vienna,  and  is  now  included  in  the 
three  districts  of  Arnsberg,  Dilsseldorf,  and 
Cologne. 

BERG,  Frledrieh  von,  count,  a  Russian  general, 
born  May  26,  1790.  When  a  young  man  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels  in  southern 
Europe  and  Turkey,  which  led  to  his  being  sent 
by  Capo  d'Istria,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  to 
Naples  in  a  diplomatic  capacity,  but  for  the 
purpose  in  reality  of  observing  the  carbonari, 
his  accounts  of  whom  attracted  much  attention. 
As  colonel  in  the  army  he  took  part  in  expedi- 
tions against  the  Kirghizes  (1822-'4),  and  also 
in  one  to  the  Aral  sea  (1825),  which  had  im- 
portant scientific  results.  In  1830  he  married 
in  Italy  the  countess  Cicogna.  He  served  for 
12  years  under  Prince  Paskevitch  in  Poland, 
and  was  employed  upon  diplomatic  missions 
and  in  military  topography.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  general  of  infantry  and  quarter- 
master general  on  the  imperial  staff,  and  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Petersburg.  When  Austria  in 
1849  requested  the  assistance  of  Russia  against 
Hungary,  Berg  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to 
Vienna,  and  used  all  his  influence  with  Prince 
Paskevitch  to  prevent  a  breach  between  him 
and  Haynau.  On  his  return  to  St.  Petersburg 
he  engaged  in  topographical  works  of  magni- 
tude. Having  been  sent  as  governor  to  Fin- 
land, he  was  recalled  in  1861  on  account  of 
his  unpopularity.  He  was  next  employed,  in 
1863-'4,  in  putting  down  the  insurrection  in 
Poland,  at  first  as  adviser  of  the  grand  duke 
Constantine,  and  afterward  as  commander-in- 


chief  and  governor  of  that  province,  an  office 
which  he  still  holds  (1873).  He  was  created 
field  marshal  in  1867. 

BERG13U,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  50  m. 
N.  of  Smyrna,  built  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Pergamus;  pop.  about  12,000.  The  remains 
of  several  temples,  of  a  prytaneum,  gymnasium, 
amphitheatre,  and  other  public  buildings,  bear 
witness  to  the  magnificence  of  the  ancient  city. 

BERGAMI,  Bartolommeo,  courier  of  Caroline, 
queen  of  England,  said  to  have  been  the  son 
of  a  village  apothecary.  Originally  a  common 
soldier  in  the  Italian  army,  he  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  quartermaster.  In  1814  at  Milan  he 
was  recommended  to  Queen  Caroline  by  the 
marquis  of  Ghislieri  as  a  man  of  character  and 
attainments.  He  was  singularly  good-looking, 
and  was  taken  into  her  service  as  courier. 
He  nearly  lost  his  life  by  drinking  through 
mistake  a  glass  of  poisoned  wine  that  had  been 
intended  for  the  queen.  He  accompanied  her 
upon  her  travels  through  Germany,  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Syria,  and  was  treated  with  great 
favor,  promoted  to  the  position  of  chamberlain 
and  master  of  the  horse,  admitted  to  the  table 
of  her  majesty,  and  presented  with  a  handsome 
estate  near  Milan.  At  Palermo  the  queen  ob- 
tained for  him  the  title  of  baron.  His  sister 
the  countess  of  Oldi  was  made  lady  in  waiting, 
and  one  of  his  brothers  steward  and  the  other 
treasurer.  Upon  the  return  of  the  queen  to 
England  proceedings  were  instituted  against 
her  which  were  founded  principally  upon  the 
charge  that  she  had  been  guilty  of  improper 
intimacy  with  Bergami  upon  her  travels.  The 
public  sentiment  in  England,  'however,  was 
upon  the  queen's  side,  and  the  proceedings 
were  discontinued.  After  the  queen's  return 
to  England  Bergami  continued  to  reside  in 
Italy  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  wealth  received 
from  her. 

BERGAMO.  I.  A  province  of  N.  Italy,  a  part 
of  Lombardy,  bounded  N.  by  Sondrio,  E.  by 
Brescia,  S.  by  Cremona,  and  W.  by  Milan  and 
Como;  area,  1,027  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  368,- 
112.  It  comprises  the  three  districts  of  Ber- 
gamo, Clusone,  and  Treviglio.  The  Alps  ex- 
tend down  into  the  northern  districts  of  Ber- 
gamo and  Clusone,  which  are  well  wooded. 
The  southern  district,  Treviglio,  is  part  of  the 
great  Lombard  plain,  and  is  rich  and  fertile. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Adda,  its  tributa- 
ries the  Brembo  and  Serio,  and  the  Oglio,  an 
affluent  of  the  Po,  which  flows  through  Lake 
Iseo.  The  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  walnut  are 
cultivated,  and  there  are  large  plantations  of 
mulberry  trees.  The  province  has  valuable 
iron  mines,  large  iron  works,  and  several 
woollen  and  silk  factories.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  beautiful  scenery.  The  inhabitants  are 
clownish  and  awkward  in  appearance,  but 
shrewd.  Their  dialect  is  peculiar.  The  har- 
lequins of  the  Italian  stage  have  imitated  their 
manners  and  accent,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  had  their  origin  in  the  valley  of  the 
Brembo.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  province, 


BERGAMOT 


BERGEN 


555 


between  the  Scrio  and  Brembo,  28  m.  N.  E. 
of  Milan;  pop.  in  1872,  37,363.  It  consists 
of  an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  half  a  mile 


Bergamo. 

distant  from  each  other.  The  former,  called 
the  Citta  (anc.  Sergomum),  is  situated  upon 
a  steep  and  lofty  hill,  one  of  the  last  spurs 
of  the  Alps.  It  was  strongly  fortified  by  the 
Venetians,  and  its  dismantled  walls  now  form 
beautiful  boulevards.  The  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  was  begun  in  1134,  but  not 
completed  until  long  afterward.  The  northern 
part,  erected  in  1360,  is  of  black  and  white 
marble.  The  interior  is  rich  in  stucco  decora- 
tions and  paintings,  among  which  are  remains 
of  old  frescoes,  some  of  which  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  14th  century.  The  stalls  of  the 
choir  and  screen  are  among  the  finest  specimens 
of  wood  carving  in  Italy.  The  campanile,  more 
than  300  ft.  high,  appears  conspicuously  in  the 
view.  The  sacristy,  erected  in  1430,  is  among 
the  earliest  examples  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Roman  style  in  connection  with  the  Gothic. 
Adjoining  the  church  is  the  sepulchral  chapel 
of  Bartolommeo  Colleoni,  a  famous  condot- 
tiere  of  the  15th  century ;  the  facade,  which  has 
lately  been  restored,  is  very  fine,  ornamented 
with  different-colored  marbles.  The  duomo,  or 
cathedral,  has  a  fine  cupola,  which  forms  a  con- 
spicuous object.  Before  the  Palazzo  Vecchio, 
or  Broletto,  which  contains  a  public  library  of 
70,000  volumes,  stands  the  statue  of  Torquato 
Tasso,  whose  father  was  a  native  of  the  town. 
In  the  Carrara  academy  lectures  are  given  on 
art.  There  is  also  an  academy  of  music,  in 
which  Donizetti  was  taught,  a  theatre,  and 
other  public  buildings.  The  lower  town,  called 
the  Borgo  or  suburb  of  San  Leonardo,  is  the 
seat  of  business.  It  is  noted  for  La  Fiera  di 
Sant'  Alessandro,  a  large  square  building  of 
stone,  within  which  are  streets,  600  shops,  and 
an  open  space  in  the  centre  adorned  with  a 
fountain.  A  great  annual  fair  commences  here 


in  August,  which  is  said  to  have  been  held 
ever  since  the  10th  century.     The  building  was 
erected  in  1740.     The   commodities   sold   are 
silks,     cloths,     wools, 
iron,  '&c. 

BERGAMOT,  a  kind 
of  green-colored  citron 
or  small  orange,  of  tine 
flavor  and  taste,  of 
round  form,  the  fruit 
of  the  citrus  margarita 
(bergamia  of  Risso  and 
De  Candolle).  The 
rind  furnishes  by  distil- 
lation an  essence  or  oil 
which  is  much  used  in 
perfumery,  and  to  some 
extent  in  medicine. 
The  bergamot  tree  is  a 
native  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  is  particu- 
larly abundant  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Nice. 
To  obtain  2J  ounces  of 
oil,  100  bergamots  are 
consumed.  This  oil  or 
essence  has  a  very 

agreeable,  sweetish  odor,  and  a  bitter,  aromatic 
taste.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0'885.  In  com- 
position it  is  not  to  be  distinguished  from  oil 


Bergamot  (Citrus  margarita). 

of  lemons.  Alcohol  is  used  to  adulterate  it, 
and  is  not  readily  detected  when  added  only 
to  the  extent  of  8  per  cent. — Bergamot  is  also 
the  name  of  a  variety  of  pears,  which,  like  the 
citron  tree  of  the  same  name,  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  Bergamo,  Italy. — The  word  is 
also  used  to  designate  a  coarse  tapestry,  gup- 
posed  to  have  been  invented  at  Bergamo. 

BERGEN,  a  N.  E.  county  of  New  Jersey,  bor- 
dering on  New  York  and  bounded  E.  by  the 
Hudson  river;  area,  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
30,122.  On  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson,  with- 


55C 


BERGEN 


in  the  limits  of  this  county,  are  the  Palisades,  a 
range  of  trap  rock  which  rises  perpendicularly 
from  the  river  to  a  height  of  500  ft.  The 
county  is  intersected  by  Ramapo,  Hackensack, 
and  Saddle  rivers,  has  an  uneven  and  in  the 
western  part  mountainous  surface,  and  a  pro- 
ductive soil.  It  contains  limestone  and  mag- 
netic iron  ore.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Erie 
railway,  the  Hackensack  branch,  and  the  North- 
ern railway  of  New  Jersey.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  8,788  bushels  of  wheat, 
31,719  of  rye,  146,140  of  Indian  corn,  45,533 
of  oats,  24,009  of  buckwheat,  209,162  of  pota- 
toes, 18,208  tons  of  hay,  and  323,919  Ibs.  of 
butter.  There  were  3,535  horses,  4,076  milch 
cows,  1,861  other  cattle,  473  sheep,  and  2,953 
swine.  Value  of  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$240,462.  Capital,  Hackensack. 

BKKGEJf.  Ii  A  province  (stift  or  diocese)  of 
Norway,  comprising  most  of  the  W.  part  of 
the  country,  including  the  mainland  and  many 


Bergen,  Norway. 

inhabited  and  desert  islands  along  the  toast, 
bounded  N.  by  Trondhjem,  E.  by  Hamar  and 
Christiania,  S.  by  Christiansand,  and  W.  by  the 
ocean ;  area,  14,869  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1865,  267,- 
354,  exclusive  of  the  city  of  Bergen,  which  has 
a  separate  administrative  organization.  It  con- 
sists of  the  districts  (amte)  of  Sondre  and  Nor- 
dre  (south  and  north)  Bergenhuus  and  of  part 
of  the  district  of  Romsdal.  Among  the  largest 
gulfs  is  the  Hardanger  or  Bommelfjord,  83  m. 
long.  The  principal  river,  the  Leerdals,  rises  in 
the  Fille  mountains  and  joins  a  branch  of  the 
Sognef  gulf.  There  is  good  pasturage  between 
the  high  mountains  which  extend  over  nearly 
the  whole  province  and  around  the  gulfs ;  and 
cattle  breeding  and  fisheries,  chiefly  of  herrings, 
are  the  principal  industries.  Agriculture  has 
been  lately  somewhat  improved,  though  corn 
must  still  be  imported  in  a  few  parishes.  Mar- 
ble is  found  to  some  extent.  Copper  and  iron 
ore,  though  abundant,  are  not  much  worked 


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM 

owing  to  their  rather  inaccessible  situation  and 
to  the  scarcity  of  wood.  Rain  is  singularly 
frequent,  and  the  inhabitants  suffer  much  from 
diseases  of  the  skin.  II.  A  city  and  seaport, 
capital  of  the  province,  in  the  bailiwick  of 
Sondre  Bergenhuus,  on  the  W.  coast,  180  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Christiania ;  pop.  in  1865,  29,194. 
An  island  called  Asko,  opposite  the  town 
and  3  m.  distant,  encloses  a  bay  called  Bye- 
f, jorden,  which  divides  into  two  branches  called 
Vaagen  and  Pudefjorden.  The  town  is  built 
upon  the  promontory  between  these  two  parts 
of  the  bay,  and  extends  in  a  semicircle  around 
the  Vaagen.  Behind  the  town  on  the  land 
side  are  high  mountains.  It  was  formerly  the 
first  commercial  city  of  Norway,  and  is  now 
the  second  in  importance.  The  harbor  is  ex- 
cellent, but  difficult  of  access.  It  is  defended 
by  the  castle  of  Bergenhuus  and  six  smaller 
forts.  The  Nordlandmen  come  to  the  city  twice 
a  year  with  fish,  skin,  and  feathers.  In  March 
and  April  600  or  700 
vessels  may  be  seen 
in  the  harbor  at  one 
time.  About  $2,000,- 
000  worth  offish  are  ex- 
ported annually.  The 
city  was  founded  in 
1070  by  King  Olaf 
Kyrre,  who  built  the 
castle  and  some  of  the 
churches.  It  was  sev- 
eral times  devastated 
by  the  black  plague. 
The  first  foreign  treaty 
made  by  the  English 
was  made  in  this  city 
in  1217.  The  mer- 
chants of  the  Hanseat- 
ic  league  afterward  ob- 
tained a  foothold  here, 
and  in  1445  established 
a  Hanseatic  trading 
factory.  Their  clerks 
and  agents  were  sub- 
ject exclusively  to  the  government  of  the 
Hanse  towns.  Marriage  was  not  permitted 
to  them.  In  September,  1455,  they  caused 
to  be  put  to  death  Governor  Olaf  Nielsen, 
Bishop  Torlief,  and  60  other  persons.  Final- 
ly Frederick  II.  of  Denmark  on  July  25, 
1560,  issued  a  decree,  called  the  "Odense 
Recess,"  for  the  determination  of  disputes 
between  the  citizens  and  the  subjects  of  the 
league,  which  broke  up  its  supremacy.  Mer- 
chants from  other  countries  began  to  share  in 
the  business,  and  in  1763  the  last  house  be- 
longing to  the  Hansa  became  the  property  of  a 
citizen  of  Bergen. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  or  Berg-op-Zoom,  a  fortified 
town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of 
North  Brabant,  on  the  river  Zoom,  near  its  en- 
trance into  the  East  Scheldt,  19  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
Antwerp;  lat.  51°29'N.,  Ion.  4°  17'E. ;  pop.  in 
1867,  9,431.  It  is  well  built,  has  a  good  har- 
bor, a  handsome  town  house,  an  ancient  palace 


BERGEXROTII 


BERGHEM 


557 


now  used  for  barracks,  two  arsenals,  several 
powder  magazines,  and  a  number  of  earthen- 
ware and  other  manufactories  of  small  impor- 
tance. It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  sardines. 
The  place  was  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
Netherlands  in  their  struggle  with  the  Span- 
iards, and  was  repeatedly  besieged  by  the  lat- 
ter without  success.  The  fortifications  are  pro- 
tected by  a  morass,  and  after  the  Spanish  wars 
were  much  strengthened  by  the  engineer  Coe- 
horn.  They  were  taken  however  by  the  French 
in  1747  under  Count  Lowendal.  The  town 
having  been  restored  to  the  Dutch  upon  the 
declaration  of  peace,  it  again  surrendered  to 
the  French  under  Pichegru  in  1795.  The  Eng- 
lish besieged  it  in  1814  without  success. 

BERGEA'ROTII,  Cnstav,  a  German-English  his- 
torian, born  in  Prussia  in  1813,  died  in  Madrid 
in  February,  1869.  He  was  assessor  to  the 
high  court  of  Berlin  from  1843  to  1848,  when 
he  joined  the  extreme  liberals.  After  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  went  to  the  United 
States,  wrote  an  account  of  a  vigilance  com- 
mittee to  which  he  belonged  in  California  in 
1850,  and  after  several  voyages  across  the  At- 
lantic settled  in  England  in  1850,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  collecting  from  the  record  office  mate- 
rials for  the  history  of  the  Tudors.  The  master 
of  the  rolls  commissioned  him  to  report  on  the 
important  discoveries  in  the  archives  of  Siman- 
cas,  and  he  pursued  his  task  amid  great  diffi- 
culties at  Simancas  and  in  London,  Brussels, 
and  Madrid.  He  edited  several  volumes  in  the 
"  Calendar  of  the  State  Papers "  (London, 
1870-'71),  under  the  direction  of  the  master 
of  the  rolls,  and  was  still  prosecuting  his  re- 
searches when  he  died.  He  also  wrote  an  es- 
say on  Wat  Tyler,  the  story  of  Queen  Joanna 
for  the  supplementary  volume  of  the  "  Calen- 
dar of  Spanish  Papers,"  and  the  abstract  of 
D'Avila's  account  of  the  murder  of  Don  Carlos 
by  Philip  II.  Mr.  W.  C.  Cartvvright  published 
in  1870  a  "Memorial  Sketch  of  Bergenroth." 

BERGERiC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Dordognc,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Dordogne,  25  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Perigueux ; 
pop.  in  1866,  12,116.  It  is  ill  built,  but  finely 
situated,  and  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of 
which  is  called  St.  Martin  de  Bergerac  and  the 
other  Madeleine.  The  town  grew  out  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Martin,  founded  in  1080.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1345,  who  were  not 
finally  dispossessed  till  1450.  It  was  a  strong- 
hold of  the  Calvinists,  and  suffered  much  dur- 
ing the  religious  wars.  Its  fortifications  were 
demolished  by  Richelieu  in  1621 ;  and  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  destroyed 
its  prosperity.  There  are  iron  founderies  and 
smelting  furnaces  in  the  vicinity  and  the  town 
has  a  trade  in  Perigord  truffles,  and  in  wine, 
brandy,  and  liqueurs.  The  Bergerac  red  and 
white  wine,  often  called  petit  champagne,  is  pro- 
duced on  the  Dordogne  and  Gironde,  the  best 
being  the  Montbazillac,  St.  Nexans,  and  Sance. 

BERGERAC,  Savinien  Cyrano  de,  a  French  author 
and  duellist,  born  at  Bergerac  in  1620,  died  in 


Paris  in  1655.  He  was  compelled  by  serious 
wounds  to  retire  from  the  military  service,  in 
which  he  had  distinguished  himself  by  his  reck- 
less courage,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  notorious  duellist.  He 
was  never  at  a  loss  for  quarrels.  When  the 
sight  of  his  long  nose,  which  was  covered  with 
scars,  provoked  a  smile,  a  duel  was  the  result. 
He  ordered  the  actor  Montneury  not  to  play 
for  a  month,  and  he  was  compelled  to  obey 
him.  Bergerac's  pen  was  no  less  formidable  a 
weapon  than  his  sword.  He  had  controversies 
with  Loret,  Scarron,  Montfleury,  and  others. 
He  studied  philosophy  under  Gassendi,  mas- 
tered the  principles  of  Descartes,  and  gave  some 
attention  to  the  philosophers  of  antiquity.  His 
best  works  are  Le  pedant  joue,  a  comedy  writ- 
ten when  he  was  at  college,  and  Agrippine, 
a  tragedy.  Corneille  and  Moliere  found  in  his 
writings  suggestions  for  some  of  their  happiest 
efforts ;  and  Swift  is  supposed  by  some  critics 
to  have  been  indebted  to  his  Histoire  eomique 
des  etats  et  empires  de  la  lune  and  Histoire 
eomique  du  toleil  for  incidents  of  his  "  Gulli- 
ver's Travels."  The  works  of  Bergerac  were 
published  at  Paris  in  1677  and  1741. 

BEKGII.U'S,  Heinrirh,  a  German  geographer, 
born  at  Cleves,  May  3,  1797.  In  1815  he 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  German  army 
under  Gen.  Tauenzien  in  France,  and  made 
use  of  his  observations  during  the  campaign 
in  the  preparation  of  his  map  of  France  (1824), 
the  best  up  to  that  time.  From  1816  to  1821 
he  was  employed  upon  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  Prussia  under  the  war  department.  He 
also  aided  in  the  preparation  of  Weiland's  map 
of  the  Netherlands  and  Reymann's  map  of  Ger- 
many. In  1824  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  applied  mathematics  in  the  Berlin  academy 
of  architecture,  and  held  that  office  till  1855. 
Besides  contributing  to  various  periodicals,  he 
has  published  a  map  of  Asia  in  18  sheets ;  a 
physical  atlas,  the  basis  of  that  published  by 
A.  Keith  Johnston ;  and  a  collection  of  hydro- 
graphical  maps  for  the  Prussian  navy.  He  ed- 
ited the  Hertha  (1825-'9)  and  several  other 
geographical  periodicals ;  and  his  works  include 
Allegemeine  Lander-  und  Volkerkunde  (6  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1837-'41);  Die  Volker  des  Erdballs 
(2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Brussels  and  Leipsic,  1852) ; 
Grundlinien  der  phyrikalischen  Erdbeschrei- 
bung  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1856);  Grundlinien 
der  Ethnographic  (2d  ed.,  1856) ;  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Catlin's  works  on  the  North  American 
Indians  (1848). 

BERGHEM,  Nikolaas,  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
in  Haarlem  in  1624,  died  Feb.  18,  1683.  Ho 
was  the  son  of  the  painter  Peter  Klaas  van 
Haarlem,  and  studied  under  his  father,  Van 
Goyen,  Weenix,  and  others.  It  is  said  thai 
one  day  when  pursued  by  his  father  into  Van 
Goyen's  studio,  Van  Goyen  exclaimed  to  the 
other  pupils  Berg  hem,  "  Hide  him ;  "  and 
thus  he  received  his  name.  His  paintings  were 
early  in  great  demand.  He  was  extremely  in- 
dustrious, and  his  works,  most  of  which  are 


558 


BERGMAN 


landscapes  with  groups  of  figures  and  cattle, 
are  careful  in  finish,  effective  in  composition, 
and  harmonious  in  coloring.  The  atmospheric 
effects  are  admirable.  There  are  11  of  his  pic- 
tures in  the  Louvre,  18  in  the  museum  of  the 
Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  others  in 
England,  at  Amsterdam,  Vienna,  and  else- 
where. He  left  a  great  number  of  pictures  and 
a  number  of  exquisite  drawings  and  etchings. 
His  works  bring  high  prices. 

BERGMAN,  Torbern  Olof,  a  Swedish  chemist 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Katarinaberg,  in  West 
Gothland,  in  March,  1735,  died  at  Medevi,  July 
8,  1784.  Intended  by  his  father  for  the  law  or 
the  church,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of 
Upsal,  where  he  injured  his  health  by  exces- 
sive study,  and  applied  himself  by  way  of 
recreation  to  botany  and  entomology.  He  sent 
to  Linnsus  several  insects  previously  unknown 
in  Sweden,  and  devised  a  new  method  for  their 
classification  founded  upon  the  characteristics 
of  the  larvfe.  His  first  paper,  published  in 
the  memoirs  of  the  academy  of  Stockholm  in 
1756,  narrated  the  discovery  that  leeches  are 
oviparous,  and  that  the  substance  called  coccus 
aguaticin  is  the  ovum  of  a  species  of  leech 
containing  several  of  the  young  animals.  Lin- 
neeus  wrote  upon  the  memoir  as  he  gave  it  his 
sanction,  Vidi,  et  olstupui.  Bergman  devoted 
himself  from  this  time  to  almost  every  branch 
of  science.  He  presented  memoirs  to  the 
academy  upon  attraction,  electricity,  twilight, 
the  rainbow,  and  the  aurora  borealis ;  became 
in  1761  adjunct  professor  of  physics  and  math- 
ematics at  Upsal,  and  was  appointed  in  the 
same  year  one  of  the  astronomers  to  observe 
the  first  transit  of  the  planet  Venus  over  the 
sun.  In  1758  an  association  of  savants  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth ;  to  each  of  the  members  a 
particular  portion  of  the  subject  was  assigned, 
and  Bergman  received  the  department  of  phys- 
ics. The  report  which  he  made  after  eight 
years  of  study  was  rapidly  sold  and  translated 
into  foreign  languages.  In  1766  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chemical  chair  of  the  university, 
and  immediately  silenced  the  murmurs  of  his 
opponents  by  publishing  a  curious  and  original 
memoir  on  the  manufacture  of  alum.  From 
this  time  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the 
study  of  chemistry,  and  determined  to  banish 
from  chemical  science  all  preconceptions,  and 
to  proceed  only  by  observation  of  facts.  He 
published  in  1774  a  paper  "  On  the  Aerial 
Acid,"  subsequently  called  carbonic  acid,  and 
proved  that  it  was  a  new  and  distinct  acid. 
By  boiling  nitric  acid  with  sugar,  gum,  and 
other  vegetable  substances,  he  produced  oxalic 
acid.  He  succeeded  in  analyzing  mineral  wa- 
ters, and  formed  factitious  mineral  waters  by 
combinations  of  their  elements.  In  his  re- 
searches on  this  topic  he  adopted  the  opinion 
that  caloric  is  a  fluid,  and  was  the  first  discov- 
erer of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  he,  called 
the  hepatic  gas.  He  was  the  first  to  employ 
the  humid  method  in  the  examination  of  min- 


BERGONZI 

erals,  and  by  combining  it  with  the  dry  method 
he  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  principal  ele- 
ments of  the  emerald,  topaz,  sapphire,  and 
other  precious  stones.  He  was  the  first  also  to 
derive  important  results  in  chemistry  from  the 
use  of  the  blowpipe.  All  of  his  labors  led  him 
to  a  chemical  classification  of  the  minerals,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  genera  were  determined 
by  the  principal  integrant  elements,  the  species 
by  the  different  degrees  in  which  they  were 
combined,  and  the  varieties  by  the  external 
form.  Applying  geometry  to  the  forms  of 
crystals,  he  laid  the  foundation  for  the  theory 
of  cry  stallization  afterward  developed  by  Hatiy. 
He  demonstrated  that  the  superiority  of  cer- 
tain kinds  of  steel  was  due  to  the  presence  of 
manganese,  and  that  the  brittleness  of  steel  in 
extreme  cold  was  caused  by  siderite,  a  sub- 
stance which  he  thought  a  new  metal,  al- 
though it  has  since  been  recognized  as  the 
phosphuret  of  iron.  The  theory  of  affinities, 
proposed  by  Geoffrpy  in  1718,  had  been  the 
first  step  toward  giving  a  philosophical  founda- 
tion to  the  science  of  chemistry.  Bergman, 
seizing  upon  this  idea,  made  it  almost  his  own 
by  an  immense  number  of  new  experiments, 
and  presented  chemical  phenomena  as  only 
modifications  of  the  great  law  which  rules  the 
universe.  To  the  curious  operations  of  the  ele- 
ments when  placed  in  juxtaposition — two  united 
elements  being  separated  by  the  approach  of 
a  third  with  which  one  of  them  combines,  and 
two  compounds  as  they  meet  each  other  inter- 
exchanging  some  of  their  elements  and  thus 
forming  two  new  compounds— to  these  ele- 
mentary movements  he  assigned  the  name 
elective,  and  introduced  the  term  elective 
affinities.  His  mathematical  training  is  seen 
in  the  simple  formulas  by  which  he  described 
chemical  operations.  He  adopted  the  errone- 
ous though  ingenious  ideas  of  Scheele  concern- 
ing phlogiston,  and  in  general  his  discoveries 
of  facts  were  of  much  more  value  than  his 
theoretical  explanations.  His  labors  distin- 
guished him  throughout  Europe;  he  cor- 
responded with  the  principal  contemporary 
chemists  and  physical  philosophers,  was  a 
member  of  numerous  learned  societies,  and 
received  from  the  king  of  Sweden  the  order  of 
Vasa.  He  remained  at  Upsal,  though  invited 
to  Berlin  by  Frederick  the  Great,  till  the  state 
of  his  health,  broken  by  his  immense  labors, 
obliged  him  to  repair  to  the  mineral  springs 
where  he  died.  His  "Physical  and  Chemical 
Essays  "  were  translated  into  English  by  Dr. 
Edmund  Cullen  (2  vols.,  1788;  3d  vol.,  1791). 
BERGOXZI,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Italian 
stringed  instrument  makers.  I.  Carlo,  born  and 
died  at  Cremona.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Stradi- 
varius,  and  was  actively  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  violins,  violas,  and  violoncellos  from 
1716  to  1755.  He  often  imitated  his  master's 
style,  especially  in  the  purfling  and  the  form  of 
the  sound  hole.  He  had  also  the  secret  of  the 
varnish  which  lent  so  much  beauty  to  the  vio- 
lins of  that  maker.  He  was  chiefly  renowned 


BERGUES 


BERKELEY 


559 


for  the  excellence  of  his  violoncellos.  His  in- 
struments are  quite  rare  and  very  valuable,  as 
he  ranked  probably  third  in  merit  among  the 
Cremona  makers,  that  is,  next  after  Guar- 
nerius,  Stradivarius  holding  undoubtedly  the 
first  position.  II.  Michel  Angelo,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  also  a  violin  maker,  but  greatly 
inferior  to  his  father  in  workmanship  and 
finish,  as  also  in  varnish.  His  instruments 
bear  date  from  1750  to  1780.  HI.  Meolo,  son 
of  Michael  Angelo,  born  in  1758,  died  in  1838. 
The  earliest  of  his  known  instruments,  a  viola, 
is  dated  1780.  He  formed  the  connecting  link 
between  the  days  of  Stradivarius  and  our  own, 
remembering  and  pointing  out  the  house  where 
the  great  violin  maker  lived. 

BERGUES,  or  lin-uf>-S(.-\Vin«r,  a  fortified 
town  of  France,  department  of  Nord,  5  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  Dunkirk,  on  the  railway  from  that 
place  to  Hazebrouck,  and  at  the  junction  of 
several  canals,  by  one  of  which  vessels  of  300 
tons  reach  the  town  from  the  sea ;  pop.  in 
1866,  5,738.  It  is  well  built.  The  finest 
buildings  are  the  town  house,  an  ancient  clock 
tower  160  feet  high,  and  the  two  towers  of 
the  abbey  of  St.  Winoc.  It  has  manufactories 
of  soap,  hosiery,  cotton  yarn,  sugar,  salt,  dis- 
tilled spirits,  leather,  &c.,  and  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  corn,  cheese,  butter,  wine,  and 
cattle.  It  was  fortified  by  Vauhan,  and  be- 
sieged by  the  English  in  1793  without  success. 

BERINGTOJV,  Joseph,  an  English  author,  born 
in  Shropshire  in  1744,  died  at  Buckland  in 
Berkshire,  Dec.  1,  1827.  He  belonged  to  a 
Roman  Catholic  family,  was  educated  at  St. 
Omer,  and  after  20  years'  ministry  as  a  priest 
in  France  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  chapel  at 
Buckland  near  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  controversial  works ;  a  valuable  "  History 
of  the  Lives  of  Abelard  and  Heloisa  "  (London, 
1784);  "Account  of  the  Present  State  of 
Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain"  (1787); 
"  History  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  II.  and  of 
Richard  and  John,"  especially  with  reference 
to  the  life  of  Thomas  a  Becket  (Birmingham, 
1790)  ;  "  Memoirs  of  Gregorio  Panzani,  giv- 
ing an  Account  of  his  Agency  in  England  in 
1634-'5-'6  "  (London,  1793),  a  translation  from 
the  Italian,  which  gave  great  offence  to  the 
Catholics ;  "  Examination  of  Events  termed 
Miraculous"  (1796),  in  which  he  disputed  the 
authenticity  of  certain  accounts  of  wonderful 
events  in  Italy;  "The  Faith  of  Catholics," 
with  Dr.  Kirk  (1813) ;  and  a  "  Literary  His- 
tory^ of  the  Middle  Ages  "  (1814). 

BERIOT,  Charles  Anguste  de,  a  Belgian  violinist 
and  composer,  born  in  Louvain,  Feb.  20,  1802, 
died  in  Brussels  April  10,  1870.  At  the  age 
of  nine  he  was  able  to  perform  difficult  con- 
certos for  the  violin.  In  1821  he  became  a 
pupil  in  the  Paris  conservatoire,  but  soon  found 
that  his  style  was  already  too  absolutely  formed 
to  admit  of  much  modification.  He  commenced 
giving  concerts,  and  made  himself  famous  in 
England,  France,  Austria,  and  other  European 
countries,  being  distinguished  for  the  purity 
88  VOL.  ii.— 36 


j  of  his  tone,  his  correctness  of  intonation,  and 
his  refined  taste.  Some  of  his  concert  tours 

!  were  made  in  company  with  Mme.  Malibran, 

;  whom  he  married  in  1836.  She  died  within 
six  months,  and  De  Beriot  was  not  again  heard 
in  public  for  several  years.  In  1842  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  violin  at  the  con- 
servatoire of  Brussels,  which  position  he  re- 
signed in  1852  in  consequence  of  almost  total 
blindness  occasioned  by  paralysis  of  the  optic 
nerve.  Among  his  pupils  were  Vieuxtemps, 
Ghys,  Prume,  and  Konsky.  He  was  succeed- 
ed in  the  professorship  by  Leonard,  also  one 
of  his  best  pupils.  De  Beriot's  compositions 

:  are  numerous,  and  have  been  in  constant  use 
by  violinists.  His  most  valuable  production  is 
a  very  complete  manual  in  three  parts  entitled 
Nethode  de  violon. 

BERKELEY,  a  N.  E.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
separated  on  the  N.  E.  from  Maryland  by  the 
Potomac,  bounded  S.  E.  by  a  branch  of  that 
river,  and  N.  W.  by  the  Shenandoah  moun- 
tains ;  area,  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,900, 
of  whom  1,672  were  colored.  Its  surface  is 
uneven  and  broken,  and  its  soil  stubborn  and 
underlaid  with  limestone  and  slate,  through 
which  permeate  numerous  sulphur  and  chalyb- 
eate springs.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
road passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  296,975  bushels  of  wheat,  297,639 
of  Indian  corn,  107,588  of  oats,  8,529  tons  of 
hay,  239,493  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  41,147  of  wool. 
There  were  3,358  horses,  3,050  milch  cows, 
4,015  other  cattle,  9,213  sheep,  and  8,892 
swine.  Capital,  Martinsburg. 

BERKELEY,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Gloucestershire,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Little  Avon,  1|  m.  from  the  Severn,  3  m. 
from  the  Bristol  and  Birmingham  railway,  and 
15m.  S.  W.  of  Gloucester ;  pop.  of  the  parish 
in  1871,  5,523.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley 
ship  canal  extends  from  Sharpness  Point  near 
Berkeley  to  Gloucester.  The  town  is  situated 
upon  a  gentle  eminence  in  what  is  known  as 
the  vale  of  Berkeley,  long  famous  for  its  butter 
and  cheese,  the  cheese  called  double  Gloucester 
being  made  only  here.  At  the  S.  E.  end  of 
the  town  stands  Berkeley  castle,  built  before 
the  time  of  Henry  II.,  and  still  inhabited  by  a 
descendant  of  its  founders,  Earl  Fitzhardinge. 
In  one  of  its  dungeons  Edward  II.  was  mur- 
dered in  1327.  The  gate  house,  hall,  chapel, 
tower,  and  keep  are  all  in  perfect  preservation. 
BERKELEY,  George,  an  Irish  prelate  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Kilcrin,  county  Kilkenny, 
March  12,  1684,  died  in  Oxford,  Jan.  14,  1753. 
His  father,  William  Berkeley,  came  of  a  family 
noted  for  its  loyalty  to  Charles  I.,  and  was  col- 
lector of  Belfast.  The  son  received  his  early 
education  at  Kilkenny  school,  and  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in 
1707.  About  the  same  time  he  published  a 
mathematical  tract  which  attracted  some  no- 
tice, and  this  was  followed  in  1709  by  "An 
Essay  toward  a  new  Theory  of  Vision."  In 
this  he  maintained  that  the  eye  has  no  natural 


560 


BERKELEY 


perception  of  space,  and  that  all  its  perceptions 
of  distance,  size,  and  position  are  derived  from  , 
the  sense  of  touch.  This  theory  has  been  very  j 
generally  adopted,  although  questioned  by  Sir 
David  Brewster.  Berkeley  himself  vindicated 
it  in  a  pamphlet  24  years  afterward,  but  this 
tract  is  not  included  in  his  published  works. 
In  1710  appeared  his  "Treatise  concerning  the 
Principles  of  Human  Knowledge,"  and  in  1713 
his  ''  Dialogues  between  Hylas  and  Philonous." 
In  these  famous  works  Berkeley  denies  the 
existence  of  matter,  and  argues  that  it  is  not 
without  the  mind,  but  within  it,  and  that  that 
which  is  generally  called  matter  is  only  an  im- 
pression produced  by  divine  power  on  the  mind, 
by  means  of  invariable  rules  styled  the  laws  of 
nature.  His  professed  object  in  maintaining 
this  theory  was  to  defend  revealed  religion  from 
the  attacks  of  skeptics,  and  he  always  insisted 
that  his  views,  if  accepted,  would  place  Chris- 
tianity on  an  impregnable  basis.  Some  writers, 
however,  insist  that  they  contain  the  strongest 
arguments  against  revelation.  Seattle's  opinion 
is  that  they  have  a  skeptical  tendency,  and 
Hume  expresses  himself  even  more  plainly,  re- 
garding them  as  the  best  weapons  of  skepticism 
to  be  found  in  any  author,  ancient  or  modern. 
His  writings  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
distinguished  men  of  his  time,  and  being  inti- 
mate with  Swift,  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
Pope,  Arbuthnot,  Prior,  and  others.  In  1713  he 
accompanied  the  earl  of  Peterborough  to  Italy, 
as  chaplain  and  secretary  of  legation.  He  re- 
turned next  year  to  England,  but  soon  again 
set  out  with  a  Mr.  Ashe,  and  on  this  tour  paid 
his  celebrated  visit  to  Malebranche,  the  French 
philosopher,  who  became  so  excited  in  a  dis- 
cussion with  Berkeley  on  the  recent  theory  of 
the  non-existence  of  matter,  that,  being  ill  at  the 
time,  he  died  a  few  days  afterward.  Berkeley 
remained  four  years  abroad  with  his  pupil ;  he 
devoted  much  time  to  Sicily,  and  collected 
materials  for  an  account  of  its  natural  his- 
tory, which  were  lost  at  sea.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  cordially  received  in  learned 
circles,  but  was  entirely  dependent  on  his  fel- 
lowship in  Trinity  college,  until  Miss  Vanhom- 
righ  (Swift's  Vanessa)  bequeathed  him  £4,000. 
In  1724  he  was  made  dean  of  Derry,  the  value 
of  the  living  being  £1,100  per  annum.  But 
worldly  wealth  had  little  value  in  Berkeley's 
estimation ;  and  having  formed  the  plan  of 
establishing  a  college  at  the  Bermudas,  for  the 
purpose  of  training  pastors  for  the  colonial 
churches  and  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  he 
took  a  letter  from  Swift  to  Lord  Carteret,  who 
after  long  delays  promised  the  aid  of  the  gov- 
ernment. It  was  in  anticipation  of  the  happy 
results  of  his  scheme  that  Berkeley  wrote  his 
well  known  stanzas  "  On  the  Prospect  of 
Planting  Arts  and  Learning  in  America,"  in 
which  occurs  the  oft  quoted  verse  : 

Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way  ; 

The  four  first  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day ; 

Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last. 


In  August,  1728,  he  married  the  daughter  of 
the  Right  Hon.  John  Forster,  speaker  of  the 
Irish  house  of  commons,  and  in  the  next  month 
set  sail  for  Rhode  Island,  where  he  arrived,  in 
Newport  harbor,  after  a  tedious  passage  of  five 
months,  Jan.  23,  1729.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
he  bought  a  farm  about  three  miles  from  New- 
port, and  erected  a  house  which  is  still  stand- 
ing ;  and  many  interesting  reminiscences  exist 
of  his  sojourn  in  the  island.  Not  far  from  his 
house,  and  adjacent  to  the  sea,  lie  the  hanging 
rocks  (so  called),  where  at  their  most  elevated 
point  Berkeley  found  a  natural  alcove,  roofed 
and  open  to  the  south,  commanding  a  wide  ex- 
panse of  the  ocean,  and  in  it,  tradition  relates, 
he  meditated  and  composed  his  "  Alciphron,  or 
the  Minute  Philosopher,"  a  defence  of  religion 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  But  the  scheme  for 
the  college  failed,  the  government  aid  promised 
by  Carteret  was  never  granted,  and,  after  a 
residence  in  Newport  of  2£  years,  Berkeley 
returned  to  England,  giving  to  Yale  college  a 
library  of  880  volumes,  as  well  as  his  estate  in 
Rhode  Island,  called  Whitehall.  In  1734  he 
received,  as  a  special  mark  of  favor  from  Queen 
Caroline,  the  bishopric  of  Cloyne.  This  place 
he  held  for  nearly  20  years,  dividing  his  time 
between  the  duties  of  his  diocese,  which  he  ful- 
filled in  the  most  exemplary  manner,  and  his 
literary  labors.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life 
he  became  rather  subject  to  hypochondria,  and 
in  hopes  of  benefiting  himself  had  recourse  to- 
tar  water,  which  he  was  constantly  drinking 
and  recommending  to  his  friends,  even  writing 
two  treatises  on  its  virtues.  His  works  written 
at  this  period  are  "  The  Analyst,"  directed  prin- 
cipally against  Halley  and  the  other  mathemati- 
cal skeptics ;  "  Queries  proposed  for  the  Good 
of  Ireland  ;  "  a  letter  to  the  Roman  Catholics 
during  the  rebellion  of  1745 ;  another  to  the 
Catholic  clergy  entitled  "  A  Word  to  the 
Wise;"  "Siris,  a  Chain  of  Philosophical  Re- 
flections and  Inquiries  concerning  the  Virtues 
of  Tar  Water,"  and  "  Further  Thoughts  on  Tar 
Water."  In  1751,  feeling  himself  infirm,  and 
desiring  to  be  near  his  son,  who  was  about  to 
enter  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he  wished  to  re- 
sign his  bishopric,  which  the  king  would  not 
permit,  but  gave  him  leave  to  reside  where  he 
pleased.  He  removed  to  Oxford  in  July,  1752. 
Pope  ascribed  to  him  "  every  virtue  under 
heaven  "  ;  and  Atterbury  wrote  of  him  :  "  So 
much  understanding,  knowledge,  innocence, 
and  humility,  I  should  have  thought  confined  to 
angels,  had  I  never  seen  this  gentleman."  A 
collection  of  his  works,  with  an  account  of  his 
life  and  many  of  his  letters,  was  published  by 
Prior  (2  vols.  4to,  1784),  and  there  is  an  edition 
by  the  Rev.  G.  N.  Wright  (2  vols.  8vo,  1843). 
A  new  edition  by  A.  C.  Fraser  was  published 
in  1871  (4  vols.  8vo,  London). 

BERKELEY,  George  Charles  Grantley  Fitz-IIar- 
dinsr.  an  English  sportsman  and  author,  born 
Feb.  10,  1800.  He  is  a  son  of  the  late  earl  of 
Berkeley,  and  younger  brother  of  the  present 
de  jure  earl,  who  does  not  assume  the  title. 


BERKELEY 


BERKSHIRE 


561 


He  was  a  liberal  member  of  parliament  for  West 
Gloucestershire  for  nearly  20  years.  His  novel 
'•Berkeley  Castle"  (1836)  being  severely  re- 
viewed in  "Eraser's  Magazine,"  he  assaulted 
Mr.  Fraser,  the  publisher,  for  -which  he  was 
prosecuted  and  compelled  to  pay  £100  damages 
and  costs,  and  wounded  in  a  duel  Dr.  Maginn, 
the  writer  of  the  article.  He  has  written  many 
books  on  sporting  in  England,  France,  and  the 
United  States.  Among  his  best  known  pub- 
lications is  "The  Upper  Ten  Thousand  at 
Home  and  Abroad ;  "  and  his  more  recent  works 
include  "My  Life  and  Recollections"  (1864), 
and  "Tales  of  Life  and  Death"  (2  vols., 
1869). — His  brother,  Sir  MAURICE  FREDEKIOK 
FITZ-HARDINGE,  born  Nov.  16,  1826,  was  a 
naval  commander,  reaching  the  rank  of  ad- 
miral of  the  blue,  and  represented  Gloucester 
in  parliament  for  many  years.  In  1861  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Fitz-Hardinge, 
and  died  Oct.  17,  1867. 

BERKELEY,  Sir  William,  royal  governor  of 
Virginia,  born  near  London,  died  at  Twicken- 
ham, July  13,  1677.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  went  to  Virginia  as  governor  in  1641. 
During  the  civil  war  he  sided  with  the  king, 
and  the  colony  long  remained  loyal  to  him; 
but  in  1651  a  squadron  was  detached  from  the 
fleet  sent  to  Barbadoes,  and  upon  its  arrival  in 
Virginia  it  compelled  Berkeley  and  his  friends 
to  submit  to  the  protector.  Richard  Bennet 
was  made  governor  in  Berkeley's  place,  but 
the  latter  continued  to  reside  in  Virginia  un- 
molested. In  1660,  after  Richard  Cromwell's 
resignation,  Berkeley  was  elected  governor  by 
the  Virginia  assembly,  and  received  a  commis- 
sion for  the  office  from  Charles  II.  Subse- 
quently he  rendered  himself  very  unpopular  by 
his  failure  to  protect  the  settlers  from  Indian 
raids,  and  a  rebellion  broke  out  under  Nathaniel 
Bacon,  against  which  the  governor  was  for  a 
long  time  powerless.  After  the  death  of  Bacon 
Berkeley  treated  the  rebels  with  extreme  sever- 
ity, and  a  royal  commission  sent  out  to  inves- 
tigate the  affair  and  restore  order  disapproved 
of  his  conduct.  He  was  recalled  in  1677,  and 
is  said  to  have  died  of  chagrin.  He  published 
"  The  Lost  Lady,"  a  drama  (1639),  and  "A  Dis- 
course and  View  of  Virginia"  (1663). 

BERKELEY  SPRINGS,  or  Bath,  a  town  and  the 
capital  of  Morgan  county,  West  Virginia,  about 
3  m.  from  the  Potomac  river  and  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  railroad,  77  m.  N.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  pop.  in  1870,  407.  The  place 
is  much  visited  by  invalids,  the  water  of  the 
springs  being  deemed  efficacious  in  cases  of 
neuralgia,  dyspepsia,  and  chronic  rheumatism; 
its  temperature  is  74°  F. 

BERKHEY,  Jan  Lefrantq  van,  a  Dutch  natu- 
ralist and  poet,  born  Jan.  23,  1729,  died  in 
Leyden  in  March,  1812.  He  was  the  author 
of  various  works  upon  the  natural  sciences, 
of  which  the  best  was  the  "Natural  History 
of  Holland"  (Amsterdam,  1769),  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  natural  history  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden  in  1773.  As  a  member  of 


the  Orange  party  he  was  afterward  subjected  to 
great  persecution,  and  in  his  old  age  was  reduced 

,  to  poverty,  and  obliged  to  sell  his  fine  scientific 

!  collections  and  to  depend  upon  his  relations. 

!  He  published  several  volumes  of  poetry. 

BERKS,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Pennsylvania,  in- 
tersected by  Schuylkill  river,  and  drained  by 
Tulpehocken,  Maiden,  Manatawny,  and  Little 
Swatara  creeks ;  area,  920  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 

|  106,701.  On  its  N.  W.  boundary  is  the  Kitta- 
tinny  range  or  Blue  mountains;  another  chain, 
called  here  South  mountain,  but  known  in  Vir- 

i  ginia  as  the  Blue  Ridge,  traverses  the  S.  E. 

|  central  part;  and  between  these  two  ranges 
lies  the  extensive  and  fertile  Kittatinny  valley, 
comprising  the  greater  part  of  the  county.  The 
soil  here  is  of  limestone  formation,  and  is  care- 
fully cultivated.  There  are  rich  iron  mines,  in 
which  copper  is  found  in  small  quantities.  The 
Schuylkill  and  Union  canals,  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading,  the  Reading  and  Columbia, 
the  Lebanon  Valley,  the  East  Pennsylvania, 
and  several  branch  railroads,  pass  through  the 
county.  Berks  was  settled  by  Germans  in  1734, 
and  German  is  still  commonly  spoken.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  930,653  bush- 
els of  wheat,  281,867  of  rye,  1,267,194  of  In- 
dian corn,  1,425,157  of  oats,  400,846  of  pota- 
toes, 114,651  tons  of  hay,  and  2,658,031  Ibs.  of 
butter.  There  were  16,783  horses,  32,112 
milch  cows,  19,215  other  cattle,  56,110  sheep, 
and  37,553  swine.  Capital,  Reading. 

BERKSHIRE,  a  county  of  Massachusetts, 
forming  the  W.  extremity  of  the  state,  extend- 
ing across  it  from  Vermont  on  the  N.  to  Con- 
necticut on  the  S.,  and  bounded  W.  by  New 
York;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
64,827.  It  embraces  a  great  variety  of  pic- 
turesque scenery.  The  surface  is  diversified 
by  mountains,  hills,  valleys,  and  rolling  land. 
In  the  N.  part  is  Saddle  mountain,  the  highest 
point  in  the  state,  and  in  the  N.  W.  is  the 
Hoosac  tunnel,  through  the  mountain  of  the 
same  name.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  well  water- 
ed by  the  Housatonic,  Deerfield,  Farmington, 
Hoosac,  and  several  smaller  rivers.  Most  of 
the  land  is  devoted  to  grazing.  Marble,  iron, 
and  limestone  are  the  principal  minerals.  The 
Boston  and  Albany,  the  Massachusetts  and 
Vermont,  the  Troy  and  Boston,  the  Housa- 
tonic, and  the  Pittsfield  and  North  Adams  rail- 
roads traverse  the  county.  Manufacturing  is 
extensively  carried  on.  There  are  16  cotton 
mills,  2  calico  print  works,  41  paper  mills,  27 
flour  mills,  16  tanneries,  10  planing  and  turn- 
ing mills,  154  saw  mills,  and  a  great  number 
of  other  manufactories.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  2,828  bushels  of  wheat,  35,903 
of  rye,  156,384  of  Indian  corn,  248,642  of  oats, 
15,667  of  barley,  31,901  of  buckwheat,  355,670 
of  potatoes,  84,790  tons  of  hay.  1,114,343  Ibs. 
of  cheese,  1,038,751  of  butter,  134,892  of  maple 
sugar,  119,574  of  wool,  and  22,810  of  tobacco. 
There  were  5,028  horses,  15,834  milch  cows, 
14,153  other  cattle,  27,195  sheep,  and  4,274 
swine.  Capital,  Pittsfield. 


562 


BERKSHIRE 


BERKSHIRE,  or  Berks,  a  county  of  England, 
in  the  midland  district,  lying  in  the  basin  of  the 
Thames;  area,  705  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  196,- 
445.  It  is  well  watered  by  tbe  Thames,  the 
Kennet,  the  Loddon,  the  Ock,  and  the  Auburn, 
with  other  smaller  streams  and  rivulets.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  well  wooded.  The 
climate  is  one  of  the  healthiest  in  England. 
The  soil  is  chalk  and  stiff  clay,  with  a  tine  rich 
loam  in  the  valleys.  Berkshire  is  essentially 
an  agricultural  county,  and  the  owners  of  the 
model  farms  established  under  the  auspices 
of  Prince  Albert,  as  well  as  those  of  the  nu- 
merous large  estates,  have  introduced  many 
improvements.  Moreover,  the  farms  are  mostly 
large ;  drainage  is  general ;  artificial  manures 
are  employed  extensively,  as  well  as  improved 
ploughs  and  drills,  and  steam  threshing  ma- 
chines. Some  of  the  best  corn-producing 
lands  in  England  are  in  this  county,  especially 
in  the  vale  of  the  White  Horse,  watered  by  the 
Ock.  The  total  area  under  cultivation  in 
1867  included  144,443  acres  in  corn,  55,412  in 
green  crops,  40,312  in  clover  and  grasses  under 
rotation,  and  108,377  in  permanent  pasture. 
The  cattle  numbered  at  the  same  period  nearly 
30,000,  the  sheep  over  340,000,  and  the  pigs, 
the  best  breed  in  England,  50,000.  The  main 
line  of  the  Great  Western  and  a  branch  of  the 
Southwestern  railway  pass  through  Berkshire, 
as  well  as  the  navigable  Wilts  and  Berks  and 
Kennet  and  Avon  canals.  The  county  is  not 
affected  by  the  reform  act  of  1867,  and  con- 
tinues to  return  three  members  to  parliament ; 
but  its  four  boroughs,  Reading  (the  shire  town), 
Abingdon,  Wallingford,  and  Windsor,  return 
since  1869  only  five  instead  of  six  members  as 
formerly. — The  traces  of  ancient  roads  and 
other  antiquities  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
Roman  period,  and  there  are  various  remains  of 
Roman  or  British  camps.  Many  barrows  are 
found,  including  one  N.  of  Lambourn  to  which 
a  Danish  or  British  origin  is  variously  assigned, 
though  it  is  popularly  known  as  Wayland 
Smith's  cave,  owing  to  a  tradition,  introduced 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  l;Kenilworth,"  of  an 
invisible  smith  having  once  plied  his  trade 
here,  this  tradition  being  identified  by  some 
authorities  with  that  of  the  mythical  Norse 
hero  Weland  or  Volunde.  The  White  Horse 
is  a  monument  of  Saxon  or  Danish,  or  pos- 
sibly of  Celtic  origin,  representing  a  horse  cut 
in  the  turf,  the  figure  being  over  370  feet  long. 
It  has  given  the  .name  to  the  hill  on  which  it 
stands,  and  to  the  vale.  The  peasantry  pe- 
riodically clear  away  the  turf,  which  they  call 
"  scouring  the  horse ;  "  and  on  this  occasion 
a  rural  festival  takes  place,  and  they  are  enter- 
tained by  the  lord  of  the  manor.  On  the  sum- 
mit of  the  same  hill  is  an  ancient  earthwork, 
known  as  Uffington  castle ;  and  the  principal 
Berkshire  antiquities  in  this  vicinity  include 
Hardwell  camp,  Alfred's  castle,  Dragon  Hill,  and 
the  Seven  Barrows.  Berkshire  was  devastated 
in  the  wars  with  the  Danes  early  in  the  llth 
century,  and  again  became  a  battleground  in 


BERLICHIXGEN 

the  following  century  during  the  civil  war  con- 
sequent upon  the  usurpation  of  Stephen.  Of 
the  famous  ancient  castles  only  Windsor  castle 
remains,  and  small  fragments  of  those  of  Wall- 
ingford and  Donnington.  In  the  17th  century 
Berkshire  became  the  scene  of  remarkable 
contests  between  the  royal  and  parliamentary 
forces,  especially  at  the  first  battle  of  New- 
bury,  in  which  Falkland  fell  (Sept.  20,  1643). 

IM  II  I.H  H I  \ (, i: V  Gb'tz  or  Gottfried  von,  one  of 
the  last  of  the  feudal  knights  of  Germany,  born 
at  Jaxthausen,  in  Wurtemberg,  in  1480,  died 
July  23,  1562.  He  was  educated  under  the 
charge  of  his  uncle  Konrad,  a  knight  of  the  old 
feudal  type,  under  whose  guidance  he  attained 
remarkable  skill  in  all  warlike  exercises.  His 
first  military  experience  was  gained  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  elector  Frederick  of  Brandenburg; 
but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  succes- 
sion between  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate  and 
Albert  of  Bavaria,  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  latter,  and  distinguished  himself  by  reckless 
bravery  in  the  campaigns  which  followed.  At 
the  siege  of  Landshut  he  lost  his  right  hand. 
It  was  replaced  by  one  of  iron,  still  shown  in  the 
castle  where  he  was  born ;  and  thus  he  acquired 
the  name  of  Gotz  with  the  Iron  Hand.  After 
the  war  he  spent  much  of  his  time  in  feuds 
with  his  neighbors  and  petty  conflicts,  often 
capturing  and  plundering  merchants,  but  ac- 
companying his  exploits  with  many  exhibitions 
of  chivalrous  generosity.  In  1519  he  assisted 
Duke  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg  against  his  Swa- 
bian  enemies,  and  defended  Mockmuhl  against 
an  overwhelming  force,  surrendering  on  con- 
dition of  his  being  allowed  to  withdraw  with- 
out molestation.  This  agreement  was  treacher- 
ously broken,  and  the  knight  was  kept  for  three 
years  and  a  half  a  captive  at  Heilbronn,  only 
obtaining  his  release  by  the  payment  of  a  large 
ransom.  In  the  peasants'  war  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  as  a  leader  of  the  people,  whose  ex- 
cesses, however,  he  controlled.  At  the  close  of 
this  he  was  again  treacherously  captured  and 
obliged  to  swear  that  he  would  appear  when 
summoned  before  the  leaders  of  the  Swabian 
confederation.  He  kept  his  oath,  and  was  sen- 
tenced by  them,  after  a  two  years'  imprisonment, 
to  give  bonds  and  an  oath  that  he  would  keep  the 
following  conditions :  he  must  take  up  his  resi- 
dence in  the  castle  of  Hornberg,  and  promise 
not  to  spend  a  single  night  away  from  it ;  even 
in  the  day  he  must  not  pass  certain  designated 
boundaries ;  he  must  not  mount  a  horse ;  he 
must  not  himself  take  revenge  on  any  one  of 
those  now  sentencing  him,  nor  must  he  employ 
any  of  his  friends  to  do  so.  If  he  violated  these 
conditions,  he  must  pay  25,000  florins.  He 
must  also  pay  an  indemnity  for  the  damage  he 
had  done  the  cities  of  Mentz  and  Wurzburg. 
Von  Berlichingen  kept  this  agreement  for  11 
years,  and  was  at  last  released  from  it  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Swabian  confederacy.  In 
1541  he  fought  under  Charles  V.  against  the 
Turks,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  picked  men.  In 
1544  he  took  part  in  the  campaign  against 


BERLIN 


563 


Francis  I.,  and  penetrated  into  France  as  far 
as  Chateau-Thierry.  After  the  declaration  of 
peace  he  retired  again  to  his  castle,  Hornberg, 
and  there  lived  quietly  until  his  death.  He 
was  buried  in  the  cloister  of  Schonthal,  where 
his  monument  is  still  shown.  He  wrote  the 
history  of  his  own  life,  which  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Nuremberg  in  1731,  and  gives  an  ad- 
mirable description  of  the  life  of  his  time. 
Goethe  made  him  the  subject  of  the  first  of  his 
dramas. 

BERLIN,  the  capital  of  Prussia  and  of  the 
German  empire,  in  the  province  of  Branden- 
burg, in  lat,  52°  30'  N.,  Ion.  13°  24'  E.,  on  the 
Spree,  an  affluent  of  the  Elbe,  330  m.  N".  N. 
W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1871,  825,389;  in  1867, 
702,437,  of  whom  42,420  were  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  27,607  Jews.  In  the  latter  year 
there  were  33,963  buildings,  of  which  700  were 


public.  The  city  stands  on  a  dreary  plain  of 
sand,  on  a  deep  and  still  growing  deposit  of 
infusoria,  130  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  walls,  now  partly  torn  down,  are  about  12 
m.  in  circuit  and  pierced  with  numerous  gates, 
of  which  the  Brandenburg  gate  is  the  most  cele- 
brated, its  architecture  being  modelled  after 
that  of  the  Propylsea  in  the  acropolis  of  Athens. 
The  city  comprises  the  two  former  towns  of 
Berlin  and  Kolln,  and  was  in  1872  divided  into 
16  precincts,  viz. :  Old  Berlin,  Old  and  New 
Kolln  (on  an  island  of  the  Spree),  Luisenstadt 
(on  the  left  bank),  Friedrichsstadt,  Friedrichs- 
werder,  Dorotheenstadt,  Friedrich-Wilhelm- 
stadt,  Spandauer  Revier  and  Stralauer  Vier- 
tel,  Konigsstadt,  and  the  suburbs  of  Wedding 
(Oranienburger  Vorstadt),  Moabit  (Voigtland), 
Aeussere  Friedrichsstadt,  Aeusseres  Spandauer 
Revier,  Schoneberger  Revier,  and  Tempelhofer 


General  View  of  Berlin. 


Revier.  The  villas  S.  W.  of  Charlottenburg 
near  the  chateau  of  Grunewald,  partly  built  and 
partly  in  course  of  construction,  are  called  the 
West-end ;  and  Charlottenburg  promises  to  be- 
come part  of  Berlin,  the  city  being  constantly 
extended  westward,  while  its  central  part  is  in- 
tended to  be  in  future  for  Berlin  what  the 
City  is  for  the  British  metropolis. — With  the 
exception  of  the  most  ancient  districts,  Ber- 
lin is  remarkable  for  the  general  beauty  of 
its  streets  and  buildings.  The  excessive  reg- 
ularity and  capaciousness  of  many  streets, 
and  the  multiplicity  of  palatial  buildings  and 
institutions,  produce  a  grand  though  rather 
monotonous  impression.  Unter  den  Linden, 
however,  is  a  lively,  imposing,  and  elegant 
thoroughfare,  full  of  palaces  and  fine  man- 
sions, inferior  to  the  boulevards  of  Paris  in 
brilliancy,  but  superior  to  the  Regent  street 
of  London  in  stateliness  and  in  the  fine  ap- 


pearance of  the  trees  from  which  the  street 
derives  its  name.  This  is  the  fashionable 
city  promenade.  The  Friedrichsstrasse  is  the 
longest,  the  Leipziger  Strasse  the  most  ani- 
mated ;  the  Konigsstrasse,  in  the  centre  of 
the  city,  the  most  crowded  business  street ; 
the  Wilhelmsstrasse  contains  many  palaces  and 
public  buildings ;  the  Luisenstrasse  has  numer- 
ous elegant  mansions ;  and  in  the  Oranienbur- 
ger Strasse  resided  Alexander  von  Humboldt. 
Prominent  among  the  newer  streets  are  those 
stretching  from  the  Potsdam  gate  to  the  Thier- 
garten.  The  aggregate  length  of  all  the  streets 
of  Berlin  is  over  160  m.  The  largest  square  is 
the  Gensdarmenmarkt  in  the  Friedrichsstadt, 
with  the  principal  theatre  and  two  churches. 
Other  fine  squares  are  the  Lustgarten  and  the 
Schlossplatz,  divided  by  the  royal  palace ;  the 
Wilhelms,  Opernhaus,  Donhofs,  Alexander, 
and  Pariser  squares  (the  last  named  at  the 


564 


BERLIN 


Potsdam   gate),  and   the  Belle-Alliance  platz    chaeliskirche,  near  Bethanien.     This  last,  built 
at   the    Halle   gate,   with   the   Friedensdenk-    in  1856  after  a  design  by  Seller,  in  the  Ro- 

are   over    nianesque  style,  is  the  finest  in  Berlin. 


mal   or   Peace   monument.     There 

40   bridges,   of   which   the  most  remarkable 


Statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  Unter  den  Linden. 


are  the  Schloss,  Kurfursten,  Friedrichs,  Mar- 
schalls,  and  Konigs  bridges.  There  are  over 
60  places  of  worship.  The  oldest  is  the  Niko- 
laikirche,  dating  from  the  beginning,  and  the 
Marienkirche  and  Klosterkirche,  from  the  close 
of  the  13th  century;  the  last  named  was  re- 
stored in  1844.  The  most  recent  are  the  Petri 
(1846-'54),  Markus  (1848-'55),  Andreas  (1854- 
'6),  Bartholomaus  (1854-'8),  and  the  new  Doro- 
theenstadtische  (1861-'3)  churches.  The  most 
celebrated  for  their  architecture  are  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Hedvrigskirche,  in  the  rear  of 


Hedwigskirche. 

the  opera  house,  opened  in  1773,  and  built 
after  the  Pantheon  in  Rome ;  the  Werder'sche 
Kirche,  a  Gothic  building,  designed  by  Schin- 
kel (1824-'30);  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Mi- 


Other 

renowned  religious  buildings  are  the  temple  of 
the  Jewish  reformers 
in  the  Johnnnesstrasse, 
built  in  1855  after  de- 
signs by  Stiller,  and 
the  new  synagogue 
in  the  Oranienburger 
Strasse,  erected  by 
Knoblauch  in  the  ori- 
ental style.  The  old 
royal  palace  contains 
600  halls  and  apart- 
ments, including  a  pic- 
ture gallery  and  a  fa- 
mous chapel.  The  cu- 
polas were  completed 
in  1854.  Two  bronze 
groups  representing 
"The  Horse  Tamers'" 
adorn  the  chief  en- 
trance. The  palace 
now  occupied  by  the 
emperor  and  empress 
is  nearly  opposite  the 
university.  The  pal- 
ace of  the  crown  prince  was  restored  in 
1857.  The  royal  palace  of  Bellevue,  with  fine 
modern  German  paintings,  is  about  one  mile 
beyond  the  Brandenburg  gate.  The  Konigs- 
wache,  in  the  form  of  a  Roman  castrum,  built 
by  Schinkel  in  1818,  the  new  observatory,  the 
military  schools,  the  ministries  of  war  and  of 
commerce,  and  especially  the  arsenal  with  vast 
collections  of  trophies  of  war  and  arms,  are  all 
conspicuous  edifices.  The  new  town  hall  was 
completed  in  1871.  The  most  celebrated  pub- 
lic building  designed  by  Schinkel  is  the  old 
museum,  opposite  the  Lustgarten,  built  on 
thousands  of  piles,  on  a  spot  once  covered  by  a 
branch  of  the  Spree.  Under  the  porticos,  the 
principal  of  which  is  formed  by  18  Ionic  col- 
umns, are  statues  of  Rauch,  Schinkel,  Winckel- 
mann,  and  Schadow.  At  the  right  side  of  the 
staircase  is  the  famous  bronze  group  by  Kiss 
representing  the  fight  of  an  Amazon  with  a 
tiger;  on  the  left  that  of  a  horseman  with 
a  lion,  by  A.  Woltt'.  On  the  walls  of  the 
colonnade  are  frescoes  from  the  designs  of 
Schinkel,  executed  under  the  direction  of  Cor- 
nelius. On  the  ground  floor  is  the  antigua- 
rivm,  with  antique  vases,  bronzes,  gems,  coins, 
and  mediseval  relics.  On  the  first  floor  is  the 
sculpture  gallery,  with  the  "Boy  Praying" 
among  its  finest  antiques,  andCanova's  "Hebe" 
among  the  best  modern  works.  The  picture 
gallery  on  the  upper  floor,  though  inferior  to 
the  collections  in  Dresden  and  Munich,  con- 
tains many  fine  paintings.  This  gallery  is 
divided  into  37  compartments.  Among  its 
most  renowned  pictures  are  those  by  Correg- 
gio  of  "  Leda  and  the  Swan  "  and  "  lo  and  the 
Cloud  ;  "  Titian's  portrait  of  his  daughter  La- 
vinia;  Murillo's  "St.  Anthony  of  Padua  em- 


BERLIN 


565 


tracing  the  Infant  Christ ;  "  and  Nicolas  Pous-  I 
sin's  "  Landscape,  with  the  Story  of  Juno  and 
Argus."  In  the  rear  of  the  old  museum,  and 
connected  with  it  by  an  arched  passage,  is 
the  new  museum  designed  by  Staler,  with 
gorgeous  internal  decorations.  On  the  ground 
floor  are  the  northern,  and  on  the  right  side 
of  the  great  staircase  the  Egyptian  antiquities. 
The  former  include  an  extensive  ethnological 
collection,  with  relics  of  almost  all  civilized  and 
barbarous  nations ;  and  the  latter,'  comprising 
the  Egyptological  collection  of  Lepsius,  is  ar- 
ranged in  its  inner  court  after  the  model  of  an 
Egyptian  temple,  the  entrance,  with  16  large  | 
colored  pillars,  being  an  imitation  of  the  temple  | 
of  Karnak,  and  the  chamber  of  tombs  of  part  of 
the  necropolis  of  Memphis.  The  extent  of  this 
Egyptological  collection  is  as  remarkable  as  its 
admirable  arrangement.  In  the  centre  of  the 
new  building  is  a  lofty  hall  decorated  with 
paintings  by  pupils  of  Kaulbach  after  that  af- 
tist's  designs.  On  the  first  floor  are  casts  of 
statuary  from  the  earliest  Greek  masters  down 
to  Thorwaldsen.  Half  of  the  upper  floor  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  cabinet  of  drawings  and  engrav- 
ings, including  the  original  outline  for  the  ca- 
thedral of  Cologne ;  and  the  other  half  is  used 
for  the  chamber  of  art  (Kungtkammer),  with 
historical  and  other  art  collections,  chronologi- 
cally arranged.  It  is  especially  rich  in  na- 
tional relics,  and  also  contains  works  by  Albert 
Diirer,  an  ivory  crucifix  ascribed  to  Michel 
Angelo,  and  many  fine  old  ivories,  enamelled 
reliquaries,  and  curious  minerals.  The  royal 
theatre  (Konigliches  Schauspielhaus),  for  the 


The  Eoyal  Theatre. 

performance  of  German  and  French  plays, 
situated  between  two  churches  on  the  Gen- 
darmes square,  has  the  stage  on  the  second 
floor  and  a  concert  room  accommodating  over 
1,200  persons ;  it  was  built  by  Schinkel  in 
1819,  and  is  decorated  with  mythological  stat- 
uary by  Rauch  and  Tieck.  The  subscription 
balls  which  take  place  here  in  winter  are 
great  events  for  the  fashionable  world.  The 
Italian  opera  house,  rebuilt  since  1845  after  the 
destruction  of  the  old  building  by  fire,  holds 
about  2,000  persons,  and  is  a  splendid  struc- 


ture near  the  Linden.  The  Wallner  thea- 
tre is  popular  among  the  educated  classes  for 
burlesque  and  farces ;  and  the  Friedrich-Wil- 
helmstadtisches  theatre,  for  low  comedy,  has 
less  select  audiences.  The  architectural  acad- 
emy (Bawchule),  south  of  the  Schlossbrucke, 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  original  mas- 
terworks  of  Schinkel,  and  contains  some  of 
that  artist's  paintings  and  statuary.  The  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts,  in  the  Linden,  is  the  seat  of 
the  new  national  gallery  of  paintings  and  of 
annual  exhibitions  of  modern  paintings.  Count 
Raczynski's  gallery,  on  the  Exercierplatz,  out- 
side the  Brandenburg  gate,  contains  many  fine 
modern  German  paintings ;  and  in  the  Ravene 
cabinet,  in  the  Neue  Griinstrasse,  is  an  excellent 
small  collection  of  both  French  and  German 
modern  works.  The  academy  of  music  is  fa- 
mous for  annual  concerts  given  in  the  Grecian 
wing  of  the  building,  and  especially  for  the 
performance  of  sacred  vocal  music. — The  Thier- 
garten,  extending  from  the  Brandenburg  gate 
almost  to  Charlottenburg,  is  a  fine  park  with 
delightful  pleasure  grounds,  and  a  celebrated 
place  of  recreation.  Among  the  other  most 
popular  resorts  are  Kroll's  gardens.  Similar 
establishments  are  the  Odeon,  the  Hofjager, 
the  Moritzhof,  and  Albrechtshof,  S.  of  the 
Potsdam  gate.  N.  E.  of  the  city  is  the  new 
Friedrichshain.  All  these  and  many  other 
establishments  are  famous  for  their  music  and 
sociability.  The  less  prosperous  classes  fre- 
quent the  Hasenheide  on  the  south  and  Mo- 
abit  on  the  west  of  Berlin.  On  the  one  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt's  birth,  Sept.  14,  1869,  the  corner  stone 
of  a  monument  to  his  memory  was  laid  in  a 
new  park  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  to  be 
called  "Humboldt  Grove."  On  the  left  of 
the  New  Park,  outside  the  King's  gate,  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  cemeteries.  Among  the 
others  are  the  old  Dorotheenstadt,  with  the 
graves  of  Fichte  and  Hegel ;  the  old  Dreifal- 
tigkeits-Kirchhof,  with  that  of  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy ;  the  new  Dreifaltigkeits-Kirchhof, 
with  those  of  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  Lud- 
wick  Tieck,  and  Varnhagen  von  Ense ;  and 
the  Invaliden-Kirchhof,  where  Scharnhorst  and 
other  military  men  are  buried.  Berlin  abounds 
with  monuments  in  honor  of  Prussian  kings 
and  soldiers.  The  most  celebrated  of  them  is 
the  equestrian  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  by  Rauch,  on  a  granite  pedestal  25 
feet  high,  erected  in  1851  in  the  Linden  oppo- 
site the  university.  The  Friedensdenkmal,  by 
Rauch,  is  near  the  Halle  gate  ;  and  the  Volks- 
denkmal  or  People's  monument  is  beyond  that 
gate  on  the  Kreuzberg,  so  called  from  a 
Gothic  cross  of  cast  iron  on  its  summit,  which 
is  almost  the  only  eminence  near  the  city. 
The  national  monument  in  honor  of  those  who 
full  in  1848-'9,  in  the  Invalidenpark,  was  un- 
veiled in  1854,  and  the  Schiller  monument  in 
1871. — Numerous  scientific,  artistic,  literary, 
and  educational  institutions  attest  the  intellect- 
ual activity  of  Berlin.  The  renowned  universi- 


566 


BERLIN 


ty,  in  the  Linden,  associated  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished philosophers,  divines,  scholars,  and 
savants  of  Germany,  holds  a  commanding  in- 
fluence. The  number  of  professors  and  teach- 
ers in  1870  was  175.  The  attendance  of  stu- 
dents was  3,714  during  the  winter  term  of 
1869-'70,  and  3,316  during  the  summer  term 
of  1870.  It  contains  museums  of  natural  his- 
tory and  of  anatomy,  remarkable  zoological 
and  mineralogical  collections,  and  a  library  of 
nearly  180,000  volumes.  The  botanical  gar- 
den of  the  university  is  outside  of  the  city, 
and  includes  extensive  conservatories  and 
palm  houses.  The  zoological  gardens,  resem- 
bling those  of  Regent's  park,  London,  contain 
a  fine  menagerie,  and  the  new  aquarium  is  the 
largest  and  most  celebrated  in  continental  Eu- 
rope. In  1870  there  were  10  gymnasia,  54 
Realsehulen  or  high  schools,  99  middle  and 
elementary  schools,  35  schools  under  the  direc- 
tion of  societies,  churches,  and  corporations,  11 
schools  attended  by  both  boys  and  girls,  and  2 
Hebrew  schools;  altogether  115  public  and  96 
private  institutions,  besides  13  private  Kinder- 
garten and  19  established  on  the  principle  of 
association,  and  employing  59  female  teach- 
ers. Besides  the  Gewerbsckule,  or  school  for 
trades,  there  are  institutions  established  by  the 
city  for  higher  culture  (Fortbildungsctnittalten). 
There  are  10  libraries  for  the  people,  with  an 
aggregate  of  60,000  volumes,  and  many  turners' 
associations,  which  chiefly  promote  physical 
and  incidentally  also  mental  development. 
Among  the  Jews  of  Berlin,  56  out  of  100  boys 
and  66  out  of  100  girls  receive  a  superior  edu- 
cation ;  while  among  the  Christian  denomina- 
tions the  proportion  is  respectively  20  and  16 
per  cent.  The  Jews  of  Berlin  are  among  the 
richest  and  most  cultivated  of  Germany,  and 
many  of  them  stand  high  in  finance,  commerce, 
politics,  literature,  and  journalism.  The  royal 


The  Koyal  Library. 

library  contains  about  700,000  volumes,  besides 
over  15,000  MSS. ;  and  there  are  extensive  col- 
lections of  books  in  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  in  almost  all  the  other  institutions  The 
annual  number  of  books  published  is  about 
1,500,  or  over  one  third  of  the  total  publica- 


tions of  Prussia ;  and  the  number  of  .journals 
ia  1871  was  175. — The  principal  savings  bank 
has  a  capital  of  2,560,000  thalers  and  75,000 
depositors.  There  are  31  industrial  mutual  aid 
associations  after  the  system  of  Seliulze-l>e- 
litzsch,  and  the  number  of  mechanics'  and 
manufacturers'  unions  is  nearly  100,  with  about 
80,000  members,  and  with  annual  contributions 
of  over  300,000  thalers,  about  15  per  cent, 
by  the  employers,  and  the  rest  by  the  men. 
Berlin  is  rich  in  associations  which  contribute 
not  only  to  the  material  but  also  to  the  mental 
and  moral  improvement  of  the  laboring  classes. 
But  over  100,000  of  the  poorer  people  are 
crowded  together  in  about  15,000  houses,  and 
over  60,000  live  in  cellars.  Houses  five  stories 
and  more  in  height  have  increased  since  1864 
in  the  proportion  of  43  per  cent.,  the  four-story 
houses  11  per  cent.,  the  two  and  three-story 
houses  4|  per  cent.,  and  the  one-story  houses 
8  4>er  cent.  Half  of  the  total  number  of  houses 
contain  only  one  room  which  can  be  heated, 
and  nearly  2,300  houses  cannot  be  warmed 
at  all.  This  state  of  things  is  creating  much 
discontent  among  the  working  classes.  The 
increase  of  illegitimate  children  amounted  to 
nearly  15  per  cent,  of  the  annual  births.  In 
1872  the  proportion  of  unmarried  men  over  23 
was  3,702  in  10,000,  and  of  unmarried  women 
over  16,  3,542  in  10,000.  Legislative  measures 
have  been  lately  proposed  for  improving  the 
police,  there  being  at  present  only  about  1,100 
policemen,  and  at  night  only  watchmen,  who 
have  too  much  private  service  to  do  to  attend 
to  the  security  of  the  streets.  The  number 
of  arrests  in  1869  was  over  27,000,  including 
4,000  dissolute  women  and  1,500  drunkards; 
7,000  of  them  remained  in  jail,  and  20,000  were 
discharged.  About  4,000  thefts  were  com- 
mitted in  that  year,  or  nearly  11  daily.  The 
records  of  the  morgue  for  1869  included  209 
men,  67  women,  and  104  .children  (16  still- 
born). About  2,000,000  thalers  are  annually 
disbursed  in  charity,  one  half  of  it  by  public 
institutions,  and  the  rest  by  private  agencies. 
Over  8,000  adults  and  4,000  children  received 
alms  to  the  extent  of  400,000  thalers  in  1870, 
and  the  capital  invested  in  the  municipal  in- 
stitutions for  charitable  purposes  amounts  to 
1,500,000  thalers.  In  1870,  44,000  thalers  were 
spent  by  the  city  in  affording  relief  to  43,000 
indigent  patients  in  their  homes,  and  168,000 
thalers  to  14,000  in  the  hospitals.  Nearly 
400,000  thalers  are  spent  for  the  cultivation 
of  potatoes  for  the  poor,  for  soup  houses, 
and  for  other  benevolent  purposes;  130,000 
thalers  for  orphans,  deaf-mutes,  and  the  blind, 
$c. ;  and  73,000  thalers  for  the  workhouse, 
which  accommodates  2,500  delinquents  and 
1,500  vagrants.  The  medical  officers  employed 
in  the  municipal  sanitary  institutions  include 
700  physicians,  60  surgeons,  58  dentists,  75  vete- 
rinary doctors,  50  druggists,  and  200  midwives. 
Besides  a  trades  union  for  sick  mechanics, 
there  are  nine  sanitary  unions,  affording  relief 
in  consideration  of  small  fees  by  the  members. 


BERLIN 


BERLINGHIERI 


567 


and  four  similar  institutions  chiefly  for  soldiers. 
Vaccination   is   obligatory;    hydrophobia  and 
cattle  diseases  are  guarded  against  by  public 
enactments ;  and  measures  are  in  progress  for 
the  establishment  of  canals  and  for  protection 
against    malaria   arising    from    the    defective 
drainage.     Prostitution    prevails    extensively, 
over  15,000  females  being  partly  under  medi- 
cal control  and  under  surveillance  of  the  Sit-  I 
tenpolizei   (administration   relating   to   public 
morality). — More  than  half  of  the  population  ' 
are  engaged  in  various  manufactures,  including 
iron  and  steel  ware,  machines,  and  many  other 
articles.     Of  printed  cotton  goods  the  annual 
production  is  valued  at  nearly  9,000,000  tha- 
lers.    The  export  of  manufactured  articles  to 
the  United  States  alone  amounts  to  4,000,000  j 
thalers.     The  Seehandlung  is  one  of  the  most  j 
celebrated    commercial    establishments.      The  | 
commerce  in  wool  and  corn  is  very  extensive, 
and  there  are  over  8,000  commercial  houses, 
including  many  joint  stock  companies.     The 
exchange  of  Berlin,  a  fine  building  near  the 
post  office  on  the  Konigsstrasse,  is  one  of  the 


The  Kxchauge. 

most  important  financial  centres  of  the  con- 
tinent. Its  transactions  in  1869  were  estimated 
at  58,000,000  thalers  for  railways,  5,000,000 
for  industrial  enterprises,  13,000,000  for  bank- 
ing enterprise,  and  2,000,000  for  loans.  The 
total  value  of  real  estate  and  personal  property 
in  Berlin  is  estimated  at  700,000,000  thalers. 
The  city  consumes  annually  200,000  quintals 
of  butter.  120,000  of  coffee,  40,000  of  rice, 
and  4,000,000  tons  of  coal.  In  1869  nearly 
200,000  quintals  of  wool  and  over  400,000 
head  of  cattle  arrived  from  the  interior. 
There  are  over  50  breweries,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  beer  is  increasing.  Nearly  18,- 
000,000  letters  annually  reach  the  post  office, 
about  one  half  of  them  city  letters.  Over 
30,000  persons  arrive  and  depart  from  Berlin 
daily,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  interior  of  Prus- 
sia. Over  3,000  conveyances,  including  19 
horse  cars  and  180  stages,  circulated  in  the 
city  in  1870;  nearly  50  railway  trains  arrive 
and  depart  daily,  and  there  is  a  large  traffic 
carried  on  by  the  roads  and  canals. — The 
population,  reduced  by  the  thirty  years'  war 


to  6,000,  rose  by  the  influx  of  French  ref- 
ugees under  the  great  elector  to  20,000 ;  in 
1740  it  was  90,000,  and  it  was  doubled 
about  the  end  of  the  century.  In  1831  it 
was  over  200,000;  in  1841,  over  300,000; 
in  1851,  over  400,000;  in  1861,  over  500,000; 
in  1867,  over  700,000;  and  in  1872  it  is  over 
800,000. — According  to  recent  investigations, 
the  original  fishing  village  of  Kolln,  the  primi- 
tive site  of  part  of  the  present  city,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  heath  for  geese  which  was  called 
Berlin;  and  hence  this  name  was  afterward 
applied  to  the  whole  city,  especially  as  it  was 
necessary  to  distinguish  it  from  Cologne  (Koln). 
Under  the  margrave  Albert  II.  (1206-'20) 
the  villages  of  Kolln  and  Berlin,  as  they  were 
then  called,  rose  from  their  insignificance.  The 
elector  Frederick  II.  (with  the  Iron  Teeth)  built 
in  1442  a  castle  at  Kolln,  on  the  Spree ;  and 
John  Cicero  chose  it  as  his  permanent  res- 
idence. The  rise  of  Berlin  after  the  calami- 
ties of  the  thirty  years'  war  was  mainly  due  to 
Frederick  William,  the  great  elector,  who  also 
built  fortifications.  Frederick,  the  first  king 
of  Prussia,  built  the  palace  and  the  arsenal, 
and  the  enlargement  of  the  city  under  his 
reign  was  carried  on  by  his  successors.  Under 
Frederick  the  Great  Berlin  rose  to  intellectual 
and  commercial  prominence,  and  was  enriched 
with  additional  palaces.  During  the  seven 
years'  war  Berlin  was  occupied  by  the  Aus- 
trians  and  Russians,  and  subjected  to  great 
vicissitudes.  Frederick  William  III.  did  more 
than  any  of  his  dynasty  for  the  embellishment 
and  improvement  of  the  city,  especially  after 
the  trials  of  Berlin  during  the  war  with  Na- 
poleon I.,  when  Schinkel  gave  a  new  splendor 
to  its  architecture,  while  the  literary  and  scien- 
tific prestige  of  the  capital  was  increased  by 
the  influence  of  the  university  and  that  of  a 
host  of  scholars  and  savants  of  the  highest 
rank.  Frederick  William  IV.  paid  much  at- 
tention to  churches,  while  under  his  reign  the 
city  was  enlarged  by  new  suburbs ;  and  the 
cultivation  of  new  territories  and  improve- 
ments and  extensions  are  going  on  steadily  in 
almost  all  directions.  The  triumphal  entry  of 
the  German  army  after  the  Franco-German 
war  took  place  here  on  June  16,  1871;  and 
the  emperors  of  Russia  and  of  Austria  were  in 
Berlin  on  a  visit  to  the  emperor  of  Germany 
in  September,  1872. — See  Streckfnss,  Berlin 
seit  500  Jahren  (1864),  and  Berlin  und  seine 
Entwickelung  (an  annual  publication  of  the 
statistical  bureau). 

Ill  III  IM.illl  1:1.  Andrea  Vaeea,  an  Italian  sur- 
geon, born  in  Pisa  in  1772,  died  there,  Sept.  6, 
1826.  He  studied  anatomy  at  Paris,  under 
Desanlt,  and  in  England,  under  Hunter  and 
Bell,  and  on  his  return  to  Pisa  published  some 
observations  on  Bell's  system  of  surgery.  In 
1799  he  was  appointed  to  assist  his  father,  who 
was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  university  of 
Pisa,  and  three  years  later  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  school  of  clinical  surgery,  which 
was  then  founded.  He  invented  useful  instru- 


568 


BERLIOZ 


ments  for  performing  the  operations  of  cystot- 
omy  and  cesophagotomy,  and  for  the  treatment 
of  trichiasis,  the  lachrymal  fistula,  and  the 
fracture  of  the  femur  bone.  He  made  improve- 
ments in  many  other  surgical  instruments  and 
processes,  and  was  the  author  of  numerous 
treatises  on  professional  topics. 

BERLIOZ,  Hector,  a  French  composer,  born  at 
C6te  Saint  Andre,  in  the  department  of  Isere, 
Dec.  11,  1803,  died  in  Paris,  March  8,  1869. 
His  father,  a  physician,  sent  him  in  early  life 
to  study  medicine  ;  but  his  love  of  music  soon 
led  him  to  abandon  that  profession  and  to  enter 
the  conservatoire  de  musique.  His  father  now 
cast  him  off,  and  he  supported  himself  as  a 
chorus  singer  at  the  gymnase  dramatique,  and 
studied  composition.  In  1830,  with  his  cantata 
Sardanapale,  he  took  the  first  prize  at  the  con- 
servatoire, entitling  him  to  pursue  his  studies  in 
Italy  for  18  months  at  the  public  expense. 
Returning  to  Paris,  he  produced  rapidly  a 
number  of  orchestral  works  intended  to  illus- 
trate his  proposition  that  every  musical  com- 
position should  bo  the  expression  of  some  defi- 
nite thought  and  have  a  distinctly  marked  ob- 
ject. To  this  kind  of  composition  the  name  of . 
programme  music  was  given.  Berlioz  found 
enemies  to  his  system  on  every  hand,  and  de- 
fended himself  against  their  attacks  through 
the  Journal  des  Debate,  by  which  he  was  for 
many  years  employed  as  musical  critic.  He 
composed  several  operas,  but  they  were  one 
after  another  condemned  almost  at  the  first 
hearing.  His  talents,  however,  were  not  with- 
out recognition,  for  he  was  not  only  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  but  also  librarian 
of  the  conservatoire,  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  the  recipient  of  a  number  of  for- 
eign orders.  He  sought  to  promulgate  his 
views  of  composition  not  only  in  his  own  but 
also  in  other  countries,  and  for  that  purpose  at 
various  times  visited  England,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, and  Russia,  but  without  any  other  than  a 
transient  effect.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
instrumentation  which  is  held  in  esteem.  His 
principal  instrumental  works  are  the  overtures 
to  "  Waverley,"  "  King  Lear,"  Le  Carnival 
romain,  and  Les  francs  juges,  and  the  sympho- 
nies entitled  Episode  de  la  fie  d'un  artiste, 
Harold  en  Italic,  and  Symphonic  fune'bre  et 
triompJiale.  Among  his  operas,  those  most 
worthy  of  mention  are  Henvenuto  Cellini  and 
Les  Troy  ens.  In  1833  he  married  Miss  Harriet 
Smithson,  an  English  actress,  who  died  in  Paris 
in  1854.  His  life  was  passed  in  a  constant 
struggle,  through  his  musical  compositions  and 
his  writings,  to  impress  his  theories  upon  the 
world. 

BERMEJO,  or  Vermejo,  a  large  river  of  Sonth 
America,  rises  in  the  Tarija  mountains  in  Bo- 
livia, flows  S.  E.  through  the  Argentine  prov- 
inces of  Ju.juy  and  Salta,  meandering  through 
the  dense  forests  and  sandy  plains  of  the  Gran 
Chaco,  where  it  receives  the  waters  of  some 
lakes  and  forms  a  large  number  of  others,  and 
falls  into  the  Paraguay  near  the  fortress  of 


BERMUDAS 

Humaita,  30  m..  above  the  confluence  of  that 
river  with  the  Parana.  Its  chief  affluents  are 
the  Tarija  and  the  Labayen  or  Rio  Grande  de 
Jujuy.  It  is  extremely  tortuous,  and  its  entire 
length  is  1,200  m.,  although  less  than  600  m. 
in  a  straight  line.  Its  course  generally  varies 
five  or  six  times  in  a  league.  Jose  Maria  Arce, 
who  descended  it  in  1863  in  vessels  drawing 
but  27  inches  of  water,  and  with  150  tons  of 
cargo,  from  Oran  in  Jujuy  to  Corrientes,  found 
the  river  nowhere  less  than  five  feet  deep ;  but 
sunken  trees  frequently  obstructed  navigation. 

BERJIONDSEY,  a  suburban  parish  of  London, 
on  the  Surrey  side  of  the  Thames,  situated  be- 
tween Southwark  and  Rotherhithe,  and  form- 
ing part  of  the  former  borough  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
80,413,  an  increase  of  22,058  since  1861.  It  is 
the  great  seat  of  tanning.  (See  LONDON.) 

BERMUDAS,  or  Soniers  Islands,  a  group  of  small 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  said  to  be 
365  in  number,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  580  m. 
8.  S.  E.  of  Cape  Hatteras,  between  lat.  32° 
14'  and  32°  25'  K,  and  Ion.  64°  38'  and  64° 
52'  W.  The  group  is  formed  upon  a  coral  reef, 
and  is  18  m.  in  length  and  6  in  greatest 
breadth  ;  area,  24  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  12,121, 
including  about  5,000  whites.  The  land  is 
low,  the  greatest  elevation  being  that  of  Gibbs 
Hill,  180  feet  high,  on  which  there  is  a  light- 
house. Most  of  the  islands  are  mere  rocks, 
and  only  12  or  15  are  inhabited.  Bermuda,  or 
Long  Island,  is  16  m.  long  and  about  \\  m. 
wide.  The  other  principal  islands  are  St. 
George's,  Ireland,  Somerset,  and  St.  David's. 
Dangerous  and  extensive  coral  reefs,  mostly 
under  water,  enclose  them  on  the  north,  west, 
and  south,  and  the  channels  of  approach  are 
very  intricate.  They  have  some  excellent  har- 
bors, however,  that  of  St.  George's,  the  east- 
ernmost island,  having  been  formed  at  great 
cost  by  blasting  away  the  reefs  and  construct- 
ing a  breakwater  on  the  point  of  the  adjacent 
island  of  Ireland.  St.  George  is  now  an  im- 
portant naval  station,  and  is  strongly  fortified. 
The  climate  is  damp,  but  mild.  Violent  gales 
are  frequent  during  the  winter.  Vegetation 
is  green  throughout  the  year,  and  the  islands 
yield  abundance  of  garden  vegetables,  pota- 
toes, fruit,  and  excellent  arrowroot.  Grain, 
flour,  rice,  and  live  stock  are  imported  from 
the  United  States.  The  soil,  a  thin  layer  of 
mould  upon  a  rocky  foundation,  is  still  fertile, 
though  much  overworked.  A  good  quality  of 
cedar  grows  on  the  islands,  and  is  extensively 
used  for  building  small  and  swift  vessels.  There 
are  no  fresh-water  streams  nor  good  wells ; 
rain  water  is  collected  in  tanks.  The  fisheries 
are  valuable.  Limestone  and  sandstone  are 
abundant.  The  only  towns  are  Hamilton,  the 
capital,  on  Bermuda  island,  and  St.  George, 
on  the  island  of  that  name,  the  latter  being  the 
larger  of  the  two.  The  government  consists 
of  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by  the 
crown,  and  an  assembly  of  36  members  elect- 
ed by  the  people.  The  revenue  in  1869  was 
£30,040;  expenditure,  £32,040;  public  debt, 


BEKMUDEZ 


BERN 


569 


View  in  the  Bermudas,  with  Hamilton  in  the  distance. 


£8,000;  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1870,  £54,933 ;  exports  to  the  United  King- 
dom, £8,928.  A  penal  colony  has  been  estab- 
lished on  the  islands,  and  the  convicts  are 
employed  on  the  public  works.  There  is  an 
admiralty  school  on  Ireland  island,  and  private 
and  free  schools,  churches,  and  chapels  are  nu- 
merous.— In  1522  Juan  Bermudez,  a  Spaniard, 
was  wrecked  upon  these  islands  while  on  a 
voyage  from  Spain  to  Cuba  with  a  cargo  of 
hogs.  Sir  George  Somers  was  wrecked  upon 
them  in  1609  on  his  way  to  Virginia.  In  1614 
the  islands  were  settled  under  a  charter  from 
James  I.,  and  in  1640  a  regular  government 
was  established.  The  islands  prospered,  and 
during  the  civil  wars  many  persons  of  position 
and  wealth  took  refuge  on  them.  Among  them 
was  the  poet  Waller,  who  sang  their  beauties  in 
the  "  Battle  of  the  Summer  Island."  They  are 
called  in  Shakespeare's  "  Tempest "  the  "  still 
vexed  Bermoothes.'' 

BERMUDEZ,  Gerontmo,  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Galicia  about  1530,  died  about  1589.  He 
belonged  to  the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca.  He  pub- 
lished at  Madrid  in  1577,  under  the  name  of 
Antonio  de  Silva,  two  tragedies  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  Inez  de  Castro,  Nine  Lastimosa  and 
Nise  Laureada.  The  former  is  much  the 
finer  poem,  and  has  passages  of  great  poetical 
merit.  He  also  published  a  poem  originally 
written  in  Latin,  and  translated  by  himself  into 
Spanish,  entitled  La  Hesperoida,  of  which  the 
duke  of  Alva  was  the  hero. 

BERN,  or  Berne.  I.  A  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  N".  W.  by  France  and  the  German 
province  of  Alsace,  N.  E.  and  N.  by  Basel 
and  Solothurn,  E.  by  Aargau,  Lucerne,  Unter- 
walden,  and  Uri,  S.  by  Valais,  and  W.  by  Vaud, 


Fribourg,  and  Nenfchatel ;  area,  2,660  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  506,561,  of  whom  about  five 
sixths  are  Germans  and  the  rest  French.  The 
ranges  of  the  Jura  extend  through  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  canton,  and  the  Bernese  Alps 
are  in  the  south.  Among  these  in  the  S.  E. 
corner  rises  the  river  Aar,  which,  after  passing 
through  Lakes  Brienz  and  Thun,  flows  N.  W. 
through  the  centre  of  the  canton.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributaries  in  Bern  are  the  Simmen,  the 
Saane,  the  Thiele  from  Lake  Bienne,  and  the 
Emmen.  Along  the  lower  Aar  and  Emmen  the 
country  is  level  with  undulations.  Deep  valleys 
are  found  between  the  ranges  of  the  Jura  and 
amid  the  Alps.  Those  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  canton,  which  is  called  the  Oberland. 
are  particularly  celebrated  for  their  beauty; 
the  most  famous  are  those  of  Hasli,  Grindel- 
wald,  Lauterbrunnen,  that  of  the  Simmen, 
and  the  plain  of  Interlaken.  The  highest  points 
of  the  Bernese  Alps  are  the  Finsteraarhorn,  the 
Jungfrau,  the  Monch,  the  Schreckhorn,  the  Ei 
ger,  and  the  Wetterhorn,  from  12,000  to  14,000 
ft.  high.  Many  strangers  are  attracted  to  the 
canton  by  its  wild  and  romantic  scenery. 
The  climate  is  healthful,  but  in  temperature 
varies  with  the  elevation.  There  is  a  corre- 
sponding variation  in  the  soil.  The  valley  of 
the  Emmen  is  extremely  fertile.  The  valleys 
of  the  Oberland  are  less  so.  On  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  excellent  pastures  are  found. 
These  change  higher  up  into  barren  rocks,  and 
at  a  still  greater  elevation  into  glaciers.  In  the 
Jura  iron  and  copper  are  mined,  and  watches 
and  wood  carvings  are  made.  The  canton  ex- 
ports cheese,  but  is  sometimes  obliged  to  im- 
port potatoes  and  grain.  A  railway  crosses 
the  northern  part,  and  several  railways  centre 
in  the  city  of  Bern.  The  canton  is  divided 


570 


BERN 


into  30  districts.  Among  the  more  important 
communes  are  Brienz,  Unterseen,  Thun,  Lang- 
nan,  Arberg,  Bienne,  and  Porrentruy.  Be- 
sides the  university  of  Bern,  the  canton  has 
3  gymnasia  and  5  schools  preparatory  for 
them,  29  Beahchulen  and  secondary  schools, 
1,412  primary  schools  upon  which  attend- 
ance is  compulsory,  and  6  normal  schools. — 
In  1191  Berchtold  V.,  duke  of  Zahringen, 
fortified  his  castle  of  Nydeck,  upon  the  pro- 
montory where  the  city  of  Bern  now  stands, 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  lesser  nobles,  and 
gave  a  charter  to  the  city.  The  canton  was 
formed  out  of  the  territory  which  was  from 
time  to  time  acquired  by  the  city,  and  in  1353 
joined  the  Swiss  confederation.  In  1528  it 
placed  itself  upon  the  side  of  the  reformation, 
and  having  in  1536  conquered  the  Pays  de 
Vaud  from  Savoy,  its  territory  for  nearly  three 


centuries  extended  from  the  lake  of  Geneva  to 
the  Rhine.  During  this  period  its  government 
from  being  democratic  became  aristocratic  and 
oligarchical.  The  armies  of  the  French  repub- 
lic invaded  the  canton  in  1798,  took  the  city 
of  Bern,  and  seized  its  treasury,  containing 
30,000,000  francs.  In  1803,  by  Napoleon's  act 
of  mediation,  Aargau  and  Vaud  were  separated 
from  Bern.  In  1815,  to  compensate  for  the 
loss  of  Aargau  and  Vaud,  the  territories  of 
the  bishop  of  Basel  were  taken  from  France 
and  added  to  Bern,  and  an  aristocratic  tone 
was  given  to  the  institutions  of  this  "  Venice 
of  the  Alps,"  as  the  canton  lias  sometimes  been 
called.  In  1831  a  more  democratic  constitution 
was  adopted,  and  still  another  in  1846.  Under 
this  the  government  is  vested  in  a  grand  coun- 
cil, which  delegates  its  power  to  a  smaller  body 
called  the  council  of  administration.  The  chief 


Bern,  Switzerland. 


judicial  power  is  given  to  a  supreme  court 
of  15  members  with  4  substitutes.  Under  the 
constitution  of  Switzerland  which  was  promul- 
gated Sept.  12, 1848,  the  canton  sends  23  mem- 
bers to  the  Nationalrath  or  lower  house  of 
the  Swiss  diet.  In  1870  the  referendum  was 
introduced,  which  provides  that  every  law 
adopted  by  the  legislature  must  be  ratified  by 
the  people  before  it  can  become  valid.  The 
revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  canton  in  1870 
amounted  to  about  5,200,000  fr. ;  public  debt, 
20,000,000  fr.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  canton 
and  of  Switzerland,  situated  upon  a  promon- 
tory of  sandstone  around  which  flows  the 
Aar  with  steep  and  precipitous  banks,  43  m. 
S.  of  Basel;  pop.  in  1870,  36,002,  of  whom 
2,644  were  Roman  Catholics,  303  Jews,  and 
the  remainder  Protestants.  The  lofty  Nydeck 
bridge  by  which  it  may  be  entered  from  the 


east  is  one  of  the  most  gigantic  structures  of 
Switzerland.  The  city  is  handsomely  built,  with 
broad  straight  streets,  many  of  the  houses  rest- 
ing upon  arcades.  By  means  of  the  Gasel,  a 
brook  introduced  into  the  city  in  1868,  foun- 
tains are  supplied  and  rills  made  to  flow 
through  many  of  the  streets.  The  capitol  of 
the  confederation  was  completed  here  in  1857, 
and  cost  2,145,471  fr.  The  high  clock  tower, 
built  by  Berchtold  of  Zahringen  in  1191,  is 
near  the  middle  of  the  city.  Every  hour  its 
works  set  in  motion  puppets  which  represent  a 
cock,  a  procession  of  bears,  and  a  bearded  old 
man  with  an  hour  glass,  who  strikes  a  bell.  The 
cathedral  faces  a  terrace  108  feet  above  the  Aar, 
from  which  a  fine  view  may  be  had  of  the  Ober- 
land  Alps.  It  was  begun  in  1421  under  the- 
supervision  of  Matthias  Heinz,  son  of  one  of 
the  architects  of  Strasburg  cathedral,  to  which 


BERNADOTTE 


571 


it  is  equal  in  some  of  its  details.  The  other 
most  noted  buildings  are  the  churches,  the 
library  and  museum,  the  mint,  the  orphan  asy- 
lum, the  hospital,  the  arsenal,  the  university 
buildings,  &c.  The  university  was  founded  in 
1834,  and  in  1871  had  73  professors  and  319 
students.  A  school  of  arts  was  founded  in 
1871.  The  manufactures  are  cloth,  printed 
linen,  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  straw  hats. 
The  corporation  of  the  city  is  so  rich  that  it 
furnishes  the  citizens  with  fuel  gratis,  and  has 
a  surplus.  The  scenery  is  of  the  most  pictu- 
resque character,  and  the  city  is  much  fre- 
quented by  strangers.  The  wall  ditches  are 
renowned  for  hears,  the  bear  being  the  heral- 
dic animal  of  Bern,  which  derives  its  name 
from  it.  The  armory,  the  richest  in  Switzer- 
land, is  full  of  ancient  weapons  and  curiosities. 
liCUM IMtm:.  Jean  Baptist*  Jules,  marshal  of 
the  French  empire  and  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  born  at  Pau,  Jan.  26,  1764,  died  in 
Stockholm,  March  8,  1844.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  lawyer,  and  was  educated  for  that  pro- 
fession, but  enlisted  in  1780  in  the  royal  ma- 
rines. When  the  French  revolution  broke  out 
his  advancement  became  rapid.  In  1792  he 
served  as  colonel  in  Custine's  army  ;  command- 
ed a  demi-brigade  in  1793  ;  was  in  the  same 
year,  through  K16ber's  patronage,  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general ;  and  contributed, 
as  general  of  division  in  the  army  of  the  Sam- 
bre  and  Meuse,  under  K16ber  and  Jourdan,  to 
the  victory  of  Flenrus,  June  26,  1794,  the  suc- 
cess at  Julich,  and  the  capitulation  of  Maes- 
tricht.  He  also  did  good  service  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1795-' 6  against  the  Austrian  generals 
Clairfait,  Kray,  and  the  archduke  Charles. 
At  the  beginning  of  1797  he  was  ordered  by 
the  directory  to  march  with  20,000  men  as  re- 
enforcements  to  the  Italian  army,  and  it  was 
upon  his  arrival  in  Italy  that  his  first  interview 
with  Bonaparte  took  place.  During  the  inva- 
sion of  Friuli  and  Istria  Bernadotte  distinguish- 
ed himself  at  the  passage  of  the  Tagliamento, 
where  he  led  the  vanguard,  and  at  the  cap- 
ture of  the  fortress  of  Gradisca,  March  19, 1797. 
After  the  18th  Fructidor,  Bonaparte  ordered 
his  generals  to  collect  from  their  respective  di- 
visions addresses  in  favor  of  the  coup  d'etat  of 
that  day;  but  Bernadotte  sent  an  address  to 
the  directory  different  from  that  which  Bona- 
parte wished  for  and  without  conveying  it 
through  Bonaparte's  hands.  After  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio  Bonaparte  made  Bernadotte  a 
friendly  visit  at  his  headquarters  at  Udine,  but 
immediately  after  deprived  him  of  half  his  di- 
vision of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  command- 
ed him  to  march  the  other  half  back  to  France. 
Bernadotte  was  much  dissatisfied,  but  finally 
accepted  the  embassy  to  Vienna.  Having  been 
reprimanded  by  the  directory  because  he  had 
not  placed  the  emblem  of  the  republic  upon 
the  outside  of  his  hotel,  Bernadotte  hoisted  the 
tri-colored  flag  with  the  inscription  "  Liberty, 
equality,  fraternity."  This  was  done  upon  a 
day  on  which  a  public  anniversary  was  cele- 


brated at  Vienna,  April  13,  1798.  His  hotel 
was  stormed  by  a  mob,  his  flag  burnt,  and  his 
life  endangered.  Satisfaction  having  been  re- 
fused, Bernadotte  withdrew  to  Rastadt  with  all 
his  legation.  The  directory,  however,  on  the 
advice  of  Bonaparte,  waived  the  claim  for  sat- 
isfaction and  recalled  Bernadotte  to  Paris.  He 
married  in  August,  1798,  Mile.  Desiree  Clary, 
the  daughter  of  a  Marseilles  merchant  and  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte's  sister-in-law.  In  November 
of  the  same  year  he  was  made  commander  of 
the  army  of  observation  on  the  upper  Rhine. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  30th  Prairial,  1799, 
he  was  made  minister  of  war,  and  in  that 
office  rendered  valuable  services.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  Sept.  13  he  found  his  resignation  an- 
nounced in  the  Moniteur  before  he  was  aware 
that  he  had  tendered  it.  This  was  a  trick 

;  played  upon  him  by  Siey£s  and  Roger  Ducos, 
the  directors  allied  to  Bonaparte.  Although 
solicited  to  do  so  by  Bonaparte,  Bernadotte  re- 
fused to  take  part  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799),  by  which  the  direc- 
tory was  abolished  and  supreme  power  con- 
ferred on  Napoleon.  Placed  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  west,  he  restored  tranquillity 
to  La  Vendee.  After  the  proclamation  of 
the  empire  in  1804  he  was  made  a  marshal, 
and  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
army  of  Hanover.  In  this  capacity,  as  well 
as  during  his  later  command  of  the  army  of 
northern  Germany,  he  created  for  himself  a 
reputation  for  independence,  moderation,  and 
administrative  ability.  At  the  head  of  the 
corps  stationed  in  Hanover,  which  formed  the 

I  first  corps  of  the  grand  army,  he  participated 
in  the  campaign  of  1805  against  the  Austrians 
and  Russians.  In  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  he 
was  posted  with  his  corps  in  the  centre  be- 
tween Soult  and  Lannes,  and  contributed  to 
baffle  the  attempt  of  the  right  wing  of  the  al- 
lies to  outflank  the  French  army.  On  June  5, 
1806,  he  was  created  prince  of  Ponte-Corvo,  a 
district  of  Naples  formerly  subject  to  the  pope. 
During  the  campaign  of  1806-'7  against  Prus- 
sia he  commanded  the  first  corps  d'arm6e. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena,  Oct.  14,  1806,  Ber- 
nadotte defeated  the  Prussians  at  Halle,  Oct. 
17,  pursued  conjointly  with  Soult  and  Murat 
the  Prussian  general  Blucher  to  Liibeck,  and 
aided  in  forcing  his  capitulation  at  Radkow, 
Nov.  7.  He  also  defeated  the  Russians  at 
Mohrungen,  Jan.  25,  1807.  After  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  according  to  the  alliance  concluded  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Napoleon,  French  troops 
were  to  occupy  the  Danish  islands,  thence  to  act 
against  Sweden.  Accordingly,  in  1808,  while 
Russia  invaded  Finland,  Bernadotte  was  com- 
manded to  move  upon  Seeland  in  order  to  pen- 
etrate with  the  Danes  into  Sweden  to  dethrone 
its  king,  and  to  partition  the  country  between 
Denmark  and  Russia.  He  passed  the  Belt  and 
arrived  in  Seeland  at  the  head  of  30,000 

i  Frenchmen,  Dutch,  and   Spaniards ;   most  of 

j  the  latter,  however,  by  the  assistance  of  the 
English  fleet,  decamped  under  Gen.  de  la  Ro- 


572 


BERNADOTTE 


BERNARD 


mafia.  Being  recalled  to  Germany  to  assist  in 
the  new  war  between  France  and  Austria,  he 
received  the  command  of  the  9th  corps,  which 
was  mainly  composed  of  Saxons.  At  the  but- 
tle of  Wagram  he  commanded  this  corps,  of 
which  the  division  of  Gen.  Dupas  formed  part. 
Having  resisted  on  the  left  wing  for  a  long 
time  an  attack  from  a  superior  force,  he  order- 
ed Dupas  forward  to  his  support;  the  latter 
replied  that  he  had  orders  from  the  emperor 
to  remain  where  he  was.  After  the  battle 
Bernadotte  complained  to  Napoleon  for  having 
in  violation  of  all  military  rules  ordered  Gen. 
Dupas  to  act  independently  of  his  command, 
and  for  having  thereby  caused  great  loss  of 
life  to  the  Saxons,  and  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion ;  and  Napoleon  accepted  it  after  he  had 
become  aware  of  an  order  of  the  day  issued 
by  Bernadotte  in  which  he  gave  the  Saxons 
credit  for  their  courage  in  terms  inconsistent 
with  the  emperor's  official  bulletin.  Bernadotte 
having  returned  to  Paris,  the  Walcheren  ex- 
pedition (July,  1809),  caused  the  French  min- 
istry in  the  absence  of  the  emperor  to  intrust 
him  with  the  defence  of  Antwerp.  In  a 
proclamation  issued  to  his  troops  at  Antwerp 
he  made  a  charge  against  Napoleon  of  having 
neglected  to  prepare  the  proper  means  of  defence 
for  the  Belgian  coast.  He  was  deprived  of  his 
command,  and  ordered  on  his  return  to  Paris 
to  leave  it  for  his  princedom  of  Ponte-Corvo. 
Refusing  to  comply  with  the  order,  he  was 
summoned  to  Vienna,  and  after  an  interview 
with  Napoleon  at  Schonbrunn  accepted  the 
general  government  of  the  Roman  states.  He 
was  making  his  preparations  to  enter  upon  this 
office  when  the  Swedish  diet  elected  him  crown 
prince  of  Sweden,  Aug.  21,  1810.  The  king, 
Charles  XIII.,  who  in  1809  had  succeeded  the 
dethroned  Gustavus  IV.,  adopted  him  as  his  son 
under  the  name  of  Charles  John.  Before  freeing 
Bernadotte  from  his  allegiance  to  France,  Na- 
poleon asked  him  to  agree  never  to  take  up  arms 
against  France.  Bernadotte  having  refused  to 
make  any  such  agreement,  upon  the  ground 
that  his  obligations  to  Sweden  would  not  allow 
it,  Napoleon  signed  the  act  of  emancipation 
unconditionally.  Landing  at  Helsingborg,  Ber- 
nadotte there  abjured  the  Catholic  religion,  and 
entered  Stockholm  Nov.  1.  During  the  king's 
sickness,  in  the  following  year,  Bernadotte  act- 
ed as  regent.  Napoleon  compelled  him  to  ac- 
cede to  the  continental  system  and  declare  war 
against  England ;  but  the  declaration  was  treat- 
ed by  both  England  and  Sweden  as  being  mere- 
ly nominal.  Napoleon  suppressed  the  crown 
prince's  revenues  as  a  French  prince,  declined 
to  receive  his  despatches,  and  sent  back  the 
order  of  the  Seraphim  bestowed  by  him  upon 
the  new-born  king  of  Rome.  Finally  French 
troops  in  January,  1812,  invaded  Swedish  Po- 
merania  and  the  island  of  Rugen  ;  whereupon 
Sweden  concluded  an  offensive  alliance  against 
France  with  Russia.  In  this  treaty  the  annex- 
ation of  Norway  to  Sweden  was  stipulated. 
When  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Russia, 


Bernadotte  was  for  a  time  the  arbiter  of  the 
destinies  of  Europe.  Napoleon  offered  him,  on 
the  condition  of  his  attacking  Russia  with 
40,000  Swedes,  Finland,  Mecklenburg,  Stettin, 
and  all  the  territory  between  Stettin  and  Vol- 
gast.  But  Bernadotte  remained  upon  the  side 
of  Russia.  He  mediated  the  peace  of  Orebro, 
concluded  about  the  same  time  between  Eng- 
land on  the  one  side  and  Russia  and  Sweden 
on  the  other.  After  the  French  retreat  from 
Moscow,  when  England  guaranteed  him  Nor- 
way, he  entered  the  coalition.  He  assisted 
the  emperor  Alexander  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
in  the  formation  of  their  plans  for  the  campaign 
of  1813,  in  which  as  crown  prince  of  Sweden 
he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north.  In  this  campaign,  after  having  defeated 
Oudinot  at  Grossbeeren,  he  gained  a  victory 
(Sept.  6)  over  Ney  at  Dennewitz,  and  joined 
in  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  time  to  contribute 
materially  to  the  victory  of  the  allies.  After 
that  battle  he  marched  upon  Denmark  by  way 
of  Hanover;  and  he  forced  Frederick  VI.  to 
sign  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan.  14, 1814,  by  which 
Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  When  the  al- 
lies entered  France  the  crown  prince  followed 
slowly,  and  stopped  on  the  frontier.  After 
Napoleon's  abdication  he  repaired  personally 
to  Paris,  where  his  reception  by  the  allies  was 
not  particularly  cordial ;  but  on  his  return  to 
Sweden  the  treaty  of  Kiel  was  guaranteed  by 
the  five  great  powers.  The  representatives  of 
Norway,  assembling  at  Eidwold,  adopted  the 
constitution  which  is  still  in  force.  This  con- 
stitution Bernadotte  agreed  to  accept,  and  ob- 
tained the  assent  to  it  of  the  Swedish  assem- 
bly (storthing).  Charles  XIII.  expired  Feb. 
5,  1818,  and  Bernadotte  was  acknowledged 
throughout  Europe  as  king  both  of  Sweden 
and  Norway  under  the  name  of  Charles  XIV. 
John.  Although  ignorant  of  the  language  of 
the  countries  over  which  he  reigned,  Berna- 
dotte as  king  succeeded  in  overcoming  all 
the  difficulties  which  arose  in  either  country. 
During  his  long  reign  of  26  years  education  was 
promoted,  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manu- 
factures prospered,  and  the  means  of  internal 
communication  were  increased.  (See  SWEDEN.) 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son,  Oscar. 

BERNALILLO,  an  E.  central  county  of  New 
Mexico,  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  8. 
projection  of  San  Miguel  county,  the  E.  por- 
tion bordering  on  Texas;  area,  about  3,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,591.  The  "W.  portion 
is  intersected  by  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and 
Rio  Puerco,  and  is  skirted  by  the  Rio  de  Sun 
Jose.  In  this  portion  are  the  Sandia  and  other 
mountains.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  18,300  bushels  of  wheat,  31,505  of  Indian 
corn,  14,080  gallons  of  wine,  and  166,960  Ibs. 
of  wool.  There  were  373  horses,  509  mules 
and  asses,  622  milch  cows,  2,016  other  cattle, 
126,010  sheep,  and  446  swine.  Capital,  Albu- 
querque. 

BERNARD,  a  saint  and  doctor  of  the  Latin 
church,  born  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy,  in 


BERNARD 


573 


1091,  died  in  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux,  Aug.  20, 
1153.  His  father,  Tescelin,  was  a  knight  of  the 
house  of  Chatillon,  and  his  mother,  Aleth,  was 
a  daughter  of  Count  Bernard  of  Montbard. 
Bernard  was  the  third  of  a  family  of  seven 
children.  From  the  beginning  he  was  destined 
to  a  clerical  life,  and  he  astonished  his  masters 
by  his  rapid  progress  in  learning.  After  the 
death  of  his  mother,  when  he  was  19  years  old, 
he  resolved  to  enter  the  cloister,  and  to  per- 
suade his  brothers  to  join  him.  Andrew  and 
Bartholomew,  younger  brothers,  were  easily 
won.  Guy,  the  eldest,  was  for  a  time  retained 
by  his  wife,  but  she  at  last  consented  to  go  to 
a  nunnery.  A  rich  and  warlike  uncle  was  the 
next  proselyte.  Gerard,  the  second  brother, 
was  more  insensible,  but  his  obstinacy  was 
disarmed  by  a  vision.  The  rule  chosen  by  the 
brethren  was  the  new  Cistercian  rule.  Ber- 
nard's discipline  was  rigorous  in  the  extreme, 
His  labors  were  severe,  his  fastings  protracted ; 
his  sensibilities  were  blunted  by  various  ex- 
posure, till  he  lost  almost  all  sense  of  outward 
impressions.  His  meagre  and  haggard  frame 
was  a  fearful  witness  of  the  struggles  of  the 
soul  in  its  contest  with  the  body.  His  novi- 
tiate year  brought  numerous  converts,  including 
Nivard,  Bernard's  youngest  brother.  The  year 
of  novitiate  was  passed  by  the  brethren  in  the 
convent  of  Ctteatix.  In  this  time  several  new 
convents  had  been  founded  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. In  1115  Bernard,  with  12  monks,  among 
whom  were  his  brothers,  was  sent  out  to  find 
in  the  province  of  Champagne  a  suitable  place 
for  a  Cistercian  community.  He  chose  a  wild 
gorge  in  the  diocese  of  Langres,  noted  as  a 
haunt  of  robbers,  the  name  of  which  was  the 
"Valley  of  Wormwood."  He  changed  the 
name  to  Clairvaux,  or  "  Beautiful  Valley."  The 
numbers  of  the  brotherhood  rapidly  multiplied. 
Their  charities  were  the  praise  of  all  the 
region.  Men  came  to  Clairvaux  to  be  healed 
of  their  infirmities  by  one  whom  sickness  had 
reduced  almost  to  spiritual  proportions.  Com- 
pelled by  superior  authority  to  submit  himself 
to  a  physician,  Bernard,  against  his  will,  recov- 
ered. Henceforth,  recognizing  his  own  weak- 
ness of  body,  he  was  less  enthusiastic  in  his  aus- 
terities. The  12  succeeding  years  of  his  life 
were  devoted  to  the  reform  and  direction  of  the 
convents  already  established,  or  suggestions 
concerning  new  establishments.  His  corre- 
spondence was  vast,  and  he  gave  audience  to 
great  numbers  who  came  to  consult  him.  His 
studies  were  not  less  vigorously  prosecuted, both 
in  Scriptural  and  patristic  lore.  Augustine's 
theology  and  the  Canticles  of  Solomon  were 
his  favorite  themes.  In  1124  Humbeline,  his 
only  sister,  and  the  last  of  his  family,  took  the 
veil  in  one  of  the  convents  of  his  foundation. 
Bernard  was  repeatedly  called  abroad  to  recon- 
cile disputes  between  bishops  and  their  dio- 
ceses, between  the  church  and  the  nobles.  He 
persuaded  Abbot  Suger,  prime  minister  of  Louis 
the  Fat,  to  relinquish  his  secular  station  and 
confine  himself  at  St.  Denis  to  his  religious 


i  charge.  He  supported  Henry,  archbishop  of 
Sens,  and  Stephen  of  Paris,  in  their  appeal  to 
Rome  against  the  king.  At  the  council  of 
Troyes,  in  1128,  he  vindicated  the  canons  of 
the  church,  and  took  part  in  those  stormy  de- 
bates about  the  excesses  of  the  Templar  knights. 
At  the  council  of  Chalons,  1129,  he  assisted  to 
depose  the  bishop  of  Verdun.  Repeated  offers  of 
lucrative  sees  were  steadily  refused  by  him.  In 
1130  a  schism  was  caused  by  the  pretensions  of 
the  cardinal  of  Leon,  who  claimed  the  papacy, 
under  the  title  of  Anacletns,  in  opposition  to  In- 
nocent II.  At  the  council  of  Etampes  Bernard 
gave  his  support  to  Innocent,  procured  a  decree 
in  favor  of  the  exile,  and  then  visited  the  prin- 
cipal courts  of  Europe  to  plead  Innocent's  cause. 

i  He  secured  the  countenance  of  England,  ac- 

!  companied  Innocent  to  Germany,  and  with 
some  difficulty  induced  the  emperor  Lothaire 
not  only  to  acknowledge  him  as  pope,  but  to 
renounce  the  privilege  of  investiture.  In  1132 
Bernard  accompanied  Innocent  into  Italy.  The 
division  between  its  various  states  tended  to 
hinder  the  restoration  of  Catholic  unity.  Ge- 
noa, whose  jealousy  of  Pisa  was  obstinate  and 
deep-rooted,  was  subdued  by  the  preaching  of 
the  abbot,  until  the  people  almost  forced  him  to 
stay  as  their  chief  bishop.  Pisa  in  turn  yielded 

!  to  his  eloquence.     In  Milan  he  found  a  harder 

i  task;  but  here,  too,  he  succeeded,  and  the 
Milanese  also  demanded  him  for  their  bishop. 
Returning  after  five  years  of  conflict  to  Clair- 
vaux, he  found  its  affairs  peaceful  and  prospe- 
rous. Count  William  of  Aquitaine,  the  most 
violent  of  the  adherents  of  Anacletus,  kindled 
a  fresh  schism  and  deposed  bishops  who  sup- 
ported Innocent.  Failing  in  his  argument  with 
this  man,  Bernard  tried  an  experiment,  such 
as  Ambrose  had  tried  with  Theodosius.  After 
the  consecration  at  mass,  he  went  toward  the 
count  with  the  wafer  and  paten  in  his  hands, 
and  threatened  him  with  the  judgment  of  the 
Lord  unless  he  desisted  from  the  persecution 
of  the  church.  The  count  fell  prostrate  and 
penitent  at  his  feet,  and  two  years  later  died 
on  a  pilgrimage.  In  1137  Bernard  was  sum- 
moned from  his  convent  to  plead  the  cause  of 
Innocent  before  King  Roger  of  Sicily,  who  had 
possessed  himself  of  Rome.  The  necessity  of 
unity  in  the  church,  and  the  right  of  majorities 
to  decide  disputed  questions,  were  arguments 
which  Roger  and  his  partisans  could  not  well 
resist.  The  death  of  Anacletus  weakened  the 
schism  still  further ;  and,  although  the  form  of 
electing  his  successor  was  tried,  the  party  were 
forced  to  confess  themselves  vanquished,  and 
the  abbot  received  the  testimonies  of  their 
final  submission.  Innocent  was  installed  at, 
Rome,  and  Bernard  was  able  to  see  the  fruit 
of  his  eight  years  of  toil  and  contest.  A  visit 
to  the  convent  of  the  Paraclete,  of  which  He- 
loi'se  was  abbess,  had  acquainted  Bernard  with 

!  the  views  and  principles  of  Abelard.  Through 
Bernard's  influence,  in  the  year  1140,  a  council 
was  held  at  Sens  to  consider  those  opinions. 

|  From  a  conviction  that  his  cause  was  hopeless, 


574 


BERNARD 


or  from  fear  as  some  say,  Ab61ard  did  not  jus-  ; 
tify  himself  before  the  council,  and  his  default 
was  pronounced,  with  his  sentence  as  a  heretic. 
His  death,  during'  the  journey  which  he  was  j 
making  to  Rome,  saved  his  adversary  from 
the  annoyance  of  further  controversy.  In  this 
and  subsequent  years  Bernard's  life  was  em- 
bittered by  misunderstandings  with  the  pope, 
who  preferred  the  good  will  of  the  secular 
powers  to  the  friendship  of  the  monk  who  had 
placed  him  on  the  papal  throne.  His  influence 
at  Rome,  however,  was  soon  regained.  After 
the  short  reigns  of  Celestine  II.  and  Lucius  II., 
one  of  his  own  spiritual  children,  another  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux,  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
St.  Peter  as  Eugenius  III.  The  new  pope  soon 
intrusted  to  Bernard  the  duty  of  preaching  a 
fresh  crusade.  Bernard  passed  through  France 
and  Germany,  arousing  indifference,  inflaming 
piety,  opening  the  coffers  of  the  rich,  and  call- 
ing all  to  the  holy  war.  His  success  was 
instant  and  wonderful.  More  than  once  his 
robe  was  torn  to  shreds  in  furnishing  crosses 
to  the  eager  volunteers.  He  writes  to  Euge- 
nius that  the  cities  and  castles  are  deserted,  that 
the  wives  are  becoming  widows,  and  that  there 
is  hardly  one  man  to  seven  women.  Soon  he 
had  to  moderate  the  excitement  and  check  the 
excesses  of  the  host  which  he  had  gathered. 
He  strove  especially  to  prevent  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jews,  which  was  the  first  sign  of 
the  new  Christian  fury.  In  1147  the  two  great 
expeditions  set  out.  Confusion  marked  their 
way,  and  disaster  followed  them.  The  Greek 
emperor  suffered  the  German  forces  to  be  cut 
to  pieces  by  the  Moslems.  The  French  expe- 
dition was  equally  unfortunate,  and,  though  a 
fragment  reached  Syria  and  laid  siege  to  Da- 
mascus, the  climate  and  vices  of  that  region 
finished  the  destruction  which  the  fortunes  of 
war  had  begun.  The  weight  of  the  blame  was 
thrown  upon  the  advisers  of  the  expedition,  and 
Bernard,  who  had  protested  against  the  blun- 
ders of  the  campaign,  was  cursed  for  its  fatal 
result.  His  fame,  however  tarnished  by  this 
disaster  abroad,  was  retrieved  by  his  successful 
warfare  with  new  heresy  at  home.  He  cleansed 
Languedoc  from  the  scandal  which  Henry  of 
Lausanne  and  Peter  de  Bruis,  the  Cathari  or 
Purist  leaders,  had  brought  upon  that  province. 
At  the  council  of  Rheims,  in  1148,  he  refuted 
the  Sabellian  bishop,  Gilbert  of  Poitiers.  It  j 
was  proposed  to  engage  him  in  a  new  crusade,  \ 
but  he  refused.  His  last  five  years  were  passed  i 
in  comparative  retirement,  varied  only  by  liter- 
ary occupations  and  the  visits  of  distinguished 
friends.  Gurnard,  king  of  Sardinia,  and  Pope 
Eugenius,  were  at  different  times  his  guests. 
The  "  burning  and  shining  light  of  the  Irish 
church,"  Malachi,  saint  and  bishop,  died  on  a 
visit  to  Clairvaux,  and  Bernard  wrote  his  life. 
The  abbess  Hildegard  found  in  Bernard  a 
friend  who  vindicated  her  at  Rome,  and  be- 
lieved that  her  gift  of  prophecy  was  real.  In 
these  last  years  the  most  remarkable  of  Ber- 
nard's compositions  were  written.  His  body 


was  buried  in  the  church  at  Clairvaux,  and  in 
1165  his  name  was  set  in  the  calendar  of  the 
church  by  Pope  Alexander,  though  it  was  not 
openly  proclaimed  among  the  saints  till  1174. 
Bernard  founded  35  monasteries  in  France,  11 
in  Spain,  10  in  England  and  Ireland,  fl  in  Flan- 
ders, 4  in  Italy,  2  in  Germany,  2  in  Sweden,  1 
in  Hungary,  and  1  in  Denmark.  At  Clairvaux 
at  the  time  of  his  death  there  were  700  breth- 
ren. His  treatises,  authoritative  as  they  still 
are,  have  been  superseded  by  the  works  of 
Aquinas  and  Bellarmin,  and  his  sermons  do  not 
justify  his  singular  fame  for  pulpit  eloquence. 
It  needs  nice  discrimination  to  separate  his 
genuine  writings  from  those  which  have  been 
falsely  attributed  to  him.  The  former  comprise 
epistles,  sermons,  and  moral  and  theological 
treatises.  Of  the  epistles  480  are  contained  in 
the  collections  of  Mabillon  and  Martene,  439  of 
which  were  the  work  of  Bernard  himself,  the 
remainder  being  either  addressed  to  him  or 
drawn  up  by  his  secretary.  The  general  char- 
acteristics of  his  letters  are  earnestness,  energy, 
clearness  of  expression,  and  a  fierce  sincerity. 
The  style  is  unequal,  in  most  instances  rugged 
and  harsh.  The  sermons  include  86  on  the 
Canticles  of  Solomon,  86  on  the  events  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year,  43  on  the  saints  and  the 
Virgin,  and  125  miscellaneous.  They  are  cold, 
ethical,  sometimes  even  obscure.  The  other 
works  of  St.  Bernard  include  treatises  on 
"  The  Love  of  God ;  "  "  Grace  and  Free  Will ;  " 
"  Twelve  Degrees  of  Humility  and  Pride  ;  " 
baptism  and  the  incarnation,  in  a  letter  to  Hugo 
of  St.  Victor;  "  Conversion,"  addressed  to  the 
clergy;  an  "Apology"  for  his  order,  in  reply 
to  the  censure  of  certain  Benedictines;  "Ex- 
hortations to  the  Knights  Templar ;  "  "  Errors 
of  Ab61ard  ;  "  "Precepts  and  Dispensations;'' 
and  a  work  on  "  Consideration,"  suggested  by 
the  visit  of  Pope  Eugenius  to  his  monastery, 
and  dedicated  to  that  pontiff.  The  standard 
edition  of  his  writings  is  that  of  Mabillon  (2 
vols.  fol.,  1690).  This  contains  valuable  notes, 
in  addition  to  the  edition  of  1667.  A  new  edi- 
tion appeared  in  1719  and  in  1726.  Another 
less  valuable  but  more  convenient  edition,  by 
the  same  famous  Benedictine,  is  in  9  vols.  8vo. 
The  most  accessible  biographies  are  those  of 
Keander  (Berlin,  1841),  Montalembert,  Daunon 
in  vol.  xiii.  of  "French  Literary  History,"  Abel 
Desjardins  (Dijon,  1845),  the  abb6  Ratisbonne 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1846),  and  J.  C.  Morison  (Lon- 
don, 1863). 

BERNARD,  Clande,  a  French  physiologist,  born 
at  Saint  Julien,  department  of  the  Rhone,  July 
12,  1813.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  became  in 
1854  incumbent  of  the  newly  established  chair 
of  general  physiology  in  the  faculty  of  sciences, 
and  member  of  the  academy ;  in  1855  professoi 
of  experimental  physiology  at  the  college  de 
France;  and  in  1868  professor  of  general  phys- 
iology at  the  museum.  He  established  his 
reputation  by  his  Recherches  sur  les  usages  du 
pancreas,  to  which  the  academy  awarded  a 
prize  in  1846,  and  which  was  published  in  1856 


BERNARD 


BERNARDIN  OF  SIENA        575 


in  the  academical  annals.  His  other  works  in- 
clude Lafonction  glycogeniquedu  foie  (1849); 
Recherehes  experimentales  sur  le  grand  sympa- 
thigue  et  sur  ^influence  que  la  section  de  ce 
nerf  exerce  sur  la  chaleur  animate  (1854);  Le- 
fons  de  physiologie  experimental  appliquee  A 
la  medeeine  (2  vols.,  1855-'6);  Lecons  sur  les 
proprietes  physiologiques  et  les  alterations  pa- 
thologiques  des  different*  liquides  de  Vorga- 
nisme(2  vols.,  1859);  Lecons  et  experiences  phy- 
siologiques  sur  la  nutrition  et  le  developpement 
(1860);  and  De  la  physiologie  generale  (1872). 
The  last  named  work  received  a  valuable  prize 
from  the  academy.  His  most  important  dis- 
coveries relate  to  the  functions  of  the  liver. 

BERNARD,  Sir  Frantls,  colonial  governor  of 
New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts,  born  in  Nettle- 
ham,  England,  in  1714,  died  in  London,  June 
16,  1779.  He  was  a  lawyer,  was  appointed 
governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1758,  and  trans- 
ferred in  1760  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  fa- 
vored all  the  pretensions  of  the  crown,  brought 
troops  into  Boston,  and  prorogued  the  general 
court  when  it  refused  to  make  provision  for 
their  support.  That  body  before  it  dispersed 
unanimously  voted  a  petition  to  the  king  hum- 
bly entreating  that  Bernard  might  be  removed 
for  ever  from  the  government  of  the  province. 
He  was  recalled  in  1769,  and  as  he  departed 
from  Boston  the  bells  were  rung,  cannon  fired 
after  him  from  the  wharves,  and  the  liberty 
tree  hung  with  flags.  The  English  government 
manifested  its  approbation  of  his  course  by 
creating  him  a  baronet.  He  was  a  man  of  eru- 
dition and  a  patron  of  Harvard  college. 

BERNARD,  Jarqnrs  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Nyons,  Sept.  1,  1658,  died  April  27,  1718.  In 
1679  he  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed  church 
at  Vinsobres.  During  the  persecutions  that 
preceded  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
his  church  was  destroyed  and  he  fled  to  Switz- 
erland, where  he  gave  lessons  in  mathematics 
and  French.  He  afterward  went  to  the  Hague 
and  opened  a  school  for  belles-lettres,  philoso- 
phy, and  mathematics.  He  continued  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Bibliotheque  universelle  which 
had  been  undertaken  by  Leclerc,  and  in  1693 
succeeded  Bayle  as  editor  of  the  Nounelles  de 
la  republique  dei  lettres,  and,  although  very 
inferior  to  his  predecessor,  continued  to  con- 
duct it  till  his  death,  with  the  exception  of  the 
interval  from  1710  to  1716.  He  published  sev- 
eral historical  and  religious  works,  including 
a  history  of  Europe  in  5  vols.,  of  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  in  5  vols.,  and  a  collection  of  trea- 
tises since  the  time  of  Charlemagne  in  4  vols. 

BERNARD.  I.  John,  an  English  comedian, 
born  in  Portsmouth  in  1756,  died  in  London, 
Nov.  29,  1828.  His  first  appearance  in  Lon- 
don was  in  1787  at  Covent  Garden  theatre,  as 
Archer  in  "The  Beaux  Stratagem,"  and  was 
very  successful.  He  was  secretary  for  nine 
years  of  the  celebrated  Beefsteak  club.  In 
1797  he  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  at  Birkett's  circus  (then  fitted  up  as  a 
theatre),  Greenwich  street,  New  York,  as  Gold- 
89  VOL.  H.— 37 


finch  in  the  "Road  to  Ruin."  He  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  Boston  theatre  for  several 
years,  and  finally  returned  to  England  in  1813. 
His  "  Recollections  of  the  Stage  "  relates  his 
adventures  up  to  the  period  (June,  1797)  when 
he  went  to  America,  or  during  one  half  of  his 
theatrical  career.  The  book  was  not  popular, 
and  the  second  part  never  appeared.  II.  Wil- 
liam Bayle,  an  English  dramatist,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1808. 
He  went  to  England  with  his  father,  whose 
"Recollections  of  the  Stage"  he  prepared,  and 
wrote  "The  Nervous  Man  and  the  Man  of 
Nerve,"  "  The  Irish  Attorney,"  "The  Mummy," 
"His  Last  Legs,"  "Dumb  Belle,"  "A  Practical 
Man,"  "The  Middy  Ashore,"  "The  Boarding 
School,"  "The  Round  of  Wrong,"  "A  Splen- 
did Investment,"  and  "A  Life's  Trial." 

BERNARD,  Simon,  a  French  general  and  en- 
gineer, born  at  Dole,  April  28,  1779,  died  in 
Paris,  Nov.  5,  1839.  He  was  educated  at  the 
polytechnic  school,  led  the  assault  upon  Ivrea 
in  1800,  served  in  various  subsequent  cam- 
paigns, was  made  aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor 
in  1813,  and  throwing  himself  into  Torgau  with 
8,000  men  superintended  the  defence  of  that 
place  for  three  months  during  a  terrible  siege. 
In  1814  he  gave  in  his  adherence  to  Louis 
XVIII.  and  was  appointed  brigadier  general,  in 
1815  again  fought  on  the  side  of  Napoleon  at 
Waterloo,  and  once  more  entered  the  service 
of  Louis  XVIII. ;  but  having  been  ordered  to 
leave  Paris  for  Dole,  he  obtained  permission 
from  the  king  to  go  to  the  United  States.  He 
there  entered  the  service  of  the  government, 
devised  a  system  of  canals  and  roads  for  con- 
necting the  great  lakes  and  navigable  rivers, 
and  a  scheme  for  the  defence  of  the  coast,  and 
constructed  Fortress  Monroe,  some  of  the  de- 
fences of  New  York,  and  other  works.  Upon 
the  revolution  of  1830  he  returned  to  France, 
and  was  intrusted  by  Louis  Philippe  with  the 
preparation  of  plans  for  the  fortification  of 
Paris.  He  was  strongly  hi  favor  of  the  system 
of  detached  forts  which  was  afterward  carried 
out.  In  1834  he  was  for  a  short  time  minister 
of  war,  and  ad  interim  of  foreign  affairs.  In 
1836  he  was  made  minister  of  war  a  second 
time,  and  held  that  office  till  1839. 

BERNARD,  Saint,  Great  and  Little.  See  SAINT 
BERNARD. 

BERNARD  OF  TREV1SO,  an  Italian  alchemist, 
horn  at  Padua  in  1406,  died  in  1490.  He  as- 
sumed the  title  of  count  of  the  March  of  Tre- 
viso,  devoted  his  life  and  a  large  fortune  to  ex- 
periments and  travels  in  search  of  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  and  after  much  observation  and 
study  arrived  at  the  principle,  "  To  make  gold, 
gold  is  needed."  In  one  of  his  many  works 
he  describes  the  trials  and  disappointments  of 
an  alchemist's  life ;  and  in  his  treatise  De  Mi- 
raculo  Chemico  he  develops  a  curious  theory  in 
regard  to  the  origin  of  heat. 

BERNARDIN  OF  SIENA,  Saint,  born  at  Massa, 
Italy,  Sept.  8,  1380,  died  at  Aquila,  May  20, 
1444.  He  showed  remarkable  courage  and  de- 


576     BERNARDIN  DE  ST.  PIERRE 

votion  during  a  pestilence  which  ravaged  Siena  | 
in  1400.  Having  joined  the  order  of  St.  Fran-  j 
cis,  lie  was  sent  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  after 
his  return  preached  14  years  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  refused  the  bishoprics  of  Siena,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Urbino,  but  accepted  the  office  of 
vicar  general  of  the  Franciscans,  in  order  to 
restore  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  original 
discipline.  He  founded  300  monasteries.  Those 
who  embraced  his  reform  constituted  the  branch 
of  the  Observantines.  His  eloquence  was  ex- 
erted with  great  effect  for  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  In  1450  he 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  His  works 
appeared  in  Venice  in  1591  in  4  vols.  4to,  and 
at  Paris  in  1636  in  2  vols.  folio.  They  consist 
of  essays  on  religious  subjects,  sermons,  and  a 
commentary  on  the  book  of  Revelation. 

itl'KYUtm.V  DE  ST.  PIERRE.  See  SAINT- 
PIERRE. 

BKRNARDINES,  a  name  given  in  France  and 
Spain  to  some  of  the  Cistercian  monks  and 
nans.  See  CISTERCIANS. 

BERNARDO  DEL  CARPIO,  a  Spanish  warrior 
of  the  9th  century,  probably  born  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Carpio,  Valencia.  He  was  the  offspring 
of  a  secret  marriage  between  Don  Sancho  de 
Saldafia  and  Ximena,  sister  of  Alfonso  II., 
the  Chaste,  of  Leon.  The  king  on  the  dis- 
covery of  the  marriage  had  Saldana  imprisoned 
and  blinded,  and  Ximena  sent  to  a  convent. 
Bernardo  was  brought  up  at  court,  and  ac- 
quired renown  in  the  warfare  against  the 
Moors,  which  he  continued  even  after  he  had 
left  his  uncle's  service  in  consequence  of  the 
failure  of  repeated  efforts  to  obtain  his  father's 
release.  Finally  in  his  exasperation  he  joined 
the  Moors,  and  took  np  his  headquarters  at  the 
castle  of  Carpio,  upon  which  Alfonso  promised 
to  relent  on  condition  of  the  surrender  of  that 
stronghold.  But  Saldafia  was  not  set  free,  and 
according  to  some  authorities  he  was  put  to 
death  either  by  Alfonso,  who  died  in  842,  or 
by  his  successor  Alfonso  the  Great,  while  Ber- 
nardo was  reported  to  have  left  Spain  and 
to  have  acquired  additional  fame  as  a  knight 
errant  in  France.  The  narrative  of  his  exploits 
is  associated  with  many  romantic  traditions, 
and  there  are  different  versions  of  his  life,  ac- 
cording to  one  of  which  he  was  kept  for  a  long 
time  in  ignorance  of  his  parentage,  and  on  dis- 
covering it  defied  Alfonso,  after  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  castle  in  which  his  father  was  con- 
fined. He  figures  in  many  old  Spanish  chron- 
icles and  ballads,  and  in  several  plays  by  Lope 
de  Vega,  as  a  national  hero  and  as  the  suc- 
cessful antagonist  of  Roland  at  Roncesvalles. 
An  epic  poem,  El  Bernardo,  was  published 
by  Bernardo  de  Balbuena  in  Madrid  in  1624 
(new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1808 ;  abridged  in  Poe&aa 
selector  cattellanas,  by  Quintana,  1833). 

ItKUV Al ,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  13  m.  N.  E.  of  Berlin ;  pop. 
in  1871,  5,466.  The  town  hall  contains  many 
interesting  Hussite  antiquities  from  the  year 
1432,  when  the  Hussites  besieged  the  place. 


BERNBURG 

KKRMI  F.K,  Agnes,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  a 
bath-keeper  of  Augsburg,  drowned  Oct.  12, 
1435.  Albert,  son  of  Ernest,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
fell  in  love  with  her  at  a  tournament,  married 
her,  and  lived  with  her  some  time  in  happiness, 
despite  the  anger  and  persecution  of  his  father. 
At  last  the  duke,  in  Albert's  absence,  caused 
her  to  be  arrested,  tried,  and  found  guilty  of 
witchcraft.  She  was  thrown  into  the  Danube 
before  a  vast  concourse  of  people,  and  when 
she  swam  or  floated  to  the  bank  the  execution- 
er with  a  pole  held  her  head  beneath  the  water 
by  her  golden  hair  until  she  drowned.  Albert 
rose  in  arms  against  his  father  and  laid  waste 
his  territory.  But  the  emperor  Sigismund  re- 
quired him  after  a  time  to  make  peace,  and  he 
married  Anna  of  Brunswick.  His  father  erect- 
ed a  chapel  over  the  grave  of  Agnes,  and  Albert 
made  a  foundation  for  the  celebration  of  a  daily 
mass  for  her.  Several  tragedies  and  poems 
have  been  founded  upon  the  story. 

ISKR.YIY,  a  town  of  Normandy,  France,  de- 
partment of  Enre,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cha- 
rentonne,  a  branch  of  the  Rille,  and  upon  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Cherbourg,  25  m.  W.  N. 
W.  of  Evreux ;  pop.  in  1866,  7,510.  A  horse 
fair  held  here  every  year  is  the  largest  in 
France,  and  sometimes  draws  together  40,000 
persons.  The  manufactures  are  of  woollen 
cloth,  linen,  flannel,  leather,  and  cotton  yarn. 
Judith,  wife  of  Richard  II.,  duke  of  Normandy, 
founded  here  an  abbey  in  1027.  Its  chapel, 
one  of  the  oldest  examples  of  the  Romanesque 
style  of  architecture  in  Normandy,  is  now  used 
for  a  market  hall.  Near  the  city  is  an  ancient 
Gothic  church  to  which  pilgrimages  are  made. 
The  city  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Pays 
d'Ouche,  the  level  district  that  lies  between 
the  Charentonne  and  the  Rille. 

BERJVBIRG,  a  town  of  Anhalt,  Germany,  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  its  name,  and  formerly  of 


Bernburg. 

the  duchy  of  Anhalt-Bernburg,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Saale,  15  m.  above  its  confluence  with 


BERNEES 


BERNI 


577 


the  Elbe,  20  m.  W.  of  Dessau;  pop.  in  1871, 
15,716.  It  has  an  ancient  castle  with  a  fine 
garden,  theatre,  &c.,  adjoining,  a  town  hall,  hos- 
pitals, and  schools  of  different  grades.  Sugar, 
paper,  and  iron  castings  are  manufactured. 

BERBERS,  or  Barnes,  Lady  Juliana,  an  English 
author,  born  at  Rodney  Berners,  Essex,  about 
1388,  died  after  1460.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
a  lady  of  rank  and  of  great  spirit  and  beauty, 
and  was  the  prioress  of  the  Sopewell  nunnery 
near  St.  Albans,  upon  the  abbey  of  which  place 
the  nunnery  was  dependent.  A  celebrated 
book  on  hawking,  hunting,  fishing,  and  coat 
armor  is  attributed  to  her.  According  to  some 
accounts,  the  first  edition  of  this  book  was 
printed  at  St.  Albans  in  1481.  In  the  earliest 
extant  edition,  dated  1486,  the  work  is  entitled 
"  The  Bokys  of  Hawking  and  Hunting,  and  also 
of  Cootarinuries."  In  some  editions  it  is  enti- 
tled "The  Boke  of  St.  Albans."  It  continued 
to  be  the  most  popular  manual  of  field  sports 
until  the  18th  century.  A  folio  edition  was 
printed  by  Wynkin  de  "Worde  in  1496,  in 
which  first  appeared  the  part  on  fishing.  A 
facsimile  of  this  was  printed  in  1810  by  Ilazle- 
wood,  who  subsequently  investigated  the  claims 
of  the  author  to  be  considered  the  first  female 
writer  in  the  English  language.  An  edition 
of  the  "  Treatise  of  Fysshynge  "  was  printed 
by  Baskerville  in  1827. 

BERNERS,  John  Boarthier,  baron,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  1474,  died  in  1532.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Humphrey  Bourchier,  and 
was  descended  from  the  duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  youngest  child  of  Edward  III.  He  was  a 
member  of  parliament  from  1495  to  1529,  took 
an  active  part  in  putting  down  the  insurrection 
in  Cornwall  in  1497,  was  appointed  by  Henry 
VIII.  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1515,  and 
in  1518  was  associated  with  John  Kite,  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  in  an  embassy  to  Spain. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Calais,  and  retained  that  office  till  his  death. 
He  wrote  a  translation  of  Froissart's  Chronicles 
by  the  king's  command ;  the  first  volume  was 
published  in  1523  and  the  second  in  1525.  He 
also  translated  other  works  from  the  French 
and  Spanish,  and  wrote  a  comedy  entitled  Re 
in  Vineam  meam,  which  was  usually  acted  in 
the  great  church  at  Calais  after  vespers. 

BERNETTI,  Tommaso,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
statesman,  born  in  Fermo,  Dec.  29,  1779,  died 
there,  March  21,  1852.  In  1808  he  followed 
Cardinal  Brancadoro  to  France,  and  in  1810  to 
his  exile  at  Rheims,  whither  Brancadoro  was 
sent  as  one  of  the  13  "black  cardinals"  who 
refused  to  assist  at  the  marriage  of  Napoleon 
and  Maria  Louisa.  In  1814'  he  returned  to 
Rome  with  Pius  VII.,  and  was  appointed  as- 
sessor of  the  committee  of  war,  intrusted  with 
the  reorganization  of  the  military  service.  Af- 
terward he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  St. 
Petersburg  (1826),  and  as  legate  to  Ravenna 
and  Bologna.  In  1827  he  became  a  cardinal, 
and  in  1828  was  made  secretary  of  state.  Af- 
ter the  accession  of  Gregory  XVI.  he  under- 


took to  create  a  militia  which  might  obviate 
the  necessity  of  employing  Austrian  troops. 
This  led  to  remonstrances  from  the  Austrian 
government,  and  to  his  being  deprived  of  his 
office  in  1836.  He  was  then  made  vice  chan- 
cellor of  the  Roman  church.  When  Pius  IX. 
left  Rome  in  1848  Bernetti  joined  him  at  Ga- 
eta,  and  from  that  place  went  to  Fermo. 

BERNHARU,  duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  born  in 
Weimar,  Aug.  6,  1604,  died  in  Neuburg  on 
the  Rhine,  July  8,  1639.  He  joined  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  1631,  and  after  the  king's  death 
in  the  battle  of  Lutzen  took  the  command  and 
secured  the  victory.  In  1633  he  was  made 
commander  of  half  the  Swedish  army  and  in- 
vested with  the  dukedom  of  Franconia,  which 
he  lost  the  next  year  in  consequence  of  his 
great  defeat  by  the  imperialists  at  Nordlingen. 
Not  receiving,  as  he  thought,  proper  support 
from  Sweden,  he  formed  a  separate  treaty 
with  France  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Oct. 
17,  1635.  In  1636,  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  French  auxiliaries  and  German  troops, 
he  achieved  many  victories  in  Lorraine,  Bur- 
gundy, and  Alsace,  and  in  June,  1637,  de- 
feated the  emperor's  troops  under  Charles, 
duke  of  Lorraine.  In  1688,  cutting  loose  from 
the  French  alliance,  he  took  Breisach,  after 
having  defeated  three  armies  sent  to  its  relief, 
and  against  the  wishes  of  Richelieu  occupied  it 
with  German  troops.  With  a  view  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  independent  principality  in 
Germany,  he  had  entered  into  negotiations  for 
a  marriage  between  himself  and  Amelia,  land- 
gravine of  Hesse,  had  continued  his  conquests 
in  Burgundy,  and  was  projecting  the  invasion 
of  Bavaria,  when  he  was  seized  with  the  dis- 
ease which  put  a  sudden  end  to  his  career,  and 
which  he  attributed  to  poison  administered  by 
a  hireling  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  Upon  his 
death  Breisach  passed  with  Alsace  into  the 
hands  of  the  French. 

BERNHARD,  Karl,  the  pseudonyme  of  a  Da- 
nish novelist  named  SAINT  AUBIN,  born  about 
1800,  died  in  Copenhagen,  Nov.  24,  1865. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Pictures  of  Life  in 
Denmark,"  "Christian  VII.  and  his  Court," 
"  Christian  II.  and  his  Times,"  and  the  "Chron- 
icles of  the  Time  of  King  Eric  of  Pomerania." 
Bernhard  excelled  in  sketches  of  domestic  life, 
and  in  delineations  of  Danish  society.  Two 
complete  editions  of  his  works  have  been  pub- 
lished in  German  at  Leipsic. 

BERNI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at 
Lamporecchio  in  Tuscany  about  1490,  died  July 
26,  1536.  At  the  age  of  19  he  went  to  Rome 
and  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Bibiena, 
and  subsequently  obtained  the  situation  of  pri- 
vate secretary  to  Giberti,  bishop  of  Verona. 
He  assumed  also  the  habit  of  an  ecclesiastic, 
but  the  austerity  of  the  bishop's  household  was 
not  to  his  taste,  and  he  sought  the  society  of 
some  young  ecclesiastics  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  wine,  pleasure,  and  poetry.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  the*  Rime  burlesche  and  a  new 
version  of  the  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Boiardo, 


578 


BERNIER 


BERNOULLI 


with  additional  verses  of  his  own.  At  the  sack 
of  Rome  in  1527  he  lost  all  that  he  possessed 
and  retired  to  Florence,  where  he  lived  as 
canon,  enjoying  the  favor  of  the  Medici. 

IM'UMIK.  Fruifois,  a  French  traveller  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Anjou  about  1625,  died 
in  Paris,  Sept.  22,  1688.  He  first  studied  med- 
icine, but  his  taste  for  travelling  led  him  to 
Syria,  to  Egypt,  and  afterward  to  India,  where 
he  resided  for  twelve  years,  during  eight  of 
which  he  was  physician  to  the  emperor  Aurung- 
zebe.  Under  the  protection  of  this  prince  and 
his  ministers  he  was  enabled  to  visit  countries 
hitherto  inaccessible  to  Europeans.  Upon  his 
return  from  his  travels  his  society  was  much 
courted  at  Paris,  and  he  was  called,  on  account 
of  the  elegance  of  his  person  and  of  his  man- 
ners, the  joli  philosophe.  He  published  sev- 
eral volumes  describing  his  travels,  which  have 
frequently  been  reprinted  under  the  general 
title  of  Voyages  de  Sernier,  contenant  la  de- 
scription des  fitats  du  Grand  Mogol,  and  were 
translated  into  English  (London,  1671 -'5).  He 
wrote  an  Abrege  de  la  Philosophic  de  Gassendi 
(8  vols.,  Lyons,  1678),  and  aided  Boileau  in 
the  composition  of  the  Arret  burlesque,  which 
saved  the  works  of  Aristotle  from  being  con- 
demned by  the  parliament  of  Paris. 

If  KRMVA,  a  peak  of  the  Rhastian  Alps,  in  the 
canton  of  Orisons,  Switzerland,  36  m.  S.  E.  of 
Chur,  13,294  feet  in  height.  It  gives  its  name 
to  the  range  of  mountains  that  separate  the 
valleys  of  the  Engadine  and  Bregaglia  from 
the  Valteline.  The  Bernina  pass,  7,672  feet 
above  the  sea,  connects  the  Valtelline  with  the 
upper  Engadine  valley. 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  architect,  born  in  Naples  in  1598,  died  in 
Rome,  Nov.  28,  1680.  Having  been  presented 
by  his  father  at  an  early  age  to  Paul  V.,  he 
drew  the  head  of  St.  Paul  in  a  manner  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  pope,  and  he 
recommended  him  to  Cardinal  Barberini.  At 
the  age  of  18  he  made  a  group  of  "Apollo 
and  Daphne,"  which  may  still  be  seen  at  the 
villa  Borghese.  After  Barberini  became  pope 
under  the  name  of  Urban  VIII.  (1623)  Bernini 
was  employed  for  nine  years  upon  the  bronze 
canopy  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter.  He  then 
built  the  niches  in  the  four  pillars  that  sup- 
port the  dome,  and  executed  the  statue  of  St. 
Longinus  that  stands  in  one  of  them.  He 
afterward  built  the  palazzo  Barberini  and  exe- 
cuted the  group  of  St.  Theresa  with  the  angel. 
Under  Innocent  X.  he  constructed  the  foun- 
tain in  the  piazza  Navona  and  the  palace  of 
Monte  Citorio.  Among  the  many  works  he 
executed  for  Alexander  VII.  was  the  colon- 
nade in  front  of  St.  Peter's.  His  fame  spread 
throughout  Europe.  Louis  XIV.  in  an  auto- 
graph letter  (April  11,  1665)  invited  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  completion  of  the  Louvre. 
His  journey  to  France  was  a  triumphal  proces- 
sion; but  his  plans  involved  the  destruction 
of  all  of  the  Louvre  that'  had  already  been 
built,  and  were  never  carried  out.  He  re- 


turned to  Italy  in  the  spring  of  1666  loaded 
with  honors  and  with  gifts.  Upon  his  death 
at  the  age  of  82  he  left  a  large  fortune. 

BERNIS,  Franfois  Joachim  de  Pierres  de,  a  French 
cardinal  and  statesman,  born  May  22,  1715,  at 
St.  Marcel,  department  of  Ardeehe,  died  in 
Rome,  Nov.  1,  1794.  He  was  of  a  noble  and 
ancient,  but  not  wealthy  family,  and  was  des- 
tined from  childhood  for  the  church.  He  went 
to  Paris,  and  after  passing  several  years  at  the 
seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  entered  society  with 
the  title  of  abbe1,  and  by  his  personal  appear- 
ance, graceful  manners,  and  talent  for  making 
verses  made  a  favorable  impression.  He  was 
received  into  the  French  academy  in  1744. 
Cardinal  Fleury,  a  friend  of  his  father,  dis- 
approved of  his  gay  life;  but  after  the  death 
of  the  cardinal,  through  the  favor  of  Madame 
Pompadour,  he  was  appointed  minister  to 
Venice.  While  in  that  city  (1751-'5),  a  differ- 
ence having  arisen  between  the  republic  and 
the  pope,  the  abb6  Bernis  mediated  between 
them.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was 
made  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  cardinal. 
As  minister  he  negotiated,  at  the  opening  of  the 
seven  years'  war,  the  alliance  between  Austria 
and  France  against  England  and  Prussia.  The 
war  having  led  to  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Ross- 
bach,  Cardinal  de  Bernis  was  compelled  to  send 
in  his  resignation  as  minister,  and  was  exiled 
in  1758  to  Soissons,  where  he  remained  till 
1764,  when  he  was  recalled  and  made  arch- 
bishop of  Albi.  Five  years  afterward  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  with  instructions 
to  labor  for  the  suppression  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits.  At  Rome  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  conclaves  of  1769  and  1774.  He  lived 
there  in  great  magnificence  until  the  French 
revolution  deprived  him  of  his  revenues,  after 
which  he  received  till  his  death  an  allowance 
from  the  court  of  Spain.  His  letters  to  Paris- 
Duvernay  and  a  small  volume  of  (Einres  melees 
en  prose  et  en  ten  have  been  published. 

BERNOULLI,  or  Bernoulli!,  a  celebrated  family 
of  mathematicians  and  savants,  originally  of 
Antwerp,  driven  thence  by  Alva,  settled  first 
in  Frankfort,  and  in  1622  in  Basel,  Switzer- 
land. I.  James,  born  in  Basel,  Dec.  25,  1654, 
died  there,  Aug.  16,  1705.  He  was  destined 
by  his  father  for  the  ministry,  but  accident 
having  thrown  some  geometrical  books  in  his 
way,  he  took  for  his  device  Phaethon  driving 
the  chariot  of  the  sun,  with  the  motto,  Imito 
patre,  sidera  verso,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  mathematics.  In  1676  he  visited 
Geneva,  where  he  taught  a  blind  girl  to  write, 
and  thence  travelled  into  France,  where  he 
constructed  gnomical  tables,  and  returned 
home  in  1680.  The  appearance  of  a  comet  in 
that  year  led  to  his  publishing  an  essay  en- 
titled Conamen  novi  Systematis  Cometarum, 
in  which  he  contended  that  the  orbits  of  comets 
might  be  calculated.  He  again  travelled  in 
various  countries,  and  at  London  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Bayle.  After  his  return  to  Basel 
in  1682  he  tried  experiments  in  physical  and 


BERNOULLI 


579 


mechanical  science  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention. In  1687  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  Basel,  and 
engaged  in  profound  mathematical  investiga- 
tions, particularly  in  the  development  of  the 
theory  of  the  differential  and  integral  calculus 
which  had  been  devised  by  Leibnitz.  In  1699 
he  was  chosen  member  of  the  French  academy, 
the  first  foreigner  ever  elected,  and  in  1701 
became  member  of  the  Berlin  academy.  He 
directed  that  the  logarithmic  spiral,  of  which 
he  had  demonstrated  the  properties,  should  be 
engraved  upon  his  tombstone  with  the  motto : 
Eddem  rnutatd  resurgo.  After  his  death  his 
treatise  entitled  Ars  Conjectandi  was  published 
(1713).  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  works  on 
the  theory  of  probabilities.  His  collected  works 
were  published  at  Geneva  in  1744  (2  vols.  4to). 
II.  John,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  July 
27,  1667,  died  Jan.  1,  1748.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Basel,  studied  medicine, 
and  in  1690  published  a  dissertation  on  effer- 
vescence and  fermentation.  But  he  soon 
turned  his  attention  to  mathematics.  In  1690 
he  went  to  Geneva,  and  travelled  in  France, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Male- 
branche,  De  1'IIOpital,  and  other  men  of  sci- 
ence. He  returned  to  Basel  in  1692,  and  was 
appointed  in  1695  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Groningen.  In  1696  he  proposed  for  solution 
the  following  problem:  "To  find  the  curve 
on  which  a  material  point  will  fall  from  one 
given  point  to  another  in  the  least  possible 
time."  It  was  solved  by  his  brother  James 
and  others,  and  James  proposed  in  return  an- 
other problem  in  regard  to  the  solution  of 
which  there  was  a  long  controversy  between 
the  two  brothers.  John  exhibited  unreason- 
able jealousy  of  his  brother,  and  was  not  equal 
to  him  as  a  mathematician.  He,  however,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Basel,  and  remained  in  that  position  till  his 
death.  He  was  also  jealous  of  his  son  Daniel, 
and  had  controversies  with  many  of  the  scien- 
tific men  of  his  day ;  but  he  was  the  instructor 
of  Euler  and  the  friend  of  Leibnitz,  with  whom 
he  carried  on  a  long  correspondence,  published 
at  Lausanne  and  Geneva  (2  vols.,  1745).  He 
aided  with  his  brother  in  the  development  of 
the  calculus,  investigated  many  curious  ques- 
tions in  physics,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
advancement  of  mathematical  science.  He  ad- 
dressed many  papers  to  the  different  scientific 
bodies  of  Europe,  which  were  collected  by  Cra- 
mer (4  vols.  4to,  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  1742), 
and  was  a  member  of  the  academies  of  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg,  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety of  London,  and  of  the  institute  of  Bologna. 
His  works  were  published  at  Geneva  in  1742 
(1  vol.  4to).  III.  Daniel,  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Groningen,  Feb.  9,  1700,  died 
in  Basel,  March  17,  1782.  He  received  in- 
struction from  his  father  in  mathematics,  and 
studied  medicine  for  some  years  in  Italy.  While 
there  he  distinguished  himself  by  a  paper  upon 
a  question  of  geometry,  and  at  the  age  of  24 


was  offered  the  presidency  of  an  academy  of 
sciences  which  had  just  been  founded  at  Genoa. 
The  following  year  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
remained  till  1733,  when  he  was  appointed 
first  professor  of  botany  and  anatomy,  and 
afterward  of  natural  philosophy  and  meta- 
physics, in  the  university  of  Basel.  In  1748  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  member  of  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Paris,  and  ten  times  obtained 
the  prizes  of  that  body.  He  made  many  new 
and  ingenious  applications  of  mathematical 
science  in  mechanics,  astronomy,  and  hydrau- 
lics, and  in  1760  wrote  a  paper  on  inoculation 
in  which  he  introduced  a  new  principle  in- 
to the  theory  of  probabilities.  He  resigned 
his  professorship  in  1777,  suffered  much  from 
asthma  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and 
was  finally  found  one  morning  by  his  servant 
dead  in  his  bed.  Among  his  works  are :  Exer- 
citationes  yucedam  Mathematices  (4to,  Venice, 
1724) ;  ffydrodynamica,  sen  de  Viribus  et  Moti- 
bus  Fluidorum  (4to,  Strasburg,  1738);  and  a 
work  on  the  physicid  cause  of  the  inclination 
of  the  axes  and  orbits  of  planets  with  reference 
to  the  solar  equator.  IV.  Nicholas,  elder  bro- 
ther of  the  preceding,  born  in  Basel,  Jan.  27, 
1695,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  July  26, 1726.  He 
travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and  was  then 
appointed  professor  at  St.  Petersburg  with  his 
brother.  V.  John,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Basel,  May  18,  1710,  died  July  17,  1790. 
He  studied  law  and  mathematics,  in  1743  was 
appointed  professor  of  eloquence  at  Basel,  and 
in  1748  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of 
mathematics  there.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  of  Berlin  and  of  Paris,  and 
received  three  prizes  from  the  French  acad- 
emy. VI.  John,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Basel,  Nov.  4,  1744,  died  July  13,  1807.  He 
studied  at  Basel  and  Neufchatel,  devoting  him- 
self especially  to  astronomy,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  At  the  age  of  19  he  was  appoint- 
ed astronomer  of  the  Berlin  academy,  and 
afterward  director  of  the  mathematical  class. 
He  published  Recueil  pour  let  astronom.es  (3 
vols.,  Berlin,  1772-'6),  Lettres  astronomiyues 
(1781),  and  6  vols.  of  his  own  travels,  besides 
a  collection  of  travels  in  15  vols.  VII.  James, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Basel,  Oct. 
17,  1759,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  July  13, 1789. 
When  his  uncle  Daniel  became  infirm,  he  as- 
sumed at  the  age  of  21  his  duties  as  professor 
of  natural  philosophy,  but  was  not  chosen  his 
successor,  the  appointment  being  made  by  lot. 
At  the  age  of  29  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  mar- 
ried there  a  granddaughter  of  Enler.  Two 
months  afterward  he  died  of  apoplexy  while 
bathing  in  the  Neva.  VIII.  Nicholas,  nephew 
of  the  first  James  and  John,  horn  in  Basel, 
Oct.  10,  1687,  died  Nov.  29,  1759.  He  edited 
the  An  Conjectandi  of  his  uncle  James,  and 
solved  several  of  the  geometrical  problems 
proposed  by  his  uncle  John.  He  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Padua  from  1716  to  1722, 


580 


BERNSTORFF 


in  the  chair  once  filled  by  Galileo,  and  was 
afterward  professor  first  of  logic  and  then  of 
law  at  Basel.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Berlin 
academy,  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  and 
of  the  institute  of  Bologna.  IX.  Jerome,  of  the 
same  family,  born  in  Basel  in  1745,  died  in 
1829.  He  "was  distinguished  as  a  naturalist 
and  a  mineralogist,  and  was  for  a  time  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  his  native  canton.  X. 
Christopher,  a  technologist,  of  the  same  family, 
born  in  Basel,  March  15,  1782,  died  there, 
Feb.  6,  1863.  He  studied  at  Neufchatel  and 
afterward  at  Gottingen,  where  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  natural  sciences.  In 
1802  he  became  professor  at  Halle,  where  he 
remained  two  years.  He  then  spent  some  time 
in  travelling,  and  in  1800  opened  a  private 
school  at  Basel,  which  he  gave  up  in  1817  and 
became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  uni- 
versity, retiring  in  1861.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  works  upon  subjects  connected  with 
rational  technology,  among  which  are:  Ueber 
den  nachtheiligen  Einfluss  der  Zunftverfassung 
auf  die  Industrie  (Basel,  1822) ;  Handbuch 
der  Technologie  (2  vols.,  1833-'4 ;  2d  ed.,  1840) ; 
Handbuch,  der  indwtriellen  Physik,  Meckanik 
und  Hydraulik  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1834-'5). 

BERNSTORFF.  I.  Johann  Hartwig  Ernst,  count, 
a  Danish  statesman,  born  in  Hanover,  May  13, 
1712,  died  in  Hamburg,  Feb.  19,  1772.  He 
was  educated  in  Germany,  represented  the 
Danish  government  in  1737  at  the  diet  of 
Ratisbon,  and  in  1744  was  appointed  minister 
to  Paris.  In  1750  he  became  secretary  and 
councillor  of  state,  and  in  1751  member  of  the 
privy  council,  with  the  portfolio  of  foreign  af- 
fairs. A  war  with  Russia  on  the  Holstein-Got- 
torp  question  was  averted  by  his  prudence,  and 
he  was  ennobled  by  Christian  VII.  (1767),  and 
called  by  Frederick  the  Great  the  "  oracle  of 
Denmark."  He  promoted  industry,  art,  and  let- 
ters, and  liberated  his  serfs.  After  having  been 
ousted  from  office  by  Struensee  in  1770,  he 
was  recalled  in  1772  in  the  most  flattering 
manner  after  the  latter's  downfall,  and  died 
when  about  returning  to  Copenhagen  from 
Hamburg,  where  he  had  lived  in  the  interval. 
II.  Andreas  Peter,  count,  a  Danish  statesman, 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Gartow,  near 
Luneburg,  Aug.  28,  1735,  died  in  Copenhagen, 
June  21,  1797.  He  studied  at  German  univer- 
sities, travelled  extensively,  entered  the  Danish 
service  in  1755,  became  a  privy  councillor  in 
1769,  and  in  1772  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
He  reestablished  friendly  relations  with  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1778  was  the  first  to  propose 
armed  neutrality  to  Sweden.  His  views  con- 
flicting with  those  of  the  dowager  queen  Juli- 
ana and  other  influential  parties,  he  left  office 
in  1780.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  in 
1782,  he  married  in  1783  her  sister  the  coun- 
tess Augusta  Stolberg,  whose  brothers  were 
the  famous  German  poets.  Rejoining  the  cab- 
inet in  1784,  he  prepared  for  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein ;  and  by  re- 
moving all  trammels  from  liberty  of  the  press, 


BERQUIN 

ho  enabled  German  thinkers  to  express  ideas 
in  Denmark  which  they  were  not  permitted 
to  utter  in  their  own  country.  See  Eggers, 
Denkwurdigkeiten  cms  dem  Leben  des  Staats- 
ministers  von  Bernstorff  (Copenhagen,  1800). 
i:i  K<!  \,  I.  An  ancient  town  of  Macedonia, 
on  a  tributary  of  the  Haliacmon,  in  which  St. 
Paul  preached  the  gospel.  (See  VEEIA.)  II. 
One  of  the  ancient  names  of  Aleppo. 

BEROSUS,  a  priest  of  Belus  at  Babylon,  who 
probably  lived  about  250  B.  C.,  although  some 
place  him  30  and  even  70  years  earlier.  He 
wrote  in  Greek  a  history  of  Chaldea  or  Baby- 
lonia, professing  to  derive  the  materials  from 
the  archives  of  the  temple.  It  embraced  the 
myths  and  traditions  of  the  early  ages,  a  de- 
scription of  Babylonia,  and  a  chronological  list 
of  its  kings  down  to  Cyrus.  He  starts  with  a 
mythical  period  of  34,080  years,  during  which 
there  were  86  kings,  two  of  'whom  reigned 
more  than  2,000  years  each.  His  earliest  his- 
torical date  is  placed  by  Rawlinson  about  2458 
B.  C.,  and  he  speaks  of  132  kings  who  reigned 
between  that  time  and  538  B.  C.  His  work 
itself  is  lost,  there  being  extant  only  fragments 
preserved  in  citations  by  Josephus,  Eusebius, 
Polyhistor,  Syncellus,  and  some  of  the  Greek 
fathers.  The  historical  chronology  of  Berosns  is 
to  a  degree  confirmed  by  the  inscriptions  which 
have  been  discovered  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
and,  as  far  as  they  touch  upon  each  other,  by 
the  Hebrew  records.  It  is  generally  accepted 
as  tolerably  authentic  by  scholars,  who  dis- 
credit the  statements  of  Ctesias.  The  existing 
fragments  of  Berosus,  with  the  inscriptions, 
fill  a  space  otherwise  vacant  in  ancient  history. 
They  were  partially  collected  by  Sealiger  in 
De  Emendutione  Temporvm  (Leyden,  1583), 
and  more  fully  by  Fabricius  in  the  Billiotheea 
Oraca  (Hamburg,  3d  ed.,  1718-'28) ;  the  best 
collection  is  by  Richter,  Beroii  Chaldceorum 
Histories  que  mpersunt  (Leipsic,  1825  ;  Paris, 
1848).  A  work  ascribed  to  Berosus,  Antiqui- 
tatum  libri  quinque,  cvm  Commentariis  Joan- 
nis  Annii,  which  appeared  at  Rome  in  1498, 
and  has  been  several  times  reprinted,  is  spu- 
rious, being  a  forgery  by  Annius  of  Yiterbo. 

KMtQMY  Ai'iiiuid,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Bordeaux  in  1749,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  21, 1791. 
His  idyls  and  ballads,  and  especially  Gene- 
vieve  de  Urabant,  became  very  popular,  and 
still  more  his  numerous  writings  for  children, 
including  brief  stories  and  plays.  His  principal 
work  of  the  kind,  VAmi  des  enfants  (24  vols. 
12mo,  1782-'3),  obtained  a  prize  from  the 
French  academy  in  1784,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German.  Many  of  the  stories  were 
taken  from  Christian  Felix  "Weisse's  Kinder- 
freund  (1776-'82),  but  adapted  so  admirably 
to  the  French  as  to  convey  an  impression  of 
their  originality.  He  also  published  a  free  trans- 
lation of  Mrs.  Trimmer's  "  Easy  Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Nature,"  wrote  novels, 
edited  for  some  time  the  Mtmitew,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  other  journalists,  Lafertille 
villageoise.  Complete  editions  of  his  writings 


BERRIEN 


BERRY 


581 


appeared  in  1796-1803,  and  the  last  in  4  vols. 
large  8vo,  1836. 

BERRIEN.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Georgia,  bound- 
ed E.  by  the  Alapaha  river,  which  crosses  the 
N.  E.  corner,  and  W.  by  Little  river,  and 
drained  also  by  the  Withlacoochee ;  area,  750 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,518,  of  whom  460  were 
colored.  In  1870  it  produced  76,976  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  41,184  of  oats,  55,875  of  sweet 
potatoes,  671  bales  of  cotton,  19,016  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  119,462  of  rice.  There  were  636 
horses,  3,682  milch  cows,  6,951  other  cattle, 
7,016  sheep,  and  13,529  swine.  Capital,  Nash- 
ville. H.  A  S.W.  county  of  Michigan,  bordering 
on  Indiana  and  Lake  Michigan ;  area,  600  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  35,104.  It  is  drained  by  the 
St.  Joseph's,  Pawpaw,  and  Galien  rivers.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  near  the  St. 
Joseph's  consists  of  a  deep,  black,  sandy  loam, 
overgrown  with  thick  forests  of  hard  timber. 
The  Michigan  Central  and  the  Chicago  and 
Michigan  Lake  Shore  railroads  pass  through 
the  county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  450,809  bushels  of  wheat,  469,705  of  In- 
dian corn,  178,217  of  oats,  282,503  of  potatoes, 
27,054  tons  of  hay,  90,769  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
548,959  of  butter.  There  were  6,448  horses, 
5,967  milch  cows,  7,004  other  cattle,  26,118 
sheep,  and  16,525  swine.  Capital,  Berrien 
Springs,  on  the  St.  Joseph's,  8  m.  N.  W.  of 
Niles,  the  largest  town. 

BERRIE\,  John  Jlatpherson,  an  American  law- 
yer and  statesman,  born  in  New  Jersoy,  Aug. 
23,  1781,  died  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  Jan.  1,  1856. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  war  of  the 
revolution,  and  early  acquired  distinction  as  a 
lawyer  in  Georgia.  He  was  solicitor  of  the 
eastern  district  of  Georgia  in  1809,  and  judge 
of  the  same  district  from  1810  to  1822,  when 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Georgia  senate, 
from  which  he  was  transferred  in  1824  to  the 
senate  of  the  United  States,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  high  reputation  as  an  orator  and 
statesman.  He  was  appointed  attorney  gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  in  1829,  but  resigned 
that  office  in  1831  when  Gen.  Jackson's  cabinet 
became  inharmonious.  In  1840  he  was  elected 
again  to  the  national  senate  as  a  whig,  and  was 
reflected  in  1846,  finally  retiring  in  1852. 

BERRY,  or  Berri,  a  former  province  of  France, 
nearly  in  the  centre,  now  forming  the  depart- 
ments of  Indre  and  Cher,  and  small  portions 
of  those  of  Loire-et-Cher  and  Creuse.  Capital, 
Bourges.  It  included  most  of  the  ancient  ter- 
ritory of  the  Bituriges,  the  chief  people  of  Celtic 
Gaul,  was  under  Roman  rule  till  near  the  end  of 
the  5th  century,  and  was  wrested  by  Clovis  in 
507  from  the  Visigoths,  who  had  invaded  it, 
after  which  the  local  rulers  were  military  chiefs 
or  counts.  Under  Charles  the  Bald  the  province 
became  a  hereditary  county,  and  was  ruled  by 
the  counts  of  Bourges  until  about  1100,  when 
the  last  of  them,  Arpin,  sold  the  fief  to  Philip 
I.  It  remained  thenceforward  in  possession  of 
princes  and  princesses  of  the  royal  blood,  first 
as  a  county,  and  after  1360  as  a  duchy,  till 


1601,  when  on  the  death  of  the  widow  of  Henry 
III.  it  was  definitively  merged  in  the  French 
crown.  Since  then  the  nominal  title  of  duke 
of  Berry  has  been  given  to  a  grandson  of  Louis 
XIV.,  to  Louis  XVI.  while  he  was  dauphin, 
and  to  Charles  Ferdinand,  son  of  Charles  X. 
Berry  suifered  much  during  the  wars  with  Eng- 
land and  the  religious  wars.  See  ffistoire  du 
Berry,  by  Raynal  (Paris,  1844-'7). 

BERRY,  or  Berri.  I.  Marie  Louise  Elisabeth, 
duchess  of,  born  Aug.  20,  1695,  died  at  Marly, 
July  21,  1719.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Philippe 
d'Orl^ans,  afterward  regent  of  France,  and 
married  in  1710  Charles,  duke  of  Berry,  grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.,  after  whose  suspiciously 
sudden  death  in  1714  she  secretly  married 
one  of  her  many  lovers,  made  no  longer  a  se- 
cret of  her  incest  with  her  own  father,  and  died 
from  an  illness  which  she  contracted  while  giv- 
ing to  him  a  great  entertainment,  though  barely 
recovered  from  her  confinement,  which  she  had 
attempted  to  conceal.  St.  Simon  describes  her 
as  an  ambitious  Messalina,  and  she  was  so  de- 
praved that  she  was  even  accused  of  many 
crimes  of  which  she  was  probably  innocent. 
II.  Charles  Ferdinand,  duke  of,  the  second  son 
of  the  count  d'Artois,  afterward  Charles  X., 
born  in  Versailles,  Jan.  24,  1778,  died  in  Pa- 
ris, Feb.  14,  1820.  He  emigrated  with  his 
father  in  1789,  and  served  in  the  army  of 
Cond6  till  1798,  when  he  went  to  Russia,  and 
in  1801  to  England,  where  he  contracted  a  se- 
cret marriage  (which  was  afterward  cancelled) 
with  an  English  woman,  who  bore  him  two 
children.  He  was  favorably  received  in  France 
on  landing  at  Cherbourg  in  1814,  afterward 
accompanied  Louis  XVIII.  to  Ghent,  and  made 
Paris  his  home  after  the  final  overthrow  of  Na- 
poleon. He  was  stabbed  by  a  saddler  named 
Lonvel,  a  political  fanatic,  on  leaving  the  opera 
with  his  wife,  and  died  next  morning,  after 
having  in  vain  solicited  the  pardon  of  his  mur- 
derer, who  was  foiled  in  his  avowed  purpose  of 
extinguishing  the  race  of  the  Bourbons  by  the 
birth  seven  months  afterward  of  the  duke  of 
Bordeaux.  (See  BOTTEBON.)  III.  Marie  Caroline 
Ferdlnande  Lonise,  duchess  of,  wife  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Palermo,  Nov.  6,  1798,  died  near 
Gratz,  April  7,  1870.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
Francis  I.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  of  Ma- 
ria Clementina,  archduchess  of  Austria.  Louis 
XVIII.  arranged  her  marriage  with  his  nephew 
the  duke  of  Berry,  which  was  celebrated  in 
Paris  on  June  18,  1816.  In  1819  she  gave  birth 
to  a  daughter,  Louise  Marie  Therese,  who  be- 
came duchess  of  Parma,  and  died  in  1864.  After 
the  assassination  of  her  husband  (Feb.  13, 1820), 
she  gave  birth  (Sept.  29)  to  Henri,  duke  of 
Bordeaux,  afterward  known  as  the  count  de 
Chambord.  She  became  very  popular  in  Paris 
by  her  affable  manners,  and  especially  by  her 
fondness  for  theatres  and  brilliant  social  enter- 
tainments. On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  she  was  restrained  by  Charles  X. 
from  insisting  upon  the  claims  of  her  son  to  the 
throne,  and  she  followed  the  Bourbon  family 


582 


BERRY 


into  exile.  In  1831  she  went  to  Sestri,  but  at 
the  request  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  left  his  ter- 
ritory and  proceeded  to  Modena  and  thence  to 
Rome.  She  afterward  went  to  Massa,  where 
she  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  for  the  restoration 
of  the  elder  Bourbon  line  in  the  person  of  her 
son.  At  Massa  she  is  said  to  have  first  met  the 
count  Ettore  de  Lucchesi-Palli,  a  Neapolitan 
diplomatist,  with  whom  she  contracted  a  se- 
cret morganatic  marriage.  In  April,  1832,  she 
effected  a  landing  near  Marseilles,  and  on  the 
failure  of  the  legitimist  attempt  in  that  city, 
she  succeeded  in  reaching  La  Vendee  in  dis- 
guise with  a  few  attendants.  The  attempted 
rising  there  having  ended  disastrously,  she 
barely  escaped  to  Nantes  (June  9),  where  she 
found  an  asylum  which  was  disclosed  to  M. 
Thiers  by  Simon  Deutz,  a  converted  Jew,  who 
had  gained  her  confidence  at  Rome.  She  was 
arrested  on  Nov.  6,  after  having  concealed  her- 
self for  24  hours  behind  a  chimney  at  the  risk 
of  suffocation.  From  Nantes  she  was  sent  as 
a  prisoner  of  state  to  the  citadel  of  Blaye.  The 
alleged  illegality  of  these  summary  proceedings 
created  some  public  excitement,  which  was 
increased  by  the  reports  of  her  advanced  state 
of  pregnancy.  The  commander  of  the  citadel, 
Col.  Ohousserie,  resigning  on  account  of  the 
private  instructions  which  he  had  received 
from  the  government  in  respect  to  her  treat- 
ment, he  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  Bugeaud, 
who  made  her  publicly  avow  her  secret  mar- 
riage. She  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  May  10, 
1833,  and  was  released  on  June  8  and  convey- 
ed to  Palermo.  She  visited  Charles  X.  at  Gorz, 
but  was  not  favorably  received,  and  the  educa- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Bordeaux  was  intrusted 
to  other  hands.  She  subsequently  resided  in 
Venice,  and  after  1864  at  her  chateau  of  Brun- 
see,  near  Gratz,  where  she  attended  to  the  ed- 
ucation of  her  four  surviving  children  by  her 
second  husband,  who  inherited  the  title  of 
Duke  della  Grazia  and  died  April  1,  1864. 
The  fine  picture  gallery  of  the  duchess  was 
sold  by  public  auction  in  Paris  in  1865. 

BERRY,  Mary,  an  English  writer,  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1762,  died  in  London,  Nov.  20, 
1852.  She  and  her  elder  sister  AGNES  (who 
had  much  artistic  talent,  and  died  in  May,  1851) 
became  acquainted  in  1787  with  Horace  Wai- 
pole,  who  called  them  his  two  little  wives. 
Mary  vindicated  him  in  the  "Edinburgh  Re- 
view "  against  the  criticisms  of  Macaulny,  and 
she,  her  sister,  and  their  father,  a  gentleman 
of  wealth,  were  his  literary  executors,  and  in 
1797  published  an  edition  of  his  works  in  5 
vols.  Mary  Berry  published  her  own  works, 
"England  and  France,"  "Life  of  Rachel,  Lady 
Russell,"  and  a  comedy  entitled  "Fashionable 
Friends,"  in  2  vols.  in  1844.  Lady  Theresa 
Lewis  edited  in  1866  "  Life  and  Correspon- 
dence of  Miss  Mary  Berry." 

BERRYER,  Antoine  Pierre,  a  French  advocate 
and  statesman,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  4,  1790, 
died  at  his  country  seat  near  Angerville,  Nov. 
29,  1868.  His  ancestors  were  from  Lorraine, 


BERRYER 

and  their  original  name  was  Mittelberger.  Ho 
was  one  of  three  sons  of  Pierre  Nicolas  Ber- 
ryer,  an  eminent  lawyer.  He  was  educated 
for  the  church  in  the  school  of  the  Oratorians 
at  Juilly;  but  his  father  induced  him  to  be- 
come a  lawyer,  and  after  serving  for  a  time  in 
an  attorney's  office,  he  made  his  debut  at  the 
Paris  bar  early  in  1811.  In  the  same  year  he 
married  Mile.  Gautier,  the  daughter  of  a  Paris 
official.  In  1814  he  proclaimed  at  Rennes  the 
deposition  of  Napoleon,  and  hoisted  the  legiti- 
mist flag,  to  which  he  remained  faithful  till  his 
death,  though  he  was  a  man  of  liberal  ideas  and 
a  decided  opponent  of  all  arbitrary  measures. 
He  assisted  his  father  in  conducting  the  de- 
fence of  Ney,  and  obtained  the  acquittal  of 
Cambronne  and  the  pardon  of  Debelle.  His 
practice  now  increased  steadily.  His  imposing 
presence  enhanced  the  effect  of  his  oratory, 
and  his  eloquence  has  been  described  as  almost 
equal  in  power  to  that  of  Mirabeau.  In  1820 
he  defended  Lamennais  against  a  charge  of 
atheism.  Elected  to  the  chambers  in  1830  by 
a  large  majority,  his  first  great  speech  was  a 
denunciation  of  the  unconstitutional  character 
of  the  famous  address  of  the  221.  The  July 
revolution  did  not  interrupt  his  parliamentary 
career,  though  he  continued  to  be  the  cham- 
pion of  the  legitimists.  He  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Louis  Philippe's  government,  but 
never  ceased  to  embarrass  it.  In  1832  he  was 
arrested  as  an  accomplice  of  the  duchess  of 
Berry;  but  it  was  shown  that  he  had  en- 
deavored to  stop  her  expedition,  and  the 
charge  was  abandoned.  He  defended  Chateau- 
briand from  a  similar  charge,-  and  exerted 
himself  in  vain  for  the  liberation  of  the  duch- 
ess. His  political  career  interfering  with  his 
professional  labors,  he  was  involved  in  pecu- 
niary difficulties,  and  a  public  subscription  of 
400,000  francs  was  raised  for  him  in  1836. 
In  the  chambers  his  renown  was  increased  by 
his  powerful  speeches  in  opposition  to  the 
press  laws  of  September,  1835,  the  measure 
against  associations,  and  the  Pritchard  indem- 
nity bill  (1845);  but  he  was  censured  for  hav- 
ing paid  homage  to  the  count  de  Chambord  in 
London  (1843).  In  1840  he  was  one  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defence  of  Louis  Napoleon  after 
the  Boulogne  expedition.  On  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  became  the  chief  of  the  legitimist 
faction  which  was  opposed  to  universal  suf- 
frage, adhering  to  the  cause  of  the  count  de 
Chambord  and  the  doctrine  of  divine  right. 
On  the  morning  after  Louis  Napoleon's  coup 
d'etat  (Dec.  2,  1851)  he  appeared  at  the  mairie 
of  the  10th  arrondissement  of  Paris,  and  voted 
in  favor  of  the  deposition  of  the  prince-presi- 
dent. In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  academy 
of  sciences.  In  1858  he  defended  Montalembert 
in  a  celebrated  speech,  and  subsequently  he  was 
counsel  for  the  Patterson-Bonapartes  in  the 
great  suit  for  the  recognition  of  the  Baltimore 
marriage.  He  kept  aloof  from  politics  till 
1863,  when  he  was  reelected  to  the  chambers 
with  Thiers.  He  took  sides  with  the  federal 


BERSERKERS 


BERTHIER 


583 


fovernment  during  the  civil  war  in  the  United 
tates,  denounced  the  invasion  of  Mexico,  and 
affirmed  the  authority  of  the  French  courts  to 
fine  and  imprison  all  who  were  concerned  in 
the  construction  of  confederate  cruisers  in 
France.  His  opinion  exerted  some  influence 
in  preventing  the  emperor  from  taking  the  re- 
sponsibility of  letting  the  steamers  be  delivered 
to  the  confederates,  and  his  last  professional 
argument  was  as  leading  counsel  in  the  suit 
instituted  against  Arman,  the  principal  con- 
tractor for  confederate  vessels.  The  semi-cen- 
tennial anniversary  of  his  practice  at  the  bar 
was  celebrated  in  France  in  1863,  and  a  great 
ovation  was  given  to  him  in  England  in  1804, 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer  presiding  on  the  occasion. 
He  spoke  in  1867  in  favor  of  French  interven- 
tion in  Rome,  and  in  1868  addressed  from  his 
deathbed  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  Electeur 
justifying  Baudin's  proceedings  in  1851.  See 
CEuvres  de  Berryer  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1872  et  seq.), 
the  first  volume  containing  his  parliamentary 
speeches,  with  a  notice  by  De  Noailles. 

BERSERKERS  (Xorse,  ber,  bare,  and  serkr, 
coat  of  mail),  giants  and  warriors  of  Scandina- 
vian mythology,  and  especially  the  descendants 
of  Stoerkodder,  a  hero  of  immense  size  and 
great  valor,  who  fought  without  coat  of  mail, 
and  whose  exploits  have  been  celebrated  in 
the  sagas.  The  name  Berserkers  was  also 
applied  to  Scandinavian  warriors  who  were 
liable  to  fits  of  frenzy,  arising  from  the  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors  or  from  an  excited  imagi- 
nation. During  these  fits  they  performed  ex- 
traordinary feats  and  attacked  indiscriminately 
friends  and  foes. 

BERTHELOT,  Pierre  Engine  Mareellin,  a  French 
chemist,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  25,  1827.  He  was 
an  assistant  of  Balard  in  the  college  de  France, 
and  afterward  professor  of  organic  chemistry 
in  the  school  of  pharmacy ;  and  in  1864  a  chair 
of  organic  chemistry  in  the  college  de  France 
was  created  for  him.  M.  Berthelot  was  espe- 
cially instructed  to  advance  his  own  ideas  and 
treat  at  length  of  his  own  discoveries  in  his 
lectures.  In  1854  he  introduced  the  theory  of 
polyatomic  alcohols.  This  theory  conducted 
him  to  the  synthesis  of  natural  fatty  bodies, 
and  thereby  to  a  knowledge  of  their  true  con- 
stitution. By  it  he  defined  also  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  sugars,  and  was  able  to  understand 
that  also  of  the  fixed  principles  of  vegetable 
tissues,  although  he  has  not  yet  produced  these 
latter  by  synthesis.  He  has  published  La 
chimie  organique  fondu  sur  la  synthese  (1860) 
and  Lefon*  sur  lea  methodea  generalet  de  syn- 
theae  en  chimie  organique  (1864).  Perhaps  his 
most  celebrated  researches  are  those  connected 
with  the  discovery  of  acetylene  and  the  syn- 
thesis of  alcohol.  His  chief  glory  is  that  by 
his  own  experiments  he  has  successfully  over- 
thrown the  famous  dogma  of  Berzelius  and 
Gerhardt,  "that  chemical  forces  alone  are  not 
able  to  effect  organic  synthesis,  and  that  when 
such  metamorphoses  occur  they  are  due  to  the 
agency  of  vital  force." 


BERTUELSDORF,  a  village  of  Saxony,  about 
1  m.  from  Herrnhut ;  pop.  about  2,000.  The 
central  conference  of  the  Moravians  is  held 
here  in  the  castle  formerly  inhabited  by  Count 
Zinzendorf. 

BERTHIER,  a  county  of  Canada,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Quebec,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  St. 
Lawrence,  just  above  Lake  St.  Peter;  area, 
about  1,900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  19,804.  It 
is  about  10  m.  wide,  and  runs  in  a  N.  W.  di- 
rection to  the  undetermined  northern  frontier 
of  the  province,  a  distance  that  may  be  esti- 
mated at  190  m.  It  is  drained  by  Maskinonge 
lake  and  river,  Assumption  river,  and  other 
streams  and  ponds.  Chief  town,  Berthier,  on 
the  St.  Lawrence,  46  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Montreal. 

BERTHIER,  Jean  Ferdinand,  a  French  deaf 
mute,  born  near  Macon  about  1805.  He  at- 
tended the  national  institution  for  deaf  mutes 
at  Paris,  was  while  still  young  appointed  an 
instructor  there,  and  is  now  (1873)  the  dean 
of  the  institution,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent 
teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Europe.  He 
has  greatly  contributed  to  diffuse  the  methods 
of  the  abbe  de  1'Epee  and  of  the  abb6  Sicard. 
Among  his  principal  works  is  UAbbe  de 
VtSpee,  so*  vie,  son  apostolat,  sea  travaux,  so, 
lutte  et  »es  proces  (Paris,  1852). 

BERTUIER,  Louis  Alexandra,  prince  and  duke 
of  Neufchatel  and  Valengin,  and  prince  of 
Wagram,  a  French  soldier,  born  in  Versailles, 
Nov.  20,  1753,  died  in  Bamberg,  June  1,  1815. 
His  father  was  chief  of  the  corps  of  topograph- 
ical engineers.  After  studying  in  the  topo- 
graphical bureau  he  became  lieutenant  in  the 
general  staff  and  afterward  captain  of  dra- 
goons, and  served  in  the  American  war  under 
Lafayette.  As  general  of  the  national  guard  of 
Versailles  he  rendered  good  service  to  the  royal 
family  in  October,  1789.  Afterward  he  was 
chief  of  the  general  staff,  under  Lafayette,  Lnck- 
ner,  and  Custine.  He  participated  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful defence  of  Saumurin  June,  1793.  After 
the  9th  Thermidor  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
the  general  staff  of  Kellermann,  and  by  causing 
the  French  army  to  take  up  the  lines  of  Bor- 
ghetti  contributed  to  arrest  the  advance  of  the 
enemy.  He  also  proved  himself  a  good  general 
of  division  in  the  battles  of  1796-'7  in  Italy, 
and  excelled  as  a  staff  officer  by  his  grasp  of  all 
the  details  of  the  service,  though  he  had  not 
the  genius  required  for  supreme  command.  De- 
spite his  remonstrances,  Bonaparte  placed  him 
in  1798  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  occupation 
in  Rome ;  but  he  resigned  his  command  to 
Massena,  and  went  to  Milan,  where  he  fell  in 
love  with  the  beautiful  Madame  Visconti,  his 
eccentric  and  lasting  passion  for  whom  caused 
him  during  the  expedition  to  Egypt  to  be  nick- 
named the  chief  of  the  faction  des  amoureux, 
and  absorbed  the  greater  part  of  the  vast 
sums  bestowed  upon  him  by  his  master.  After 
his  return  from  Egypt  he  seconded  Bonaparte 
on  the  18th  and  19th  Brumaire,  and  was 
minister  of  war  till  April  2,  1800.  He  was 
chief  of  the  general  staff  at  the  battle  of  Ma- 


584      BERTHOLD  OF  RATISBON 

rengo,  concluded  an  armistice  with  Gen.  Melts, 
was  employed  on  several  diplomatic  missions, 
and  reinstated  in  the  war  ministry  till  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  empire.  With  the  title  of 
major  general  of  the  grand  army,  he  accom- 
panied the  emperor  as  chief  of  the  general  staff 
during  all  his  subsequent  campaigns.  On  Oct. 
17,  1805,  he  negotiated  with  Mack  the  terms 
of  the  capitulation  of  Ulm.  After  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1800  he  was  made  sovereign  prince 
of  Neufchatel  and  Valengin.  In  1808  he  was 
ordered  to  marry  the  princess  Elizabeth  Maria 
of  Bavaria-Birkenfeld,  the  king  of  Bavaria's 
niece,  and  was  made  marshal  and  vice  consta- 
ble of  France.  In  1809  Napoleon  placed  him 
as  general-in-chief  at  the  head  of  the  grand 
army  destined  to  operate  from  Bavaria  against 
Austria.  He  won  no  glory  in  this  capacity, 
but  again  distinguished  himself  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Wagram,  which  procured  him  one  of 
his  princely  titles.  He  failed,  however,  com- 
pletely during  the  Russian  campaign.  After 
the  senate  had  decreed  the  deposition  of  the 
emperor,  Berthier  was  one  of  the  first  to  pay 
court  to  Louis  XVIIL,  who  made  him  a  peer 
and  captain  of  the  royal  guard.  During  the 
hundred  days  he  wished  to  remain  neutral, 
concealed  from  the  king  a  letter  he  had  re- 
ceived from  Napoleon  announcing  his  purpose 
to  leave  Elba,  and  retired  to  Bamberg,  where, 
according  to  some,  he  was  thrown  from  a  win- 
dow of  his  father-in-law's  palace  by  six  men  in 
masks,  supposed  to  have  been  agents  of  a  se- 
cret society ;  but,  according  to  a  more  probable 
account,  he  threw  himself  from  the  balcony  at 
the  sight  of  Russian  troops  marching  toward 
France.  He  wrote  Relation  des  campagnes 
du  general  Bonaparte  en  figypte  et  en  Syrie 
(Paris,  1800),  and  Relation  de  la  bataille  de 
Marengo  (1806);  and  his  memoirs  were  pub- 
lished in  1826. — His  only  son,  NAPOLEON  Louis 
JOSEPH  ALEXANDKE  CHARLES,  duke  and  prince 
of  Wagram,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  11,  1810,  be- 
came a  senator  in  1852,  and  has  greatly  im- 
proved agriculture  in  his  vast  domain  of  Gros- 
bois.  lie  married  a  daughter  of  Count  Clary 
and  cousin  of  the  dowager  queen  of  Sweden,  and 
is  the  father-in-law  of  Prince  Joachim  Murat. 

BERTHOLD  OF  RATISBON,  a  German  preach- 
er of  the  middle  ages,  born  in  that  city  about 
1215,  died  there  in  1272.  He  was  a  Fran- 
ciscan friar,  and  preached  for  many  years  to 
immense  outdoor  congregations  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Hungary.  The  first  complete 
edition  of  his  original  sermons,  which  were 
singularly  eloquent,  was  published  in  1862  by 
Franz  Pfeiffer  (2  vols.,  Vienna),  and  they  have 
been  translated  into  modern  German  by  Gobel, 
with  a  preface  by  A.  Stolz.  According  to  La- 
baud's  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  des  Schwaben- 
spiegeh  (Berlin,  1861),  the  sermons  serve  also 
to  explain  this  compilation  of  Swabian  laws. 

BKUTIIOLLET,  Clande  Louis,  a  French  chemist, 
born  at  Talloire,  near  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  Nov. 
9,  1748,  died  at  Arcueil,  near  Paris,  Nov.  6, 
1822.  He  took  his  medical  degree  at  the  uni- 


BERTHOLLET 

versity  of  Turin,  and  in  1772  went  to  Paris,  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and 
applied  himself  to  chemistry.  He  soon  became 
known  by  his  "Essays"  on  this  branch  of 
science,  and  in  1780  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences.  Some  years  later  the 
duke  of  Orleans  procured  for  him  the  office  of 
government  commissary  and  superintendent  of 
dyeing  processes,  a  position  previously  held  by 
Macquer.  To  this  appointment  chemistry  is 
indebted  for  his  work  on  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  the  art  of  dyeing,  which  is  much  supe- 
rior to  anything  of  the  kind  ever  published 
before.  In  1785  Berthollet,  at  a  meeting  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  announced  his  belief 
in  the  antiphlogistic  doctrines  propounded  by 
Lavoisier,  in  opposition  to  the  phlogistic  theory 
then  in  vogue,  and  he  was  the  first  French 
chemist  of  celebrity  who  did  so.  He  differed 
from  Lavoisier,  however,  on  one  point:  not  ad- 
mitting oxygen  to  be  the  acidifying  principle, 
he  cited  sulphuretted  hydrogen  as  a  compound 
possessing  the  properties  of  an  acid ;  and  the 
justness  of  Berthollet's  views  has  been  con- 
firmed by  the  discovery  of  other  acids  into  the 
composition  of  which  oxygen  does  not  enter. 
During  the  same  year  he  discovered  the  com- 
position of  ammonia,  and  published  his  first  es- 
say on  dephlogisticated  marine  acid,  now  called 
chlorine,  proposing  the  use  of  it  in  the  process 
of  bleaching.  During  the  revolutionary  war, 
while  the  ports  of  France  were  blockaded,  he 
visited  almost  every  part  of  the  country  for  the 
purpose  of  pointing  out  the  means  of  obtain- 
ing saltpetre,  and  was  engaged  with  others  in 
teaching  the  processes  of  smelting  iron  and 
converting  it  into  steel.  In  1792  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  mint, 
and  in  1794  a  member  of  the  commission  of 
agriculture  and  arts,  and  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  polytechnic  and  normal  schools.  In 
1795  he  became  a  member  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized institute  of  France,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  appointed  by  the  directory  to  pro- 
ceed to  Italy  with  Monge,  to  select  works  of 
art  and  science  for  the  French  capital.  On 
this  occasion  he  became  acquainted  with  Bona- 
parte, and  was  led  to  join  the  expedition  to 
Egypt,  where  he  took  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  institute  of  Cairo.  Berthollet  cooperated 
with  Lavoisier,  Guyton  de  Morveau,  and  Four- 
croy  in  establishing  a  new  and  more  philo- 
sophical system  of  chemical  nomenclature.  He 
was  the  author  of  more  than  80  scientific 
papers,  some  of  which  were  inserted  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  academy,  and  others  were 
printed  in  the  Annales  de  chimie,  Journal  de 
physique,  and  the  Memoires  de  physique  et  de 
chimie  de  la  society  d?Arcueil,  so  called  from 
the  place  where  Berthollet  lived,  the  meetings 
of  the  society  being  held  at  his  house.  In 
some  of  the  first  memoirs  published  by  Berthol- 
let on  sulphuric  acid,  on  the  volatile  alkali, 
and  the  decomposition  of  nitre,  he  adopted  the 
phlogistic  theory ;  but  subsequently,  in  a  paper 
on  soaps,  he  showed  that  they  are  chemical 


BERTIE 


BERTINI 


585 


compounds,  in  which  the  oil,  by  combining  ' 
with  the  alkali,  acts  the  part  of  an  acid. 
Berthollet  was  the  discoverer  of  the  ammo- 
niuret  of  silver,  commonly  called  fulminating 
silver.  He  also  first  obtained  hydrate  of  pot- 
ash in  a  state  of  purity,  by  dissolving  it  in 
alcohol.  In  1803  ho  published  his  Essai  de 
statiyite  chimique,  in  which  he  attempts  to 
confute  the  opinion  of  Bergman  with  regard  to 
the  nature  of  chemical  affinity.  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  in  his  "Elements  of  Chemical  Philos- 
ophy," gives  a  synopsis  of  the  views  of  Berthol- 
let on  this  point,  and  shows  them  to  be  incor- 
rect. In  a  controversy  with  Proust,  Berthol- 
let maintained  that  inorganic  bodies  are  capable 
of  combining  in  all  proportions ;  but  the  views 
of  Proust  have  been  since  corroborated  by  the 
doctrine  of  definite  proportions. — On  his  return 
from  Egypt,  Berthollet  was  made  a  senator, 
and  afterward  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  grand  cross  of  the  "order  of  re- 
union." He  was  created  count  by  Napoleon, 
and  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  made  a  peer  of  France.  These  distinc- 
tions did  not  affect  his  studious  and  simple 
mode  of  life;  and  being  obliged  to  adopt  ar- 
morial bearings,  he  selected  the  figure  of  his 
dog.  Berthollet  studied  the  antiseptic  proper- 
ties of  charcoal,  and  by  his  advice  Admiral 
Krusenstern  preserved  water  fresh  by  placing 
it  in  charred  barrels  during  a  long  voyage. 
He  first  showed  how  to  reduce  the  complica- 
ted combinations  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances by  combustion  in  one  of  his  last  memoirs, 
entitled  Considerations  sur  Vanalyse  negetale 
et  Vanalyse  animate  (1817). — His  only  son, 
AMEDEE,  born  in  1783,  died  in  Marseilles  in  181 1. 
He  assisted  his  father  in  the  second  edition  of 
the  Elements  de  fart  de  la  teinture,  avec  un 
description  du  blanchlment  par  I'acide  muria- 
tique  oxigene  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  2d  ed.,  1804), 
and  was  a  member  of  the  society  founded  by 
his  father  at  Arcueil.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  a  chemist,  and  established  a  manufactory  of 
carbonate  of  soda  according  to  his  father's  pro- 
cess ;  but  competition  preventing  his  success, 
he  fell  into  dissipated  courses,  and  committed 
suicide  by  suffocation  with  charcoal  gas,  seat- 
ing himself  at  a  table  with  a  watch  and  writing 
materials  before  him,  and  carefully  noting  his 
sensations  as  long  as  he  could  hold  the  pen. 

BERTIE,  a  county  of  North  Carolina,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Albemarle  sound,  bounded 
E.  by  the  Chowan  and  W.  and  8.  by  the  Roan- 
oke  river,  and  drained  by  the  Cashie ;  area,  900 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,950,  of  whom  7,437 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  flat  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
300,314  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  54,999  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  5,055  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  1,0(53  horses,  2,454  milch  cows,  4,924 
other  cattle,  8,453  sheep,  and  14,100  swine. 
Capital,  Windsor. 

BERTIN,  Lonis  Francois,  a  French  journalist, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  14,  176fi,  died  there,  Sept. 
13,  1841.  The  revolution  diverting  him  from 


the  priesthood,  he  engaged  in  journalism,  op- 
posing the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1800,  he  founded  the  Journal  desDebats, 
which  under  his  direction  and  that  of  his  rela- 
tives, and  through  the  collaboration  of  Chateau- 
briand, Madame  de  Stai-1,  Royer-Collard,  and 
other  celebrated  writers,  ultimately  became  the 
most  influential  journal  in  France.  Although 
it  professed  to  be  exclusively  literary  and  artis- 
tic, historical  and  political  allusions  were  occa- 
sionally introduced  which  the  authorities  con- 
strued as  royalistic.  Napoleon  had  the  editor 
arrested  in  the  first  year,  and  after  nine  months' 
imprisonment  banished  to  Elba ;  and  it  was  only 
after  several  years  that  he  was  allowed  to  re- 
sume the  control  of  the  paper,  and  on  condition 
of  his  paying  annually  24,000  francs  to  the  cen- 
sor, calling  his  publication  the  Journal  de  I' Em- 
pire, and  submitting  to  the  control  of  the  empe- 
ror's agents.  It  was  suppressed  nevertheless  in 
1811,  and  Berlin  again  banished  to  Elba,  whence 
the  next  year  he  escaped  to  Italy.  In  1814 
the  publication  was  resumed  under  the  original 
title.  Bertin  followed  Louis  XVIII.  to  Ghent, 
but  opposed  him  after  his  rupture  with  Cha- 
teaubriand, on  which  occasion  these  words  ap- 
peared  in  the  Debats:  Malheureuse  France, 
malheureux  roi.  For  this  he  was  prosecuted, 
but  acquitted  on  appeal.  After  the  July  revolu- 
tion the  paper  became  very  prosperous,  Bertin 
invariably  declining  public  office,  though  gener- 
ously supporting  the  claims  of  his  collaborators. 
He  has  been  called  the  chief  of  the  Bertin  dy- 
nasty. He  wrote  several  novels,  partly  after 
English  originals,  and  possessed  exquisite  pow- 
ers of  literary  appreciation ;  but  his  fame  rests 
on  his  eminent  services  to  French  journalism. — 
He  was  succeeded  as  editor-in-chief  by  his  son 
Louis  MARIE  AEMAND,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  22, 
1801.  He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  London 
under  Chateaubriand,  and  did  much  to  enlist 
the  best  talent  for  the  Debats,  though  he  person- 
ally wrote  little.  On  his  death,  Jan.  12,  1854, 
the  direction  of  the  journal  devolved  upon  his 
brother  EDOTJABD  FRANQOIS,  born  in  Paris  in 
1797.  He  was  inspector  of  fine  arts  nnder 
Louis  Philippe,  and  is  an  esteemed  landscape 
painter.  As  editor  of  the  Debats  he  has  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  Italy  and  of  the  United 
States,  and  displayed  great  tact  in  making  the 
paper  popular  among  all  classes.  His  sister 
LOUISE  ANGELIQUE,  born  Jan.  15,  1805,  compos- 
ed several  operas,  including  Faust  (1831)  and 
Esmeralda  (1836),  the  latter  founded  on  Victor 
Hugo's  Notre-Dame  de  Paris.  In  1842  she 
published  Les  glanes,  a  volume  of  poetry,  to 
which  the  academy  awarded  a  prize. 

BERTINI,  Henri,  a  pianist  and  composer,  born 
in  London  of  French  parentage,  Oct.  28,  1798. 
His  father  and  his  brother  were  both  skilful  mu- 
sicians, and  young  Bertini  received  from  them 
a  thorough  training  for  his  profession,  being 
taught  in  the  system  of  Clement!.  At  the  age 
of  12  he  made  a  successful  concert  tour  through 
Holland  and  Germany,  subsequently  perform- 
ed in  Scotland  and  England,  and  then  went  to 


586 


BEBTEAND  DE  BOEN 


BEEWICK-ON-TWEED 


Paris,  where  he  applied  himself  especially  to 
the  study  of  harmony  and  composition.  He 
ultimately  established  himself  in  Grenoble. 
The  number  of  his  published  works  reaches 
nearly  200.  They  consist  mainly  of  rondos,  ca- 
prices, fantasias,  nocturnes,  and  other  compo- 
sitions for  the  piano ;  but  he  has  also  composed 
a  number  of  pieces  for  the  piano  in  connec- 
tion with  stringed  and  reed  instruments,  com- 
prising trios,  quartets,  sextets,  and  one  nonet. 
He  also  prepared  12  sets  of  studies,  which 
were  written  with  much  skill  and  a  complete 
knowledge  of  what  was  necessary  to  form  a 
correct  progressive  school  for  the  pianoforte. 

KKK1KAM)  DE  BORN.  See  BOBN. 

BEKTKAND,  Henri  Gratien,  count,  a  French 
soldier,  born  at  Chateauroux,  March  28,  1773, 
died  there,  Jan.  81,  1844.  He  early  joined 
the  corps  of  engineers,  became  a  captain  in 
1795,  and,  after  serving  in  the  Italian  and 
Egyptian  campaigns,  was  made  general  of  brig- 
ade. He  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz, 
became  adjutant  of  the  emperor  and  general 
of  division,  and  after  the  battle  of  Aspern, 
where  he  restored  the  passage  over  the  Danube, 
he  was  made  count  and  governor  of  Illyria. 
He  covered  with  his  reserve  corps  the  retreat 
of  the  army  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  the 
passage  over  the  Ehine  after  that  of  Hanau. 
To  his  previous  rank  of  grand  marshal  of  the 
palace  the  emperor  added  on  his  return  to 
Paris  that  of  aide  major  general  of  the  national 
guard.  He  followed  Napoleon  to  Elba,  and 
with  Soult  is  said  to  have  prevented  the  em- 
peror from  rushing  into  death  at  Waterloo. 
Bertrand  and  his  wife  (a  daughter  of  Gen.  Ar- 
thur Dillon)  shared  the  exile  at  St.  Helena.  His 
sons  published  the  Campagnes  d'&gypte  et  de 
Syrie,  dictees  par  Napoleon,  A  Sainte-Helene, 
aw  general  Bertrand  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1847), 
which  he  wrote  under  Napoleon's  dictation. 
Eeturning  to  Paris  after  Napoleon's  death,  the 
sentence  of  death  previously  passed  upon  him 
was  cancelled,  and  he  was  restored  to  his  rank. 
After  the  July  revolution  he  was  for  a  short 
time  at  the  head  of  the  polytechnic  school,  and 
was  a  deputy  till  1834,  advocating  liberal  meas- 
ures and  the  freedom  of  the  press.  In  1840  he 
escorted  Napoleon's  remains  from  St.  Helena 
to  Paris,  and  he  was  buried  by  his  side. — One 
of  his  sons,  ALEXANDBE  ARTHUR  HENRI,  born 
in  1811,  acquired  distinction  as  a  soldier  in  Al- 
geria and  the  Crimea,  and  as  a  deputy,  and  be- 
came in  1854  general  of  brigade. 

BERl'LLE,  Pierre  de,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  near  Troyes,  Feb.  4,  1575,  died 
in  Paris,  Oct.  2,  1629.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  Carmelite  nuns  and  of  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  France.  He 
hrought  about  the  first  reconciliation  between 
Louis  XIII.  and  his  mother,  concluded  as  am- 
bassador to  Spain  the  peace  of  Monzon,  ob- 
tained on  a  mission  to  the  Roman  see  a  dis- 
pensation for  the  marriage  of  Henrietta  of 
France  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  accom- 
panied the  princess  to  England.  He  after- 


ward became  minister  of  state,  to  the  great 
displeasure  of  Eichelien,  who  soon  made  this 
position  untenable  for  him,  after  which  he 
returned  to  ecclesiastical  avocations.  Urban 
VIII.  made  him  cardinal  in  1627,  but  he  de- 
clined the  bishoprics  offered  to  him  by  Hen- 
ry IV.  and  Louis  XIII.,  and  remained  content 
with  the  moderate  benefice  of  two  abbeys, 
joining  as  before  his  elevation  in  the  humble 
practices  of  his  order.  He  was  also  noted  for 
liis  patronage  of  literature  and  science,  and 
was  among  the  first  to  appreciate  Descartes. 
His  works,  chiefly  sermons,  passed  through 
many  editions  during  his  life,  and  were  col- 
lected by  his  disciples  after  his  death  (2  vols. 
fol.,  1644,  and  1  vol.  fol.,  1657). 

BERWICK,  James  Fltz-James,  duke  of,  an  Eng- 
lish and  French  soldier,  born  in  1670,  killed  at 
Philippsburg,  June  12,  1734.  He  was  an  ille- 
gitimate son  of  James  II.  by  Arabella  Church- 
ill, sister  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1687  as  Baron  Bos- 
worth,  earl  of  Tinmouth,  and  duke  of  Berwick- 
on-Tweed  ;  but  these  titles  became  forfeited  in 
1095,  when  he  was  attainted.  He  accompanied 
his  father  to  France,  and  in  1690  to  Ireland, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Londonderry  and  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
He  acquired  reputation  in  the  French  service 
under  Louis  XIV.,  who  in  1693  made  him  lieu- 
tenant general  and  in  1706  marshal.  For  his 
successful  expedition  in  aid  of  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  in  1704  he  was  made  grandee  by  that 
king.  Eecalled  to  France,  he  fought  the  Ca- 
misards,  and  conquered  Nice,  but  subsequently 
resumed  the  command  in  Spain,  and  in  1707 
achieved  over  the  combined  English  and  Por- 
tuguese forces  the  brilliant  and  decisive  victory 
of  Almanza,  for  which  Philip  V.  granted  him 
the  dignity  of  duke  and  the  towns  of  Liria 
and  Xerica.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  on  the  Ehine, 
in  1719  commanded  against  Philip  V.  in  Spain, 
and  fell,  after  many  gallant  achievements,  at 
the  siege  of  Philippsburg.  His  first  wife  was 
the -widow  of  the  earl  of  Lucan  and  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  earl  of  Clanricarde,  by  whom  he 
had  issue  James  Francis,  duke  of  Liria  and 
Xerica,  whose  posterity  perpetuate  the  senior 
branch  of  the  Berwick  family.  His  second 
wife,  Anne  Bulkeley,  bore  him  several  children, 
th«  eldest  of  whom  inherited  the  title  of  duko 
de  Fitz-James,  that  had  been  conferred  upon 
him  in  France.  The  spurious  Memoires  du 
marechal  de  Berwick  (2  vols.,  Hague,  l737-'8) 
were  followed  by  the  genuine  Memoires,  pub- 
lished by  the  duke  de  Fitz-James  and  revised 
by  the  abbe  Hook  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1778). 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED,  an  Anglo-Scotch  bor- 
der town  and  seaport,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Tweed,  near  the  German  ocean,  58  m.  by 
railway  E.  S.  E.  of  Edinburgh;  pop.  of  the 
town  and  parliamentary  borough  in  1871,  13,- 
231.  Geographically  it  forms  part  of  Berwick- 
shire, Scotland,  but  belongs  to  England,  and 
is  not  legally  included  in  any  county,  though 


BERWICK-ON-TWEED 


BERWICKSHIRE 


587 


for  convenience  it  is  often  reckoned  as  being  in 
Northumberland.  It  extends  with  its  liberties, 
including  the  suburbs  Tweedmouth  (an  impor- 
tant railway  station)  and  Spittal  (a  fishing  vil- 
lage and  watering  place)  3J  m.  along  the  coast 
and  nearly  3£  m.  westward.  In  ancient  deeds 
tlie  town  is  called  South  Berwick,  to  distinguish 
it  from  North  Berwick  on  the  frith  of  Forth,  34 
m.  N.  E.,  near  Tantallon  castle.  Berwick-on- 
T\veed  is  mostly  built  on  the  castle  hill.  The 
castle,  prominent  in  the  border  wars,  is  now  a 
shapeless  ruin,  with  only  a  tower  and  part 
of  the  wall  remaining.  The  new  royal  border 
bridge  or  aqueduct,  connecting  the  North  Brit- 
ish with  the  Newcastle  and  Berwick  railway, 
one  of  the  celebrated  works  of  Robert  Stephen- 
son,  spans  the  Tweed  from  the  castle  hill  to 
the  Tweedmouth  side.  It  was  opened  in  1850, 
is  134  ft.  high,  2,000  ft.  long,  and  lias  28  semi- 


circular arches.  There  is  also  an  old  stone 
bridge.  The  town  is  well  built,  with  spacious 
streets,  but  the  general  appearance  is  dilapida- 
ted. A  thorough  system  of  drainage  has  recent- 
ly been  introduced.  There  are  many  places  of 
worship ;  the  parish  church  was  enlarged  and 
embellished  in  1855,  and  a  fine  new  Gothic 
church  opened  in  1859.  The  guildhall  belongs 
to  the  burgesses,  and  is  a  fine  building  with  a  tall 
spire.  There  are  numerous  schools  (including 
a  corporation  academy)  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  the  Berwickshire  naturalists'  club 
meets  here.  The  corn  exchange  was  opened 
in  1848,  and  a  new  cemetery  in  1857.  Once 
the  chief  seaport  of  Scotland,  the  town  still 
retains  much  commercial  importance.  About 
700  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  over  40,000, 
enter  and  leave  the  port  annually.  The  chief 
exports  are  salmon,  coal,  wool,  ale,  and  whis- 


Bervrick-on-Tweed. 


key;  the  chief  imports,  timber,  staves,  iron, 
tallow,  and  hemp.  The  town  has  a  ship-build- 
ing yard,  breweries,  an  extensive  iron  foun- 
dery,  and  manufactories  of  steam  engines  and 
machinery,  cotton  hosiery,  and  carpets;  and 
near  it  are  coal  mines. — The  authentic  his- 
tory of  Berwick  begins  with  Alexander  I.  of 
Scotland  in  the  12th  century.  It  was  most 
prosperous  in  the  13th  under  Alexander  III. 
Edward  I.  held  the  English  parliament  here 
which  decided  for  Balliol  and  against  Bruce  for 
the  throne  of  Scotland;  and  here  the  limbs 
of  Wallace  were  exposed,  after  his  execution. 
Berwick  was  prominent  in  the  border  wars, 
and  was  often  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Scotch 
and  the  English  from  early  in  the  14th  till  late 
in  the  15th  century,  when  it  finally  reverted  to 
England.  James  I.  granted  to  the  citizens  the 
seigniory  of  the  town.  This  charter,  somewhat 


modified  by  the  municipal  reform  act,  is  still  in 
force.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  corporation 
of  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors,  one  of  whom 
is  the  mayor,  and  the  borough  returns  two 
members  of  parliament. 

BERWICKSHIRE,  a  maritime  and  border 
county  forming  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  Scotland, 
on  the  German  ocean,  separated  S.  E.  by  the 
Tweed  from  Northumberland,  England,  and 
bounded  N.  by  Haddingtonshire,  W.  by  Edin- 
burghshire,  and  S.  by  Roxburghshire;  area, 
472  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 36,475.  It  is  divided 
into  the  districts  of  Lammermoor,  Lauderdale, 
and  the  Merse.  Some  of  the  famous  Lammer- 
moor hills  are  over  1,500  feet  high.  About 
200,000  acres  are  under  cultivation,  and  the 
production  is  steadily  increasing  from  improved 
systems  of  culture.  Though  smaller  than  many 
other  Scotch  counties,  it  produces  more  wheat 


588 


BERYL 


and  turnips  than  most  of  them.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  raised  in  great  numbers.  The  coast 
is  rugged,  with  no  bays  save  at  Coldingham 
and  Eyemouth.  Excepting  the  Eye  in  the 
northeast,  all  the  streams  are  tributaries  of 
the  Tweed  and  abound  with  fish.  The  salmon 
fisheries,  long  suspended,  have  lately  resumed 
some  of  their  former  importance.  The  chief 
trade  is  carried  on  through  Berwick-on-Tweed. 
The  only  royal  burgh  is  Lauder ;  the  largest 
town  is  Dunse ;  and  the  county  town  is  Green- 
law,  3  m.  S.  of  which  is  Hume  castle,  on  a  hill 
900  feet  high.  There  are  numerous  relics  of 
Roman  and  British  encampments,  and  among 
the  many  antiquities  are  those  of  Fast  castle  (the 
Wolf's  Crag  of  the  "  Bride  of  Lammermoor  "), 
2  m.  from  the  celebrated  St.  Abb's  Head  prom- 
ontory, and  the  ruins  of  Coldingham  priory  and 
of  Dryburgh  abbey. 

BERYL  (Gr.  /JiyptiAAo?),  a  mineral  composed 
of  silica  66-8,  alumina  19-1,  glucina  14-1  =  100. 
The  union  of  the  emerald  and  beryl  in  one 
species,  which  Pliny  says  was  suggested  in  his 
time,  was  first  recognized  on  crystallographic 
grounds  by  De  Lisle,  and  more  satisfactorily 
through  measurements  of  angles  by  Haily,  and 
chemically  by  Vauquelin.  The  beryl,  emerald 
or  smaragd,  and  aquamarine  are  all  the  same 
mineral  species,  and  only  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  their  blue  and  yellow  shades  of 
green,  or  by  the  delicacy  of  the  crystals.  The 
beryl  is  sometimes  also  white.  The  emerald  is 
more  transparent  and  of  finer  colors  than  the 
beryl,  and  makes  a  handsomer  gem.  Aqua- 
marine is  a  beautiful  sea-green  variety.  The 
brilliant  green  color  of  the  emerald  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  minute  quantity  of  oxide  of 
chromium ;  beryl  and  aquamarine  derive  their 
colors  from  the  oxide  of  iron.  The  beryl  crys- 
tallizes in  regular  6-sided  prisms,  which  are 
often  striated  with  longitudinal  channels.  Its 
hardness,  rated  at  7'5  to  8  on  the  mineralogical 
scale,  is  less  than  that  of  topaz  and  greater 
than  that  of  quartz.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2'7. 
The  crystals  are  found  in  metamorphic  lime- 
stones, in  slate,  mica  schist,  gneiss,  and  gran- 
ite rocks,  generally  as  single  crystals  or  in 
clusters,  rather  than  in  veins.  There  are 
many  celebrated  localities  of  gigantic  beryls 
and  beautiful  emeralds  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  Upper  Egypt  produced  the  mineral 
in  ancient  times,  and  it  is  still  found  in  the 
mica  slate  of  Mount  Zabarah.  Siberia,  Hindo- 
stan,  Limousin  in  France,  Peru,  and  Colombia 
have  all  furnished  splendid  emeralds.  The 
largest  beryls  known  have  been  found  in  Ac- 
worth  and  Grafton,  New  Hampshire,  and  in 
Royalston,  Massachusetts.  One  from  Grafton 
measures  4  ft.  3  in.  in  length,  32  in.  through 
in  one  direction  and  22  in  another  transverse, 
and  weighs  2,900  Ibs.  Another  is  estimated  to 
weigh  nearly  2£  tons,  measuring  45  in.  through 
in  one  direction  and  24  in.  in  another.  A 
crystal  in  the  museum  at  Stockholm,  found  in 
Sweden,  is  considered  to  be  the  largest  in 
Europe ;  it  weighs  80  Ibs.  The  value  of  the 


BERZELIUS 

specimens  is  not  at  all  dependent  on  their  size. 
The  large  crystals  are  of  coarse  texture  and 
feeble  lustre,  and  possess  no  beauty.  As  the 
beryl  expands  by  heat  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  the  principal  axis,  and  contracts  on 
the  line  of  the  axis,  there  is  a  point  where  the 
expansion  and  contraction  exactly  neutralize 
each  other,  and  a  section  across  this  would 
maintain  a  constant  length.  Soleil  recommends 
the  cutting  of  prisms  in  conformity  with  this 
direction,  to  be  used  as  normal  units  of 
measurement. 

BER1TUS.     See  BEYEOUT. 

BERZELIUS,  Julian  Jakob,  baron,  a  Swedish 
chemist,  born  at  Vafversunda,  district  of  Linko- 
ping,  Aug.  20,  1779,  died  in  Stockholm,  Aug.  7, 
1848.  His  father  was  government  schoolmaster  • 
in  his  native  village,  and  was  very  poor.  Ber- 
zelius  received  his  early  education  at  home,  and 
in  1796,  through  the  assistance  of  friends,  com- 
menced the  study  of  medicine  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Upsal.  The  lectures  at  Upsal  in  those 
days  were  read  without  any  experimental  illus- 
trations, and  the  instructions  in  the  laboratory 
were  of  a  superficial  and  unsatisfactory  kind. 
He  contrived,  however,  to  obtain  the  means  of 
making  an  analysis  of  a  mineral  water,  and  in 
1800  published  his  first  paper,  entitled  Nota, 
Analysis  Aquarum  Medeviemium,  which  at 
once  gained  for  him  considerable  local  celebrity. 
In  1802  he  became  adjunct  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  Stockholm,  at  the  same  time  practising 
his  profession  and  delivering  lectures  on  chem- 
istry. At  this  period  nearly  all  the  scientific 
men  of  the  world  were  attracted  by  Volta's 
discoveries  to  experiment  with  voltaic  elec- 
tricity, and  Berzelius  in  1803  published  an  im- 
portant paper  on  the  action  of  electric  currents 
on  solutions  of  salts,  in  which  he  first  pointed 
out  that  combustible  bodies,  alkalies,  and  earths 
went  to  the  negative  pole,  while  oxygen  and 
the  acids  went  to  the  positive.  Three  years 
later  Davy  published  similar  views  and  extended 
his  researches  further  than  Berzelius,  as  he  had 
far  greater  means  at  his  command  ;  in  Davy's 
paper,  however,  no  allusion  is  made  to  Berze- 
lius, an  omission  which  was  at  once  supplied  by 
the  translators  of  Davy's  article  for  the  German 
and  Swedish  annals.  In  1806  Berzelius  was 
made  teacher  of  chemistry  at  the  military 
school  of  Carlberg,  and  in  1807  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  at  the 
medical  institute  in  Stockholm.  At  this  time 
he  constructed  a  battery  consisting  of  zinc, 
copper,  and  two  liquids  so  made  that  the  zinc 
was  not  attacked  by  the  liquid  in  which  it  was 
immersed,  while  the  copper  was  rapidly  oxi- 
dized. By  aid  of  this  apparatus  and  the  em- 
ployment of  mercury  at  the  negative  pole,  he 
succeeded  early  in  1808  in  preparing  the  metals 
calcium,  barium,  and  the  supposed  amalgam  of 
ammonium.  Simultaneously  with  his  electrical 
researches  he  conducted  the  analysis  of  miner- 
als, and  in  1803,  when  he  was  only  23  years 
old,  made  the  discovery  of  the  metal  cerium, 
While  thus  engaged  it  was  necessary  for  him  to 


BERZELIUS 


BERZSENYI 


589 


practise  medicine  for  his  support,  and  he  even 
established  a  manufactory  of  artificial  mineral 
waters  in  order  to  add  to  his  scanty  income. 
The  variety  of  his  occupations  at  this  period  of 
his  life  somewhat  interfered  with  tho  system- 
atic course  of  investigation  which  he  subse- 
quently adopted.  The  tendency  of  his  research- 
es was  due  to  accident ;  the  fashion  of  the  day 
led  him  to  pursue  galvanism,  his  intimate  as- 
sociation with  Hisinger  suggested  mineralogy, 
and  his  avocation  as  a  physician  naturally 
brought  in  physiological  chemistry.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  alkaline  metals  by  Davy  and  his 
own  success  in  the  same  direction  prompted 
him  to  apply  himself  to  the  study  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  then  commenced  the  really  great 
work  of  his  life,  which  culminated  in  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  law  of  chemical  proportion. 
To  prove  the  correctness  of  this  law,  Berzelius 
reexamined  all  known  chemical  compounds 
and  prepared  many  new  ones.  In  the  execu- 
tion of  this  great  work  it  was  necessary  for 
him  to  devise  new  methods  of  analysis  and  to 
invent  all  of  the  apparatus  for  their  execution. 
He  had  to  distil  his  alcohol  from  brandy,  and 
the  commonest  reagents  were  prepared  in  his 
laboratory.  He  invented  the  lamp  with  double 
draft,  since  called  the  Berzelius  lamp ;  he  also 
introduced  smaller  quantities  of  substances 
which  could  be  burned  and  weighed  in  pla- 
tinum crucibles ;  funnels,  beakers,  wash  bottles, 
Swedish  filter  paper,  rubber  and  glass  tubing, 
and  a  great  variety  of  other  aids  were  intro- 
duced by  him ;  and  he  removed  the  laboratory 
from  the  dingy  cellar  to  airy  upper  rooms,  and 
elevated  chemistry  from  a  black  art  to  an  exact 
science.  In  1818,  after  many  years  of  patient 
industry,  Berzelius  was  prepared  to  publish  a 
list  of  2,000  simple  and  compound  bodies,  giv- 
ing their  exact  chemical  composition.  It  was 
natural  for  him  to  apply  the  same  methods  of 
research  to  minerals  that  he  did  to  artificial  com-  j 
pounds,  and  he  was  early  in  the  field  with  his  j 
famous  mineral  system  founded  upon  chem- 
istry. Mohs  adopted  crystalline  form,  hard- 
ness, and  specific  gravity  as  the  basis  of  clas- 
sification, and  did  not  care  for  an  elementary 
analysis.  Berzelius  thought  this  was  much 
like  a  person  groping  in  the  dark  refusing  to 
accept  more  light  for  fear  of  seeing  too  much. 
As  the  only  mineral  analyses  extant  were  by 
Bergman,  Klaproth,  and  Vauquelin,  it  was 
necessary  to  repeat  all  of  them  before  any  sys- 
tem could  be  established ;  and  it  was  not  till 
1847  that  the  last  edition  of  Berzelins's  "  Min- 
eral Chemistry"  was  published  under  Rammels- 
berg's  revision.  Under  the  instruction  of  his  old 
friend  Gahn  of  Fahlun,  the  pupil  of  Bergman 
and  friend  of  Scheele,  Berzelius  acquired  great 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  blowpipe,  and  published 
a  book  on  the  subject  which  for  30  years 
was  the  leading  authority,  until  superseded  by 
Plattner's  more  comprehensive  work.  As  early 
as  1806,  in  conjunction  with  Hisinger,  he  com- 
menced the  "Memoirs  relative  to  Physics, 
Chemistry,  and  Mineralogy,"  and  his  numer- 


ous contributions  to  those  sciences,  amounting 
in  all  to  more  than  200  papers,  obtained  for 
him  that  high  rank  which  he  holds  as  an  accu- 
rate observer  and  experimental  analyst.  He  was 
one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  medical  society 
of  Sweden,  and  in  1808  he  became  a  member 
of  the  royal  Swedish  academy,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  president  in  1810.  In  the  intervals  of 
his  public  duties  he  paid  several  visits  to  Paris, 
and  in  1812  he  spent  some  time  in  London.  In 
1815  the  king  of  Sweden  named  Berzelius  a 
knight  of  the  order  of  Vasa;  and  in  1818  he 
was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  tho  Stock- 
holm academy  of  sciences.  On  the  coronation 
of  the  king  in  the  same  year,  Berzelius  was 
ennobled,  and,  contrary  to  tho  custom  of  the 
country,  was  allowed  to  retain  his  own  name. 
In  1821  he  was  named  commander  of  the  or- 
der of  Vasa,  and  France  gave  him  the  insignia 
of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  Austria  those  of 
the  order  of  Leopold.  His  works  are  both  nu- 
merous and  important.  He  contributed  to  the 
"Physical  Memoirs,"  during  a  period  of  12 
years,  47  original  papers  of  great  merit.  His 
treatise  on  chemistry  went  through  five  large 
editions,  and  was  partly  rewritten  each  time. 
It  is  most  complete  and  best  known  in  the 
edition  translated  into  French  under  his  own 
inspection,  by  Esslinger,  and  published  in  8  vols. 
at  Brussels  in  1835.  The  last  volume  contains 
his  very  remarkable  dissertation  on  chemical  ap- 
paratus, with  essays  on  qualitative  and  quantita- 
tive analysis,  and  the  use  of  the  blowpipe.  The 
5th  edition,  begun  in  1842,  was  carried  through 
5  vols.,  including  one  on  organic  chemistry,  pre- 
vious to  his  death  in  1848.  At  tho  instigation  of 
Berzelius  the  members  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences of  Stockholm  consented  to  prepare  year- 
ly reports  on  the  progress  of  all  the  sciences. 
Berzelius  took  upon  himself  the  department  of 
physics,  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy; 
and  his  share  of  the  labor  has  been  of  great  use 
to  the  scientific  world.  The  reports,  begun  in 
1820,_were  continued  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
and  since  1847  have  been  conducted  by  Liebig, 
Wohler,  and  Kopp  in  Germany.  We  thus  have 
a  complete  series  of  reports  on  the  progress 
of  chemistry  since  1820.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  all  the  leading  chemists  of  Germany,  ex- 
cepting Liebig,  were  pupils  of  Berzelius.  Soon 
after  his  marriage  in  1833,  the  directors  of  the 
Swedish  iron  works,  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
light  his  researches  had  thrown  on  their  art, 
and  of  his  services  to  the  useful  arts  of  his 
country,  conferred  on  him  a  pension  for  life. 

BERZSENYI,  Daniel,  a  Hungarian  poet,  born 
at  Hetye,  May  7,  1776,  died  at  Nikla,  Feb.  24, 
1836.  A  volume  of  his  lyrics  entitled  Versek 
appeared  in  1813,  embracing  the  best  speci- 
mens of  that  kind  of  poetry  till  then  published 
in  Magyar,  among  them  the  stirring  national 
ode  "To  the  Hungarians"  (2d  ed.,  1816).  He 
also  wrote  asthetical  and  philosophical  essays. 
In  1830  he  became  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
academy.  A  complete  collection  of  his  works 
was  published  in  Pesth  in  1842. 


590 


BESANCON 


BESANfON  (anc.  Vesontio),  a  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Doubs,  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Doubs,  and  on  the  Rhone  and 
Rhine  canals,  198  m.  8.  E.  of  Paris ;  pop.  in 
1866,  46,961.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  with  a 
citadel  built  by  Vaubnn,  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  has  a  school  of  artillery,  a  library 


of  80,000  volumes,  academies  of  science  and 
art,  a  seminary  for  priests,  and  a  botanical  gar- 
den. There  are  many  hospitals  and  a  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum.  Among  the  prominent  buildings 
are  the  prefecture  and  the  ancient  palace  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle,  archbishop  of  Besancon, 
who  founded  a  university  here,  which  existed 
till  the  first  revolution.  The  town  and  its  vi- 
cinity abound  with  Roman  remains,  and  a  vast 
amphitheatre  has  been  lately  excavated.  The 
principal  articles  of  trade  are  corn,  timber, 
staves,  cheese,  ironware,  cloth,  leather,  and 
wine.  Agricultural  implements,  iron,  steel,  and 
copper  ware,  paper  hangings,  cotton,  silk,  and 
woollen  goods,  and  other  articles  are  manufac- 
tured ;  and  Besancon  rivals  Geneva  in  watches, 
of  which  300,000  are  made  annually,  employ- 
ing over  2,000  persons.  Over  600,000  bottles 
of  seltzer  water  are  put  up  annually. — Ancient 
Vesontio  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Sequani,  and 
under  the  Roman  empire  was  the  capital  of 
Maxima  Sequanorum.  It  was  rebuilt  early  in 
the  5th  century  by  the  Burgundians,  after  hav- 
ing been  destroyed  by  the  Alemanni,  but  was 
again  ravaged  by  the  Huns.  It  successively 
belonged  to  the  Frankish  kingdom,  to  the  king- 
dom of  Aries,  and  to  the  German  empire ;  be- 
came the  capital  of  Franche-Comtd,  and  under 
Frederick  I.  a  free  imperial  city,  and  subse- 
quently shared  the  fortunes  of  that  province, 
passing  with  it  to  France  in  1678.  In  1814  it 
was  in  vain  besieged  by  the  Austrians.  Victor 
Hugo,  Fourier,  and  Proudhon  were  born  here. 
BESBORODKO,  Alexander  Andrfyevltfh,  prince, 
a  Russian  statesman,  born  at  Stolnoye,  Little 


BESSARABA 

Russia,  in  1742,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Ang.  9, 
1799.  He  was  secretary  of  Rumiantzoff  in  the 
Turkish  campaigns,  and  after  having  risen  by 
liis  rare  natural  abilities  to  various  high  posi- 
tions tinder  Catharine  II.,  became  imperial 
chancellor  under  Paul  I.  He  concluded  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Jassy  (1792)  and  other  trea- 
ties, and  O7'ganized  the 
coalition  of  Russia  and 
Great  Britain  against 
France  (1798).  He  was 
made  a  count  of  the 
German  empire  by  Jo- 
seph II.,  and  a  Russian 
prince  by  Paul  I.  He 
was  profligate  and  ava- 
ricious, but  at  the  same 
time  a  zealous  patron 
of  the  fine  arts,  and 
left  a  large  part  of  his 
immense  fortune  for 
the  endowment  of  a 
lycenm. 

*  I;I:M  III;IM  1 1,1:.  Lonls 
Nifolas,  aine,  a  French 
lexicographer  and 
grammarian,  born  in 
Paris,  June  10,  1802. 
He  was  educated  at  the 
college  Bourbon,  and 
afterward  employed  in 
the  archives  of  the  council  of  state  and  as  a  libra- 
rian in  the  Louvre.  His  principal  works  are : 
Orammaire  nationale  (2  vols.  8vo,  1834-'8 ; 
5th  ed.,  1851),  and  Dictionnaire  national,  ou 
grand  dietionnaire  critique  de  la  Inngue  fran- 
faise,  including  technical,  historical,  and  geo- 
graphical words  (2  vols.  4to,  1843-'6),  which 
'proved  very  successful.  He  also  edited  with 
G.  Devars  the  Grand  dietionnaire  de  geo- 
graphic universelle,  ancienne  et  moderne  (4 
vols.  4to,  1856-'7;  new  ed.,  1865).— His  bro- 
ther, known  as  BESCHEEELLE  jeune,  born  in 
Paris,  June  12,  1804,  an  employee  of  the 
council  of  state  and  the  sole  author  of  Methode 
pour  apprendre  lei  langues  modernes  (4  vols., 
1855),  has  participated  in  most  of  his  labors. 
One  of  their  joint  works  is  a  Dictionnaire 
iisuel  de  tons  lei  terles  de  la,  langue  francaise 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1842-'3). 
BESITOf.  See  BEHISTFIT. 
BESSARABA,  a  family  that  took  an  active  part 
in  the  politics  of  eastern  Europe  from  the 
13th  century  to  the  early  part  of  the  18th.  It 
gave  several  waywodes  to  Wallachia,  and  ruled 
for  a  considerable  time  over  Bessarabia.  Ru 
dolph  the  Black  founded  the  principality  ol 
Wallachia  during  the  invasion  of  Batu  Khan, 
and  built  the  towns  of  Argish,  Tergovist,  and 
Bucharest.  He  died  in  1265.  Mirce  or  Mirxsi 
I.,  waywode  from  1382  to  1418,  fought  against 
the  Bulgarians  and  the  Turks,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Kosovo ;  he  was  obliged 
to  sign  the  treaty  of  1393,  which  made  him  a 
vassal  of  Bajazet  I.  Michael  II..  the  Brave, 
waywode  in  1592,  united  under  his  rule  Wai- 


BESSARABIA 


BESSEL 


591 


lachia,  Moldavia,  and  Transylvania.  He  was 
assassinated  in  1601.  Matthew  Brancovan, 
who  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover 
the  independence  of  his  country  against  the 
Turks,  died  in  1654.  Oonstantine  II.  Branco- 
van, waywode  in  1688,  served  and  betrayed  in 
turn  the  Austrians,  Russians,  andTurks.  He  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  Turkish  government, 
taken  to  Constantinople,  and  executed  with  his 
four  sons  in  1 714.  With  the  death  of  this  prince 
the  Bessaraba  dynasty  was  extinguished. 

BESSARABIA,  a  S.  W.  province  of  European 
Russia,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  Dniester, 
which  separates  it  from  Austrian  Galicia,  and 
the  Russian  governments  of  Podolia  and  Kher- 
son, S.  E.  by  the  Black  sea,  and  S.  and  W.  by 
Moldavia  and  Bttkowina;  area,  14,012  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  1,052,013,  comprising  Moldavians, 
Russians,  Bulgarians,  Jews,  Armenians,  Greeks, 
Gypsies,  and  French  and  German  colonists. 
The  northern  and  larger  part  of  Bessarabia  is 
traversed  by  a  low  branch  of  the  Carpathian 
mountains,  with  a  succession  of  wooded  hills 
and  vales,  and  a  fertile  soil.  The  lower  part 
of  the  province  consists  of  fertile  but  treeless 
steppes,  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Dniester 
and  Pruth,  and  affording  rich  pasturage  for 
horses,  buffaloes,  and  sheep.  Immense  quan- 
tities of  wheat,  barley,  and  maize  are  raised. 
The  vine  flourishes,  and  melons  and  other 
fruits  grow  in  abundance.  Flax,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, dye  plants,  and  poppies  are  also  raised. 
Coal  and  marble  have  been  found  in  the 
mountains,  and  saltpetre  in  the  environs  of 
Soroki  on  the  Dniester.  The  principal  rivers 
of  Bessarabia  are  the  Dniester,  the  Yalpukh, 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  and  the  Pruth,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  W.  boundary.  The  climate 
is  mild  and  salubrious,  but  in  the  southern 
parts,  which  are  not  sheltered  by  mountains, 
the  winters  are  very  severe  and  the  summers 
excessively  warm.  The  seat  of  government  is 
at  Kishenev.  The  only  harbor  is  Akerman. 
Other  important  towns  are  Bender,  Soroki, 
and  Khotin  or  Chocim,  all  on  the  Dniester. — 
The  primitive  inhabitants  of  Bessarabia  were 
nomadic  Scythian  tribes.  It  was  nominally  a 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Dacia.  In 
the  3d  century  it  was  occupied  by  the  Goths, 
and  in  the  5th  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Huns. 
Then  followed  the  Avars,  Bulgarians,  and 
Slavs.  In  the  7th  century  the  Bessi  obtained 
the  supremacy,  and  from  them  the  country  is 
said  to  have  taken  its  name.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury it  formed  part  of  Moldavia,  and  with  it, 
in  the  16th,  became  tributary  to  Turkey.  It 
soon  after  suffered  a  terrible  incursion  of  Tar- 
tars, and  subsequently  the  horrors  of  frequent 
wars  between  the  Russians  and  Turks.  In 
the  peace  of  Bucharest  (1812)  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  Russia 
ceded  to  Turkey  the  southern  part  of  Bes- 
sarabia, which  included  Ismail,  Tutchkov,  the 
district  of  Kagul,  the  greater  part  of  that  of 
Akerman,  and  most  of  the  salt  lakes.  This 
was  annexed  to  Moldavia. 

90  VOL.  n.— 88 


BESSARION,  John  or  Basil,  a  Greek  scholar, 
born  in  Trebizond  in  1389  or  1395,  died  in  Ra- 
venna, Nov.  19,  1472.  He  passed  many  years 
in  a  monastery,  became  a  prominent  reviver 
of  literature,  and  was  titular  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople and  archbishop  of  Nice.  Having 
forfeited  the  good  will  of  his  countrymen  by 
exerting  himself  with  John  Palseologus  at  the 
council  of  Ferrara  over-zealously,  as  they 
thought,  for  a  union  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches,  he  remained  in  Italy,  where  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.  made  him  cardinal,  and  Nicholas 
V.  bishop  of  Sabina  and  afterward  of  Frascati, 
and  legate  of  Bologna.  But  for  one  adverse 
vote  he  would  have  been  raised  to  the  papal 
see,  his  Greek  birth  being  the  chief  objection. 
Sixtus  IV.  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Louis  XI. 
to  reconcile  the  latter  with  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy; but  the  French  monarcli  is  said  to 
have  taken  offence  at  his  having  visited  first 
the  duke,  and  called  him  a  barbarous  Greek, 
which  according  to  some  accounts  affected  the 
health  of  the  envoy  and  accelerated  his  death. 
In  France  and  in  Germany  he  instigated  crusades 
against  the  Turks,  after  whose  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople he  was  very  useful  to  his  fugitive 
countrymen.  His  house  in  Rome  became  a 
species  of  academy,  attended  by  Argyropulos, 
Poggio,  and  others,  whom  he  aided  in  their 
studies.  He  bequeathed  his  books  to  the.  Ve- 
netian senate,  and  his  valuable  collection  of 
Greek  MSS.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  library 
of  St.  Mark's  in  that  city.  He  left  various 
writings,  chiefly  translations  of  Aristotle  and 
in  vindication  of  Plato,  of  whom  he  was  a  dis- 
tinguished exponent.  He  wrote  in  reply  to 
George  of  Trebizond  Adversus  Calumniato- 
rem  Platonic  (1470),  which  was  one  of  the  first 
books  issued  from  the  Roman  press. 

BESSEL,  Friedrieh  Wllhelm,  a  German  astron- 
omer, born  in  Minden,  July  22,  1784,  died  in 
Konigsberg,  March  17,  1846.  His  fondness 
for  science  was  aroused  in  Bremen,  where  he 
was  employed  in  a  merchant's  office  and  be- 
came interested  in  nautical  and  other  studies. 
Acquiring  some  proficiency  in  astronomy,  he  re- 
ceived through  Olbers  an  appointment  as  assist- 
ant in  the  observatory  of  Lilienthal.  In  1810 
he  was  called  to  Konigsberg,  where  under  his 
direction  an  observatory  was  built  and  rose  to 
the  highest  importance,  his  connection  with  it 
ending  only  with  his  death.  In  1818  he  pub- 
lished Fundamenta  Astronomia,  a  discussion 
of  the  observations  made  upon  the  fixed  stars 
by  Bradley  at  Greenwich  60  years  before,  and 
including  dissertations  of  inestimable  value  on 
the  method  of  stellar  astronomy.  He  after- 
ward published  regularly  his  own  observations, 
measured  the  distance  of  the  star  61  Cygni 
from  the  earth,  took  a  distinguished  part  in  all 
the  astronomical  discoveries  and  geodetic  dis- 
cussions of  his  day,  and  was  considered  one 
of  the  foremost  astronomers  of  the  world, 
blending  theory  and  practice  with  a  master 
hand.  His  posthumous  work,  Populare  Vor- 
lesungen  uber  wissenschaftliche  Gegenstiinde, 


592 


BESSEMER 


BESTUZHEFF-RIUMIN 


edited  by  his  friend  Schumacher,  was  pub- 
lished in  Hamburg  in  1848. 

BESSEMER,  Henry,  an  English  engineer,  born 
in  Hertfordshire  in  1813.  He  early  devoted 
himself  to  the  improvement  of  machinery,  and 
acquired  celebrity  about  20  years  ago  by  his 
invention  of  a  new  practical  process  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel  (see  STEEL),  which  has 
been  extensively  adopted  in  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  product  of  which  is 
known  in  trade  as  Bessemer  steel.  Until  1870 
his  annual  income  from  his  patent  amounted 
to  nearly  £100,000 ;  but  his  royalty,  which 
until  then  was  one  shilling  per  quintal,  has 
since  been  considerably  reduced.  The  jury  on 
steel  manufactures,  in  the  exposition  of  1862, 
remarked  that  of  127  patents  for  improvements 
in  that  industry  in  England,  there  was  only  one 
which  had  brought  about  any  striking  change 
in  the  mode  of  producing  steel,  or  which  had 
been  attended  with  any  real  or  practical  com- 
mercial result,  and  this  was  the  process  pat- 
ented by  Mr.  Bessemer.  The  report  on  the 
Paris  universal  exposition  of  1867  states  that 
"  Mr.  Bessemer  was  not  the  first  to  attempt 
the  conversion  of  carburetted  iron  into  steel, 
although  he  was  the  first  to  propose  a  prac- 
ticable process  for  accomplishing  so  desirable 
an  object." 

BESSIERES,  Jean  Baptistf,  duke  of  Istria,  a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Praissac,  Aug.  5, 1768, 
killed  near  Lutzen,  May  1,  1813.  He  entered 
the  service  in  1790,  and  after  the  victory  of 
Roveredo,  Sept.  4,  1796,  Bonaparte  made  him 
colonel.  Commander  of  the  guards  of  the  gen- 
eral-in-chief  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  he  remained 
attached  to  that  corps  for  the  greater  part  of  his 
life.  In  1802  he  became  general  of  division, 
and  in  1804  marshal.  He  fought  in  the  battles 
of  Rivoli,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  Abonkir,  Marengo 
(where  he  commanded  the  last  decisive  caval- 
ry charge),  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Fried- 
land.  In  1808  he  achieved  a  victory  at  Me- 
dina del  Rio  Seco  in  Spain.  After  the  fail- 
ure of  the  English  Walcheren  expedition,  Na- 
poleon substituted  Bessieres  for  Bernadotte  in 
command  of  the  Belgian  army.  In  the  same 
year  (1809)  he  was  created  duke  of  Istria.  At 
the  head  of  a  cavalry  division  he  routed  the 
Austrian  general  Hohenzollern  at  the  battle  of 
Aspern  and  Essling.  In  the  Russian  expedition 
he  acted  as  chief  commander  of  the  mounted 
guard,  and  on  the  opening  of  the  German  cam- 
paign of  1813  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  French 
cavalry.  He  fell  while  attacking  a  defile  on  the 
Rippach  in  Saxony,  on  the  eve  of  the  battle  of 
Lutzen.  Napoleon,  fearing  to  discourage  his 
soldiers,  with  whom  Bessieres  was  exceedingly 
popular,  prevented  for  some  time  the  announce- 
ment of  his  death.  Greatly  affected  by  his 
gallant  end,  and  mourning  him  as  one  of  his 
most  skilful  and  devoted  officers,  he  wrote  a 
touching  letter  of  condolence  to  the  duchess  of 
Istria,  and  bequeathed  at  St.  Helena  100,000 
francs  to  the  son.  A  statue  in  honor  of  Bes- 
sieres  has  been  erected  in  his  native  town,  and 


his  name  was  inscribed  on  the  arch  of  triumph 
and  on  the  bronze  tablets  at  Versailles. 

BESTU/HEFF,  Alexander,  a  Russian  poet  and 
!  patriot,  born  at  his  father's  country  seat  in  the 
j  government  of  Voronezh  in  1795,  killed  in  bat- 
tle in  the  Caucasus  in  June,  1837.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  one  of  the  imperial  military  establish- 
ments, and  became  aide-de-camp  of  Duke  Alox- 
i  ander  of  Wilrtemberg  in  1825.  He  edited  joint- 
i  ly  with  Ryeleyeff,  in  1823,  the  literary  almanac 
j  entitled  the  "Northern  Star,"  and  with  him 
j  became  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  and  insur- 
rection of  1825.  For  this  he  was  degraded  to 
the  rank  of  a  private  without  the  privilege  of 
promotion,  and  sent  to  Yakutsk  in  Siberia,  to- 
gether with  his  equally  implicated  brothers  Ni- 
cholas and  Michael,  Ryeleyeff  being  executed. 
Here,  under  the  name  of  the  Cossack  Marlinsky, 
lie  wrote  small  novels  and  sketches  for  the  "  Tel- 
egraph," a  periodical  of  Moscow,  and  for  some 
others.  After  two  or  three  years,  by  a  special 
order  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  he  was  transfer- 
red to  the  army  of  the  Caucasus.  There  his  ad- 
venturous and  dangerous  life  had  its  effect  on 
his  style,  and  he  now  showed  a  great  talent  for 
description  and  for  analysis  of  human  character 
and  passions.  The  more  considerable  of  his 
writings  during  this  period  are  two  novels, 
Mullah  Nur  and  Ammalat  Beg.  Toward  the 
year  1836  Nicholas  relented  and  permitted  the 
advancement  of  BestuzhefF  from  the  ranks; 
but  shortly  afterward  he  was  killed,  along  with 
a  considerable  detachment  of  Russian  soldiers, 
by  the  mountaineers,  in  an  ambush  near  Yeka- 
terinodar. 

BKSTIZHKFF-RHMIN,  a  Russian  family  of 
English  origin,  originally  named  Best.  On 
their  settlement  in  Russia  they  took  the  name 
of  Ruma,  which  was  changed  by  Peter  the 
Great  to  Riumin. — PETER  MIKHAILOVITCH  was 
Russian  minister  at  Hamburg,  and  received 
the  rank  of  count  from  Peter. — MIKHAIL,  his 
son,  born  in  1686,  was  Russian  ambassador  at 
Stockholm,  grand  marshal  under  the  empress 
Elizabeth,  and  from  1756  to  1760  ambassador 
at  Paris.  His  wife,  sister  of  Count  Golovkin, 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  Lapushin 
against  Elizabeth,  on  the  discovery  of  which 
she  was  knouted,  had  her  tongue  cut  out,  and 
was  exiled  to  Siberia. — ALEXEI,  count,  brother 
of  Mikhail,  born  in  Moscow  in  1693,  died  in 
April,  1766.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin  and 
Hanover,  where  he  was  presented  to  George 
I.  of  England  and  entered  his  service.  In  1718 
he  returned  to  Russia,  and  was  sent  by  Peter 
the  Great  as  ambassador  to  Copenhagen.  Un- 
der Anna  he  was  minister  to  Hamburg  and 
Copenhagen,  and  afterward  a  cabinet  minister. 
Under  Elizabeth  he  was  made  grand  chancel- 
lor of  the  empire.  In  1745  he  concluded  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  England,  and  in  1743  a 
treaty  with  Sweden  by  which  the  royal  suc- 
cession in  that  country  was  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  of  Russia.  In  1746  he  formed 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Austria  against  France 
and  Prussia,  and  in  1748  sent  an  army  into 


BETANgOS 


BETHANY 


593 


Germany  under  the  command  of  Repnin.  Soon 
after  he  occasioned  the  ruin  of  Lestocq,  his 
former  patron.  Through  his  influence  the 
Russian  troops  supported  Austria  against  Fred- 
erick the  Great  in  the  seven  years'  war ;  but 
their  commander,  Apraxin,  suddenly  retired  to 
Russia,  and  this  occasioned  the  fall  of  Bestu- 
zheff,  who  was  suspected  of  having  recalled 
him  in  the  interest  of  a  political  intrigue.  (See 
APBAXIN.)  He  was  degraded,  but  Catharine 
II.  in  1762  restored  him  to  liberty  and  to  his 
previous  social  position,  creating  him  a  field 
marshal.  He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  a 
preparation  known  in  medicine  under  the  name 
of  tinctura  tonica  Bestusewi. 

IJKTAM  OS,  Domingo  de,  a  Spanish  missionary, 
born  in  Leon  late  in  the  15th  century,  died  in 
Valladolid  in  August,  1549.  He  studied  law 
at  Salamanca,  joined  the  Benedictines  in  Rome, 
and  lived  for  a  time  as  a  hermit  at  Somma  near 
Naples.  In  1514  he  went  to  Hispaniola,  ac- 
quired the  Indian  languages,  and  endeavored 
to  save  the  natives  from  Spanish  cruelty. 
Subsequently  he  labored  among  the  Indians  in 
Mexico  and  Guatemala,  where  he  established 
convents.  His  representations  led  Paul  III. 
to  promulgate  a  bull  in  1537  reminding  all 
Christians  that  pagan  Indians  were  their 
brethren,  and  should  not  be  hunted  down 
like  wild  beasts.  Betancos  refused  the  bish- 
opric of  Guatemala,  and  remained  simply  pro- 
vincial of  his  order.  He  died  shortly  after  his 
return  to  Spain. 

BETEL  NUT,  a  name  inaccurately  applied  to 
the  nut  of  the  areca  palm  (areca  catechu),  be- 
cause, though  sold  separately,  it  is  used  for 
chewing  in  combination  with  the  leaf  of  the 
betel  pepper  (piper  betle).  The  habit  of  chew- 
ing this  compound  has  extended  from  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Malay  archipelago,  where  it  is 
chiefly  found,  to  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  its 


Betel  Pepper  (Piper  betle). 

use  is  now  universal  from  the  Red  sea  to  Ja- 
pan. Its  preparation  for  nse  is  very  simple : 
the  nut  is  sliced  and  wrapped  in  the  leaf,  with 


a  little  quicklime  to  give  it  a  flavor.  All  class- 
es, male  and  female,  are  in  the  habit  of  chewing 
it,  and  think  it  improves  the  digestion.  It  gives 
to  the  tongue  and  lips  a  scarlet  hue,  and  in  time 
turns  the  teeth  perfectly  black.  The  Malays 
have  a  hideous  appearance  from  its  use,  but 
the  Chinese  are  very  careful  to  remove  the 
stain  from  the  teeth.  Persons  of  rank  often 
carry  it  prepared  for  use  in  splendid  cases 
worn  at  the  girdle,  and  offer  it  to  each  other 
as  people  of  Europe  or  America  offer  snuff. 

BETHAM,  Sir  William,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Stradbroke,  Suffolk,  in  1779,  died  at 
Blackrock,  near  Dublin,  Oct.  23,  1853.  His 
father,  the  Rev.  William  Betham,  was  the 
author  of  "  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Sove- 
reigns of  the  World "  (folio,  1795)  and  of  a 
"Baronetage"  (5  vols.  4to,  1801-'5).  The  son 
was  brought  up  as  a  printer,  and  his  first  liter- 
ary employment  was  revising  a  portion  of 
Gough's  edition  of  Camden.  In  1805  he  be- 
came clerk  and  afterward  deputy  of  Sir  Charles 
Fortescue,  and  in  1820  succeeded  him  as  Ulster 
king  of  arms.  In  1812  he  had  been  appointed 
genealogist  of  the  order  of  St.  Patrick  and 
knighted.  He  was  also  deputy  keeper  of  the 
records  of  Dublin.  Among  his  works  are: 
"  Irish  Antiquarian  Researches "  (2  parts, 
Dublin,  1826-'7) ;  "  Dignities,  Feudal  and  Par- 
liamentary "  (1830) ;  "Origin  and  History  of 
the  Constitution  of  England  "  (1830) ;  "  The 
Gael  and  the  Cymbri"  (1834);  and  "  Etrnria 
Celtica:  Etruscan  Literature  and  Antiquities 
Investigated  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1842). 

BETHANY,  a  village  of  ancient  Palestine,  on 
the  E.  slope  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  3  m.  from  Je- 


Bethany. 

rusalem,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as  the 
place  where  Christ  was  anointed,  often  lodged, 
and  raised  Lazarns  from  the  dead,  and  near 
which  the  ascension  took  place.  It  is  now  a 
desolate  and  dirty  hamlet  of  about  20  families, 
called  by  the  Arabs  El-Azariyeh,  or,  according 
to  Lindsay,  Lazarieh.  The  monks  and  Mo- 
hammedans point  out  various  objects  of  curios- 
ity, among  which  are  a  ruined  tower  which 
they  say  was  the  house  of  Mary  and  Martha, 
and  the  tomb  of  Lazarus,  a  deep  vault  in  the 


594 


BETHANY 


limestone  rock,  probably  a  natural  cave  re- 
modelled by  human  labor,  in  which  the  Fran- 
ciscans say  mass  twice  a  year.  A  church,  called 
the  castle  of  Lazarus,  was  built  over  this  grave 
by  St.  Helena  in  the  4th  century.  In  the  12th 
century  it  became  the  site  of  a  very  important 
monastic  establishment.  It  was  still  in  exist- 
ence in  1484,  but  scarcely  any  vestige  now  re- 
mains. 

BETHANY,  a  post  village  of  Brooke  co.,  W. 
Va.,  10  m.  N.  E.  of  Wheeling.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Bethany  college,  established  in  1841  by  the 
Eev.  Alexander  Campbell,  the  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Baptists  called  Disciples.  This  college 
in  1871  had  9  instructors  and  107  students. 

BETHEL,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  about  11 
m.  N.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  originally  called 
Luz,  and  was  named  Beth-El  (house  or  place 
of  God)  by  Jacob,  who  here  beheld  in  a  vision 
the  angels  ascending  and  descending.  The 
ruins  called  Beitin  occupy  its  ancient  site,  cov- 
ering an  area  of  three  or  four  acres.  On  the 
highest  point  are  the  remains  of  a  square  tower, 
and  toward  the  south  those  of  a  Greek  church 


Bethel. 

standing  on  foundations  of  more  ancient  date. 
Bethel  was  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  and 
on  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  Israel  was  as- 
signed to  Benjamin,  but  ultimately  occupied  by 
the  Ephraimites.  On  the  division  of  the  coun- 
try into  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel, 
Jeroboam  for  political  purposes  built  there  an 
altar  and  set  up  a  golden  calf,  to  prevent  the 
Israelites  from  resorting  to  the  sanctuary  at 
Jerusalem. 

BETHEL,  a  town  of  Oxford  co.,  Maine,  on 
the  Androscoggin  river  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
railroad,  70  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Portland ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,286.  It  is  rendered  attractive  to  tour- 
ists by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery. 
The  principal  points  of  interest  in  the  vicinity 
are  Screw  Auger  falls,  Rumford  falls.  Partridge 
falls,  White  Cap  mountain,  and  Glass  Face 
mountain ;  the  White  mountains  are  25  m.  dis- 
tant. The  town  contains  3  hotels,  5  churches, 
manufactories  of  woollens,  starch,  lumber,  car- 
riages, spools,  furniture,  blinds,  fee.,  and  an 
academy  with  150  pupils. 


BETHLEHEM 

BETHENCOURT,  Jean,  seigneur  de,  a  French 
navigator,  born  in  Normandy,  died  in  1425. 
He  was  chamberlain  of  Charles  VI.  of  France, 
and  having  been  ruined  in  the  Anglo-French 
wars,  he  organized  in  1402,  with  Gadifer  de  la 
Salle  and  others,  an  expedition  from  La  Ro- 
chelle  in  quest  of  adventures.     After  touching 
at  the  Spanish  ports,  and  taking  on  board  a 
Guanche  prince,  Augeron.  whom  he  found  at 
Cadiz,  he  sailed  for  the  Canaries.     He  visited 
the  islands  separately,  and  constructed  a  fort 
on  Lanzarote.     Finding  his  forces  insufficient 
to  subdue  the  natives,  he  returned  to  Spain  for 
reenforcements,  leaving  Gadifer  in  command, 
who   succeeded  in  subjugating  a  considerable 
number   of  the  natives  before  Bethencourt's 
return  and  resumption  of  the  supreme  power 
under  the  title  of  seigneur  or  lord  of  the  isl- 
ands.    He  converted  the  king  to  Christianity 
in   1404,   and  the   conversion  of  the  greater 
number  of  the  Guanches  followed.      Bethen- 
court  wished  to  extend  his  conquests  to  Africa, 
but    dissensions   arose   between    himself   and 
Gadifer,  which  were  decided  by  Henry  III.  of 
Castile  in  favor  of  B<§thencourt.     The  latter  in- 
troduced French  laborers  into  the  islands,  had 
a  bishop  named  by  the  pope  in  1405,  and,  after 
deputing  his  nephew  as  governor,  returned  to 
France  in  1406,  spending  the  rest  of  his  life 
on  his  estates.    His  achievements  are  related  in 
L'Histoire  de  la  premiere  descouverte  et  con- 
queste  dei  Canaries  (Paris,  1630).     His  nephew 
was  the  founder  of  a  Spanish  family  (Betan- 
curt  or  Betancur)  which  is  still  prominent. 

BETHESDA  (Heb.,  place  of  mercy  or  place  of 
effusion),  the  name  of  a  pool  or  fountain  which, 
according  to  Scripture,  was  situated  near  the 
sheep  gate  of  Jerusalem,  and  had  porches  or 
resting  places  around  it  for  the  sick.  (See 
JERUSALEM.) 

BETH-HOROK  (Heb.,  place  of  caverns),  Upper 
and  Lower,  two  villages  of  ancient  Palestine, 
situated  9  m.  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  The  former 
is  identical  with  the  modern  village  of  Beit  Ur 
el-Foka,  and  the  other  corresponds  to  Beit  Ur 
el-Tahta.  There  is  a  pass  between  the  two  vil- 
lages, down  which  Joshua  pursued  the  Amorite 
kings.  Beth-horon  was  included  within  the 
district  of  Ephraim.  Solomon  fortified  it, 
probably  on  account  of  its  commanding  posi- 
tion and  because  it  was  the  key  of  the  princi- 
pal pass  to  Jerusalem.  Traces  of  ancient  walls 
are  still  visible. 

BETHLEHEM  (Heb.,  place  of  bread;  Arab. 
Beit  Lahm,  house  of  flesh),  an  ancient  town 
of  Palestine,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
6  m.  S.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  called  Bethle- 
hem Ephratah  to  distinguish  it  from  a  Bethle- 
hem in  Zebulun,  and  is  famous  for  many  re- 
markable events,  as  the  birth  of  David  and 
his  inauguration  and  anointing  by  Samuel. 
But  that  which  renders  Bethlehem  eminent  in 
Christian  history  is  the  birth  of  Jesus.  A  large 
convent  divided  among  the  Greeks,  Catholics, 
and  Armenians,  and  which  contains  a  church, 
!  is  built  over  the  spot  where  that  event  is  sup- 


BETHLEHEM 


595 


Bethlehem. 


posed  to  have  occurred.  The  church  is  stated 
by  Eusebius  to  have  heen  erected  hy  Helena, 
the  mother  of  Constantino  the  Great,  about 
327.  It  consists  of  a  basilica  about  120  ft. 
long  by  110  broad,  divided  into  a  nave  and 
four  aisles  supported  by  ranges  of  Corinthian 


Church  of  the  Nativity,  Bethlehem. 

columns.  The  choir  is  portioned  off  by  a  low 
wall,  and  is  divided  into  two  chapels  belong- 
ing respectively  to  the  Greeks  and  Armenians. 
From  each  chapel  a  staircase  leads  down  to 
the  grotto  of  the  nativity.  At  the  E.  end  is 
a  small  semicircular  apse  with  a  marble  slab 


on  its  floor.  This  is  pointed  out  as  the  spot 
where  Christ  was  born.  Opposite  this  is  a 
marble  trough  said  to  occupy  the  place  of  the 
original  one.  In  the  catacombs  are  shown  the 
study  and  tomb  of  St.  Jerome,  and  the  tombs 
of  other  saints.  Another  curious  place  near 
Bethlehem  is  the  milk  grotto,  where  the  Virgin 
is  said  to  have  hid  herself  with  her  babe  from 
Herod.  Bits  of  the  rock  are  chipped  off  and 
sold  to  pilgrims,  who  believe  that  if  pounded 
and  eaten  it  has  the  miraculous  power  of  in- 
creasing a  woman's  milk.  About  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  from  the  town  the  well  of  David  is  pointed 
out,  from  which  David's  three  mighty  men 
drew  water  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  16).  The  present 
population  of  Bethlehem  is  about  3,000,  most 
of  whom  are  Greek  and  Eoman  Catholic 
Christians,  and  the  rest  Moslems.  There  is 
a  considerable  admixture  of  European  blood  in 
the  natives,  probably  from  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  and  it  can  be  detected  in  their  lighter 
complexion  and  different  type  from  the  other 
natives.  They  sell  to  pilgrims  and  travellers 
various  relics,  some  of  which  are  curiously 
carved.  This  town  was  one  of  the  first  pos- 
sessions wrested  from  the  Moslems  by  the  cru- 
saders. It  was  erected  into  a  see,  but  in  1244 
was  overrun  by  the  Tartars.  The  present 
town  is  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  or  long  ridge,  and 
overlooks  the  opposite  valley.  There  never 
has  been  any  dispute  that  it  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  town. 

BETHLEHEM,  a  borough  of  Northampton 
county,  Penn.,  on  the  Lehigh  river,  here  crossed 
by  a  bridge,  51  m.  N.  of  Philadelphia';  pop.  in 
1870, 4,512.  It  was  settled  by  the  Moravians  in 
1741,  and  contains  a  Gothic  Moravian  church 
built  of  stone,  a  female  seminary,  and  several 
schools  and  benevolent  institutions.  It  is  much 


696 


BETHLEIIEMITES 


BETHSAIDA 


resorted  to  in  summer.  It  is  noted  for  its  iron 
and  zinc  manufactories.  The  Lehigh  Valley 
and  Lehigh  and  Susquehanna  railroads  connect 
at  this  point  with  the  North  Pennsylvania 
road.  The  Lehigh  university  (Episcopal)  was 
established  here  in  1866,  through  the  liberal- 
ity of  Asa  Packer,  who  gave  56  acres  of  land 
for  its  site,  and  endowed  it  with  the  sum 
of  $500,000.  In  1871  it  had  15  instructors, 
48  students  in  the  preparatory  and  68  in  the 
collegiate  department,  and  a  library  of  2,000 
volumes. 

BETIILEHEMITES.  I.  An  ancient  monastic 
order  as  to  which  there  is  great  uncertainty,  no 
monastery  being  known  except  that  at  Cam- 
bridge, England,  said  by  Matthew  Paris  to 
have  been  founded  in  1257.  II.  An  order  of 
religious  hospitallers  founded  about  1655  in 
Guatemala  by  Fray  Pedro  de  Betancurt  of  St. 
Joseph,  a  native  of  Teneriffe.  He  was  a  Fran- 
ciscan tertiary,  and  his  associates  assumed 
that  habit,  but  soon  adopted  constitutions  of 
their  own,  which  were  approved  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent XI.  in  1687.  They  devoted  themselves 
to  the  education  of  the  poor  and  the  care  of 
the  sick.  The  order  spread  to  Mexico  and 
Peru,  and  also,  it  is  said,  to  the  Canary  islands, 
being  governed  by  a  general  at  Guatemala.  A 
year  after  Fray  Pedro's  death  in  1667,  the 
Bethlehemite  nuns  were  founded  by  Maria 
Anna  del  Galdo,  also  a  Franciscan  tertiary,  and 
devoted  themselves  to  the  same  objects  among 
their  own  sex. 

BETHLEN,  tabor,  prince  of  Transylvania,  born 
in  1580,  of  an  eminent  Magyar  Protestant  fam- 
ily, died  Nov.  15, 1629.  In  1613,  after  the  death 
of  the  two  Bathoris,  he  succeeded,  with  the  aid 
of  Turkey,  in  being  elected  prince  of  Transyl- 
vania. Joining  the  Bohemians  in  1619  in  the 
war  against  Austria,  he  took  Presburg,  threat- 
ened Vienna,  and  the  Magyar  nobles  elected  him 
king  of  Hungary  (Aug.  25, 1 620).  A  t  the  begin- 
ning of  1622,  however,  he  concluded  at  Nikols- 
bnrg  a  peace  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II., 
who  ceded  to  him  seven  Hungarian  counties 
and  two  Silesian  principalities  on  condition 
of  his  abandoning  the  Hungarian  crown.  This 
treaty  being  violated  by  the  imperialists,  he  re- 
newed hostilities  in  1623,  and  at  the  head  of 
a  powerful  force  invaded  Moravia ;  but,  unable 
to  join  the  Protestant  army  under  Christian 
of  Brunswick,  he  concluded  an  armistice,  then 
a  treaty  of  peace,  which  he  again  broke  in  1626 
on  his  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Branden- 
burg. Shortly  afterward  he  made  a  third  and 
permanent  alliance  with  Ferdinand  II.,  hence- 
forward devoting  himself  to  Transylvanian 
interests,  and  founded  an  academy  at  Weissen- 
hurg  (now  Karlsburg),  which  still  exists  at 
Enyed,  promoting  learning  by  appointing  Ger- 
man professors.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  pillars  of  Protestantism. 

BETHPUAGE  (Heb.,  place  of  unripe  figs),  a 
place  of  Scriptural  interest  which  has  passed 
away,  leaving  no  trace  behind.  It  must  have 
been  situated  somewhere  on  the  E.  slope  of 


the  range  of  hills  extending  N.  and  S.  between 
Jerusalem  and  Bethany.  By  Eusebius  and  Je- 
rome, and  also  by  Origen,  the  place  was  known, 
though  its  position  is  not  indicated  ;  they  de- 
scribe it  as  a  village  of  priests,  possibly  deriving 
the  name  from  Beth-phake,  signifying  in  Syriac 
the  house  of  the  jaw,  as  that  part  in  the  sacri- 
fices was  the  portion  of  the  priests.  Schwarz 
places  Bethphage  on  the  S.  shoulder  of  the 
mount  of  Offence  above  Siloam  ;  and  Dr.  Bar- 
clay ("City  of  the  Great  King")  identifies  it 
with  traces  of  foundations  and  cisterns  in  that 
vicinity,  that  is,  S.  W.  of  Bethany. 

BETHSAIDA  (Heb.,  fishing  place),  the  name 
of  two  places,  as  is  now  generally  agreed,  of 
ancient  Palestine.  One  of  them  is  believed  to 
have  been  situated  on  the  N.  W.  shore  of  the 
lake  of  Tiberias.  Jerome  and  Eusebius  men- 
tion Capernaum,  Chorazin,  Tiberias,  and  Betli- 
saida  as  lying  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tiberias ; 
and  Epiphanius  says  of  Bethsaida  and  Caper- 


Bethsaida. 

naum  that  they  were  not  far  apart.  But  the 
exact  position  of  this  Bethsaida  has  never 
been  indicated,  and  even  the  name  is  un- 
known to  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  the 
country,  except  such  as  have  learned  it  from 
the  New  Testament.  Some  writers  place  it 
at  Khan  Minyeh,  others,  with  Robinson,  at  Ain 
et-Tabighah ;  and  De  Saulcy  thinks  it  was  lo- 
cated at  Tell  Hum.  Here  was  the  birthplace 
of  three  of  Christ's  disciples  and  a  frequent  re- 
sort of  Christ  himself.  The  other  place  ap- 
pears to  have  been  Bethsaida  of  Gaulonitis, 
just  above  the  embouchure  of  the  Jordan  into 
the  lake  of  Tiberias,  on  the  E.  side.  It  was 
originally  a  village  called  Bethsaida,  but  was 
rebuilt  and  enlarged  by  Philip  the  tetrarch  and 
named  Julias  in  honor  of  Julia,  daughter  of 
Augustus.  This  is  identified  with  the  place 
where  Christ  miraculously  fed  the  5,000,  and 
where  the  blind  man  was  restored  to  sight, 
Here  also  Philip  the  tetrarch  died  and  was 
buried. 


BETHUNE 


BETROTHMENT 


597 


BETHP5JE,  a  fortified  town  of  Artois,  France, 
in  the  department  of  Pas-de-Oalais,  on  the 
Law  and  Aire  canals,  built  on  a  rock  above 
the  river  Brette,  16  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Arras ;  pop. 
in  1866,  8,178.  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
communal  college,  and  several  hospitals.  The 
triangular  fortress  and  citadel  are  among  Vau- 
ban's  finest  works.  Linen,  cloth,  beet-root  su- 
gar, and  other  articles,  are  manufactured  here, 
and  the  trade  is  important.  The  town  was 
ruled  by  local  counts  from  the  llth  to  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  The  title  of  count  of 
Bethune  became  extinct  in  1807.  Gaston 
d'Orleans  took  Bethune  from  the  Spaniards  in 
1645;  it  was  retaken  by  Prince  Eugene  in 
1710,  and  definitively  annexed  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  The  first  artesian 
wells  are  said  to  have  been  bored  here. 

BETHUNE,  George  WashiDgton,  D.  D.,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman  and  author,  born  in  New  York 
in  March,  1805,  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  April 
27,  1862.  His  father,  Divie  Bethune,  a  native 
of  Scotland,  emigrated  to  America,  settled  in 
New  York  as  a  merchant,  and  became  eminent 
as  a  man  of  business  and  philanthropist.  His 
mother,  Joanna,  was  the  daughter  of  Isabella 
Graham.  (See  GRAHAM.)  George  Bethune  was 
educated  at  Dickinson  college  and  Princeton 
theological  seminary,  and  for  a  short  time  acted 
as  seaman's  chaplain  in  Savannah,  Ga.  In 
1828  he  became  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
church  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  removed  in  1830 
to  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1834  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  remained  as  pastor  of  a  church  till 
1849,  when  he  went  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  to 
become  pastor  of  the  newly  organized  "Re- 
formed Dutch  Church  on  the  Heights."  His 
health  having  become  impaired,  he  resigned 
this  charge  in  1859  and  went  to  Italy,  where 
he  remained  about  a  year.  For  a  few  months 
after  his  return  he  was  associate  pastor  of  a 
church  in  New  York.  In  1861  he  again  went 
to  Italy,  taking  up  his  residence  in  Florence, 
where  he  died  suddenly  from  an  attack  of 
apoplexy.  Dr.  Bethune  was  one  of  the  finest 
scholars  and  most  brilliant  orators  among  the 
American  clergy.  He  edited,  with  biographi- 
cal and  critical  notices,  a  volume  of  "British 
Female  Poets,"  and  prepared  a  unique  edition 
of  Izaak  Walton's  "Complete  Angler,"  sup- 
plying much  matter  relating  to  angling  in  Ame- 
rica, a  work  for  which  his  love  of  nature  and 
fondness  for  piscatorial  sports  admirably  quali- 
fied him.  Many  of  his  addresses  and  sermons 
have  been  separately  printed.  His  last  public 
appearance  in  America  was  at  a  Union  mass 
meeting  in  New  York,  April  20, 1861,  where  he 
delivered  a  speech  which  was  one  of  his  most 
eloquent  efforts.  He  wrote  "Lays  of  Love 
and  Faith,"  a  volume  of  poems  of  considerable 
merit;  "Early  Lost  and  Early  Saved;  "  "The 
History  of  a  Penitent ;  "  "  Memoirs  of  Joanna 
Bethune,"  his  mother;  and  "Lectures  on  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,"  an  elaborate  work  in 
dogmatic  theology,  originally  prepared  as  a  se- 
ries of  lectures  for  his  own  congregation.  The 


last  two  works  were  published  after  his  death. 
A  memoir  of  his  life,  by  A.  R.  Van  Nest,  D.  D., 
was  published  in  1867. 

BETL1S,  or  BItlis,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  Kurdistan,  about  10  m.  S.  W.  of  Lake  Van 
and  60  m.  W.  of  the  city  of  Van ;  pop.  about 
10,000,  of  whom  one  third  are  Armenians  and 
Kurd's.  It  is.  situated  in  a  wide  ravine,  has 
several  mosques  and  convents,  caravansaries, 
and  an  ancient  castle  on  a  high  rock,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  local  khans.  Cotton  cloths, 
celebrated  for  their  bright  red  dye,  and  various 
other  articles,  are  manufactured  here.  Excel- 
lent tobacco  is  exported  to  Erzerum  and  Con- 
stantinople. The  adjoining  country  is  remark- 
able for  its  fertility,  and  abounds  in  game. 

BETROTHMENT,  a  mutual  promise  of  mar- 
riage. Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  father 
made  a  selection  for  his  daughter.  The  young 
couple  kissed  each  other  for  the  first  time  in 
the  presence  of  their  friends,  and  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  bridegroom  to  bring  flowers 
daily  until  the  wedding  day  to  the  house  of  his 
bride.  In  the  laws  of  Moses  there  are  some  pro- 
visions respecting  the  state  of  the  virgin  who 
is  betrothed,  but  nothing  particularly  refer- 
ring to  the  act  of  betrothment.  Selden's  Uxor 
Hebraica  gives  the  schedule  of  later  Hebrew 
contracts  of  betrothment,  which  are  still  in 
use  among  the  orthodox  Jews.  The  spowalia 
of  the  Romans  were  invested  with  great  legal 
importance.  Children  could  be  betrothed  in 
their  seventh  year,  and  a  public  record  was 
kept  of  the  engagement,  certified  by  the  seals 
of  witnesses,  the  bridegroom  giving  as  a  pledge 
to  the  bride  an  iron  ring  {annulus  pronubus), 
after  which  she  proceeded  to  his  house,  where 
sandals,  a  spindle,  and  a  distaff  were  presented 
to  her,  while  a  hymn  was  sung  in  honor  of 
Thalassius.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Roman  and 
canon  statutes  constituted  the  law  on  the  sub- 
ject. While  the  Greek  church  considered  be- 
trothments  as  binding  as  weddings,  the  church 
of  Rome  viewed  them  simply  as  promises  of 
marriage.  But  as  much  confusion  ensued,  the 
council  of  Trent  decreed  that  no  betrothment 
was  valid  without  the  presence  of  a  priest  and 
of  two  or  three  witnesses.  This  decree  was 
adopted  in  France  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1639,  and 
became  known  as  the  ordonnance  de  Bloii. 
Until  the  revolution  of  1789,  when  betroth- 
ments  ceased  to  have  legal  importance,  they 
were  generally  celebrated  in  France  by  pro- 
nouncing the  nuptial  blessings  in  front  of  the 
church,  by  reading  the  marriage  contract,  and 
by  exchanging  presents,  while  the  French  bride- 
groom, as  was  also  the  case  with  the  Roman 
bridegroom,  had  to  pay  a  certain  amount  of 
earnest  money  to  ratify  the  bargain.  In  Eng- 
land, formal  engagements  of  this  kind  were 
usual  down  to  the  time  of  the  reformation.  In 
Shakespeare  and  other  writers  many  illustra- 
tions occur,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 
betrothments  were  celebrated  by  the  inter- 
change of  rings,  the  kiss,  the  joining  of  hands, 
and  the  attestation  of  witnesses.  The  ecclesias- 


598 


BETTERTON 


BEUKELS 


tical  law  which  punished  a  violation  of  the 
pledge  by  excommunication  was  abolished  un- 
der George  II.  Betrothment  in  England  was  a 
legal  bar  to  marriage  with  another.  Previous  to 
Anne  Boleyn's  execution  Henry  VIII.  obtained 
a  decree  of  divorce  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  on 
the  ground  of  her  alleged  former  betrothment 
with  Northumberland.  The  only  legal  remedy 
against  the  violation  of  betrothment  at  the 
present  time  is  an  action  for  breach  of  prom- 
ise. In  Scotland,  however,  betrothment  when 
taking  place  with  the  free,  deliberate,  and  clear 
"present  consent"  of  both  parties,  may  be 
enforced  against  the  recusant  party,  and  con- 
stitutes marriage  itself.  (See  "Treatise  on 
the  New  Divorce  Jurisdiction,"  by  Macqueen, 
1858,  and  "Exposition  of  the  Laws  of  Marriage 
and  Divorce,"  by  Ernst  Browning,  1872.)  In 
Germany  betrothment  is  still  more  generally 
celebrated  than  in  most  other  countries,  and 
must  be  legalized  by  two  witnesses.  The 
pledges  usually  consist  in  the  interchange  of 
rings.  The  contract  may  be  dissolved  by  mu- 
tual consent ;  but  a  violation  of  it,  once  attended 
with  severe  penalties,  is  still  punished.  Chil- 
dren borne  by  the  bride  to  the  bridegroom  are 
regarded  as  if  born  in  wedlock,  even  if  no  mar- 
riage succeeds  the  betrothment.  In  the  United 
States  betrothment  has  only  the  moral  force 
of  a  mutual  pledge,  and  in  case  of  a  breach  of 
promise  the  law  provides  for  redress. — Some 
peculiarities  of  betrothment  among  semi-civil- 
ized and  savage  races  may  be  mentioned.  The 
Arab  sends  a  relative  to  negotiate  about  his 
intended  bride,  and  the  price  at  which  she  is 
to  be  had.  The  bridegroom  of  Kamtchatka 
has  to  serve  in  the  house  of  his  prospective 
father-in-law  before  an  engagement  is  allowed 
to  take  place.  With  the  Letts  and  Esthonians 
no  engagement  is  considered  valid  until  the 
parent  and  relatives  of  the  bride  have  tasted 
the  brandy  which  the  bridegroom  presents. 
Among  the  Hottentots,  the  would-be  bride- 
groom is  not  allowed  to  propose  without  be- 
ing accompanied  by  his  father.  Father  and 
son  walk  arm  in  arm,  with  pipes  in  their 
mouths,  to  the  house  of  the  bride,  where  the 
engagement  takes  place.  Among  some  of  the 
indigenous  tribes  of  America  it  was  customary 
to  keep  the  betrothed  woman  in  durance  and 
on  short  allowance  for  40  days,  as  the  super- 
stition prevailed  that  she  would  exert  an  oc- 
cult influence  upon  anything  she  touched  or 
anybody  with  whom  she  came  in  contact. 

BETTER/TON,  Thomas,  an  English  actor,  born 
in  1635,  died  in  April,  1710.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  cook  in  the  service  of  Charles  I.,  and  was 
apprenticed  to  a  bookseller  in  London,  who 
obtained  a  license  for  a  company  of  players 
in  1659,  with  whom  Betterton  commenced  his 
career.  He  was  engaged  by  Davenant  in 
1662,  and  became  an  established  favorite.  His 
personal  appearance  was  clumsy  and  his  man- 
ner unprepossessing,  but  he  had  a  singular 
faculty  of  thoroughly  identifying  himself  with 
his  part.  His  last  appearance,  April  13,  1710, 


was  the  proximate  cause  of  his  death,  as  he 
performed  when  in  ill  health,  in  order  to  keep 
his  engagement  with  the  public.  His  widow, 
an  eminent  actress,  whose  first  husband  was 
Mr.  Sanderson,  soon  afterward  died  of  grief. 

BETTIiVELLI,  Saverio,  an  Italian  author,  born 
in  Mantua,  July  18,  1718,  died  there,  Dec.  13, 
1808.  He  became  a  member  of  the  society  of 
Jesus  in  1736.  From  1739  to  1744  he  taught 
literature  at  Brescia,  and  was  afterward  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  successively  at  Venice  and 
Parma.  He  was  noted  for  his  eloquence  as  a 
preacher  and  his  generous  social  nature.  When 
the  society  of  Jesus  was  abolished,  he  relin- 
quished the  professorship  which  he  then  held 
at  Modena,  and  returned  to  Mantua.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are:  DeW  entmiasmo  nelle  belle 
arti  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1769),  and  Risorgimento 
negli  studj,  &c.  (2  vols.,  Bassano,  1775).  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
Venice  in  1801,  in  24  vols.  His  Lettere  died 
di  Virgilio  agli  Areadi  were  severely  criti- 
cised on  account  of  their  depreciation  of  Dante 
and  other  great  writers.  His  Versi  sciolti  are 
his  best  poems. 

BETTY,  William  Henry  West,  an  English  actor, 
popularly  known  as  "the  young  Roscins," 
born  at  Shrewsbury,  Sept.  13,  1791.  In  in- 
fancy he  accompanied  his  father,  who  was  a 
farmer,  to  Ireland.  He  made  a  successful  de- 
but at  the  Belfast  theatre  as  Osman  when  he 
was  about  12  years  old,  performed  at  Cork 
with  even  greater  effect,  and  was  enthusiasti- 
cally received  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh.  In 
1804  he  was  engaged  at  Coven  t  Garden  for 
12  nights,  at  50  guineas  a  night  and  a  cle.-ir 
benefit,  and  at  Drury  Lane,  on  the  intervening 
nights,  on  the  same  terms,  though  John  Kem- 
ble's  weekly  salary  was  under  36  guineas,  and 
Lewis's  only  £20.  He  drew  immense  houses 
in  Hamlet  and  other  characters ;  and  the  ex- 
citement was  so  great  that  the  university  of 
Cambridge  made  Quid  noster  Rottcmt  eget  ?  the 
subject  of  Sir  William  Brown's  prize  medal. 
In  28  nights,  at  Drury  Lane,  he  drew  £17,210, 
an  average  of  nearly  £615  a  night,  and  at  least 
as  much  more  at  Covent  Garden.  After  he 
had  secured  a  handsome  income  he  passed 
three  years  at  Shrewsbury  school.  Resuming 
his  profession  in  1812,  he  made  an  utter  fail- 
ure. Lord  Byron  had  predicted  this  on  ac- 
count of  his  corpulence,  flat  features,  ungrace- 
ful action,  and  his  "muffin  face."  He  then 
retired  from  the  stage. — HENET  BETTY,  his  eld- 
est son,  born  Sept.  29, 1819,  appeared,  after  sev- 
eral years'  practice  in  the  provinces,  at  Covent 
Garden  in  December,  1844,  as  Hamlet. 

BETWAH,  a  river  of  Hindostan,  which  rises 
in  the  Vindhya  mountains,  near  Bhopaul,  and 
flows  nearly  340  m.  mostly  in  a  N.  E.  direction, 
finally  joining  the  Jumna  about  30  m.  E.  S.  E. 
of  Calpee.  In  a  portion  of  its  course  are  beds 
of  iron  ore.  It  is  not  navigable. 

BEUKELS,  or  Beukelszoon,  Wlllcm.  a  Dutch  fish- 
erman, born  at  Biervliet  in  1397,  died  there  in 
1449.  He  is  celebrated  as  being  the  first  who 


BEULE 


BEUST 


599 


sncceeded  in  preserving  herrings,  an  art  which 
has  proved  of  such  great  importance  to  his 
country  that  Charles  V.  had  a  statue  erected 
to  his  memory.  The  etymology  of  the  word 
pickle  has  been  traced  to  his  name. 

BEULE,  Charles  Ernest,  a  French  archaeolo- 
gist, born  in  Saumnr,  June  29,  1826.  He  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Moulins,  and  in  1849 
became  connected  with  the  French  school  at 
Athens.  His  excavations  and  discoveries  there 
are  described  in  VAcropole  d'Athines  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1854;  2d  ed.,  1863).  This  work  and 
his  JStude  sur  le  Peloponnese  (1855)  were  pub- 
lished by  order  of  the  minister  of  public  in- 
struction, and  acquired  for  him  a  membership 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  and  the  archseolo- 
gical  chair  in  the  imperial  library.  In  1860  he 
became  a  member  of  the  academy  of  inscrip- 
tions and  belles-lettres,  and  since  1862  he  has 
been  perpetual  secretary  of  the  academy  of 
fine  arts,  in  which  capacity  he  upheld  the  an- 
cient prerogative  of  that  body  against  the  de- 
cree of  Nov.  13,  1863,  which  remodelled  the 
school  of  fine  arts  upon  a  more  modern  basis,  j 
vesting  part  of  the  authority  in  a  special 
committee.  Ingres,  Flandrin,  and  other  emi-  ! 
nent  artists  sided  with  the  academy.  Besides  | 
the  works  already  mentioned,  and  numerous 
contributions  to  scientific,  artistic,  and  literary 
periodicals,  he  has  published  Fouille»  de  Car- 
thage (1860),  giving  an  account  of  his  excava- 
tions in  that  locality ;  Histoire  de  la  sculpture 
avant  Phidias  (1864) ;  Causeries  sur  Part,  and 
Auguste,  safamille  etses  amis  (1867);  Hwtoire 
de  Vart  grec  avant  Pericles,  and  Tibere  et 
^heritage  d' Auguste  (1868) ;  and  the  play  Phi- 
dias, drame  antique. 

BEURNONVILLE,  Pierre  de  Kncl.  marquis  de,  a 
French  soldier,  born  at  Ohampignolle,  May  10, 
1752,  died  April  23,  1821.  After  serving  for 
some  tune  in  India,  he  became  in  1792  aide- 
de-camp  to  Marshal  Luckner,  and  was  soon 
after  named  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
Moselle,  and  in  1793  minister  of  war.  Sent  by 
the  convention  to  arrest  Dnmouriez,  he  was 
himself  arrested  by  that  general,  delivered  over 
to  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  kept  in  Austrian 
fortresses  till  1795.  He  afterward  became  suc- 
cessively general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north,  inspector  general  of  infantry,  ambassa- 
dor to  Berlin  in  1800  and  to  Madrid  in  1802, 
senator  in  1805,  and  count  in  1809.  Having 
voted  for  the  deposition  of  Napoleon  in  1814, 
he  was  made  by  Louis  XVIII.  minister  of  state 
and  peer  of  France,  marshal  in  1816,  and  mar- 
quis in  1817.  Dying  childless,  he  bequeathed 
his  dignities  to  his  nephew,  ETIENNE  MAETIN, 
who  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1809-'13,  and 
in  1823  was  aide-de-camp  of  the  duke  of  An- 
gouleme  in  the  Spanish  war,  and  retired  from 
service  in  1832. 

BEUST,  Friedrleh  Ferdinand  von,  count,  a  Ger- 
man statesman,  born  in  Dresden,  Jan  13,  1809. 
He  studied  political  science  at  Gottingen  under 
Heeren,  Sartorius,  and  Eichhorn,  and  in  1831 
and  the  following  years  was  employed  in  the 


Saxon  ministry  of  foreign  affairs.  Between 
1836  and  1849  he  was  secretary  of  legation  in 
Berlin  and  Paris,  charge  d'affaires  in  Munich, 
minister  resident  in  London,  and  ambassador 
in  Berlin.  He  became  Saxon  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs  Feb.  24,  1849.  He  opposed  the 
proclamation  in  Saxony  of  the  German  consti- 
tution of  March  28,  promulgated  by  the  Frank- 
fort parliament,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  an  in- 
surrection in  Dresden  invoked  the  assistance 
of  Prussia,  and  accompanied  the  king  in  his 
flight  from  the  capital.  On  May  14,  after  the 
quelling  of  the  outbreak,  he  was  also  made  min- 
ister of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  agreed  with 
Prussia  to  join  the  so-called  Dreikonigsbund,  or 
union  of  the  three  kings  of  North  Germany,  but 
withdrew  from  this  engagement,  subsequently 
favored  an  alliance  with  Austria,  and  adopted 
a  policy  more  and  more  reactionary.  In  1853 
he  exchanged  the  portfolio  of  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs for  that  of  the  interior  department,  re- 
taining at  the  same  time  the  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs ;  and  soon  afterward  he  became  the  offi- 
cial chief  of  the  cabinet,  after  having  for  a  long 
time  virtually  ruled  its  councils.  During  the 
Crimean  war  he  declined  to  join  Austria,  Prus- 
sia, and  the  German  diet  in  a  demonstration 
against  Russia,  and  prevailed  upon  the  minor 
German  states  to  associate  themselves  with 
Saxony  at  the  conference  of  Bamberg  with  a 
view  to  forming  an  independent  union.  At 
that  period  and  for  some  time  afterward  he 
cherished  the  idea  of  reorganizing  Germany  on 
the  basis  of  three  groups  (die  Trias),  formed 
by  Austria,  Prussia,  and  all  the  other  German 
states  under  the  lead  of  the  German  diet.  He 
was  confirmed  in  this  project  in  1865  when  the 
diet  came  forward  for  the  first  time  as  a  distinct 
sovereign  power  by  appointing  him  its  ambas- 
sador at  the  Schleswig-Holstein  conference  in 
London,  where  he  opposed  all  tampering  with 
the  duchies  against  the  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Henceforward  identified  with  Austria, 
whose  counsels  swayed  the  German  diet,  he 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  instigators 
of  the  war  with  Prussia.  He  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  from  the  Saxon  ministry  after  the 
battle  of  Sadowa,  and  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  king  and  crown  prince  of  Saxony  was 
appointed  by  Francis  Joseph  successor  of 
Count  Mensdorff  as  Austrian  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  Oct.  30,  1866.  Shortly  afterward 
he  spent  some  time  in  Pesth,  where  he  concert- 
ed with  the  Hungarian  statesmen  the  plan  of 
a  dualistic  Austro-Hungarian  empire ;  and  in 
June,  1867,  on  the  coronation  of  Francis  Joseph 
as  king  of  Hungary,  he  was  rewarded  with 
the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  empire,  in  1868 
with  the  title  of  count,  and  in  1870  with  the 
chancellorship  of  the  order  of  Maria  Theresa, 
which  had  been  vacant  since  the  death  of 
Metternich.  He  was  thus,  though  a  Protes- 
tant, placed  at  the  helm  of  affairs  in  the  empire 
of  the  Hapsburgs.  The  concordat  with  Rome 
was  abrogated  and  other  important  liberal  re- 
forms were  carried  through  under  Beust's 


600 


BEUTIIEN 


BEVERLY 


administration;  and  it  was  chiefly  due  to  his 
influence  that  Austria  maintained  peace  with 
foreign  powers,  and  became  apparently  recon- 
ciled with  Prussia  at  the  end  of  the  Franco- 
German  war.  His  persevering  efforts  to  effect 
a  harmonious  union  between  the  non-German 
and  German  elements  of  the  empire,  as  well  as 
his  opposition  to  the  ultramontane  party  and 
the  jealousies  excited  by  his  all-controlling 
influence,  involved  him  in  many  difficulties, 
which  terminated  with  his  resignation  in  No- 
vember, 1871.  (See  AUSTRIA,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  150- 
153.)  The  emperor  in  a  complimentary  letter 
thanked  him  warmly  for  his  past  services,  and 
appointed  him  a  member  for  life  of  the  upper 
chamber  of  the  imperial  diet.  In  December, 
1871,  he  was  appointed  Austro-Hungarian  am- 
bassador in  London. — See  Ebeling,  Friedrich 
Ferdinand,  Graf  von  Beust,  sein  Leben  und 
vornehmlich  sein  staatemdnnisches  WirJeen  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1870). 

BEUTHEJV,  the  name  of  two  towns  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Silesia.  I.  Benthen  in  Upper 
Silesia,  or  Oberbeotben,  in  the  district  of  Oppeln, 
is  situated  on  the  Klodnitz,  50  m.  S.  E.  of 
Oppeln;  pop.  in  1871,  17,946,  having  increased 
during  the  last  ten  years  with  great  rapidity. 
The  town  has  manufactures  of  cloth  and  linen, 
and  near  it  are  iron  and  lead  mines.  It  is  the 
chief  place  of  the  possessions  of  Count  Henckel 
of  Donnersmark.  II.  Bentben  on  the  Oder,  or 
Niederbenthen,  in  the  district  of  Liegnitz,  situ- 
ated on  the  Oder,  66  m.  N.  W.  of  Breslan ;  pop. 
in  1871,  3,826.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  former 
principality  of  Oarolath-Beuthen. 

BEVELAM*,  North  and  South,  two  islands  of 
Holland,  in  the  province  of  Zealand,  formed  by 
branches  of  the  Scheldt ;  united  area,  154  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  28,300.  They  lie  E.  of  the  island  of 
Walcheren.  South  Beveland,  the  larger  and 
more  fertile,  is  also  called  by  the  Dutch  Land 
van  Ter-Goes.  It  has  an  active  grain  trade,  and 
contains  Goes,  the  capital,  with  a  new  harbor, 
and  several  forts  and  villages. 

BEVEREN,  a  borough  of  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  East  Flanders,  6  m.  W.  of  Ant- 
werp; pop.  in  1866,  7,151.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  lace,  linen,  cotton,  and  of  wooden 
shoes. 

BEVERIDGE,  William,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Barrow,  Leicestershire,  in  1638,  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  5,  1708.  At  the  age  of  20  he  pub- 
lished an  able  Latin  treatise  on  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Samaritan  lan- 
guages. In  1681  he  became  archdeacon  of  Col- 
chester; in  1684,  prebendary  of  Canterbury; 
and  at  the  revolution  of  1688,  chaplain  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary.  He  declined  the  bishopric  of 
Bath  and  Wells  on  the  deprivation  of  Bishop 
Ken  for  non-juring,  but  in  1704  he  accepted 
the  see  of  St.  Asaph.  He  left  the  greatest  part 
of  his  estate  for  religious  purposes,  and  his 
whole  life,  which  he  ended  in  the  cloisters  of 
Westminster  abbey,  was  devoted  to  piety  and 
charity.  His  works  include  "  Treatise  on  Chro- 
nology," "Canons  of  the  Greek  Church  to  the 


Eighth  Century,"  and  "  Private  Thoughts  upon 
a  Christian  Life."  The  last  named,  written  at 
the  age  of  23,  but  not  published  until  after  his 
death,  has  been  very  popular.  The  first  col- 
lective edition  of  his  English  works  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Hartwell  Home, 
with  a  life  and  critical  examination,  in  1824,  in 
9  vols.  8vo.  A  more  complete  edition  is  that 
of  Oxford  in  12  vols.  8vo,  1844-'8. 

BEVERLEY,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  capital  of  the  E.  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  28  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  York,  and  8  m.  N. 
N.  W.  of  Hull ;  pop.  of  the  municipal  borough 
in  1871, 10,218.  The  modern  part  of  the  town 
is  well  built.  The  most  ancient  and  finest  pub- 
lic building  is  the  minster  or  collegiate  church, 
founded  by  John  of  Beverley,  with  the  famous 
Percy  shrine  within  the  choir.  St.  Mary's 
church  is  a  large  and  handsome  Gothic  building. 
The  ancient  grammar  school,  with  a  library,  is 
one  of  the  many  educational  institutions.  A 
new  cattle  market  was  built  in  1864.  The  chief 
trade  is  in  agricultural  products,  and  also  in 
coal,  timber,  and  cattle.  There  are  many  tan- 
neries and  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  of  firearms,  and  the  iron  founderies 
are  among  the  most  extensive  in  England. 
Beverley  sent  two  members  to  parliament  till 
1870,  when  it  was  disfranchised.  The  origin 
of  the  town  is  traced  to  the  8th  century.  Ath- 
elstan  granted  a  charter  to  it  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury. It  was  a  manufacturing  town  at  an 
early  period,  but  the  superior  advantages  of 
Hull  interfered  with  its  progress.  Sir  John 
Hotham,  governor  of  Hull  under  Charles  I., 
who  had  been  member  of  parliament  for  Bev- 
erley, was  arrested  here  by  his  nephew  in  1643, 
on  account  of  his  treasonable  correspondence 
with  the  royalists,  and  was  executed  with  his 
son  in  London. 

BEVERLEY,  John  of,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Harpham,  Northumberland,  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury, died  at  Beverley  in  May,  721.  He  was 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Hilda,  and  his 
reputation  for  learning  and  piety  induced  Al- 
fred, king  of  Northumberland,  to  obtain  his 
appointment  in  685  as  bishop  of  Hexham,  and 
in  687  as  archbishop  of  York.  He  was  the  tutor 
of  Bede.  In  717  he  retired  to  Beverley,  where 
he  had  previously  founded  a  college  for  secular 
priests.  He  is  said  to  have  written  homilies  on 
the  Gospels  and  a  commentary  on  St.  Luke, 
but  they  are  not  extant.  Bede  and  others 
ascribe  miracles  to  him,  and  he  was  canonized 
three  centuries  after  his  death.  William  the 
Conqueror  was  said  to  have  refrained  from 
molesting  his  native  place,  out  of  respect  for 
him. 

BEVERLY,  a  post  town  of  Essex  co.,  Mass.,  on 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  opposite  Salem,  with  which 
it  is  united  by  a  bridge,  and  16  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Boston,  on  the  Eastern  railroad;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,507.  It  contains  a  bank,  a  weekly  newspa- 
per, an  insurance  office,  an  academy,  and  man- 
ufactures boots  and  shoes,  &c.  Two  vessels, 
with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  220,  are  employ- 


BEWICK 


BEYROUT 


601 


ed  in  the  whale  fishery ;  24,  of  2,500  tons,  in 
the  cod  and  mackerel  fishery;  and  5,  of  1,000 
tons,  in  the  coastwise  trade. 

BEWICK,  Thomas,  reviver  of  wood  engraving 
in  England,  born  at  Oherryburn,  Northumber- 
land, Aug.  12,  1753,  died  at  Gateshead,  Nov. 
8,  1828.  lie  was  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  14 
to  Mr.  Ralph  Beilby,  engraver,  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne.  Having  executed  in  wood  the  dia- 
grams for  Hutton's  "Treatise  on  Mensuration  " 
(published  in  1770)  and  other  scientific  works, 
he  soon  after  attempted  something  better,  and 
at  the  age  of  22  obtained  from  the  society  of 
arts  a  premium  for  his  wood  engraving  of  the 
"  Old  Hound,"  one  of  a  series  of  illustrations 
to  Gay's  fables.  Some  years  later  he  illus- 
trated a  volume  of  select  fables  by  Mr.  Saint. 
In  1790  the  first  edition  of  the  "History  of 
Quadrupeds,"  illustrated,  was  published  by  Mr. 
Beilby,  who  had  received  him  into  partner- 
ship (8th  ed.,  1824).  The  designs  in  this,  as 
well  as  in  Bulmer's  editions  of  Goldsmith's 
"Deserted  Village"  and  ParnelTs  "Hermit," 
were  drawn  and  engraved  by  Thomas  Bewick 
and  his  younger  brother  and  pupil  John. 
Their  beauty,  novelty,  and  admirable  execution 
attracted  general  attention,  and  George  III. 
would  not  believe  they  were  woodcuts  until  he 
was  shown  the  blocks.  Somerville's  "Chase" 
was  the  next  work.  All  the  engravings  were 
by  Thomas  and  the  designs  by  John  Bewick, 
who  died  of  consumption  in  1795,  the  year  it 
was  produced.  Thomas  Bewick  produced  the 
first  volume  of  his  "British  Birds,"  containing 
the  land  birds,  in  1797,  illustrated  and  partly 
written  by  himself.  It  ranks  as  the  finest  of 
his  works.  The  second  volume  appeared  in 
1804,  about  which  time  the  partnership  with 
Mr.  Beilby  was  dissolved.  He  published  "Se- 
lect Fables "  by  /Esop  and  others,  illustrated, 
in  1818,  after  which  he  engaged  in  preparing 
for  an  illustrated  history  of  fishes,  which  was 
never  completed.  Among  his  pupils,  who 
were  numerous,  Luke  Clennel  and  William 
Harvey  have  most  distinguished  themselves. 
His  autobiography  was  published  in  1862. 

HI  A  IK.  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  E. 
by  the  Oibolo  river  and  watered  by  the  San 
Antonio  and  Medina ;  area,  1,450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  16,043,  of  whom  2,303  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  the  borders  of  the 
streams  are  well  timbered,  and  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile when  irrigated.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  81,997  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  117 
bales  of  cotton,  7,910  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  22,952 
of  butter.  There  were  4,615  horses,  4,156 
milch  cows,  56,640  other  cattle,  8,770  sheep, 
and  1,869  swine.  Capital,  San  Antonio. 

Bl  A  41!  DISTRICT,  or  Territory,  an  unorgan- 
ized and  almost  unsettled  portion  of  Texas,  in 
the  W.  part  of  the  state,  bounded  S.  W.  by  the 
Rio  Pecos,  a  branch  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
N.  W.  by  New  Mexico;  pop.  in  1870,  1,077. 
The  S.  E.  portion  of  the  district  is  a  table  land, 
the  N.  W.  portion  an  elevated  table  land  with- 
out wood  or  water,  while  the  N.  E.  and  E. 


central  parts  are  well  watered  by  the  head 
streams  of  the  Colorado  and  Brazos. 

BEXLEV,  Lord.     See  VANSITTABT,  NICHOLAS. 

BEYLE,  Marie  Henri,  popularly  known  as 
STENDHAL,  a  French  author,  born  in  Grenoble, 
Jan.  23,  1783,  died  in  Paris,  March  23,  1842. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  displayed  early 
talent  at  the  central  school  of  Grenoble,  went 
to  Paris  in  1799,  was  connected  with  the  civil 
and  military  service  chiefly  with  the  army  in 
Italy,  and  was  also  engaged  in  various  other 
pursuits  according  to  the  promptings  of  bis 
restless,  roving  disposition,  and  of  his  necessi- 
ties. Finally  he  became  consul  at  Civita  Vecchia 
(1830-'42),  the  exequatur  at  Trieste,  the  original 
place  of  his  destination,  having  been  denied  to 
him  on  account  of  his  Italian  sympathies.  He 
wrote  voluminously  under  various  names  for 
many  periodicals  and  journals.  Under  that  of 
Alexandre  C6sar  Bombet  he  wrote  in  1814  Let- 
tres  de  Vienne  sur  Haydn,  suivies  (Tune  me  de 
Mozart  et  de  considerations  sur  Metastase  et 
Vetat  present  de  la  musique  en  Italie  (new  ed., 
1817,  under  the  name  of  Stendhal),  the  life  of 
Haydn  being  a  new  version  of  Carpani's  work, 
and  that  of  Mozart  a  free  translation  from  the 
German.  Both  works,  as  well  as  his  Viede 
Rossini,  the  only  entirely  original  and  best  of 
the  series,  were  translated  into  English  (1820- 
'24).  By  his  Histoire  de  la  peinture  en  Italie 
(1817),  Rome,  Naples  et  Florence  (1817),  and 
Promenades  dans  Rome  (2  vols.,  1829 ;  new 
ed.,  6  vols.,  1846),  he  gave  additional  evidence 
of  his  remarkable  familiarity  with  Italy ;  while 
his  Del  romantismo  nelle  arti  (2  vols.,  Flor- 
ence, 1819)  was  written  in  excellent  Italian. 
In  the  latter  work,  as  in  his  pithy  pamphlet 
Racine  et  Shakespeare  (1823),  which  made  a 
sensation  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  he  re- 
veals himself  as  an  enthusiastic  champion  of 
the  romantic  and  adversary  of  the  classical 
school.  His  most  famous  works  are  V Amour 
(1822),  Memoires  d*un  touriste  (1838),  and  his 
romances  Le  Rouge  et  le  Noir  (1831)  and  La 
Chartreuse  de  Parme  (1839)— the  latter  a  de- 
lineation of  court  life  at  Parma,  which  accord- 
ing to  Balzac  is  chiefly  interesting  for  diploma- 
tists and  people  moving  in  official  and  court  cir- 
cles; but  after  he  had  acquired  a  wider  popu- 
larity Balzac  as  well  as  Sainte-Beuve  extolled 
him  as  a  writer  of  wonderful  genius,  original- 
ity, and  critical  power.  The  number  of  his 
readers,  at  first  limited,  has  been  lately  increas- 
ing. A  complete  edition  of  bis  writings  was 
published  at  Paris  in  18  vols.,  1855-'6  ;  and  in 
1857  Prosper  M6rim6e  published  his  Corre- 
spondance  inedite  in  2  vols. 

BEYROUT,  or  Beirut  (anc.  Berytus),  a  town  and 
the  chief  seaport  of  Syria,  55  m.  N.  W.  of  Da- 
mascus; pop.  about  70,000,  one  third  of  whom 
are  Moslems,  and  the  rest  Christians,  Jews, 
Druses,  and  foreign  residents.  It  is  built  on  a 
triangular  promontory,  the  apex  projecting  3 
m.  into  the  sea  and  the  base  running  along  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Lebanon.  The  situation  is  singular- 
ly beautiful,  and  the  climate  mild  and  healthy. 


602 


BEYROUT 


The  old  city  is  a  dense  nucleus  of  substantial 
buildings  with  narrow  streets  on  the  shore, 
whence  extends  a  broad  margin  of  picturesque 
villas  with  gardens  running  up  to  the  summit 
of  the  heights.  Beyond  these  are  mulberry 
groves.  The  streets  in  the  suburbs  are  wide  and 
passable  for  carriages,  and  the  houses,  which 
are  built  of  stone,  are  spacious.  The  popula- 
tion has  nearly  doubled  within  the  last  few 
years,  partly  owing  to  the  opening  of  com- 
merce with  Europe,  which  has  proved  very  suc- 
cessful, and  partly  in  consequence  of  the  mas- 
sacre at  Damascus  in  1860,  after  which  num- 
bers of  the  Christians  there  removed  to  Beyrout. 
The  harbor  is  partly  filled  with  sand,  and  ves- 
sels have  to  anchor  in  the  road,  or  in  St. 
George's  bay,  so  called  from  the  legend  that 
St.  George  killed  the  dragon  near  that  place. 
Beyrout  is  alternately  with  Damascus,  for  six 


months  of  the  year,  the  seat  of  the  governor  of 
the  vilayet  of  Syria,  as  organized  in  1865. 
It  is  also  the  residence  of  the  consuls  gen- 
eral of  most  of  the  European  powers  and  of 
the  United  States.  It  has  Greek,  United 
Greek,  and  United  Syrian  archbishops,  a  Jesuit 
college  with  a  printing  office,  and  a  convent  of 
Sisters  of  Charity.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
American  Protestant  missions  in  Syria,  with 
a  literary  and  medical  college  and  a  theologi- 
cal seminary;  and  there  are  two  Protestant 
religious  journals  in  Arabic,  and  a  house  of 
German  Protestant  deaconesses.  A  large 
number  of  Europeans  reside  here,  which  has 
had  the  effect  of  giving  new  force  and  vitality 
to  commerce.  A  macadamized  road  to  Damas- 
cus has  been  built  by  a  French  company ;  and 
silk-winding  establishments,  iron  works,  cot- 
ton factories,  banking  houses,  &c.,  are  con- 


Beyrout 


ducted  mainly  by  foreigners.  The  exports 
are  chiefly  gram,  wool,  cotton,  raw  silk,  hides, 
tobacco,  oils,  soap,  hemp,  drugs,  figs,  raisins, 
and  native  wines;  the  imports  from  the  United 
States,  Europe,  and  Egypt  are  kerosene,  broad- 
cloth, woollen,  cotton,  linen,  and  silk  stuffs,  rice, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  foreign  wines  and  other  deli- 
cacies. The  importation  of  American  petro- 
leum during  the  year  1870  amounted  to  $120,- 
491  28.  The  exports  to  America,  mainly  of 
wool,  for  the  same  period  amounted  to  $85,- 
340  06. — Beyrout  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  although  the  first 
mention  of  it  in  classical  writings  is  made  by 
Strabo.  Some  critics  identify  it  with  the 
Berothah  or  Berothai  of  Scripture.  In  140  B. 
C.  it  was  destroyed  by  Diodotus  Tryphon,  the 
usurper  of  the  throne  of  Syria.  After  its  cap- 
ture by  the  Romans  and  restoration  in  the 
time  of  Augustus  by  Agrippa,  it  became  a  Ro- 


man colony  under  the  name  of  Julia  Augus- 
ta Felix  Berytus.  Under  Claudius  it  was  em- 
bellished by  the  erection  of  magnificent  thea- 
tres, amphitheatres,  and  other  edifices ;  and 
under  Caracalla  it  was  surnamed  Antoniniana. 
Here  Titus  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
celebrated  the  birthday  of  his  father  Vespasian 
by  combats  of  gladiators,  in  which  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  captive  Jews  perished.  Later  it  be- 
came celebrated  as  a  seat  of  learning,  and  par- 
ticularly of  law,  and  attracted  students  from 
distant  lands.  The  emperor  Theodosius  II. 
made  it  a  metropolis.  In  551  an  earthquake 
laid  the  town  in  ruins,  and  before  it  was  com- 
pletely restored  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conquering  Moslems,  who  destroyed  alike  agri- 
culture, commerce,  architecture,  and  literature. 
In  1110  it  was  captured  by  the  crusaders  under 
Baldwin  I.,  and  was  comprised  within  the  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem.  It  was  again  captured  by 


BEZA 


BEZIERS 


603 


Saladin  and  retaken  by  the  crusaders,  in  whose 
hands  it  remained  till  the  overthrow  of  their 
power  in  1291.  From  that  period  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  17th  century  it  remained 
an  insignificant  place;  but  the  Druse  prince 
Fakreddin  rebuilt  it  as  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment. In  1772  a  Russian  fleet  bombarded  and 
plundered  the  city.  With  the  Egyptian  invasion 
of  Syria  Beyrout  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Mehemet  Ali ;  but  in  1840  the  English  fleet 
bombarded  it  and  drove  out  the  Egyptians. 

BEZA,  or  Beze,  Theodore  de,  a  French  religious 
reformer,  born  at  Vezelay,  June  24,  1519, 
died  in  Geneva,  Oct.  13,  1605.  He  was 
brought  up  for  the  law  by  his  uncle,  who  was 
a  councillor  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and 
studied  at  Bourges  under  Melchior  Volmar, 
who  enlisted  his  sympathies  for  Luther.  From 
1539  to  1548  he  was  in  Paris,  addicted  to  pleas- 
ure and  literature,  and  published  there  loose 
Latin  poetry  under  the  title  of  Juvenilia.  A 
severe  illness  changed  the  turn  of  his  mind, 
and  in  1548  he  retired  to  Geneva,  where  he 
made  a  public  profession  of  the  reformed  re- 
ligion. He  taught  Greek  at  Lausanne  till  1558, 
when  he  went  to  Germany  to  intercede  with 
the  German  princes  in  behalf  of  the  French 
Huguenots,  after  which  Calvin  obtained  for  him 
the  rectorship  and  chair  of  theology  at  the 
academy  of  Geneva.  In  1559  he  converted 
Antoine  de  Bourbon  and  his  wife  Jeanne  d'Al- 
bret  to  Protestantism,  and  in  1561  he  was  the 
oflScial  representative  of  the  Huguenots  at  the 
conferences  of  Poissy,  where  he  displayed  abil- 
ity and  moderation.  In  1562  he  went  to  Paris 
to  preach  the  reformation,  became  chaplain  to 
the  prince  de  CondS  and  afterward  to  Coligni, 
and  rejoiced  over  the  assassination  of  the  duke 
de  Guise,  though  he  was  not  believed  to  have 
connived  at  any  deeds  of  violence.  Returning 
to  Geneva  in  1563,  he  took  the  place  of  Calvin 
on  the  latter's  death  in  1564,  and  was  the 
spokesman  of  the  Huguenots  at  the  synods  of 
La  Rochelle  and  Nimes,  and  on  many  other 
occasions.  He  married  for  the  second  time  at 
the  age  of  69,  and  at  78  wrote  a  spirited  poem 
in  refutation  of  the  rumors  of  his  conversion. 
He  was  the  virtual  founder  of  the  academy  of 
Geneva,  and  produced  after  Greek  models  an 
admirable  drama  on  the  sacrifice  of  Abraham. 
He  published  in  1556  a  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  took  part  in  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  revised  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
texts,  which  was  issued  in  1588  by  the  pastors 
of  the  church  of  Geneva.  His  Traduction  en 
vers  francoig  des  psaumes  omw  par  Marat 
(Lyons,  1563)  has  been  reprinted  many  times 
together  with  Marot's  for  the  use  of  French 
Protestant  congregations.  Among  his  numer- 
ous other  works  is  UHistoire  ecclesiastique  des 
eglises  reformees  au  royaume  de  France  depute 
Van  1521  jusqu'en  1563  (3  vols.,  1580).  As 
his  name  is  not  ostensibly  associated  with  the 
authorship  of  this  work,  his  claims  to  it  are 
contested  by  some  writers,  but  generally  decid- 


ed in  his  favor.  The  best  known  biographies 
are  by  Schlosser  (Heidelberg,  1809)  and  Baum 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-'51).  See  Heppe,  Theo- 
dor  Beza,  Leben  und  Ausgewahlte  Schriften 
(Elberfeld,  1861). 

BEZA'S  CODEX  (sometimes  called  the  Codex 
Cantabrigiensis,  from  its  present  place  of  de- 
posit, the  university  of  Cambridge,  England), 
a,  very  ancient  MS.  on  vellum,  containing  in  its 
present  state  the  four  Gospels  and  Acts,  but 
with  several  omissions.  It  is  usually  cited  by 
critics  as  MS.  D  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts.  In 
the  arrangement  of  the  Gospels  John  stands 
second.  It  contains  the  Greek  text  with  a  Lat- 
in translation  on  opposite  pages.  It  is  written 
in  large  uncial  letters,  and  is  generally  assigned 
to  the  6th  century ;  hut  there  are  some  addi- 
tions which  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  10th  cen- 
tury. It  forms  a  quarto  volume  of  10  inches  by 
8,  and  now  consists  of  414  leaves.  Originally, 
as  is  shown  by  the  paging,  there  were  at  least 
512  leaves.  The  principal  hiatus  is  between  the 
Gospels  and  Acts,  which  it  is  presumed  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Epistles.  Its  critical  authority  is 
not  ranked  high.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
extensive  interpolations,  which  amount  in  Acts 
alone  to  more  than  600.  The  MS.  was  pre- 
sented in  1581  to  the  university  of  Cambridge 
by  Theodore  Beza,  who  said  that  it  was  found 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Ireneaus  at  Lyons, 
whence  it  had  probably  been  taken  by  some 
Huguenot  soldier.  The  MS.  has  been  several 
times  carefully  collated,  and  has  been  twice 
printed,  once  by  Kipling  in  facsimile  (Codex 
Beza  Cantabrigiensis,  2  vols.  fol.,  1793),  and 
later  in  ordinary  type  with  an  introduction 
and  ^annotations  (8vo,  London,  1864). 

BEZIERS  (anc.  Baeterra  or  Baterrce),  a  town 
of  Langnedoc,  France,  in  the  department  of 
He'rault,  at  the  junction  of  the  Orb  with  the 
Languedoc  canal  or  canal  du  Midi,  38  m.  S.  W. 
of  Montpellier ;  pop.  in  1866, 27,722.  Situated 
upon  a  commanding  eminence,  its  fine  appear- 
ance led  to  the  proverb,  Si  Deus  in  terris,  pel- 
let habitare  Basterris ;  but  the  interior  of  the 
town  is  far  from  attractive.  The  old  walls 
flanked  with  towers  still  remain,  but  the  cita- 
del has  been  razed  and  converted  into  pleasure 
grounds,  in  which  there  is  a  monument  of 
Riquet,  the  native  engineer  of  the  Languedoc 
canal.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Nazaire  is  a  Gothic 
building  surmounted  with  towers  like  a  Gothic 
castle.  In  the  church  of  the  Madeleine  7,000 
persons  were  burnt  during  the  Albigensian  war. 
The  convents  and  the  bishopric  were  abolished 
in  1789,  and  the  episcopal  palace  has  been  since 
used  for  courts  of  law  and  public  offices.  The 
town  possesses  a  communal  college,  a  public  li- 
brary, and  an  economical  and  archaeological  soci- 
ety. Silk  stockings,  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
parchment,  verdigris,  starch,  gloves,  glass,  and 
famous  sweetmeats  are  manufactured ;  but  the 
principal  industry  is  that  of  distilling,  and  the 
brandy  made  here  is  almost  as  good  as  cognac. 
Owing  to  the  situation  near  the  sea,  the  com- 
merce is  very  active  in  wine  (which  is  produced 


604 


BEZOAR 


BHAETEIHARI 


in  the  neighborhood  in  excellent  qualities), 
grain,  honey,  oil,  almonds,  and  other  articles. — 
An  amphitheatre  and  other  remains  of  the  Ro- 
man era  Btill  exist.  The  town  dates  from  120 


Cathedra!  of  St.  Nazatre,  BSziers 

B.  0.,  but  it  was  named  Julia  Baeterra  in  honor 
of  Julius  Caasar,  who  established  a  colony  here. 
Flourishing  in  the  4th  century,  the  Visigoths 
destroyed  the  town  in  450,  and  Charles  Martel 
in  738,  in  wresting  it  from  the  Moors.  In  1209 
the  fearful  massacre  of  the  Albigenses  depop- 
ulated the  place,  the  loss  of  life  reaching  over 
20,000,  and  according  to  some  authorities  over 
50,000,  besides  the  victims  in  the  Madeleine. 
In  1229  Beziers  was  united  with  the  French 
crown,  after  having  been  ruled  in  the  10th 
century  by  the  local  counts  of  Septimania,  and 
subsequently  by  viscounts  of  Beziers,  Carcas- 
sonne, and  Albi,  subject  to  the  counts  of  Barce- 
lona. Several  synods  were  held  here  in  the 
13th  and  subsequent  centuries.  Beziers  suf- 
fered much  during  the  religious  wars  of  the 
16th  century. 

BEZOAR  (Pers.  pad-zahr,  poison  expeller — 
pad,  wind,  and  zahr,  poison),  a  concretion,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  bile  and  resin,  met  with  as  a 
round  or  orbicular  calculus  in  the  stomach,  the 
intestines,  the  gall  bladder,  the  salivary  ducts, 
and  even  in  the  pineal  gland,  but  mostly  in  the 
intestines  of  certain  ruminant  animals.  Such 
bodies  were  once  celebrated  for  their  sup- 
posed medicinal  properties,  distinguished  by 
the  names  of  the  animals  or  the  countries  from 
which  they  were  obtained,  and  eagerly  bought 
for  ten  times  their  weight  in  gold.  Besides 
being  taken  internally  as  medicines,  they  were 
worn  around  the  neck  as  preservatives  from 
contagion.  Modern  investigation  and  experi- 
ment have  destroyed  the  charm  of  these  won- 
derful calculi. 

BHADRINATH,  or  Badrinatt,  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  the  district  of  Gurhwal,  Northwestern 
Provinces,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 


Vishnu-gunga  or  Bishengunga,  55  m.  N.  E. 
of  Serinagar.  It  is  situated  in  a  valley  of  the 
Himalaya,  10,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  neighboring  Bhadrinath  peaks  being  21,- 
000  to  23,000  ft.  high. 
It  is  celebrated  for  a 
temple  of  Vishnu,  sup- 
posed to  be  of  ancient 
origin,  though  the  pres- 
ent building  is  modern. 
Below  it  is  a  tank  30  ft. 
square,  which  by  means 
of  a  subterraneous  com- 
munication is  supplied 
with  water  from  a  ther- 
mal spring.  In  this 
tank  the  sexes  bathe  in- 
discriminately, and  the 
ablution  and  the  wor- 
ship of  the  chief  idol, 
which  is  a  figure  of 
black  marble  array- 
ed in  gold  and  silver 
brocade,  is  regarded  as 
efficacious  in  washing 
away  sins.  Nearly  50,- 
000  pilgrims  visit  the 
shrine  every  12th  year, 

during  the  celebration  of  the  Kumbh  Mela  fes- 
tival.    In  ordinary  years  the  number  of  pil- 
grims is  much  less.     From  November  to  April 
the  temple  is  closed  on  account  of  the  cold. 
BHAGAVAT  GITA.     See  SANSKBIT  LANGUAGE 

AND   LlTERATUEE. 

If IH 110,  lianio,  or  Bhanmo,  a  town  of  Burmah, 
on  the  Irrawaddy,  40  m.  W.  of  the  Chinese 
frontier;  pop.  about  12,000.  The  permanent 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  Laos,  and  the  transient 
residents  Chinese  and  Shans  (Siamese).  The 
old  Shan  town  of  Bhamo  or  Mhanmo  is  further 
up  the  river  Tapan,  which  joins  the  Irrawaddy 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  modern  town.  The 
latter,  surrounded  with  a  bamboo  palisade,  con- 
tains a  Chinese  temple  and  about  2,000  large 
dwellings,  those  of  the  natives  being  made  of 
reeds  thatched  with  grass,  and  those  of  the 
Chinese  of  blue-stained  brick.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  viceroy  and  the  principal  trading  place 
between  the  Chinese  caravans  and  the  Burman 
and  Mohammedan  merchants.  A  greater  varie- 
ty of  tribes  gather  at  the  annual  fair  and  in  the 
bazaar  here  from  December  to  April  than  in 
any  other  Asiatic  town,  not  excepting  Kiakhta. 
The  total  annual  value  of  the  trade  with  China 
is  estimated  at  about  £500,000,  and  sometimes 
as  much  as  £700,000,  including  imports  of 
£80,000  worth  of  silk,  besides  tea,  copper, 
drugs,  and  paper,  and  exports  of  £230,000 
worth  of  cotton,  besides  feathers,  ivory,  wax, 
edible  birds'  nests,  rhinoceros  and  deer  horns, 
and  sapphires.  Among  the  most  industrious 
dyers  and  mechanics  are  the  Palongs,  who  live 
in  the  neighborhood  on  the  frontier  of  China. 

BHAKTKIHARI,  a  Hindoo  poet  of  the  1st 
century  B.  C.,  said  to  have  been  a  brother  of 
King  Vikramaditya.  According  to  another  tra- 


BHATGAN 


BHOPAUL 


605 


dition,  lie  was  the  son  of  a  Brahman,  and  be- 
came a  poet  or  a  compiler  of  poetry  after  hav- 
ing led  a  gay  life.  His  writings  are  said  to 
have  been  the  first  specimens  of  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature to  become  known  in  Europe,  through 
the  translation  into  German  of  many  of  his 
aphorisms  by  the  missionary  Abraham  Roger 
in  his  Offene  Thur  zum  verborgenen  Heiden- 
thume  (Nuremberg,  1653).  The  principal  work 
ascribed  to  Bhartrihari,  "The  Centuries,"  is 
often  called  an  anthology.  The  first  part  de- 
lineates the  Hindoo  conception  of  love;  the 
second  part  is  didactic,  and  the  third  part 
ascetic  and  mystical.  It  was  first  edited  at 
Serampore,  with  the  Hitopadesa  (1804).  Peter 
von  Bohlen  published  Bhartriharis  Sententice 
et  Carmen  Eroticum  (Berlin,  1833),  and  in  1835 
a  free  German  metrical  translation ;  and  Hip- 
polyte  Fauch6  has  published  a  French  transla- 
tion, Bhartrihari  et  Tchaura  (Paris,  1852). 

BHATGAN,  or  Bhatgong,  a  town  of  N.  Hindos- 
tan,  in  the  valley  of  Nepaul,  5  m.  8.  E.  of  Cat- 
mandoo.  It  formerly  had  12,000  houses  and 
an  estimated  population  of  80,000,  with  a 
palace  and  other  buildings  of  fine  appearance. 
Though  much  decayed,  it  is  still  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Nepaulese  Brahmans. 

BHAWALPOOB,  or  Bahawnlpore.  I.  A  native 
state  of  N.  W.  Hindostan,  extending  280  m. 
along  the  S.  bank  of  the  continuous  rivers 
Ghara  (lower  Sntlej),  Punjnud,  and  Indus,  from 
Sirhind  on  the  N.  E.  to  Sinde  on  the  8.  W.,  and 
120  m.  in  greatest  breadth  from  the  rivers  8.  to 
Jussulmeer ;  area,  22,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  variously 
estimated  at  from  250,000  to  upward  of  600,- 
000.  The  whole  country  is  a  flat  desert  of 
arid  sand,  with  the  exception  of  a  fertile  strip 
a  few  miles  wide  along  the  rivers,  which  is 
annually  watered  by  their  inundations.  In 
some  portions  of  this  strip  the  land  is  well  cul- 
tivated, covered  with  thick  jungles,  abounding 
in  wild  hogs,  wild  geese,  and  partridges.  The 
principal  crops  are  rice,  wheat,  maize,  indigo, 
sugar,  opium,  cotton,  and  fruits.  The  popula- 
tion, which  consists  of  Jauts  and  Belooches, 
both  professing  Mohammedanism,  and  of  Hin- 
doos, is  more  peaceful,  orderly,  and  industrious 
than  that  of  the  neighboring  territories.  The 
principal  towns  are  Bhawalpoor,  the  former 
capital,  Ahmedpoor,  the  present  residence  of 
the  khan,  Khanpoor,  and  Dirawul,  a  fortified 
post  in  the  desert.  The  khan  is  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  English,  and  maintains  an  army 
of  2,000  regular  troops,  which  he  can  increase 
to  20,000  in  case  of  emergency.  II.  A  town, 
the  former  capital  of  the  state,  on  the  Ghara, 
50  m.  8.  by  E.  of  Mooltan,  in  lat.  29°  26'  N., 
Ion.  71°  37"  E. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  The  houses 
are  poorly  constructed  of  brick  and  surrounded 
with  gardens.  The  town  was  once  enclosed 
by  a  wall  4  m.  in  circumference,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  visible.  Outside  of  these  are 
large  groves  of  date  palms  and  other  trees. 
There  are  many  Hindoo  weavers  here,  who 
manufacture  excellent  scarfs,  turbans,  chintzes, 
and  colored  goods. 


BHEELS  (Sanskrit  bhil,  separate;  i.  «.,  out- 
casts), a  native  tribe  of  Hindostan,  chiefly  in- 
habiting Oandeish  in  Bombay;  and  numbering 
over  100,000.  They  are  believed  to  be  the 
aborigines  of  Guzerat  and  adjacent  territories, 
who  have  been  from  remote  ages  described  as 
a  distinct  people.  The  earliest  notice  of  them 
is  in  the  Mahabharata.  According  to  their 
own  traditions,  they  sprang  from  the  union  of 
the  god  Mahadeo  with  a  beautiful  woman 
whom  he  had  met  in  a  forest,  and  whose  de- 
scendants on  being  driven  south  settled  in  W. 
Oandeish  and  Malwah,  in  the  Vindhya  and 
Satpoora  mountains,  and  along  the  banks  of 
the  Taptee,  Mahee,  and  Narmada.  Along  the 
Vindhya  range,  from  Jam  to  W.  Mandoo,  the 
country  is  exclusively  inhabited  by  Bheels.  The 
principal  chiefs  are  called  bhomiyahs,  of  the 
Bhilalah  tribe  (descendants  of  Rajpoots  with 
Bheel  women).  One  of  the  most  notorious  of 
them  for  his  murderous  exploits  was  Nadar 
Singh.  They  chiefly  worship  Mahadeo  and  his 
consort  Devi,  the  goddess  of  smallpox.  The 
Bheels  joined  in  the  Indian  mutiny  of  1857-'8. 
Lieut.  Henry,  the  superintendent  of  police,  was 
killed  in  an  attempt  to  dislodge  them  from  a 
strong  position  in  Candeish,  and  another  en- 
gagement, fought  Jan.  20,  1858,  near  the  fron- 
tier of  the  nizam's  territory,  where  the  Bheels 
had  mustered  in  great  force,  resulted  in  the 
loss  of  50  European  troops.  The  English 
authorities  have  since  endeavored  to  control 
them  by  subjection  to  military  discipline. 

BHOOJ,  a  city  of  8.  W.  Hindostan,  capital  of 
the  native  state  of  Cntch,  30  m.  N.  of  the  gulf 
of  Cutch,  and  160  m.  8.  8.  E.  of  Hyderabad ; 
pop.  about  20,000.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  a 
fortified  hill,  is  enclosed  by  a  strong  stone  wall 
flanked  with  towers,  and  contains  a  castellated 
palace,  a  mausoleum,  and  several  temples, 
mosques,  and  pagodas,  interspersed  with  plan- 
tations of  date  palms.  The  fine  appearance 
thus  given  to  the  city  from  a  distance  vanishes 
on  entering  the  gates.  An  earthquake  in  1819 
destroyed  the  fort  and  many  buildings,  and 
caused  great  loss  of  life.  Bhooj  is  famous  for 
its  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver. 

BHOPAUL,  or  Bopal.  I.  A  native  state  of 
Malwah,  Hindostan,  between  lat.  22°  32'  and 
23°  46'  N.,  and  Ion.  76°  25'  and  78°  50'  E.,  trav- 
ersed partly  by  the  Vindhya  mountains  and  wa- 
tered by  the  Nerbudda  and  other  rivers;  area 
nearly  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  600,000,  chiefly 
Hindoos.  The  territory  is  ruled  by  a  nawaub 
under  the  political  tutelage  of  Great  Britain. 
Dost  Mohammed  Khan,  an  Afghan,  conquered 
Bhopaul  in  1723.  Since  1818  the  English  have 
asserted  their  political  ascendancy,  but  not 
without  many  complications.  During  the  se- 
poy rebellion  in  1857-'8,  the  Bhopaul  mutineers 
were  defeated  Jan.  12,  1858,  by  Gen.  Rose,  and 
a  number  of  them  were  put  to  death.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  state,  and  the  seat  of  the 
British  political  resident,  about  300  m.  S.W.  of 
Allahabad.  The  old  fortifications  of  the  town 
are  dilapidated. 


606 


BIIOTAN 


BIANCIIINI 


BHOTAN.    See  BOOTAN. 

BHIRTPOOR,  or  Bhnrtpore.  I.  A  native  state 
of  N.  W.  Hindostan,  bordering  on  the  North- 
western Provinces,  bet  ween  lat.  26°  30'  and  27° 
50'  N.,  and  Ion.  76°  54'  and  77°  49'  E. ;  area, 
about  2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  600,000,  chiefly 
lauts  professing  Brahmanism.  There  are  few 
perennial  streams,  and  the  soil  is  sandy,  but 
large  crops  are  produced  by  abundant  irriga- 
tion from  wells.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  state, 


33  m.  W.  of  Agra,  and  95  m.  S.  of  Delhi ;  pop. 
about  100,000.  It  is  nearly  8  m.  in  circuit,  and 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  and 
wide  ditch,  and  had  a  fort  of  great  strength. 
Gen.  Lake  made  four  attempts  to  storm  it  in 
1805,  without  success,  losing  over  3,000  men. 
It  was,  however,  finally  surrendered  by  the 
rajah,  who  concluded  a  treaty  April  17;  but 
his  death  in  1825  producing  a  contest  about  the 
succession,  new  complications  arose,  in  con- 


Bhurtpoor. 


sequence  of  which  Combermere  stormed  the 
town  in  1826,  having  first  destroyed  a  part  of 
the  wall  by  mining.  The  fortifications  were 
afterward  dismantled.  Throughout  the  sepoy 
rebellion  the  city  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
British. 

BIAFRA.  I.  A  small  kingdom  of  W.  Africa, 
on  the  bight  or  bay  of  the  same  name.  It 
lies  between  the  equator  and  lat.  5°  N.,  and 
extends  only  a  small  distance  into  the  interior. 
The  principal  town,  of  the  same  name,  is  sit- 
uated not  far  from  the  coast.  II.  Bight  of,  the 
eastern  part  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  extending 
from  Cape  Formosa  on  the  north  to  Cape  Lopez 
on  the  south.  The  delta  of  the  Niger  projects 
between  it  and  the  bight  of  Benin,  some  of  the 
mouths  of  that  river  being  upon  either  bay.  It 
also  receives  the  rivers  Old  Calabar,  Cameroons, 
and  Gaboon.  It  contains  the  islands  of  Fer- 
nando Po,  belonging  to  Spain,  and  Principe 
and  St.  Thomas,  to  Portugal. 

BIALYSTOK.  (Russ.  Bielostok),  a  town  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  of  Grodno,  formerly  in 
the  Polish  province  of  Podlachia,  on  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Narew,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the 
same  name,  45  m.  S.  W.  of  Grodno;  pop.  in 
1869,  16,985,  about  12,000  of  whom  are  Jews 
and  nearly  4, 000  Roman  Catholics.  The  town  is 


well  built,  mostly  with  one-story  brick  houses. 
It  has  a  beautiful  castle,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  counts  Branicki,  but  now  to  the  muni- 
cipality, adjoining  which  are  superb  pleasure 
grounds.  Leather,  cloth,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  soap,  and  other  articles  are  manufac- 
tured, and  there  is  an  active  trade,  chiefly  in 
grain  and  timber,  with  Poland,  the  fairs  being 
very  lively.  Together  with  the  territory  now 
forming  the  circle,  the  town  was  transferred  to 
Prussia  at  the  partition  of  Poland  in  1795,  and 
in  1807  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  when 
this  part  of  Podlachia  was  formed  into  a  sepa- 
rate district,  subsequently  united  with  Grodno. 
BIANCIIINI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  astronomer 
and  author,  born  in  Verona,  Dec.  13,  1662, 
died  in  Rome,  March  2,  1729.  He  studied 
under  Montanari,  and,  though  he  took  holy 
orders,  he  devoted  himself  to  science.  His 
merits  won  for  him  a  high  position  under  four 
successive  popes;  he  became  secretary  of  a 
committee  for  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  drew 
a  meridian  line  through  Italy,  but  did  not 
complete  this  work,  superintended  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Rome,  and  proposed  the  establishment 
of  a  museum  of  sacred  monuments.  He  was 
an  associate  member  of  the  French  academy, 
and  was  ennobled.  His  works  include  Istoria 


BIARD 


BIBB 


607 


unnenale  provata  con  monumenti  (Rome, 
1697);  a  volume  of  his  astronomical  and  geo- 
graphical observations  (Verona,  1737);  Opus- 
cula  Varia  (2  vols.,  1754) ;  and  an  edition  of 
the  Vitas  Romanorum  Pontifimim  by  Anasta- 
sins,  which  was  finished  by  his  nephew  (4 
vols.,  1718-'34). 

BIARD,  Angnste  Fran- 
$ols,  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Lyons  in  1800. 
He  began  life  as  a 
chorister  with  a  view 
of  connecting  himself 
with  the  church ;  but 
following  his  artistic 
bent,  he  became  suffi- 
ciently proficient  in 
drawing  to  secure  a 
professorship  on  Board 
a  frigate  bound  to  the 
East,  and  he  subse- 
quently travelled  in 
Europe,  going  north  as 
far  as  Spitsbergen.  In 
1859  he  went  to  Bra- 
zil, visited  other  parts 
of  South  America  and 
the  United  States,  and 

in  1865  set  out  on  an  expedition  round  the 
globe.  Among  his  most  renowned  earlier  pic- 
tures are  the  "Babes  in  the  Wood,"  "Stroll- 
ing Comedians,"  and  "A  Beggar's  Family." 
His  travels  suggested  to  him  many  themes, 
among  which  "A  Concert  of  Fellahs,"  "  White 
Bears  attacking  a  Boat  in  Spitzbergen,"  "  The 
Slave  Trade,"  and  "An  Aurora  Borealis  in 
Spitzbergen"  were  noted.  His  "Slaves  on 
Board  of  a  Slaver  "  was  exhibited  anew  in  Paris 
in  1867.  He  has  also  produced  "Jane  Shore" 
(1842),  "The  Bombardment  of  Bomarsund" 
(1857),  and  other  historical  works ;  but  his  rep- 
utation with  the  masses  rests  upon  his  sacrificing 
testhetical  rules  for  the  sake  of  producing  great 
effects,  and  chiefly  upon  his  knack  in  delinea- 
ting the  grotesque  characteristics  of  the  lower 
classes,  on  account  of  which  Edmond  About 
called  him  the  Paul  de  Kock  of  painters,  while 
more  fastidious  critics  deny  to  him  all  higher 
artistic  merit.  Among  his  many  amusing  pro- 
ductions of  the  kind  are  "  Honors  Easy,"  "  The 
Family  Bath,"  and  "National  Guard  of  the 
Banlieu ; "  and  among  the  most  recent  are 
"The  Bourse  of  Paris"  and  "A  Provincial 
Lawsuit"  (1863).  He  enjoys  great  popularity 
in  France  and  on  the  continent,  and  especially 
in  England,  where  engravings  of  his  pictures 
are  much  in  demand.  In  1802  he  published 
an  illustrated  work,  Voyage  au  Bresil. — His 
wife,  L£ONIE  D'AUNET,  a  dramatic  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  who  accompanied  him  to  Spitz- 
bergen, but  from  whom  he  was  separated  about 
1843,  has  written  Voyage  d 'une  femme  d  Spitz- 
bergen (1854 ;  3d  ed.,  1867). 

BIARRITZ,  a  bathing  place  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Ba?ses-Pyr6nees,  on  the  bay  of 
Biscay,  5  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Bayonne ;  pop.  in  1866, 
91  VOL.  ii. — 39 


3,652.  The  air  here  is  more  bracing  than  at 
Pau.  The  chief  public  bath  houses  are  in  a 
small  bay  called  Port  Vieux  and  on  the  Cote 
do  Moulin.  The  place  contains  curious  grot- 
toes. It  flourished  especially  during  the  pe- 
riodical residence  there  of  Xapoleon  III.  and 
Eugenie,  1855-70.  The  villa  Eugenie,  as  the 


Villa  Eugenie,  Biarritz. 

very  plain  imperial  residence  was  called,  is  sit- 
uated on  an  elevation  close  to  the  sea. 

BIAS.  I.  Son  of  Amythaon,  and  brother  of  the 
seer  Melampus,  who  assisted  him  in  procuring 
the  oxen  of  Iphicles,  without  which  Neleus 
would  not  have  allowed  him  to  marry  his 
daughter  Pero.  He  also  obtained  a  third  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Pratus,  king  of  Argos, 
through  his  brother's  curing  the  daughters  of 
Prcetus  and  other  Argive  women,  who  were 
insane.  II.  Of  Priene,  flourished  at  Priene, 
Ionia,  under  the  Lydian  king  Alyattes  and  his 
son  Croesus,  about  570  B.  C.  He  was  not  only 
numbered  among  the  seven  wise  men,  but  was 
one  of  the  immortal  four  to  whom  the  term 
"  sophi  "  was  universally  applied.  He  was  a 
jurist  by  profession,  but  his  abilities  and  elo- 
quence were  only  at  the  service  of  those  who 
had  right  and  justice  on  their  side.  He  in  vain 
sought  to  prevent  the  subjugation  of  the  loni- 
ans  by  Cyrus  by  urging  them  to  settle  in  Sar- 
dinia ;  but  when  his  townsmen,  after  the  siege 
of  their  city,  concluded  to  depart,  he  alone 
made  no  preparations  for  the  flight,  and  when 
asked  about  it,  answered  with  the  words  now 
proverbial  in  the  Latin,  Omnia  men  mecum 
porto.  His  maxims  have  been  published  by 
Orelli  in  his  Opuscula  Greecorum  Sententiosa 
et  Moralia  (Leipsic,  1819),  and  a  German 
translation  of  them  is  contained  in  Frag- 
mente  der  tieben  Weuen,  by  Dilthey  (Darm- 
stadt, 1835). 

BIBB.  I.  A  central  county  of  Georgia,  trav- 
ersed by  the  Ocmulgee  river  and  several  small 
creeks;  area,  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,255, 
of  whom  11,424  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
uneven.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the  Ocmul- 
gee is  fertile,  but  in  other  places  is  unproduc- 


608 


BIBBIEXA 


BIBLE 


tive.  The  Central  Georgia,  the  Macon  and 
Western,  the  Macon  and  Brunswick,  and  the 
Southwestern  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  148,600 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,610  of  peas  and 
beans,  46,075  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  6,093 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  342  horses,  1,008 
mules,  1,105  milch  cows,  1,986  other  cattle, 
and  4,103  swine.  Capital,  Macon.  II.  A  cen- 
tral county  of  Alabama,  watered  by  the  Ca- 
hawba  and  Little  Cahawba  rivers,  which  unite 
within  its  limits ;  area,  about  520  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,469,  of  whom  2,408  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  productive. 
Iron  ore  and  coal  are  abundant.  The  Selma, 
Rome,  and  Dalton  railroad  skirts  the  E.  boun- 
dary. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
6,828  bushels  of  wheat,  82,620  of  Indian  corn, 
13,645  of  oats,  14,554  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
3,973  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  519  horses, 
1,039  milch  cows,  2,328  other  cattle,  2,981 
sheep,  and  3,460  swine.  Capital,  Centreville. 

BIBBIENA,  Ferdinando  Gall)  da,  an  Italian  ar- 
chitect and  painter,  born  in  Bologna  in  1657, 
died  about  1743.  His  designs  were  of  the  most 
sumptuous  character,  and  for  many  years  the 
duke  of  Parma  and  the  emperor  Charles  VI. 
of  Germany  employed  him  in  painting  decora- 
tions and  architectural  pieces,  and  in  conduct- 
ing triumphal  processions,  which  were  famous 
throughout  Europe.  To  him  the  stage  is  in- 
debted for  the  invention  and  decoration  of 
movable  scenery.  He  published  several  works 
on  architecture  and  on  the  theory  of  perspec- 
tive.— His  father  Giovanni  Maria,  owner  of  the 
Bibbiena  estate  in  Tuscany,  whence  came  the 
surname,  his  brother  Francesco,  and  his  son 
Antonio  were  all  distinguished  for  a  consider- 
able degree  of  the  same  talent. 

BIBER,  George  Everard,  an  English  clergyman 
and  author,  born  in  Germany  in  1801.  He 
received  his  degree  as  doctor  of  philosophy 
in  Tubingen  and  of  doctor  of  divinity  in  Got- 
tingen,  became  connected  with  Pestalozzi's 
schools  at  Yverdun,  Switzerland,  and  pub- 
lished Beitrag  zur  Biographie  Heinrich  Pesta- 
lozzfs  (St.  Gall,  1827).  About  this  period  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  England,  in  1839  be- 
came a  naturalized  British  subject,  and  since 
1842  has  been  curate  of  Roehampton,  Surrey. 
He  has  taken  an  active  part  in  many  church 
movements,  edited  for  several  years  the  "John 
Bull,"  and  contributed  much  to  the  "English 
Review"  and  other  periodicals.  His  many 
publications  include  "The  Standard  of  Catho- 
licity" (1840);  "  Sermons  Occasional  and  for 
Saints' Days"  (1846);  " Bishop  Blornfield  and 
his  Times"  (1857);  and  two  essays  (1870)  en- 
titled "The  Value  of  the  Established  Church 
to  the  Nation  "and  "Robbing  Churches  is 
Robbing  God." 

BIBKRACH,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg,  in  the 

circle  of  Donan,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bibe- 

raeh  with  the  Riss,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube, 

2  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Ulm;    pop.  in  1871,  7,091. 

It  contains  four  churches,  a  hospital,  and  a  col- 


lege, and  has  tanneries,  breweries,  manufactories 
of  linen,  woollen,  and  paper,  and  an  active  trade 
in  grain.  Till  1802  Biberach  was  a  free  impe- 
rial city.  It  then  came  under  the  government 
of  Baden,  but  was  ceded  to  Wtirtemburg  in  1806. 
On  May  9,  1800,  the  French  general  Moreau 
won  here  a  great  victory  over  the  Austrian 
general  Kray.  Wieland  was  born  in  Biberach. 

BIBESCO,  George  Demetrios,  prince,  a  Walla- 
chian  statesman,  born  in  1804.  He  is  of  a  dis- 
tinguished family,  was  educated  in  Paris,  and 
served  in  important  public  offices.  He  aided 
in  the  overthrow  of  Alexander  Ghika  in  1842, 
and  succeeded  him  as  hospodar  (1843),  but  was 
driven  from  power  by  a  revolutionary  rising  in 
1848.  In  1857,  at  the  request  of  the"  Porte,  he 
aided  in  preparing  for  the  political  union  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia  tinder  the  rule  of  a 
foreign  prince.  In  1862  he  was  elected  to 
the  Roumanian  parliament,  but  declined. — His 
brother,  BAKBO  DEMETKIUS  STIRBEY,  who  died 
in  1869,  was  hospodar  of  Wallachia  from  1849 
to  1856,  but  absent  from  his  capital  during 
the  Russian  invasion  of  1853-'4;  and  another 
brother,  JOHN,  was  minister  of  religion  and 
education  from  1850  to  1853. — Three  sons  of 
Prince  George  served  as  officers  in  the  French 
army.  One  of  them,  NICHOLAS,  distinguished 
himself  in  Algeria,  and  married  Ney's  grand- 
daughter Mile.  d'Elchingen. 

BIBLE  (Gr.  /fc/P.fo,  books),  the  name  applied 
by  Chrysostom  in  the  4th  century  to  the  books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  had 
been  called  the  "  Scripture."  The  ancient 
plural  has  been  transformed  into  a  singular 
noun,  in  view  of  the  recognized  unity  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  which  is  thus  called  THE 
BOOK  by  way  of  eminence.  The  Bible  has 
two  general  divisions,  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  New  ;  the  Greek  <5ia8f/Kii,  meaning  disposi- 
tion by  will,  is  used  both  in  the  Septnagint 
and  in  the  Greek  New  Testament  for  the 
"  covenant "  or  compact  between  God  and 
man.  The  Old  Testament  was  divided  by  the 
Jews  into  three  parts,  viz.,  the  law,  the  pro- 
phets, and  the  sacred  writings.  The  law 
comprised  the  five  books  of  Moses.  The 
prophets  comprised  the  earlier  prophets,  so 
called — the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  1  and  2 
Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings;  and  the  later  prophets 
— three  major,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel, 
and  12  minor,  Hosea  to  Malachi.  Under  the 
sacred  writings  were  included  the  poetical 
books,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job ;  the  "  Five 
Rolls,"  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  Esther;  also  the  books  of  Daniel,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  1  and  2  Chronicles.  The  num- 
ber of  the  books  and  their  grouping  have  va- 
ried in  different  versions.  Our  English  Bible 
gives  39.  Jerome  counted  the  same  books  so 
as  to  equal  the  22  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet ;  Judges  and  Ruth,  the  two  books  of 
Samuel,  two  of  Kings,  two  of  Chronicles  and 
the  12  minor  prophets  making  five  books.  The 
later  Jews  of  Palestine  counted  these  24.  As 
to  their  order,  the  Masoretic  arrangement, 


BIBLE 


609 


which  is  that  of  our  present  Hebrew  Bibles,  is 
very  ancient.  The  Greek-speaking  Jews,  how- 
ever, varied  from  those  of  Palestine,  and  their 
arrangement  is  preserved  in  the  Septuagint, 
which  is  followed  in  the  Vulgate  and  in  our 
English  Bibles ;  an  order  not  according  to 
chronological  succession,  but  made  with  a  view 
to  grouping  similar  classes  of  composition  to- 
gether, the  historical  being  placed  first,  the 
poetical  next,  and  the  prophetical  last.  The 
historical  division  opens  in  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis with  an  account  of  the  creation  of  all  things, 
then  takes  up  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  as  a 
matter  of  central  interest,  showing  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  family  of  Abraham  from  other  na- 
tions and  their  prosperous  settlement  in  Egypt. 
Exodus  describes  the  escape  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt  and  their  organization  as  a  nation 
under  the  Mosaic  law.  Leviticus  contains  the 
more  special  laws  of  Israel,  chiefly  those  relat- 
ing to  the  public  worship,  festivals,  and  similar 
topics.  Numbers,  with  a  supplement  to  the 
laws,  narrates  the  weary  march  through  the 
desert,  and  the  opening  of  the  contest  for  the 
land  of  Canaan.  In  Deuteronomy  Moses,  draw- 
ing near  death,  reminds  the  people  of  the  ex- 
perience they  have  gone  through  and  the  laws 
they  have  received,  and  exhorts  them  to  obedi- 
ence to  God ;  then  appoints  a  successor,  and, 
taking  a  first  and  last  look  at  the  land  not  yet 
entered,  dies.  The  book  of  Joshua  describes 
the  conquest  and  partition  of  Canaan,  and  the 
leader's  farewell  exhortation  and  death.  In 
the  next  hook,  Judges,  we  read  of  anarchy  and 
apostasy,  and  the  consequent  subjugation  of 
the  Israelites  by  their  heathen  neighbors,  and 
the  exploits  of  heroes  raised  up  to  deliver 
them.  The  books  of  Samuel  give  his  history 
as  prophet  and  judge,  and  the  story  of  Saul 
and  David.  The  books  of  Kings  tell  of  David's 
death,  the  brilliant  reign  of  Solomon,  and  the 
subsequent  decline,  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes, 
the  overthrow  of  the  seceded  kingdom  of  Isra- 
el and  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  into 
captivity,  and  the  fate  of  the  remnant  left  in 
Judea  while  their  brethren  were  carried  away 
captive.  These  books  tell  also  of  those  prophets 
who  testified  for  God  in  the  face  of  wicked 
kings  and  a  degenerate  people.  The  Chroni- 
cles are  a  supplementary  work,  and  are  accom- 
panied by  the  book  of  Ruth,  an  episode  in  the 
time  of  the  judges,  narrating  with  exquisite 
grace  the  marriage  of  Ruth  the  Moabitess  and 
Boaz  the  great-grandfather  of  David.  The 
Old  Testament  history  closes  in  the  hooks  of  Ez- 
ra and  Nehemiah,  which  describe  the  return 
of  the  Jewish  nation  from  exile  and  the  resto- 
ration of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  worship. 
The  book  of  Esther  records  events  of  the  Per- 
sian captivity. — While  the  historical  books 
show  the  development  of  those  religious  ideas 
which  underlie  the  Hebrew  national  life,  the 
prophetic  books  show  these  ideas  inspiring  the  j 
people  in  their  conflicts  with  unbelief  and  ' 
apostasy,  and  animating  the  nation  with  bright 
hopes  of  the  future.  In  all  literature  there 


are  no  books  like  these,  in  severe  morality, 
high  religious  tone,  sublime  conception,  grand 
diction,  and  rich  imagery.  Covering  a  great  ex- 
tent of  time,  these  prophetic  writings  vary  in 
style,  but  they  show  the  struggles  of  the  na- 
tion's heart  and  its  foreign  relations  in  a  way 
that  lights  up  the  historical  books. — The  poet- 
ical books  express  the  same  ideas  with  the  pro- 
phetic, but  in  a  more  quiet  didactic  and  lyric 
form.  The  didactic  portion  of  them  consists  of 
the  Proverbs,  a  collection  of  sententious  max- 
ims and  wise  discourses ;  Ecclesiastes,  an  elo- 
quent wail  over  the  transientness  of  earthly 
things ;  and  the  book  of  Job,  a  philosophical 
poem  upon  Providence,  wonderfully  rich  in 
thought  and  diction,  and  full  of  the  doctrine 
of  resignation  to  the  mysterious  will  of  God. 
The  Psalms  are  a  collection  of  devotional  lyrics. 
Lamentations  are  elegiac  patriotic  verses.  The 
Song  of  Solomon  is  an  amatory  idyl,  which 
has  been  explained  by  many  scholars  as  an  al- 
legory.— The  New  Testament  gives  the  only 
original  account  of  the  origin  and  early  spread 
of  Christianity.  It  is  composed  of  27  books. 
Four  contain  the  memoirs  of  Jesus ;  one  (Acts) 
gives  the  actions  of  the  apostles,  especially  of 
Peter  and  Paul ;  21  are  apostolical  letters ;  and 
the  collection  closes  with  the  Apocalypse. 
The  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  are  held  to 
be  the  work  of  the  apostles  whose  names  they 
bear.  Mark  was  a  disciple  of  Peter,  and  Luke 
a  companion  of  Paul.  The  book  of  Acts  is 
also  ascribed  to  Luke.  The  Epistles  are  let- 
ters called  forth  by  various  exigencies,  and 
contain  incidental  information,  throwing  much 
light  upon  the  early  constitution  and  spread 
of  the  Christian  church,  and  the  development 
of  its  doctrines.  The  Apocalypse  is  the  only 
book  in  the  New  Testament  of  a  strictly  pro- 
phetic character.  It  was  written  shortly  after 
the  death  of  Nero,  and  strengthened  the  hearts 
of  Christians  against  a  threatening  persecution 
by  giving  hope  of  the  approaching  kingdom  of 
Christ. — For  1,000  years  learned  men  have 
been  studying  the  authenticity  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  Bible. 
The  history  of  this  work  will  be  found  under 
the  title  CANON.  Far  greater  study,  however, 
has  been  given  to  the  original  text  of  Scripture. 
The  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament  as  we 
have  it  has  already  passed  through  many  re- 
visions. Of  the  primitive  text  we  have  little 
positive  information.  The  books  were  first 
written  on  skins  or  linen  cloth  or  papyrus,  and 
preserved  in  rolls.  The  letter  used  was  the 
old  Hebrew  character,  which  is  found  on  the 
coins  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  probably  of 
Phoenician  origin.  There  were  no  accents  nor 
vowel  points,  the  consonants  only  being  writ- 
ten, and  the  vowel  sounds  supplied  by  the 
usage  of  the  living  speech ;  and  the  words  were 
generally  run  together  in  a  continuous  line. 
Not  until  the  Hebrew  became  a  dead  language 
was  its  vowel  system  perfected,  to  take  the 
place  of  the  familiar  usage  which  was  passing 
away.  After  the  return  from  the  Babylonish 


610 


BIBLE 


exile,  the  sacred  books  were  subjected  to  n  care- 
ful and  critical  examination.  About  the  same 
time  the  written  character  of  the  ancient 
Hebrew  was  modified  by  the  Aramaic  chirog- 
raphy,  until  it  took  the  square  form,  more 
nearly  resembling  the  Palmyrene  letters,  which 
was  adopted  perhaps  on  account  of  its  beauty. 
Simultaneously  came  another  arrangement  of 
the  text,  with  a  view  to  its  public  reading. 
Tradition  had  prescribed  the  manner  in  which 
the  reader's  voice  should  emphasize  words  and 
balance  sentences,  but  it  was  long  before  that 
mode  was  declared  by  any  written  signs.  The 
first  step  toward  this  was  the  separation  of 
words  from  each  other,  and  it  was  followed  by 
the  division  into  verses.  This  had  been  marked 
in  poetry  very  early  by  lines  or  blank  spaces 
measuring  the  rhythm.  In  prose  it  was  intro- 
duced later  for  the  convenience  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  was  established  by  the  close  of  the 
period  we  are  considering.  Before  this  distri- 
bution into  sentences,  the  necessity  was  felt  of 
breaking  up  the  text  into  sections  of  less  or 
greater  length.  In  this  division  the  book  of 
the  law  consisted  of  669  paragraphs  or  "pa- 
rashes,"  and  these,  in  the  absence  of  headings 
and  running  indices,  were  known  and  referred 
to  by  the  subject  that  was  most  prominent  in 
each;  for  example,  parash  "Balaam,"  parash 
"Bush,"  or  "Deluge."  The  text,  thus  writ- 
ten and  distributed,  was  most  jealously  guard- 
ed. In  copying  it  nothing  must  be  added,  no- 
thing taken  away,  nothing  changed ;  letters, 
words,  verses,  sections  were  counted.  Rules 
were  made  in  regard  to  the  way  in  which  the 
MSS.  were  to  be  written  ;  every  letter  that 
was  larger  or  smaller,  suspended  or  inverted, 
or  otherwise  unusual  in  its  form,  even  if  acci- 
dentally so  written,  was  to  be  heedfnlly  copied. 
Another  division  into  larger  parashes  or  sec- 
tions, adapted  to  the  public  readings  on  the 
Sabbath,  was  introduced  at  a  later  time.  The 
next  period  in  the  history  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament text  is  the  Masoretic,  commonly  reck- 
oned from  the  6th  to  the  llth  century.  The 
word  masora  means  a  "  collection  of  tradi- 
tions," and  the  main  object  of  the  laborers  in 
this  field  was  to  gather  up  and  arrange  the 
critical  material  of  an  older  time  before  the 
existing  traditions  should  fade  out.  But  the 
Masorites  did  more  than  this ;  they  aimed  at 
completing  what  had  been  commenced  before ; 
they  would  fix  the  reading  of  the  text  in  all 
its  parts,  and  their  scrupulous  care  did  much 
to  finish  and  perfect  it.  They  collated  MSS., 
noticed  critical  and  orthographical  difficul- 
ties, and  ventured  upon  conjectures  of  their 
own.  Their  notes  were  at  first  written  in 
separate  books;  afterward  for  convenience 
they  were  copied  upon  the  margin  of  MSS., 
or  even  at  the  end  of  a  book,  a  practice  that 
led  gradually  to  vast  confusion.  Attempts 
were  even  made  to  crowd  the  whole  Masora 
upon  the  margin  of  MSS.,  and  when  the  space 
was  too  small,  as  often  it  was,  the  annotations 
were  appended  to  the  text  or  omitted  entirely. 


Since  the  completion  of  the  Masoretic  period 
the  labors  of  scholars  have  been  spent  in  eluci- 
dating and  perpetuating  the  Masoretic  text. 
The  MSS.  of  the  Pentateuch  were  very  care- 
fully revised,  and  some  of  them  are  very  ancient. 
Of  the  other  books  no  MSS.  date  back  as  far  as 
the  Masoretic  period :  four  or  five  belong  to  tliu 
12th  century;  some  50  belong  to  the  13th: 
and  for  the  following  centuries  the  number 
increases.  Eminent  Jewish  scholars  of  the 
middle  ages  devoted  themselves  to  the  task  of 
purifying  the  sacred  text  by  the  largest  possible 
collation  of  MSS.,  and  in  their  writings  speak  of 
famous  copies  now  lost  whose  use  they  enjoyed. 
When  the  invention  of  printing  had  made  easy 
the  exact  reproduction  and  extensive  multipli- 
cation of  copies,  an  attempt  was  made  to  com- 
pare carefully  the  best  MSS.  extant,  to  collate 
with  them  the  Masora,  and  thus  to  bring  out  a 
true  and  pure  Masoretic  text ;  an  undertaking 
too  large  to  be  accomplished  at  once,  and  there- 
fore but  imperfectly  executed  at  that  time. 
The  books  were  produced  singly.  The  earli- 
est printed  portion  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the 
Psalter,  was  done  in  1477,  in  small  folio  form, 
very  carelessly,  with  many  abbreviations,  and 
not  a  few  grave  omissions.  Later,  about  1480, 
it  was  reprinted  in  12mo,  without  date  or  place, 
and  again  in  the  same  form  with  an  index. 
The  whole  Pentateuch,  with  the  points,  the 
Chaldee  paraphrase,  and  Rashi's  commentary, 
was  printed  in  1482,  in  folio,  at  Bologna.  In 
1486  appeared  in  two  folios,  at  Soncino,  the 
prophets,  early  and  later,  with  Kimhi's  com- 
mentary. The  whole  Hagiographa  was  printed 
in  Naples  in  1487.  The  entire  Hebrew  Bible 
was  first  printed  at  Soncino  in  1488.  It  was 
made  partly  from  MSS.  neither  very  old,  prob- 
ably, nor  very  good,  and  partly  from  editions 
of  separate  books  already  published.  It  con- 
tained many  errors.  Only  nine  copies  of  this 
edition  are  extant.  This  was  strictly  followed 
by  the  Gerson  edition  printed  at  Brescia  in 
1494,  from  which  Luther  made  his  translation. 
It  was  'the  parent  of  the  first  rabbinical  Bible 
of  Bomberg,  1517  and  1518,  and  of  Bomberg's 
manual  editions  from  1518  to  1521 ;  of  the 
editions  of  Robert  Stephens  (4to,  1539-'44), 
and  of  Sebastian  Monster's  (Basel,  2  vols.  4to, 
1536).  The  next  independent  edition  prepared 
from  a  fresh  comparison  of  MSS.  was  the 
famous  Complutensian  Polyglot  (Complutum, 
*'.  «.,  Alcala  de  Henares),  the  work  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes,  assisted  by  the  most  eminent  biblical 
scholars  in  Spain.  No  expense  was  spared  to 
procure  Hebrew  MSS.  from  different  coun- 
tries. The  Vatican  and  other  libraries  lent 
their  treasures ;  and  14  years  of  preparatory 
labors  were  spent  before  the  first  volume  was 
issued  (1522).  The  text  of  the  Complutensian 
Bible  agrees  closely  with  that  of  Bomberg's 
first  edition  of  1518.  The  third  great  original 
edition  is  the  second  of  Bomberg's  rabbinical 
Bible,  printed  in  folio  at  Venice,  1525-'6.  This 
embodies  the  labors  of  Rabbi  Jacob  ben  Ila- 
yim.  who  revised  the  Masora  word  by  word,  ar- 


BIBLE 


611 


ranged  it,  made  an  index,  and  availed  himself 
systematically  of  its  whole  apparatus.  It  was 
reprinted  several  times  in  the  Kith  and  17th  cen- 
turies. After  these  three  independent  editions, 
all  that  follow  contain  a  mixed  text.  The  Ant- 
werp Polyglot,  published  1569-'72,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  King  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  there- 
fore called  the  royal  Polyglot,  was  composed 
from  the  Complutensian  and  Bomberg's.  Be- 
sides the  texts  in  five  volumes,  four  contain- 
ing the  Old  and  one  the  New  Testament,  three 
other  volumes  gave  a  valuable  apparatus,  crit- 
ical, philological,  antiquarian.  The  various  edi- 
tions of  Plantin  followed  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot, as  did  those  of  Christian  Reineccius.  It 
was  the  basis  also  of  the  Paris  Polyglot  (10 
vols.  folio,  1645),  which  gave  the  text  in  He- 
brew, Samaritan,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  containing  for  the  first  time 
in  print  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  It  was 
repeated  again  in  the  London  Polyglot  (6  vols. 
folio,  1657).  Elias  Hntter,  in  his  first  edition 
published  at  Hamburg  in  1587,  and  three  times 
reprinted,  used  the  copies  of  Venice,  Antwerp, 
and  Paris.  In  1611  the  manual  edition  of 
Buxtorf  was  printed.  Buxtorf  undertook  to 
improve  upon  Bomberg's  Bible,  and  as  far  as  he 
could  conformed  to  the  Masora,  for  whose  text 
he  had  the  highest  respect,  regarding  it  as  the 
only  perfect  one.  The  next  important  edition 
for  which  the  oldest  and  best  MSS.  were  col- 
lated was  that  of  Joseph  Athias,  printed  at 
Amsterdam,  1661  and  1667.  Among  the  later 
editions  that  have  followed  this,  the  most  no- 
ted from  their  new  collation  of  MSS.,  careful 
selection  of  readings,  and  thorough  correction 
of  points,  are  those  of  Jablonski,  Berlin,  1699 ; 
Van  der  Hooght,  Amsterdam,  1705;  J.  H. 
Michaelis,  Halle,  1720;  Houbigant,  Paris,  1753  ; 
Simon,  Halle,  1752,  1767;  Kennicott,  Oxford, 
1776, 1780;  August  Hahn,  1831 ;  andG.  Theile, 
1849.  Besides  these  editions,  which  aim  at 
bringing  the  Masoretic  text  near  its  perfec- 
tion, critical  helps  are  found  in  the  Masora 
contained  in  the  rabbinical  Bibles  of  Bomberg 
and  Buxtorf,  and  the  various  readings  which 
are  found  in  all  the  best  editions.  The  toil 
and  treasure  expended  upon  this  long  series  of 
editions,  each  of  which  was  a  triumph  in  its 
time,  have  not  been  wasted.  The  result  on  the 
whole  is  a  text  of  these  ancient  and  venerable 
books,  not  indeed  perfect  in  every  point  and 
particle,  but  more  excellent  than  might  have 
been  expected,  a  text  that  nearly  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  books  which  constituted  the 
oldest  Hebrew  canon. — The  task  of  purifying 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  bring- 
ing it  to  the  perfection  of  our  latest  and  best 
editions  was  much  less  difficult,  yet  a  work 
of  no  small  magnitude.  Not  a  fragment  from 
the  hand  of  an  evangelist  or  an  apostle  sur- 
vived the  early  generations  that  used  the  ori- 
ginal MSS.  and  wore  them  out.  The  early 
Christians  did  not  feel  the  importance  of  laying 
them  sacredly  aside.  The  greater  their  value, 
the  more  extensive  was  their  circulation,  and 


the  briefer  consequently  their  existence.  The 
books  of  the  New  Testament  were  written 
after  the  custom  of  the  time  upon  papyrus,  or 
upon  parchment,  finer  and  more  durable,  which 
was  beginning  to  take  its  place,  and  were  in 
the  roll  form.  The  writing  itself,  done  with  a 
reed  and  ink,  was  in  uncial  or  large  letters, 
and  ran  in  continuous  lines,  with  no  spaces  be- 
tween the  words,  no  capitals  or  stops.  The 
heading  of  the  books,  "  According  to  Matthew," 
"  According  to  Luke,"  &c.,  was  added  later. 
Some  epistles  had  their  address  marked  upon 
them,  but  in  others  it  was  inferred  from  the 
contents.  The  title  "catholic"  ("general"  in 
our  English  Bibles)  was  given  to  certain  epis- 
tles in  the  4th  century.  As  copies  of  these  an- 
cient books  multiplied,  they  naturally  varied 
more  or  less  from  the  originals  and  from  each 
other ;  the  copyists  confounding  similar  letters 
or  words,  substituting  a  synonyme  for  a  given 
term,  introducing  something  from  a  parallel 
passage  or  marginal  gloss,  or  making  other  al- 
terations unintentional  or  even  intentional,  as 
the  copyist  tried  to  harmonize  seeming  discrep- 
ancies or  to  explain  what  seemed  obscure. 
These  variations,  small  and  great,  number  not 
less  than  120,000 ;  yet  they  are  mostly  variations 
of  spelling  or  inflection,  often  impossible  to  ex- 
press in  a  translation.  There  are  not  more  than 
1,600  or  2,000  places  where  the  true  reading 
is  at  all  in  doubt,  while  the  doubtful  readings 
which  affect  the  sense  are  much  fewer  still,  and 
those  of  any  dogmatic  importance  can  be  easily 
numbered.  The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 
have  been  classified  according  to  certain  literary 
or  geographical  affinities.  They  were  divided 
into  the  eastern  and  the  western,  or  according  to 
another  description,  into  an  Alexandrine  and  a 
Latin,  an  Asiatic  and  a  Byzantine  text.  The 
Alexandrine  type  of  the  Greek  text  was  in  use 
among  the  oriental  Jewish  Christians  who  used 
the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
Latin  type  is  found  not  only  in  the  Latin  copies, 
but  in  the  Greek  copies  which  the  Latins  used. 
These  groups  were  not  wholly  distinct  from  one 
another,  and  it  is  difficult  to  fix  upon  the  pecu- 
liar reading  that  belongs  to  each.  The  MSS. 
of  the  Byzantine  class  are  most  uniform.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  4th  century  no  single  MS. 
was  known  that  comprised  the  whole  New 
Testament.  At  a  considerably  later  period 
they  were  rare,  and  most  of  these  contained 
also  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek.  The  four 
gospels  were  commonly  written  in  one  collec- 
tion, and  the  Pauline  epistles  in  one.  The 
catholic  epistles  were  classed  with  the  Acts, 
though  sometimes  these  last  two  collections 
and  the  Pauline  were  united.  MSS.  of  the 
Apocalypse  were  the  rarest.  The  gospels  were 
generally  found  in  the  order  in  which  we  have 
them,  though  in  some  copies  they  were  trans- 
posed. After  the  Acts  usually  came  the  cath- 
olic epistles.  The  order  in  which  the  letters 
of  Paul  stood  varied  much.  The  place  of  the 
Apocalypse  was  fixed  by  Athanasius  at  the  end 
of  the  collection,  as  it  stands  at  present.  By 


612 


BIBLE 


the  4th  century  papyrus  had  given  place  to 
parchment,  and  the  form  of  the  roll  to  that  of 
the  book.  Breaks  in  the  line  and  simple  points 
were  used.  To  meet  the  convenience  of  the 
public  lecture,  the  books  were  measured  off 
into  pauses  and  sentences  by  lines,  after  the  same 
manner  with  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. It  was  not  long,  however,  before 
other  divisions  of  the  text  were  adopted.  In 
the  3d  century  Ammonius  in  making  his  har- 
mony of  the  gospels  had  broken  up  the  text 
into  1,165  sections,  and  after  the  5th  century 
his  arrangement  was  indicated  upon  the  mar- 
gin of  nearly  all  the  MSS.  The  gospels  were 
divided  into  chapters  from  a  very  early  period, 
but  the  present  arrangement  originated  in  the 
13th  century  with  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  devised 
it  while  making  a  Latin  concordance.  Erasmus 
noted  it  in  the  margin  of  his  Latin  translation, 
and  it  was  repeated  in  the  Oomplutensian 
Polyglot.  The  subdivision  of  the  chapters  into 
verses  was  introduced  by  Robert  Stephens  in 
1551.  Cursive  or  small  letters  were  not  gen- 
erally substituted  for  the  uncial  till  the  10th 
century.  Uncial  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 
are  numerous  when  compared  with  the  ancient 
MSS.  of  other  works ;  and  year  by  year  new 
ones  are  being  discovered.  The  ages  of  these 
to  within  half  a  century  have  been  ascertained. 
To  the  4th  century  belong  two  or  three :  the 
Sinaitic  codex  (K),  now  at  St.  Petersburg,  ob- 
tained by  Tischendorf  from  the  convent  of  St. 
Catharine,  Mt.  Sinai,  in  1859,  and  since  pub- 
lished in  facsimile  at  the  expense  of  the  empe- 
ror of  Russia  (1862) ;  the  Vatican  codex  (B), 
containing  all  the  New  Testament  except  the 
Apocalypse,  the  epistles  to  Timothy,  Titus,  and 
Philemon,  and  the  last  four  and  a  half  chapters 
of  Hebrews.  This  MS.  was  published  by  Ti- 
schendorf at  Leipsic  in  1867  and  by  papal  au- 
thority at  Rome  in  1868.  To  this  century  per- 
haps belongs  a  palimpsest  in  the  British  mu- 
seum containing  fragments  of  John  xiii.  and 
xvi.,  published  by  Tischendorf.  To  the  5th 
century  belong  seven  MSS. :  the  Alexandrian 
codex  (A),  presented  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Charles  I.  in  1628,  and  preserved 
in  the  British  museum,  and  published  in  1786 
and  1860 ;  the  Ephrem  palimpsest  (C),  in  the 
imperial  library  at  Paris,  containing  in  64  leaves 
fragments  of  the  Septuagint,  and  in  145  two 
thirds  of  the  New  Testament,  over  which  had 
been  written  the  works  of  St.  Ephrem  the  Syr- 
ian, deciphered  and  published  by  Tischendorf  in 
1 843 ;  and  five  other  fragmentary  MSS.  To  the 
6th  century  belong  18  MSS. ;  among  them  Beza's 
codex  (D),  a  Greek-Latin  MS.  of  part  of  the 
New  Testament  presented  byBezain  1581  to  the 
university  of  Cambridge ;  the  Codex  purpurem 
(N)  written  with  stiver  letters  on  purple  vel- 
lum ;  and  other  MSS.  of  great  interest.  From 
the  7th  century  we  have  only  several  frag- 
ments of  MSS.  To  the  8th  century  are  as- 
signed 9,  one  of  the  most  valuable  being  the 
MS.  (L)  62  in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris 
used  by  Robert  Stephens.  The  9th  century 


has  left  us  20  MSS.,  besides  four  which  are  as- 
signed to  the  9th  or  10th.  From  the  10th 
century  we  have  five.  These  uncial  MSS. 
(about  75)  have  been  deciphered,  some  of  thum 
with  great  difficulty ;  most  of  them  have  been 
accurately  collated,  and  the  text  of  many  has 
been  published.  Of  them  all,  only  one,  the 
recently  discovered  Sinaitic  MS.,  now  has  the 
New  Testament  complete,  though  three  others 
originally  had  the  whole,  hut  now  lack  some 
parts.  Four  others  have  the  gospels  complete, 
and  four  nearly;  and  about  40  others  have 
portions  of  the  gospels,  larger  or  smaller.  The 
other  New  Testament  books  are  found  more  or 
less  complete  in  some,  while  in  others  they 
are  wanting.  Besides  the  75  uncial  MSS.  above 
noticed,  there  are  some  65  lectionaries,  or  se- 
lect portions  of  the  gospels  or  epistles  for 
church  services,  written  in  uncial  letters,  and 
1,215  MSS.  of  some  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  248  lectionaries  in  cursive  letters. — 
Most  eminent  scholars  have  aided  in  establish- 
ing the  text  of  the  New  Testament :  among  the 
Greeks,  Irenseus,  Clement,  Origen,  Athanasius, 
Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  the  Cyrils,  Chrysostom, 
and  Theodoret;  among  the  Latins,  Cyprian, 
Tertullian,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Rutinus. 
The  name  of  Bede  brings  us  nearer  home. 
Alcuin  endeavored  to  purify  the  Latin  text, 
and  Photius  labored  in  the  9th  century,  Suidas 
in  the  10th,  and  Theophylact,  CEcumenius,  and 
others  in  subsequent  ages.  Yet  50  years  after 
the  invention  of  printing  no  attempt  had  been 
made  to  print  the  original  text  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  fifth  volume  of  the  Compln- 
tensian  Polyglot  contained  the  original  Greek 
based  on  MSS.  of  no  special  value,  so  far  as 
may  be  judged.  This  volume  was  printed  first 
of  the  whole  set  in  1514,  but  was  not  issued 
until  the  rest  were  finished  in  1522.  Before 
this,  in  1516,  Erasmus  had  issued  the  first 
Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
at  Basel,  constructing  his  text  from  five  J1SS. 
there.  A  second  edition,  changed  in  some 
hundred  passages,  appeared  in  1519,  a  third  in 
1522,  and  a  fourth  in  1527,  further  altered  to 
conform  to  the  Complutensian,  and  repeated  in 
1535  with  little  change.  For  100  years  the 
Complutensian  and  Erasmian  texts  were  often 
reprinted  with  slight  alterations.  Famous 
editors  of  the  text  were  Robert  Stephens,  a 
learned  printer  of  Paris  (1539-'51),  and  Theo- 
dore Beza  (1565-'98).  The  Elzevirs  at  Ley- 
den  (1624-'41)  and  at  Amsterdam  (1656)  gave 
what  is  known  as  the  "received  text,"  relying 
upon  Stephens  and  Beza.  Bishop  Walton's  Lon- 
don Polyglot  of  1657,  Bishop  Fell's  Greek  Tes- 
tament (Oxford,  1 658)  and  Dr.  John  Mill's  Greek 
New  Testament  (Oxford,  1707)  gave  various 
readings  and  versions  from  many  ancient  MSS. 
under  the  received  text.  These  were  the  pre- 
cursors of  modern  critical  editions.  Bengel 
(Tubingen,  1734),  Wetstein  (Amsterdam,  1751), 
and  Griesbach  (Halle,  1744  and  1806)  made 
great  advances  in  critical  perfection.  The  edU 
tions  of  Knapp,  Tittmann,  Hahn,  and  Theile 


BIBLE 


613 


are  chiefly  based  on  Griesbach's.  Greenfield 
followed  Mill,  but  gave  Griesbach's  principal 
variations.  Scholz  (Leipsic,  1830-'36)  made  a 
wide  collation  of  MSS.,  and  Lachmann  a  very 
critical  study  of  a  few  MSS.  The  late  Dean 
Alford  and  Dr.  Tregelles  in  England,  and 
Tischendorf  in  Germany,  are  among  the  most 
eminent  laborers  in  our  own  day.  Tischendorf's 
first  edition  (Leipsic,  1841)  followed  Griesbach 
and  Lachmann,  but  subsequently  he  carried  out 
a  most  elaborate  plan  of  travel  and  investiga- 
tion, and  published  its  results  in  his  second 
edition  (Leipsic,  1849).  Other  editions  have 
followed  in  1850,  1854,  and  1855-'9,  the  last 
giving  valuable  accounts  of  his  critical  labors, 
and  presenting  the  best  text  hitherto  published. 
A  new  edition  begun  in  1864  is  nearly  com- 
pleted (1873).  Tregelles  has  published  (1855- 
'70)  an  edition  from  collation  and  comparison 
of  MSS.  of  all  the  Greek  fathers  down  to  the 
Nicene  council.  His  edition  is  incomplete,  be- 
ing interrupted  by  the  state  of  his  health.  The 
various  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament 
bear  conclusive  witness  to  the  genuineness  of 
the  text  in  every  matter  of  importance.  There 
has  been  no  material  corruption  in  the  sacred 
record. — The  ancient  translations  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  are  in  some  respects  of 
great  value.  The  oldest  of  these  and  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  called  the  Septuagint  (LXX.)  from 
its  72  translators,  or  perhaps  from  the  72 
members  of  the  Sanhedrim  who  sanctioned  it. 
It  was  commenced  by  Jews  of  Alexandria 
about  280  B.  0.,  and  was  finished  in  the 
course  of  years  evidently  by  different  hands. 
The  Pentateuch  is  pronounced  by  scholars  the 
best  portion  of  the  work ;  other  portions  are 
unequal ;  here  and  there  it  is  considered  to  be- 
tray an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage. It  contains  most  of  the  books  called  the 
Apocrypha.  (See  APOCRYPHA).  The  Greek 
Jews,  in  the  declining  state  of  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  made  great  use  of  the  Septuagint,  and 
even  the  Jews  of  Palestine  held  it  in  high  esteem 
until  the  Christians  in  the  second  century  quo- 
ted it  against  them.  They  then  denied  its 
agreement  with  the  Hebrew,  and  it  became 
odious  to  them.  In  Jerome's  day  there  were 
three  differing  yet  authorized  editions  of  the 
Septuagint  in  use :  one  in  Palestine,  one  at  Al- 
exandria, and  one  in  Constantinople.  Hence 
the  corruptions  that  mar  the  MSS.  in  our  pos- 
session. The  Septuagint  was  the  parent  of 
many  translations  in  Latin,  Syriac,  Ethiopic, 
Coptic,  Armenian,  Georgian,  Slavonic,  and 
Arabic.  Many  oriental  versions  were  made 
from  the  Hebrew,  of  uncertain  date ;  among 
them  the  Targums  in  Chaldee  (see  TARGUMS), 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  the  Syriac  transla- 
tion called  the  Peshito  or  "  simple,"  one  of  the 
oldest  translations  of  the  Bible,  several  in  Ara- 
bic, and  one  in  Persian.  There  were  also  other 
Greek  versions,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
was  that  of  Aquilo,  made  about  A.  D.  135,  and 
valuable  on  account  of  its  anxious  literalness. 


Fragments  of  it  are  preserved  in  Origen's  Hex- 
apla.  But  after  the  Septuagint  the  most  famous 
version  from  the  Hebrew  was  the  Latin  version 
of  Jerome,  the  basis  of  the  present  Vulgata 
Jerome,  who  had  previously  undertaken  a  re- 
vision of  the  old  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  called  the  Itala,  revised  the  Psalter 
also  from  the  Septuagint  about  383.  About  389 
he  began  a  new  version  from  the  Hebrew,  and 
completed  the  work  about  405.  The  work, 
though  in  parts  hastily,  was  on  the  whole  well 
done.  The  translator  made  use  of  the  Greek 
versions  that  were  before  him,  as  well  as  of  the 
Arabic  and  the  Syriac,  always,  however,  com- 
paring them  with  the  Hebrew.  The  transla- 
tion, having  to  contend  with  a  superstitious  rev- 
erence for  the  Septuagint,  met  with  a  doubtful 
reception,  and  made  its  way  slowly  into  favor, 
but  in  the  course  of  200  or  300  years  it  was 
highly  regarded  at  Rome  and  in  other  places, 
but  not  so  highly  as  to  escape  corruption  from 
careless  copyists,  indiscreet  revisers,  ambitious 
critics,  and  reckless  theologians.  The  old 
Vulgate  (the  Itala)  and  the  new  injured  each 
other.  Alcuin,  early  in  the  9th  century,  bid- 
den, and  as  some  think  aided  by  Charlemagne, 
revised  and  corrected  Jerome's  version  by  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  originals.  Lanfranc,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  llth  century, 
revised  it  again.  The  council  of  Trent  (1546), 
having  received  a  report  from  a  commission 
that  the  text  was  very  corrupt,  so  that  only 
the  pope  could  restore  it,  declared  that  "the 
old  and  Vulgate  edition  .  .  .  shall  be  held  as 
authentic,  .  .  .  and  that  no  one,  on  any  pre- 
text whatever,  may  dare  or  presume  to  reject 
it."  The  council  also  decreed  that  the  edition 
"  should  be  printed  as  accurately  as  possible." 
As  it  had  become  necessary  to  prepare  an 
authentic  edition  of  the  authorized  version, 
two  popes,  Pius  IV.  and  V.,  addressed  them- 
selves to  this  task;  learned  men  were  assem- 
bled, a  printing  press  was  erected  in  the  Vat- 
ican, a  pontiff  looked  over  the  printed  sheets, 
and  the  work  was  published  in  1590;  but 
it  proved  to  be  so  imperfect  that  Gregory 
XIV.  called  another  assembly  of  scholars  to 
make  another  revision.  This  time  the  duty 
was  more  thoroughly  discharged,  and  the 
BiUia,  Sacra  Vulg.  Ed,.  Tat.  V.  Pont.  Max. 
JUMU  recog.,  &c.,  the  basis  of  every  subsequent 
edition,  was  issued  in  1592.  The  famous  Bel- 
larmin,  one  of  the  translators,  wrote  the  pref- 
ace.— Translations  of  the  New  Testament  were 
made  very  early  into  all  the  tongues  then  spo- 
ken by  Christians.  A  few  words  upon  some 
of  the  more  modern  versions  will  be  in  place 
here.  In  Germany,  Martin  Luther  spent  ten 
laborious  years,  from  1522  to  1532,  in  execu- 
ting that  wonderful  translation  which  has  done 
so  much  for  the  Bible  and  for  the  language 
into  which  it  was  rendered.  Several  portions 
of  the  Scriptures  he  had  translated  into  Ger- 
man before,  for  the  use  of  the  people,  viz., 
the  penitential  and  other  Psalms,  the  Lord's 
prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  other 


014 


BIBLE 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


passages,  which  were  often  printed.  It  was 
not  till  toward  the  close  of  1521  that  he  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  translating  the  whole ;  but 
having  commenced,  the  work  proceeded  rap- 
idly. The  New  Testament  was  finished  first; 
in  a  year  came  the  Pentateuch ;  another  year 
completed  the  historical  books  and  the  Hagio- 
grapha;  two  years  more  brought  Jonah  and 
llaliakkuk;  and  the  prophets  were  finished  in 
1532.  It  was  all  Luther's  work.  As  the  foun- 
dation he  used  the  Brescia  edition  of  1494  (his 
copy  is  still  preserved  at  Berlin),  and  with  this 
the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  other  Latin 
versions,  while  for  the  New  Testament  he  took 
the  text  of  Erasmus,  1519.  Many  versions  have 
been  made  since  Luther's  in  Germany,  but  for 
vigor  and  simplicity  his  has  not  been  sur- 
passed, not  even  by  that  of  August!  and  De 
Wette.  .  Portions  of  the  Bible  were  translated 
into  Saxon  by  Aldhelm,  Egbert,  Bede,  and  oth- 
ers, between  the  8th  and  10th  centuries.  An 
English  version  of  the  Psalms  is  supposed  to 
have  been  made  in  1290.  Wycliffe  finished  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  about  1380. 
That  of  the  Old  Testament,  begun  by  his  coadju- 
tor Nicholas  de  Hereford  about  1382,  was  com- 
pleted probably  by  Wycliffe  before  1384.  The 
revision  made  by  John  Purvey  and  others 
about  1388  nearly  displaced  Wycliffe's,  and  was 
widely  circulated  in  MS.  among  all  classes,  un- 
til superseded  by  the  printed  versions  of  the 
16th  century.  The  first  volume  printed  by 
Gutenberg  (1450-'55)  was  the  Latin  Bible, 
and  hardly  was  it  completed  when  versions  be- 
gan to  multiply.  In  1524,  William  Tyndale, 
"finding  no  place  to  do  it  in  all  England," 
went  to  the  continent,  and  there,  at  Worms,  in 
1525,  printed  his  version  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  original  Greek.  Coverdale,  his  fel- 
low laborer,  finished  his  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  1535,  and  this  was  followed  by 
several  editions  of  "Matthew's  Bible,"  called 
also  the  "Great"  Bible,  or  "Cranmer's,"  ac- 
cording to  its  editors.  This  was  the  authorized 
version  under  Edward  VI.  The  "  Genevan  Bi- 
ble," the  first  English  Bible  with  Roman  type, 
verses,  and  no  Apocrypha,  was  a  new  and  care- 
ful revision  from  the  original  tongues  by  the 
English  refugees  at  Geneva  (1560,  and  London, 
1576).  Bishop  Parker  undertook  another  ver- 
sion by  the  help  of  eminent  scholars,  which 
was  called  the  "  Bishops'  Bible,"  published  in 
1568,  with  preface  and  notes.  Its  basis  was 
the  "Great  Bible,"  and  the  "Genevan."  A 
little  later  appeared  the  Roman  Catholic  ver- 
sion known  as  the  Douay  Bible,  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  1582,  at  Rheims,  the  Old  Testament 
in  1609-'10,  at  Douay,  upon  the  basis  of  the 
authorized  Vulgate.  Our  present  English  ver- 
sion was  made  by  direction  of  James  I.,  who, 
on  motion  of  Dr.  Reynolds  of  Oxford,  in  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court,  commissioned 
54  divines  to  undertake  the  labor.  Seven  of 
the  54  died  before  the  task  was  commenced, 
but  in  1606  the  books  were  distributed  among 
the  remainder  in  six  portions,  and  the  transla- 


lation  was  diligently  pressed.  The  "  Bishop's 
Bible"  was  the  basis,  faithfully  compared  with 
Tyndale's,  Coverdale's,  Matthew's,  Cranmer's, 
and  the  Geneva  version,  and  with  the  original, 
and  corrected  where  defective.  '  The  whole 
was  completed  and  sent  from  the  press  of  Ro- 
bert Barker  in  1611.  This  version  has  now 
been  in  use  260  years,  and  its  faithfulness,  pure 
and  strong  English,  simple  yet  dignified  style, 
and  its  common  acceptance  by  persons  of  alt 
classes  and  all  shades  of  religious  belief,  have 
given  it  a  combination  of  advantages  over  any 
rival.  Many  have  felt,  however,  that  it  could 
be  improved  in  clearness  and  accuracy.  The 
late  Dean  Alford  especially  urged  a  new  revi- 
sion; and  the  convocation  of  Canterbury,  in 
February,  1870,  appointed  a  committee  for  this 
work.  This  committee  comprises  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Biblical  scholars  of  the  church 
of  England,  and  has  invited  the  cooperation  of 
other  eminent  scholars  both  in  England  and 
America.  The  principles  of  revision  have  been 
adopted,  and  the  work  is  now  in  progress 
(1873).  A  new  version  has  also  been  long  in 
progress  under  the  care  of  the  American  Bible 
union.  (See  BIBLE  SOCIETIES.) 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES,  associations  for  publishing 
and  circulating  the  Bible  among  the  people. 
The  "Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in 
New  England  "  bore  the  expense  of  printing 
Eliot's  Indian  Bible  in  1C63;  the  "Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,"  established 
in  1698,  published  before  1800  an  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  in  Arabic,  one  of  the  Bible  in 
Manks,  and  four  of  the  Bible  in  Welsh,  besides 
English  Bibles,  prayer  books,  &c.  But  these 
and  other  similar  societies  in  Great  Britain 
did  not  make  the  publication  and  circulation  of 
the  Bible  their  main  work.  The  Canstein  Bi- 
ble institute  (Die  Ca-niteinsche  Bibelamtalf), 
founded  in  1712  by  the  baron  of  Canstein,  to 
print  and  circulate  Bibles  at  a  cheap  rate,  and 
forming  a  part  of  Francke's  institute  at  Halle, 
Germany,  issued  from  1712  to  1863  5,273.623 
Bibles  and  2,630,000  New  Testaments.  The 
"Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society"  was 
formed  in  London  in  1780,  to  supply  the  British 
army  and  navy  with  the  Bible.  The  French 
Bible  society,  formed  in  London  in  1792,  was 
prevented  by  the  French  revolution  from  ac- 
complishing its  object,  the  distribution  of  the 
Scriptures  in  France.  A  new  era  in  Bible  dis- 
tribution, however,  commenced  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  "  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci- 
ety "  (1804).  There  had  long  been  a  great 
scarcity  of  Bibles  in  Wales.  The  last  edition 
of  10,000  Welsh  Bibles,  ordered  in  1796  by  the 
society  for  promoting  Christian  knowledge, 
and  actually  published  in  1799,  was  soon  ex- 
hausted. The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles,  of  Bala, 
a  leader  among  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists, after  vain  efforts,  first  to  obtain  from 
this  society  another  edition,  and  then  to  pub- 
lish an  edition  by  subscription,  went  to  Lon- 
don in  1802,  where  he  was  introduced  to  the 
executive  committee  of  the  religious  tract  soci- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


615 


ety  (formed  in  1799),  related  to  them  the  des- 
titution of  Wales  and  his  desire  for  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Welsh  Scriptures,  and  proposed  to 
organize  a  society  for  the  purpose.  One  of  the 
committee,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Hughes  (Baptist), 
replied,  "Certainly;  and  if  for  Wales,  why  not 
for  the  world  ?  "  On  this  idea  the  committee 
acted.  Mr.  Hughes  sent  out  a  call  for  a  meet- 
ing to  consider  the  project,  and  the  Rev.  C.  F. 
A.  Steinkopf  (German  Lutheran  in  London) 
offered  to  gather  information  concerning  the 
destitution  of  the  Scriptures  in  foreign  lands, 
while  others  were  to  collect  similar  facts  at 
home.  The  meeting,  held  at  the  London  Tav- 
ern, March  7,  1804,  consisted  of  about  300  of 
all  denominations,  churchmen  and  dissenters, 
including  Quakers.  Dr.  Steinkopf 's  report  dis- 
closed an  unexpected  state  of  things,  and  many 
influential  persons  present  immediately  lent 
their  cooperation  to  the  work.  The  society 
commenced  operations  with  a  subscribed  fund 
of  £700,  and  appointed  a  president  (Lord  Teign- 
mouth)  and  other  officers,  with  an  executive 
committee  of  36  laymen,,  of  whom  15  were  of 
the  church  of  England,  15  dissenters,  and  6  resi- 
dent foreigners.  The  Rev.  Joseph  Hughes,  the 
Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  (who  was  soon  succeeded  by 
the  Rev.  John  Owen,  both  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land), and  Dr.  Steinkopf  were  the  secretaries. 
The  fundamental  law  declares  the  society's  ex- 
clusive object  to  be  to  promote  the  circulation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note  or  com- 
ment, both  at  home  and  in  foreign  lands,  and 
restricts  the  English  copies,  for  circulation  at 
home,  to  the  authorized  version.  The  mem- 
bers pay  a  guinea  annually,  and  have  a  discount 
on  Bibles.  The  first  object  was  to  supply 
Wales,  for  which  the  society  at  once  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  20,000  Bibles  and  5,000 
Testaments.  The  society  soon  extended  its  la- 
bors to  the  continent,  the  Turkish  empire,  In- 
dia, and  other  parts  of  the  world.— Roman 
Catholics  for  a  time  cooperated  with  Protes- 
tants in  this  work ;  but  their  society,  formed  at 
Ratisbon  in  1805  for  translating  into  German 
and  circulating  the  Bible,  was  abolished  by  a 
papal  bull  in  1817;  and  another  at  Presburg, 
for  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  Hungarian, 
was  similarly  dealt  with.  The  Russian  Bible 
Society,  authorized  by  an  imperial  ukase  in 
1813,  was  suspended  by  the  same  authority  in 
1826,  and  a  Protestant  Bible  society  was  es- 
tablished in  its  place.  The  kings  of  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Sweden,  and  Wurtemberg  have  been 
patrons  of  Bible  societies.  Such  societies  have 
been  established  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  civ- 
ilized globe.  The  British  and  foreign  Bible 
society  alone  had  in  1870  4,263  auxiliaries, 
branches,  and  associations  in  Great  Britain 
connected  with  it,  besides  527  auxiliaries  and 
branches  of  the  Hibernian  Bible  society,  1,053 
auxiliaries  and  branches  in  the  colonies,  and 
numerous  agencies  and  depots  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  same  society  has  issued,  up 
to  1872,  63,299,738  volumes,  of  which  3,903,067 
volumes  were  in  the  last  year,  its  entire  re- 


ceipts in  cash  for  the  same  year  being  £180,- 
314  19*.  2rf.  The  society  had  then  directly 
promoted  the  translation,  printing,  or  dis- 
tribution of  the  Scriptures  in  150  languages  or 
dialects,  and  indirectly  in  50  others,  making 
200  in  all. — The  first  Bible  society  formed  in 
the  United  States  was  the  Philadelphia  Bible 
society  (1808),  which  was  followed  by  the  Bi- 
ble societies  of  Connecticut  (May,  1809),  Mas- 
sachusetts (July,  1809),  New  Jersey  (latter 
part  of  1809),  New  York  city  (1810),  and 
others,  to  the  number  of  50  or  60  before  1816. 
The  "  American  Bible  Society  "  was  formed  in 
New  York  in  May,  1816,  by  a  convention  of 
delegates  from  35  local  Bible  societies  and  4 
from  the  society  of  Friends,  making  60  persons 
in  all.  The  constitution  declares :  "  The  sole 
object  shall  be  to  encourage  a  wider  circulation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note  or  com- 
ment. The  only  copies  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, to  be  circulated  by  the  society,  shall  be 
of  the  version  now  in  common  use."  "Each 
subscriber  of  $3  annually  shall  be  a  member. 
Each  subscriber  of  $30  at  one  time  shall  be  a 
member  for  life.  Each  subscriber  of  $150 
at  one  time,  or  who  shall  by  one  additional 
payment  increase  his  original  subscription  to 
$150,  shall  be  a  director  for  life ;  but  [this  was 
added  in  1872]  he  shall  not  be  such  director 
when  he  is  in  receipt  of  any  salary,  emolu- 
ment, or  compensation  for  services  from  the 
society."  The  original  officers  of  the  society 
were  the  Hon.  Ellas  Boudinot,  LL.  D.,  presi- 
dent; 23  vice  presidents;  the  Rev.  John  M. 
Mason,  D.  D.,  secretary  for  foreign  correspon- 
dence; the  Rev.  John  B.  Romeyn,  D.  D.,  sec- 
retary for  domestic  correspondence;  John 
Pintard,  LL.  D.,  recording  secretary  and  ac- 
countant ;  Richard  Varick,  treasurer ;  and  36 
managers.  All  the  original  officers  served 
gratuitously.  The  first  paid  officer  was  John 
Nitchie,  agent  and  accountant  (1819),  subse- 
quently general  agent  and  assistant  treasurer. 
The  Rev.  John  C.  Brigham,  D.  D.,  assistant 
secretary  1826-'8,  and  corresponding  secretary 
1828-'62,  was  in  his  long  service  almost  iden- 
tified with  the  society.  The  presidents  since 
Mr.  Boudinot  have  been  the  Hon.  John  Jay, 
1821-'8  ;  the  Hon.  Richard  Varick  (first  treas- 
urer), 1828-'31 ;  the  Hon.  John  Cotton  Smith, 
1831-'45;  the  Hon.  Theodore  Frelinghuysen, 
1846-'62;  the  Hon.  Luther  Bradish,  1862-'3; 
James  Lenox,  Esq.,  1864-'71 ;  Wm.  II.  Allen, 
LL.  D.,  1872.  The  Methodist  Bible  society 
was  dissolved  in  1836,  and  since  1840  one  of 
the  secretaries  has  been  from  that  denomina- 
tion. The  present  secretaries  (1873)  are  the 
Rev.  Joseph  Holdich,  D.  D.,  elected  in  1849, 
and  the  Rev.  Edward  W.  Oilman,  elected  in 
1871 ;  the  treasurer  is  William  Whitlock,  jr., 
elected  in  1840;  the  assistant  treasurer,  An- 
drew L.  Taylor,  elected  in  1869;  general  agent, 
Caleb  T.  Rowe,  elected  in  1854.  The  society's 
receipts  for  the  first  year  were  $37,779  35,  and 
it  issued  6,410  Bibles  and  Testaments;  for  the 
56th  year,  ending  March  30,  1872,  its  receipts 


616 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


were  $689,923  47,  and  its  volumes  issued 
(Bibles  or  parts  of  Bibles)  were  1,100,871. 
For  the  whole  56  years,  its  total  receipts  were 
$14,980,331  15,  and  its  whole  number  of  vol- 
umes issued  was  28,780,969.  The  receipts  for 
the  second  year  were  the  least  of  all,  $36,- 
564  30 ;  and  those  for  the  54th  year,  $747,- 
058  69,  the  largest.  The  number  of  volumes 
issued  the  first  year,  6,410,  was  the  smallest, 
and  that  of  the  49th  year,  1,830,756,  the  largest. 
For  25  years  the  society  was  unincorporated ; 
but  the  legislature  of  New  York  granted  an  act 
of  incorporation  March  25,  1841,  and  by  act 
of  April  13,  1852,  granted  special  authority  to 
purchase,  hold,  and  convey  its  real  estate  on 
Astor  place,  with  all  buildings  and  improve- 
ments that  might  be  put  upon  it.  The  society, 
having  previously  occupied  various  rooms  for 
its  business,  erected  in  1822  a  building,  50  ft. 
front  by  100  deep,  long  known  as  115  Nassau 
street,  and  occupied  it,  with  an  addition  made 
subsequently,  till  1853.  The  society  needing 
more  room,  the  cornerstone  of  the  "  Bible 
House"  in  Astor  place  was  laid  June  29, 
1852,  and  the  new  building  was  occupied 
in  the  early  part  of  1853.  The  edifice  and 
ground  cost  about  $300,000.  The  building 
covers  a  square  of  about  three  fourths  of  an 
acre,  fronting  on  four  streets,  with  an  open 
court  in  the  centre,  is  six  stories  high,  built  of 
brick  with  freestone  copings,  and  commands 
attention  by  its  magnitude  and  proportions. 
In  1847  the  managers  of  the  American  Bible 
society  found  that  their  Bibles  and  those  of 
England  had  many  small  discrepancies  which 
embarrassed  the  proof-readers.  A  thorough 
collation  was  therefore  made  by  the  Rev. 
James  W.  McLane,  D.  D.,  under  the  direction 
of  the  committee  on  versions,  of  the  society's 
royal  octavo  Bible,  with  four  leading  British 
editions  (London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Edinburgh),  and  the  edition  of  1611.  This 
collation,  which  was  finished  May  1,  1851,  ex- 
tended to  all  the  details  of  typography,  in- 
cluding orthography,  capital  letters,  words  in 
italics,  punctuation,  brackets,  hyphens,  &c. ; 
and  though  the  number  of  variations  or  dis- 
crepancies noted  in  the  text  and  punctuation 
of  the  six  copies  compared  fell  but  little  short 
of  24,000,  not  one  of  the  entire  number  marred 
the  integrity  of  the  text,  or  affected  any  doc- 
trine or  precept  of  the  Bible.  In  reducing 
these  variations  to  one  uniform  standard,  the 
committee  made  a  few  changes,  which  they 
considered  typographical  corrections  of  the 
text,  and  also  modernized  somewhat  the  chap- 
ter headings  and  other  accessories  of  the  text ; 
but,  as  this  part  of  their  work  gave  dissatisfac- 
tion in  some  quarters,  the  managers  concluded, 
in  January,  1858,  so  far  to  modify  the  new 
standard  as  to  omit  every  alteration  which  had 
not  the  sanction  of  previous  editions.  This 
was  accordingly  done  in  1858-'60,  and  the  vol- 
umes now  published  by  the  society  are  consid- 
ered remarkably  free  from  errors  of  the  press, 
and  are  conformed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 


best  editions  which  have  been  in  circulation 
for  generations.  The  society  does  not  publish 
the  Apocrypha.  Its  managers  are  36  laymen, 
belonging  in  1871  to  seven  different  denomina- 
tions ;  and  any  minister  of  the  gospel  who  is 
a  member  of  the  society  may  meet  and  vote 
with  its  board  of  managers.  It  sells  and  dis- 
tributes its  books  in  this  country,  as  far  as 
possible,  through  its  auxiliary  societies,  which 
(1873)  number  about  2,000,  with  probably 
5,000  or  more  branch  organizations  connected 
with  them.  At  the  50th  annual  meeting  in 
May,  18C6,  the  society  resolved  to  undertake 
without  delay  a  third  general  supply  of  the 
whole  country  (the  two  previous  being  in  1829 
and  1856),  and  this  undertaking  has  been  vigor- 
ously prosecuted  with  the  intention  of  supply- 
ing the  Bible  to  every  family  willing  to  receive 
it.  The  society  also  aids  other  benevolent  in- 
stitutions by  making  grants  of  money  or  books 
for  use  at  home  or  abroad,  or  furnishing  stere- 
otype plates  or  other  assistance.  It  has  three 
agencies  of  its  own  and  about  55  colporteurs 
in  foreign  lands ;  it  has  for  many  years  offered 
the  aid  requisite  to  publish  new  translations 
made  by  American  missionaries  of  the  Old 
Testament  or  the  New,  or  any  entire  Gospel 
or  other  book  of  the  Bible ;  it  has  printed  the 
Bible,  or  portions  of  it,  in  about  27  new  trans- 
lations, besides  publishing,  at  home  or  abroad, 
about  28  others ;  it  has  prepared  and  published 
the  entire  Bible  in  raised  letters  for  the  blind 
(8  folio  volumes  costing  $20,  or  16  folio  vol- 
umes costing  $28) ;  and  it  publishes  accounts 
of  its  doings  in  its  annual  reports  and  monthly  in 
the  "  Bible  Society  Record." — The  "  American 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  "  was  organized  in 
New  York  May  13,  1836,  and  was  incorporated 
by  the  legislature  of  New  York  April  12,  1848. 
It  originated  in  a  secession  of  the  Baptists  from 
the  American  Bible  society,  after  the  latter 
society  refused  aid  to  the  Bengalee  and  Bur- 
mese versions  made  by  Baptist  missionaries, 
because  in  these  versions  the  Greek  word  ftatrTi^a 
and  its  cognates  were  translated  "immerse," 
"  immersion, "&c.  The  Rev.  Spencer  H.  Cone, 
D.  D.,  who  had  been  a  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  society,  was  the  first  president  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  society,  and 
the  Rev.  Charles  G.  Sommers,  D.  D.,  its  first 
corresponding  secretary.  The  constitutions  of 
the  two  societies  are  nearly  alike,  except  that 
the  managers  of  the  latter  are  required  to  be 
Baptists.  The  society  has  primarily  aided  the 
missionaries  of  the  American  Baptist  missionary 
union  and  kindred  societies  in  translating,  re- 
vising, printing,  and  distributing  the  Scriptures 
in  foreign  lands,  its  surplus  funds  being  applied, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  managers,  to  Bible 
operations  in  all  lands.  It  has  employed  Bible 
readers  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Mexico, 
Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden,  China,  Greece, 
&c.  It  publishes  and  circulates  in  this  coun- 

j  try  the  commonly  received  or  King  James's 
version.     In  36  years  it  has  collected  and  ex- 

|  pended  more  than  $1,100,000  in  Bible  circula- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


617 


tion,  published  the  Scriptures  in  40  different 
languages,  and  circulated  4,000,000  volumes  in 
our  own  and  foreign  lands.  "The  Bible  Ad- 
vocate "  is  its  monthly  periodical.  Its  officers 
for  1872  are  the  Hon.  D.  M.  AVilson,  president ; 
the  Rev.  A.  D.  Gillette,  D.  D.,  corresponding 
secretary;  U.  D.  Ward,  treasurer.  —  "The 
American  Bible  Union  "  was  organized  in  New 
York,  June  10,  1850.  Its  object  is  "  to  procure 
and  circulate  the  most  faithful  versions  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  in  all  languages,  throughout 
the  world."  Its  founders  seceded  from  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  society  May  23, 
1850,  when  that  body  decided  that  it  was  not 
its  province  or  duty  to  revise  the  English  Bible, 
nor  to  procure  a  revision  of  it  from  others ;  and 
that  in  its  future  issues  it  would  only  circulate 
the  existing  commonly  received  version.  The 
membership  is  composed  of  voluntary  contrib- 
utors, $30  constituting  a  member,  $100  a  direc- 
tor for  life.  The  field  of  its  operations  is  the 
world.  It  has  aided  extensively  in  the  prepara- 
tion or  circulation  of  versions  made  on  its  princi- 
ples, for  the  Chinese,  Karens,  Siamese,  French, 
Spanish,  Italians,  Germans,  and  English.  But 
the  primary  aim  of  the  union  is  to  prepare  a 
thorough  and  faithful  revision  of  the  common 
English  version.  To  accomplish  this  it  has  em- 
ployed the  aid  of  scholars  of  nine  evangelical 
denominations.  Though  mainly  composed  of 
Baptists,  it  professes  to  act  without  reference 
to  denominational  differences.  The  principle 
adopted  for  the  guidance  of  translators  is : 
Express  in  language  most  readily  understood 
by  the  people  "  the  exact  meaning  of  the  in- 
spired original."  No  views  of  expediency 
are  allowed  to  withstand  the  invariable  ope- 
ration of  this  rule.  The  New  Testament  has 
been  subjected  to  three  consecutive  revisions, 
the  first  extending  through  a  period  of  eight 
years,  the  second  of  four,  and  the  third  of  a 
little  more  than  two  years.  No  expense  has 
been  spared  in  procuring  books  or  supplying 
every  possible  aid  for  the  greatest  perfection 
of  the  work.  The  book  of  Job  has  been  re- 
vised and  published  under  two  different  forms : 
the  first  embracing  the  common  version,  the 
Hebrew,  and  the  revised  version,  accompa- 
nied with  philological  notes ;  the  second  con- 
fined to  the  revision  and  notes  for  the  English 
reader.  Genesis  and  the  Psalms  have  been 
issued,  each  in  a  single  volume,  combining 
the  notes  for  the  scholar  and  the  English  read- 
er. Proverbs  has  lately  been  issued  in  the 
same  form  as  Job.  Exodus,  Joshua,  Ruth, 
Judges,  1  and  2  Samuel,  1  and  2  Kings,  1  and  2 
Chronicles,  have  been  revised,  and  the  first 
four  of  these  books  are  now  (1873)  undergoing 
revision  for  the  press.  The  Bible  union  has 
also  prepared  a  "  Bible  Primer  "  especially  for 
the  freedmen  in  the  south.  It  has  made  two 
translations  of  the  Testament  into  the  Chinese 
language,  one  in  the  character,  and  the  other 
in  the  Ningpo  colloquial.  Its  Spanish  Testa- 
ment has  undergone  three  revisions,  and  is  now 
widely  circulated  in  Spain  and  Mexico.  Its 


Italian  Testament  is  undergoing  revision  in 
Italy.  The  number  of  copies  of  Scriptures 
which  it  has  issued,  or  furnished  the  means  for 
issuing,  in  all  languages,  exceeds  a  million. — 
The  "Bible  Revision  Association,"  organized 
at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  April  2,  1853,  and  after- 
ward removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  suspended 
operations  in  the  early  part  of  1860,  and  passed 
over  its  books  to  the  American  Bible  union. 
— The  history  of  Bible  societies  would  be  in- 
complete without  mention  of  the  controversy 
with  regard  to  the  Apocrypha,  in  which  the 
European  societies  were  involved  from  about 
1811,  and  which  was  not  finally  settled  till  1827. 
The  one  idea  of  Bible  societies,  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures  without  note  or  comment,  had 
to  a  certain  extent  engaged  all  parties  indiscrim- 
inately, and  especially  all  parties  of  the  refor- 
mation. The  Roman  Catholic  church  had  a 
different  canon  of  Scripture  from  the  Protes- 
tant. On  the  continent  various  causes  had 
conspired  to  separate  the  Protestants  less  in 
this  matter  from  the  Catholics  than  their  breth- 
ren in  Great  Britain.  Consequently,  on  the 
continent,  the  Catholic  canon  was  in  use  among 
Protestants.  At  first  the  London  society  had 
connived  at  this  difference  of  sentiment,  or  at 
least  had  not  allowed  itself  to  interfere  with  its 
free  exercise.  Thus  the  German  auxiliary  so- 
cieties had  from  the  outset  purchased  for  cir- 
culation the  Canstein  Bible,  in  which  the  apoc- 
ryphal books  were  intermingled  with  the  ca- 
nonical (Protestant).  A  feeling  began  to  be 
manifest  on  this  subject  with  greatest  violence 
in  Scotland,  and  the  parent  society  therefore 
decided  in  1811  to  request  its  auxiliaries  to 
leave  out  the  Apocrypha.  This  request  pro- 
duced some  feeling,  and  it  was  rescinded  in  1813. 
The  apocryphal  war  was  thus  fairly  commenc- 
ed ;  for  the  passing  and  subsequent  rescinding 
of  the  resolution  of  1811  brought  the  parties 
into  position.  The  inspiration  of  the  apocry- 
phal books  was  discussed,  and  the  custom  of 
the  Protestant  church  cited,  which  had  trans- 
lated the  Apocrypha,  and  even  in  the  establish- 
ment appointed  it  "  to  be  read  in  the  churches." 
While  the  general  sentiment  was  in  favor  of 
the  non-inspiration  of  the  apocryphal  books, 
one  party  insisted  on  the  propriety  of  their 
circulation,  on  the  ground  that  the  catalogue 
of  the  canon  was  not  inspired,  and  that  even 
the  Protestant  canon  itself  was  not  an  article 
of  faith,  but  might  contain  uninspired  books. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  anti-apocryphal  party 
rigidly  defined  the  difference  between  the  ca- 
nonical and  apocryphal  books,  designating  the 
apocryphal  as  "far  below  the  level  of  many 
human  writings,  full  of  falsehoods,  errors,  su- 
perstitions, and  contradictions,  and  the  more 
dangerous  for  assuming  to  be  a  divine  revela- 
tion." The  Scotch  party  was  violent,  the  con- 
tinental unyielding.  The  publication  of  the 
Catholic  Bible  in  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portu- 
guese, in  1819,  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
society,  added  fresh  fuel  to  the  flames.  It  was 
thought  by  the  Edinburgh  society  a  violation 


618 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


of  the  act  of  1813.  It  was  urged  that  to  pub- 
lish a  Bible  in  which  the  apocryphal  books 
wore  made  canonical,  was  worse  than  merely 
to  publish  them  as  apocryphal  at  the  end  of 
the  Old  Testament  canon.  The  London  soci- 
ety, on  a  revision  of  its  course,  decided  it  to 
be  erroneous,  and  resolved,  Aug.  19,  1822,  that 
the  moneys  of  the  society  should  henceforth 
be  used  only  in  printing  the  canonical  books, 
and  that  if  the  auxiliaries  published  the  Apoc- 
rypha, they  should  do  it  at  their  own  ex- 
pense. When,  in  accordance  with  this  act, 
Leander  Van  Ess  asked  aid  in  publishing  his 
Bible,  and  promised  to  include  the  Apocrypha 
at  his  own  expense,  the  society  appropriated 
£500  for  the  purpose  (Sept.  24,  1824).  The 
anti-apocryphal  party  procured  the  rescinding 
of  the  act  the  following  December,  on  the 
ground  that  the  apocryphal  books  wero  still 
undistinguished  from  the  canonical,  and  that 
therefore,  although  the  society's  money  was 
not  used  to  publish  them,  they  nevertheless 
had  the  apparent  sanction  of  inspiration  by  the 
good  company  in  which  the  society  allowed 
them  to  be  put,  by  consenting  to  have  them 
intermingled  with  the  inspired  books.  The 
society,  in  rescinding  the  above  act  of  appropri- 
ation, advanced  only  one  step  further  in  the 
apocryphal  reform.  It  had  in  the  act  of  re- 
scinding declared  that  the  money  of  the  society 
might  be  applied  to  aid  those  editions  of  the 
Bible  in  which  the  apocryphal  books  were 
printed  at  the  end  of  the  canon.  The  anti- 
.  apocryphal  party  had  already  achieved  too 
many  victories  to  be  satisfied  with  such  moder- 
ate ground.  The  Edinburgh  society  now  pro- 
tested (Jan.  17,  1825)  against  this  compromise 
of  Protestantism,  and  procured  in  the  following 
February  a  rescinding  act  which  swept  the 
records  of  the  London  society  of  all  former 
acts  on  the  subject.  The  matter  stood  now 
where  it  had  before  1811,  but  the  anti-apocry- 
phal sentiment  was  conscious  of  its  strength, 
and  now  initiated  positive  proceedings.  A  two 
years'  contest  followed,  in  which  the  ground 
was  all  reviewed,  and  the  end  of  which  was  a 
resolution  of  the  London  society  (May  3,  1827) 
that  no  association  or  individual  circulating  the 
apocryphal  books  should  receive  aid  from  the 
society ;  that  none  but  bound  books  should  be 
distributed  to  the  auxiliaries,  and  that  the  aux- 
iliaries should  circulate  them  as  received  ;  and 
that  all  societies  printing  the  apocryphal  books 
should  place  the  amount  granted  them  for 
Bibles  at  the  disposal  of  the  parent  society. 
Thus  ended  the  controversy,  which  threatened 
for  a  time  to  split  the  parent  society  itself,  and 
which  did  result  in  the  secession  of  many  aux- 
iliaries on  the  continent.  Previous  to  this  con- 
troversy, the  Roman  Catholic  church  had  in 
many  instances  (especially  on  the  continent) 
acted  with  the  Protestants;  but,  as  already 
mentioned,  that  church  had  abolished  the  Bible 
society  of  Ratisbon  (1817)  in  the  midst  of  the 
contest.  Meanwhile  the  London  society  con- 
tinued the  aid  of  its  funds,  under  its  successive 


prohibitions  in  reference  to  the  Apocrypha, 
to  the  individual  enterprise  which  still  per- 
sisted, at  Munich,  in  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible.  Gradually  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
withdrew  its  favor  from  an  enterprise  that  re- 
fused its  aid  in  the  circulation  of  that  which 
she  deemed  the  canon  of  Scripture,  until, 
from  the  cooperation  which  had  characterized 
the  early  history  of  Bible  societies,  the  move- 
ment became  essentially  Protestant. — When  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  society  was  formed, 
there  was  a  great  destitution  of  the  Bible 
in  all  countries ;  the  Bible  had  been  printed 
and  circulated  in  only  47  languages  and  dia- 
lects; but  since  1804  more  than  100,000,000 
Bibles,  New  Testaments,  and  portions  of  the 
Bible  have  been  issued  by  Bible  societies;  and 
the  Scriptures  are  now  circulated  among  near- 
ly all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  in  more 
than  200  different  languages  and  dialects. — Be- 
fore the  invention  of  printing  the  Bible  was 
the  most  expensive  book  in  the  world,  costing 
in  England,  in  the  13th  century,  £30  a  copy. 
At  the  time  of  the  American  revolution  the 
cheapest  Bibles  were  valued  at  not  less  than 
$2  a  volume.  For  some  years  (1844-'53)  the 
American  Bible  society  sold  its  nonpareil  Bible 
without  references  at  25  cents  a  copy,  and  its 
pocket  pearl  Testament  at  6J  cents ;  and  now 
(1873)  this  cheapest  Bible  is  sold  at  40  cents, 
and  this  cheapest  Testament  at  10  cents.  It  is 
a  principle  of  the  society  to  make  the  prices 
of  Bibles  and  Testaments  as  low  as  possible. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  (Gr.  pifi.lov,  a  book,  and 
yp&Qeiv,  to  describe),  literally,  the  description  of 
books.  Among  the  Greeks  the  term  fSipAto- 
ypafyia  signified  only  the  writing  or  transcrip- 
tion of  books;  and  a  bibliographer  with  them 
was  a  writer  of  books,  in  the  sense  of  a  copy- 
ist. The  French  term  tibliographie  was  long 
used  to  signify  only  an  acquaintance  with  an- 
cient writings,  and  with  the  art  of  decipher- 
ing them.  In  its  modern  and  more  extended 
sense,  bibliography  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
science  or  knowledge  of  books,  in  regard  to 
the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed,  their 
different  degrees  of  rarity,  curiosity,  reputed 
and  real  value,  the  subjects  discussed  by  their 
respective  authors,  and  the  rank  which  they 
ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a  library. 
It  is  therefore  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
first  of  which  has  reference  to  the  contents  of 
books,  and  may  be  called,  for  want  of  a  better 
phrase,  intellectual  bibliography  ;  the  second 
treats  of  their  external  character,  the  history 
of  particular  copies,  &c.,  and  may  be  termed 
material  bibliography.  The  object  of  the  first 
kind  is  to  acquaint  literary  men  with  the  most 
valuable  books  in  every  department  of  study, 
either  by  means  of  alphabetical  catalogues 
simply,  or  by  catalogues  raisonnes,  accompa- 
nied by  critical  remarks. — It  is  the  province 
of  the  bibliographer  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
materials  of  which  books  are  composed,  and 
their  different  forms,  the  number  of  pages,  the 
typographical  character,  the  number  and  de- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


619 


scription  of  the  plates,  the  completeness,  cor- 
rectness, and  all  the  other  external  peculiari- 
ties or  distinctions  of  an  edition.  He  knows 
not  only  the  treatises  that  have  been  written 
on  any  particular  topic,  their  comparative 
value,  and  the  various  editions  of  books,  but 
also  in  what  important  respects  one  edition  dif- 
fers from  another,  when  and  from  what  cause 
omissions  have  been  made,  deficiencies  suppli- 
ed, errors  corrected,  and  additions  subjoined. 
When  books  have  been  published  anonymously 
or  pseudonymously,  he  indicates  the  real  name 
of  the  concealed  author;  and  with  regard  to  the 
rarity  of  books,  he  is  acquainted  with  all  the 
causes  which  have  contributed  to  render  them 
scarce.  In  compiling  a  catalogue,  he  assigns  to 
them  that  place  which  they  ought  to  hold  in 
the  system  of  classification  adopted  for  arrang- 
ing a  public  or  private  collection  of  books. 
These  legitimate  duties  of  the  bibliographer, 
however,  require  a  variety  and  extent  of  knowl- 
edge seldom  if  ever  possessed  by  a  single  indi- 
vidual, and  different  writers  have  selected  dif- 
ferent fields  of  labor  in  the  science. — A  collec- 
tion of  all  the  works  belonging  to  the  various 
departments  of  bibliography  would,  it  has 
been  estimated,  exceed  20,000  volumes.  The 
more  important  of  these  are  indicated  or  de- 
scribed in  Xamur's  Bibliographic  paleographi- 
co-diplomatico-bibliographique  generate  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Liege,  1838) ;  also  in  Peignot's  Repertoire 
bibliographique  univenel  (8vo,  Paris,  1812) ; 
Home's  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliog- 
raphy," vol.  ii.  (8vo,  London,  1814) ;  Bohn's 
"General  Catalogue,"  vol.  i.  (8vo,  London, 
1847) ;  Petzholdt's  Ameigerfur  Bibliographie 
und  Bibliothekswixsenschaft,  an  important  peri- 
odical commenced  in  1840  in  Halle;  and  in  Petz- 
holdt's remarkably  full  and  complete  catalogue 
entitled  Bibliotheca  Bibliographica  (Leipsic, 
18G6).  For  information  upon  certain  points 
connected  with  bibliography,  see  BOOK,  BOOK- 
BINDING, DIPLOMATICS,  ENGRAVING,  LIBRARY, 
MANUSCRIPTS,  PAPER,  PRINTING,  and  WRITING. 
The  following  elementary  works  treat  general- 
ly upon  all  matters  appertaining  to  this  science. 
Although  most  of  them  are  old,  and  some  not 
well  digested,  they  nevertheless  contain  much 
curious  as  well  as  useful  information  : 
ACHARD,  C.  F.  Cours  elementaire  do  bibliographic.  8  vols. 

Svo,  Marseilles.  1S06-'T. 

BOIJLARB,  A.    Traite  elemental™  de  bibliographic.    Svo,  Pa- 
ris, 1806. 
DENIS,  J.  M.  C.    Elnlcitung  in  dlo  Bucherkunde.    2d  cd.,  2 

vols.  4to,  Vienna.  1795-'6. 
DIBDIN,  T.  K.    Bibliographical  Decameron.    8  vols.  royal  Svo, 

London,  1S17. 
HORSE,  T.  H.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography. 

2  vols.  Svo,  London.  1S14. 
MORTILLARO,  V.    Studio  bibliografico.    2d  ed.,  Svo,  Palermo, 

138-2. 
PKIGNOT.  E.  G.    Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  bibliologie  (with 

supplement).    8  vols.  Svo.  Paris,  l*u->-"4. 
PETZHOLDT.  J.    Katechismus  der  Bibliothekenlehre.    2d  ed., 

16mo,  Leipsic,  IsTl. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  to  make  a  universal 
catalogue,  such  as  would  embody  the  ideal 
of  a  bibliographical  work  by  giving  the  title 
of  every  important  book  ever  published  in 
any  country,  would  be  literally  impossible. 


The  attempt  has  nevertheless  been  made,  and 
some  of  the  results,  though  exceedingly  incom- 
plete when  compared  with  the  avowed  purpose 
of  the  catalogue,  are  most  useful  to  the  bibli- 
ographer. Even  more  valuable,  however,  are 
those  works  which  more  modestly  attempt  to 
give  a  list  of  only  the  leading  standard  books 
of  the  world.  We  give  the  titles  of  a  few  cat- 
alogues compiled  with  either  one  or  the  other 
of  these  aims: 

AI.UBONE,  S.  A.  Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and  Brit- 
ish and  American  Authors.  8  vols.  large  Svo,  Philadelphia, 
l-58-'71. 

APPLE-TONS'  Library  Manual:  containing  ?.  Catalogue  Raison- 
ne of  upward  of  12,U<>0  of  the  most  important  works  in  every 
department  of  knowledge.  8vo,  New  York,  1 S47. 

BIBUOTUECA  Grenvilliana,  by  J.  T.  Payne  and  II.  Foss. 
Part  i.,  2  vols.  Svo.  London,  1S42.  Part  ii.,  Svo,  1848. 

BOIIN,  H.  G.  A  General  Catalogue  of  Books,  ovo,  London, 
1841,  pp.  2,100. 

Commonly  known  us  the  "  Guinea  Catalogue."    It  baa  been  reprinted 
in  8  vols. 

BRUNEI.  J.  C.  Manuel  du  libraire  et  de  1'amateur  de  livres. 
Latest  ed.,  6  vols.,  Paris,  l560-'G5. 

An  extensive  and  useful  work,  containing  notices  of  32,000  separate 
works. 

DANTES,  A.  Tables  biographiques  et  bibliographiques  des 
sciences,  des  lettres,  et  des  arts.  Svo,  Paris,  1SG5. 

DE  BURE.  G.  F.  BibUographie  instructive.  7  vols.  Svo,  Pa- 
ris. 17<B-'8. 

DIBDIN,  T.  F.  The  Library  Companion ;  or,  the  Young  Man's 
Guide  and  the  Old  Man's  Comfort  in  the  choice  of  a  Libra- 
ry. Thick  Svo,  London,  1824. 

DIOTIONNAIRE  BIBLIOORAPHIQCTE.  (Compiled,  according  to 
Barbier,  by  the  abbe  Du  Clos.)  8  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  17SK). 

EBERT,  F.  A.  A  General  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  from  the 
German.  4  vols.  Svo,  Oxford,  1837. 

The  original  edition  was  published  at  Leipiic  in  1S21-'30,  in  2  vols. 
410. 

GEORGI,  J.  T.  Allgemelnes  cnropaisches  Bilcher-Lexikon, 
15DO-1757.  (With  supplements.)  8  vols.  folio,  Leipsic,  1742 
-'S3. 

GRASSE,  J.  G.  T.  Tresor  des  livres  rares  et  preeieux,  ou 
Nouveau  dicttonnairo  bibliographique.  Dresden,  1C5S  ft  Key. 

MEUSEL,  J.  G.  Bibliotheca  Historica.  22  vols.  in  11,  8vo, 
Leipsic,  1782-1804. 

MOORE,  Dr.  C.  H.  What  to  Read  and  How  to  P-ead.  New 
York,  Is71. 

NODIER,  C.  Description  raisonn6e  d'une  jolio  collection  de  li- 
vres. Svo,  Paris,  1844. 

PORTER,  N.  Books  and  Beading.  4th  ed.,  cr.  Svo,  New 
York,  1871. 

PUTNAM.  G.  P..  and  PERKINS,  F.  B.  The  Best  Reading.  ICmo, 
New  York,  1872. 

QrfBABD,  J.  M.  Bibliographie  gSnerale  du  XIX«  siecle. 
Paris,  1868. 

EENOUARD,  A.  A.  Catalogue  de  la  bibliothenue  d'un  ama- 
teur, avec  notes  bibliographiques,  &c.  4  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
1819. 

As  has  already  been  said,  it  is  more  common 
for  a  bibliographer  to  select  some  special  de- 
partment, collecting  or  cataloguing  the  works 
belonging  in  some  one  class  of  literature.  Such 
dictionaries  and  catalogues  applicable  to  partic- 
ular branches  of  knowledge,  and  comprising 
the  works  published  on  the  subjects  discussed, 
would  of  themselves  constitute  a  library.  In 
the  present  article  we  can  only  mention  a  few 
of  the  more  important. 

ATKINSON,  J.  Medical  Bibliography.  A  and  B.  Svo,  Lon- 
don. 1884. 

BACKER.  A.  and  A.  DE.  Bibliotheque  des  ecrivains  de  la 
compagnie  de  Jesus.  6  vols.  royal  8vo.  Ltepe,  ISM  ft  wq. 

l;f  >:  \  1:11.  A.  8.  L.  Essai  hlbliographlque  sur  les  editions  des 
Elzevirs.  Svo.  Paris.  1822. 

BLAZE,  F.  H.  J.  Bibliographic  muslcale  de  la  France  ct  dc 
I'i'tmnger.  Svo.  Paris.  1821. 

BRIBOEMAN.  R.  W.  Short  View  of  Legal  Bibliography.  Svo, 
London.  1809. 

CAMUS,  A.  G.  Profession  d'avocat.  5th  ed.,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
1882. 

Aa  excellent  work  on  jurisprudence  and  its  older  bibliography. 


620 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CLARKE,  A.  and  J.  B.  B.    A  Concise  View  of  the  Succession 

of  Sacred  Literature.    2  vols.  bvo,  London,  1880-'32. 
DARLING,  J.    Cyclopa'dia  Bibliographica :  A  Library  Manual 

of  Theological  and  general  Literature.     2  vols.  royal  Svo, 

London,  lo54-'9. 
DE  MORGAN,  A.    Arithmetical  Books,  from  the  Invention  of 

Printing  to  the  Present  Time.    Post  Svo,  London,  18-47. 
DUPIN,  A.  M.    Manuel  des  etudiants  eu  droit.    12ino,  Paris, 

1886. 
DCPIN,  A.  M.    Manuel  du  droit  public  ecclcsiastique  francais. 

12mo,  Paris,  1844. 

Containing  bibliographical  notices  of  works  upon  l&w,  Ac. 

DUPLESSIS,  P.  A.  G.  Bibliographic  paremiologique.  (Bibliog- 
raphy of  Proverbs.)  Svo.  Paris,  1847. 

DRYANDER,  J.  Catalogus  Bibliothecffi  Historico-Naturalis 
Joseph!  Banks.  6  vols.  Svo,  London,  1796-lbUO. 

The  moat  complete  catalogue  of  books  on  natural  history  ever  publish- 
ed.   The  collection  now  belongs  to  the  British  museum. 

ELLIS,  H.    Catalogue  of  Books  on  Angling.      Svo,  London, 

1811. 
ELMES,  J.    General  and  Bibliographical  Dictionary  of  the  Fine 

Arts.    Svo,  London,  1826. 
ENGELMANN,  W.    Bibliotheca  Philologica.    (A  list  of  Greek 

and  Latin  grammars,  dictionaries.  &c.,  published  from  1750 

to  1862.)    8d  ed.,  Svo,  Leipsic,  1S5S.    Also,  Bibliotheca  Me- 

chanico-Technologica.  1  vol. ;  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Clas- 

Bicorum,  1  vol.;  Medico-Chirurgica,  1  vol.;  (Economica,  1 

vol. ;  Veterinaria,  1  vol. ;  Zoologica  et  Palseontologica,  1  vol. ; 

Bibliothek  der  Forst-  und  Jagdwissenschaften,  1  voL ;  Bi- 

bliothek  der  Handlungswissenschaft,  1  vol. ;  Bibliothek  der 

neuern  Sprachen,  1  vol. 
FORBES,  J.    Manual  of  Select  Medical  Bibliography.    Eoyal 

Svo,  Lon'don,  1886. 
HORNE,  T.  H.    Manual  of  Biblical  Bibliography.    2d  ed.,  Svo, 

London,  1816. 
HOVER,  Dr.  J.  G.  VON.    Literatur  der  Kriegswissenschaft  uud 

Kricgsgeschichte.    12mo,  Berlin,  1832-'40. 
LALANDE,  J.  DE.     Bibliographic  astronomique.     4to,  Paris, 

1808. 
M'CtiLLocn,  J.  B.    The  Literature  of  Political  Economy.   Svo. 

London,  1845. 
MURHARD,  F.  W.  A.    Bibliotheca  Mathematica,    5  vols.  Svo 

Leipsic,  1797-1805. 

Containing  the  literature  of  arithmetic,  geometry,  mechanics,  op- 

OETTINGER,  E.  M.     Bibliographic  blographique  univereelle. 

(Dictionary  of  works  relative  to  the  public  and  private  life 

of  celebrated  personages.)    2  vols.  4to,  Brussels.  lt50-'64. 
ORME,  \V.    Bibliotheca  Biblica:  A  Select  List  of  Books  on 

Sacred  Literature,  with  notices,  Ac.    Svo,  Edinburgh,  1824. 
PERCHERON,  A.     Bibliographic  entomologique.     2  vols.  Svo, 

Paris,  1887. 
PLOIJCQUET.  W.  G.    Literatura  Media.  Digesta.    4  vols.  royal 

4to,  Tubingen.  180S-'9. 
POOLE,  W.  F.    An  Index  to  Periodical  Literature.    Svo,  New 

York,  1853. 

An  exceedingly  useful  book,  being  a  complete  key  to  the  contents  of 
1,500  volumes  of  standard  American  and  English  periodicals. 

BOY.  C.  H.  A.    Catalogus  Bibliothecffi  Medics.    6  vols.  Svo, 

Amsterdam.  1880. 
TERNAUX-COMPANS,  H.    Bibliotheqne  asiatique  et  africaine. 

2  parts.  Svo,  Parts.  1841-'2. 
WALCH,  J.  G.    Bibliotheca  Theologica  Selecta.    4  vols.  Svo 

Jena,  1757-'65. 
WALCH.  J.  O.    Bibliotheca  Patristica,  Litterariis  Annotationl- 

bus  instructs.    New  ed.,  Svo,  Jena,  1884. 

National  bibliographies  (catalogues  of  works  in 
the  literature  of  a  single  nation)  are  very  nu- 
merous. Of  these  also  we  can  only  give  some 
of  the  most  useful. 

1.  AMERICA. 

AsirEn.  G.  M.  Bibliographical  and  Historicnl  Essav  on  the 
Dutch  Pooks  and  Pamphlets  relating  to  New  Ne'therland 
6  pts.  small  4to,  Amsterdam.  1855. 

ASPINWALL.  J.    Bibliotheca  America!  Septentrionalis.     Svo, 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  CATALOGUE  of  Books.  Translations  of  the 

Scriptures,  and  other  Publications  in  the  Indian  Tongues  of 

the  United  States.    Svo,  Washington.  1849. 
BIBLIOTHECA  AMERICANA;  or.  a  Chronological  Catalogue  of 

the  most  curious  and  interesting  Books.  Pamphlets,  &c. 

upon  North  and  South  America.    4to,  London.  1789 
DAI  RYMPLE.  A.    Catalogue  of  Authors  who  have  written  on 

the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  &c.    4to,  London,  1807. 
FADBArLT,  B.  G.    Catalogue  des  outrages  stir  1'histoire  de 

1  Amerique.    (Especially  pertaining  to  those  parts  of  Amer- 


ica formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  French.)    8  pts.  Svo, 

Quebec,  Ib87. 
HARRISSK,  H.    Bibliotheca  Americana  Yetustissima.    Eoyol 

Svo.  New  York,  Ib6t>. 
KENNET,  W.    Bibliothecse  Americana;  Prirnordia.    4to,  Lon- 

don, 1718. 
Lt-DF.wiG,  H.  E.    The  Literature  of  American  Local  History  ; 

a  Bibliographical  Kssay.    Svo.  New  York.  1S46. 
MEUSEL,  J  G.    Bibliotheca  Historica.    Vois.  8  and  1  0. 
Eim,  O.    A  Catalogue  of  Books  relating  principally  to  Amer- 

ica. arranged  under  the  years  in  which  they  we're  printed, 

from  1COO  to  1700.    8vo,'London,  1882. 
Containing  486  articles. 

EICH,  O.     Bibliotheca  Americana  Nova,  since  1700.     Svo 

London,  1885. 
EICII,  0.    Supplement.    1701-1SOO.    Svo,  London,  1841. 

The  Bibliotheca  and  Supplement  contain  2,523  articles. 

Eicn,  O.    Bibliotheca  Americana  Nova.    1801-'44  (with  an 

index).    Svo,  London,  1946. 
TERNAUX-COMPASS,  II.   Bibliotheque  americaine.   Svo,  Paris, 

1886. 

Contains  the  titles  of  1,153  works  published  previous  to  tbe  year  1700. 

TR0BNEE,  N.    Bibliographical  Guide  to  American  Literature. 

l^mo.  London,  1856. 
WARDEN,  D.  B.    Bibliotheca  Americana;  being  a  Choice  Col- 

lection of  American  Books,  &c.    8vo,  Paris,  1S40. 

2.  GEEAT  BRITAIN. 

ANDERSON,  C.    Annals  of  the  English  Bible.    (Containing  a 

list  of  the  various  editions,  &c.)     2  vols.  Svo,  London.  1^45. 
BELOE.  WILLIAM.    Anecdotes  of  Literature  and  Scarce  Books 

Svo,  London,  1807-'12. 
BOHN,  J.    Catalogue  of  an  Extensive  Collection  of  English 

Books.    Svo.  London,  1829. 
BRYDGES,  8.  E.    Censura  Literaria;  containing  Titles,  Ab- 

stracts, and  Opinions  of  old  English  Books.    10  vols.  Svo, 

London,  1816. 
BRVDGES,  S.  E.     The  British  Bibliographer.     4  vols    Svo 

London,  1810-'14. 
BRYDOES,  8.  E.    Eestituta  ;  or.  Titles,  Extracts,  and  Charac- 

ters of  Old  Books  in  English  Literature,  revised.    4  vols. 

8vo,  London,  1814-'16. 
COLLIER,  J.  P.    Bibliographical  and  Critical  Account  of  the 

Barest  Books  in  the  English  Language.    2  vols..  London 

1865;  4  vols.,  New  York,  1866. 
COTTON,  H.    Editions  of  the  Bible  and  Parts  thereof  in  Eng- 

lish.   2d  ed.,  Svo.  Oxford,  1*62. 
GRIFFITH,  A.  F.    Bibliotheca  Anglo-Poetica  ;  or.  a  Descriptive 

Catalogue  of  a  rare  and  rich  Collection  of  Early  English 

Poetry.    Svo,  London,  1815. 
HAZLITT,  W.  C.    Hand  Book  to  the  Popular..  Poetical,  and 

Dramatic  Literature  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  Invention  of 

Priming  to  the  Restoration.    11  parts.  Svo.  London,  1867. 
HUME.  A.    The  Learned  Societies  and  Printing  Clubs  of  the 

United  Kingdom  (with  lists  of  their  publications,  <tc.).    2d 

ed.,  post  Svo,  London,  1868. 
LOWNDES,  W.  T.     The  Bibliographer's  Manual  of  English 

Literature.     New  ed.,  6  vols.  in  11  parts,  Bohn,  London, 

MACRAY,  W.  D.    A  Manual  of  British  Historians  to  A.  D. 

1600.    Svo,  London,  1S45. 
MARTIN.  J.     Bibliographical  Catalogue  of  Books  privately 

printed  in  England.    2  vols.  imp.  Svo,  London.  1^S4. 
MOULE,  T.     Bibliotheca  Heraldica   Magnas    Britannia!:   An 

Analytical  Catalogue  of   Books  on  Genealogy.  Heraldry, 

Nobility,  Knighthood,  and  Ceremonies.    Royal  Svo   Lon- 

don, 1822. 
EEID,  J.     Bibliotheca  Scoto-Celtlca  ;  or,  an  Account  of  all 

the  Books  which  have  been  published  in  the  Gaelic  Lan- 

guage.   8vo.  London.  1S32. 
SAVAGE.  J.    The  Librarian;   being  an  Account  of  Scarce, 

Valuable,  and  Useful  English  Books.    8  vols.  bvo,  London 
-' 


. 
SMITH.  J.  E.    A  Bibliographical  List  of  all  Works  illustrating 

the  Provincial  Dialects  of  England.    Svo.  London.  1S46. 
STEVENS.  II.    Catalogue  of  my  English  Library.    Post  Svo 

London,  1858. 

Giving  a  select  list  of  5,751  volumes. 

UFCOTT.  W.    Bibliography  of  Works  on  British  Topographv. 

B  vols.  Svo.  London,  1  818. 
WALPOLE,  II.     Catalogue  of  Eoyal  and  Noble  Authors  of 

England  ;  enlarged  by  Park.    5  vols.  Svo.  London,  1806. 
WRIGHT.  T.    Biographia  liritannica  Literaria.    Anglo-Saxon 

and  Norman  Periods.    (With  lists  of  works,  &c.)    2  vols. 

Svo.  London.  1842-'6. 
WATT.  E.    Bibliotheca  Britanniea;  or,  a  General  Index  of 

British  and  Foreign  Literature.     4  vols.  4to,  Edinburgh, 

1890* 

Vols.  i.  and  ii.,  alphabetical  ;  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  Index. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOMANIA 


621 


3.  FRANCE. 

ASSELINEAI;,  C.  Bibliographic  romantique.  (Anecdotic  cat- 
alogue of  standard  modern  French  romance.)  Svo,  Paris, 
1867;  revised  and  enlarged  ed.,  1872. 

BOSSAXGE,  II.  Ma  bibliotheque  francaise.  Post  Svo,  Paris, 
1855. 

Giving  a  select  Hat  of  about  7,000  volumes  of  the  best  editions  of  stand- 
ard French  authors.  Bossange  also  published  in  1S45  a  large  octavo 
volume  of  foreiirn  books,  mostly  French,  arranged  aocurding  to  subjects, 
with  prices,  a  general  index,  ic.  He  has  since  published  two  supple- 
ments. 

DESESSARTS,  N.  L.  Lcs  socles  Utteraires  de  la  France.  (Bib- 
liographical dictionary  of  French  writers  to  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  with  supplements.)  7  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  ISOO-'S. 

DICTIONNAIRE  biographique  et  bibliographique  des  predlca- 
teurs  et  sermonnaires  ihmcais,  par  1'Abbo  de  la  P.  Svo, 
Paris,  1824. 

GIRAULT  DE  SAINT-FARGEAU,  A.  Bibliographic  historique 
et  topographique  de  la  France.  4to.  Paris.  1845. 

GONAN,  P.  M.  Bibliographic  historique  de  la  ville  dc  Lyon 
pendant  la  revolution  franeaise.  Svo,  Lyons.  1845. 

LELONG.  J.  Bibliotheque  historique  de  la  France.  5  vols. 
folio,  Paris,  17G:i-'7S.  . 

Containing  50,000  articles,  9  Indexes,  and  a  table  of  anonymous 
authors. 

LORENZ.  O.  Catalogue  general  do  la  librairie  francaise. 
1840-'65.  4  vols.,  Paris,  1871. 

QUERARD.  J.  M.  La  France  lltteraire,  on  Dictionnaire  bibli- 
ographique, &c.  (18th  and  ls>th  centuries.)  12  vols.  Svo, 
Paris,  1827-'tf4. 

QCERARD.  J.  M.  La  litterature  franfaise  contcmporaine, 
1827-'49.  (Commenced  by  Querard,  and  continued  by  oth- 
ers.) 6  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  l&42-'57. 

QITERARD,  J.  M.  Les  supercheries  litteraires  devoilees,  Ga- 
leries  des  autcurs  apocryphes,  supposes.  deguise"s,  &c.,  de 
la  litterature  francaise.  4  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  lS47-'52. 

Brunei's  Manuel  du  libraire,  before  mentioned, 
although  a  general  work,  is  very  rich  in  French 
bibliography. 

4.  GERMANY. 

ASHER,  A.  A  Bibliographical  Essay  on  the  Sertptores  Rerum 
Germanicarum.  4to.  London  and  Berlin,  18J8. 

BUCKNER.  R.  Bibliographisches  Handbuch  der  deutschen 
dramatischen  Literatur.  4to,  Berlin.  1337. 

ENGELMANN,  W.  liibliotheca  Geographica.  2  Tola.  Svo, 
Leipsic,  1S5S. 

A  classified  catalogue  of  all  the  works  on  geography  and  travels  pub- 
lished in  Germany,  from  the  middle  of  the  Uth  century  dowu  to  1856, 
with  prices,  index,  Ac. 

EXGEL.MASX.  W.  Bibllothek  der  schfinen  Wissenschaften. 
(A  list  of  German  romances,  plays,  and  poems,  published 
from  17SO  to  1845.)  2  vols.  Svo.  Leipsic.  1S87-46. 

ERSCH,  J.  3.  Handbuch  der  deutschen  Literatur.  2d  ed.,  4 
vols.  Svo,  Leipsic,  lb22-'45. 

A  classed  catalogue  of  all  the  books  published  in  Germany  from  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century. 

IlEixsirs.  W.  Allgemeines  Bucherlexikon.  (With  five  sup- 
plements.) 18  vols.  4to,  Leipsic,  lS12-'49. 

An  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all  the  books  published  la  Germany, 
from  1100  to  1S46,  with  sises,  prices,  and  publishers'  names. 

JULIUS,  N.  H.  Bibllothcca  Germano-Glottica.  Svo,  Ham- 
burg. 1817. 

KAYSER,  C.  G.  VollsMndlges  Bucher-Lexikon,  &c.  (With 
three  supplements.)  18  vols.  4to,  Leipsic,  1  --il-'.M- 

An  alphabetical  catalogue,  like  that  of  Heinsius,  of  all  books,  Ac., 
published  from  1700  to  Hit. 

SCHWAB.  G.  Wegweiser  durch  die  Literatur  der  Deutschen. 
Eln  Handbuch  fur  Laien.  IIerausge?eben  von  Guetav 
Schwab  und  Karl  Kllipfel.  2d  ed.,  Svo,  Leipsic,  1847. 

An  Indispensable  guide  in  the  formation  of  a  select  German  library. 

TAYLOR,  W.     Historic  Survey  of  German  Poetry.    8  vols. 

Svo,  London,  1S28-'80. 
TIJIMM.  F.  L.  J.    The  Literature  of  Germany,  from  its  earliest 

period.    (With  bibliographical  notes,  &e.j    12mo,  London, 

1844. 

Ebert's  "General  Bibliographical  Dictionary," 
before  mentioned,  is  especially  rich  in  early 
German  literature. 

5.  ITALY. 

BIBLIOGRAFIA,  od  elenco  ragionato  delle  opere  contenute 
nella  collezione  de'  classic!  italiani.  Svo.  Milan,  1814. 

BIBLIOGRAFIA  dei  romanzi  e  poemi  cavallereschi  Italiani. 
(By  G.  de'  Conti  Melzl.)  2d  ed.,  Svo,  Milan,  1888. 


BRYT>GES,  8.  E.    Res  Literaria?,  bibliographical  and  critical. 

(Principally  upon  Italian  literature.)    8  vols.  Svo,  Naples, 

Rome,  and  Geneva,  l^l-'2. 
CANTU,  I.    L'ltalia  scientifica  contemporanea.    Svo,  Milan, 

1844. 
FONTANINI,  G,     Biblioteca   dcIP  eloquenza  italiana,  con  lo 

annotazioni  del  Signor  Apostolo  Zeno.    2  vols.  4to,  Parma, 

l»08-'4. 

An  index  to  this  last  edition  was  published  In  1811. 

GAMBA.  B.  Delle  novelle  italiano  In  prosa  bibllografla.  2d 
ed.,  Svo,  Florence,  1S85. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  works  of  the  Italian  novelists. 
GAMDA  DA  BASSANO,  B.    Serie  dei  test!  di  lingua.    4th  ed. 
royal  Svo,  Venice,  1839. 

A  general  Italian  bibliographical  dictionary,  with  copious  notes  and 
Indexes. 

HAVM,  N.  F.  Biblioteca  Italiana.  osia  notizia  de'  libri  rart 
italiani.  New  ed.,  2  vols.,  4to  Milan,  1771-2. 

6.  SPAIN,  PORTUGAL,  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE. 

ANTONIO,  N.  Bl'oliotheca  Hlspana  Vetus  ad  annum  1500. 
New  ed.,  2  vols.  folio,  Madrid,  17S8. 

ANTONIO,  N.  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova,  ab  anno  1500  ad 
annum  1684.  New  ed.,  2  vols.  folio,  Madrid,  17S3-'S. 

BARBOSA-MACIIADO.  D.  Bibliotheca  Lusitana  Critica  et  Chro- 
nologlca.  4  vols.  folio,  Lisbon,  1741-'5!>. 

BEXTKOWSKI,  F.  Historva  llteratury  polsktej.  (History  of 
Polish  Literature,  exhibited  in  a  list  of  writings,  &c.)  2 
vols.  Svo,  Warsaw  and  Wilna.  1814. 

BOUTEBWEK,  F.  History  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Lite- 
rature, translated  by  Ross.  2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1S28. 

CASIRI,  M.  Bibliotheca  Arabico-llispana  Escuriaknsis.  2 
vols.  folio,  Madrid,  176i)-'70. 

CASTRO,  J.  R.  de.  Biblioteca  Espanola.  2  vols.  folio,  Ma- 
drid, 1781-6. 

NYERUP,  R.  Almtndellgt  Litcraturlexlcon  for  Danmark,  &c. 
2  vols.  4to,  Copenhagen,  1820. 

A  universal  literary  lexicon  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Iceland,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  authors  and  their  works. 

OTTO,  F.    History  of  Russian  Literature,  with  a  Lexicon  of 

Russian  Authors.    Svo,  Oxford,  1839. 
RECKE  nnd  NAPIERSKY.    Allgemeines  Schrlftsteller  und  Ge- 

lehrten-Lexikon  der  Provinzen  Livland.  Esthland,  und  Kur- 

land.    4  vols.  thick  Svo.  Mitau,  1827-82. 
SALVA,  V.    Catalogue  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Books, 

with  bibliographical  remarks.    2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1826-'7. 
WARMHOLTZ.  C.  G.    Bibliotheca  Historica  Sueco-Gotnica.    15 

vols.  Svo,  Stockholm,  1782-1817. 

1.  MISCELLANEOUS. 

PAG^S,  L.    Bibliographic  japonalse,  on  catalogue  des  onvra- 

ges  relatifs  au  Japon.    4to,  Paris,  1871. 
BIBLIOTUECA  HispANO-AuERiCANA.    16mo,  London,  1871. 

In  most  of  these  countries  periodical  cata- 
logues of  all  current  publications,  critical  jour- 
nals, weekly  trade  circulars,  &c.,  have  long 
been  published,  forming  collectively  valuable 
sources  of  information. 

BIBLIOMANIA  (Gr.  ptpMav,  book,  and  pavia, 
madness),  a  term  first  introduced  by  Dr.  Dib- 
din  to  denote  a  rage  for  possessing  rare  and 
curious  books.  The  bibliomaniac  proceeds  ac- 
cording to  certain  principles,  but,  being  a  lover 
of  books  rather  than  of  knowledge,  attachea 
himself  to  accidental  rather  than  essential 
qualities,  and  spends  a  fortune  for  works  the 
contents  of  which  he  might  obtain  for  a  few 
dollars.  The  specialty  which  gives  value  to  a 
book  may  be  its  age  or  rarity,  the  vicissitudes 
through  which  it  has  passed,  or  the  fact  of  its 
having  issued  from  a  particular  publishing 
house.  It  may  be  a  handsome  and  peculiar 
binding,  fanciful  typography,  the  circumstance 
that  it  has  belonged  to  some  eminent  person- 
age, possessing  perhaps  an  autograph  or  mar- 
ginal notes,  or  that  the  purchaser  desires  it  to 
swell  a  collection  in  some  particular  depart- 
ment of  literature.  Bibliomania  originated  in 


622 


BIBLIOMANIA 


BICETRE 


Holland  near  the  close  of  the  17th  century, 
and  passed  thence  into  England,  where  it  has 
held  its  principal  seat,  though  it  has  more 
recently  become  to  some  extent  a  passion  in 
France  and  in  the  United  States.  Numerous 
collections  have  been  made  of  the  editions 
of  the  Bible,  of  which  the  most  complete  is 
in  the  British  museum,  though  rivalled  by  that 
of  Mr.  James  Lenox  of  New  York  ;  of  editions 
of  the  classics  in  tiaum  Delphini  and  cum 
noti-s  variorum ;  of  first  editions  of  the  clas- 
sics (editiones  principes),  and  of  many  books 
which  appeared  in  the  infancy  of  typography 
(incunabula)  •  of  Bipont  editions,  and  those 
cited  by  the  academy  della  Crusca;  of  the 
"  Republics  "  of  the  Elzevirs  ;  and  works 
printed  by  Aldus,  Comino  of  Padua,  Bodoni, 
Mattaire,  Foulis,  Barbou,  and  Baskerville.  In 
France  the  jest  books,  burlesque  treatises,  and 
macaronic  poems  of  the  16th  century,  which 
proceeded  from  the  school  of  Merlin  Coccaie 
and  Rabelais,  have  been  much  sought  after 
by  bibliomaniacs.  The  bindings  on  which  the 
highest  prices  are  set  in  France  are  those  of 
Derosne,  Padeloup,  Simier,  and  Thouvenin; 
and  in  England,  those  of  Charles  Lewis  and 
Roger  Payne.  The  most  extraordinary  prices 
are  paid  for  splendid  old  editions,  copies  with 
a  likeness  of  the  author  and  painted  initial 
letters,  impressions  upon  parchment,  morocco, 
paper  furnished  with  a  broad  margin,  or  upon 
asbestus,  printed  with  letters  of  gold  or  silver, 
or  having  all  the  text  set  in  an  impression  of 
copper.  The  material  is  more  highly  esteemed 
if  tinted  rose  color,  blue,  yellow,  or  green. 
The  library  of  Lord  Spencer,  in  England,  con- 
tained an  J^schylus  of  the  Glasgow  edition  of 
1795,  the  binding  of  which  alone  cost  £16  7*. 
sterling.  The  binding  of  Macklin's  Bible,  in  four 
volumes,  cost  75  guineas ;  and  that  of  Boydell's 
large  edition  of  Shakespeare,  in  nine  volumes, 
cost  £132  sterling.  The  London  bookseller  Jef- 
frey had  a  volume  of  the  "  History  of  James  II.," 
by  Fox,  bound  in  fox  skin,  in  allusion  to  the 
name  of  the  author ;  and  the  capricious  biblio- 
maniac Askew  is  said  to  have  pushed  his  mad- 
ness even  to  having  a  book  bound  in  human 
skin,  that  he  might  possess  an  entirely  unique 
volume.  The  edges  of  books  have  sometimes 
been  adorned  with  beautiful  pictures.  Books 
formerly  were  often  bound  in  copper,  silver,  or 
gold  leaf,  and  embellished  with  precious  stones. 
It  is  not  unfrequently  a  passion  of  men  to  ob- 
tain an  extensive  library  in  some  particular  de- 
partment, or  a  complete  set  of  the  editions  of 
some  favorite  author.  Thus,  Boulard  spent  a 
fortune  in  pursuit  of  the  editions  of  Racine ;  a 
professor  in  a  university  is  mentioned  who  pass- 
ed his  life  in  collecting  obscene  books ;  and  So- 
leinnes  made  a  library  of  all  the  dramatic  pieces 
that  have  ever  appeared  on  any  stage.  He 
searched  for  new  pieces  with  painful  anxiety, 
purchasing  a  mass  of  books  in  languages  which 
he  could  not  read.  A  certain  Frenchman  pur- 
chased at  exorbitant  prices  all  astronomical 
books  that  he  could  find,  though  he  did  not  un- 


derstand a  word  of  that  science.  Bibliomani- 
acs are  the  principal  purchasers  in  the  great  an- 
tiquarian book  auctions  which  are  occasionally 
held  in  London  and  Paris.  The  Mazarin  Bible, 
supposed  to  have  been  printed  in  1455,  was  sold 
in  1827  for  £504.  A  gentleman  of  New  York 
has  obtained  a  copy  of  this  work  at  an  expense 
of  $2,500.  Alcuin's  MS.  Bible,  which  was 
made  for  Charlemagne,  was  purchased  by  the 
British  museum  for  £750.  At  the  sale  of  Car- 
dinal Lomenie's  library  in  Paris  3,800  livres 
were  given  for  a  copy  of  the  Grammntica 
Jthythmica,  in  folio,  printed  in  1466  by  Faust 
and  Schoft'er.  A  copy  of  Virgil,  printed  by 
Sweynheym  and  Pannartz  in  1469,  brought 
4,101  livres.  Dr.  Dibdin  mentions  that  500 
guineas  were  offered  for  a  Livy  printed  by  Vin- 
dclin  de  Spira  in  1470,  "a  most  extraordinary 
copy,  bound  in  three  volumes,  in  foreign  coarse 
vellum."  One  of  the  most  memorable  compe- 
titions for  bibliographic  treasures  occurred  at 
the  sale  of  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's  library,  in 
London,  in  1812.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition 
of  the  "  Decameron,"  published  by  Valdarfer 
at  Venice  in  1471,  was  sold  for  the  immense 
price  of  £2,260.  An  illuminated  missal,  exe- 
cuted for  the  duke  of  Bedford  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  was  sold  in  1786  for  £203,  in  1815 
for  £637,  and  in  1833  for  £1,100.  Eliot's  Indian 
Bible  sold  in  New  York  in  1857  for  $200,  and 
18  numbers  of  Franklin's  "Poor  Richard's  Al- 
manack "  for  $12  per  number.  The  most  ex- 
pensive single  work  in  the  United  States  is  a 
copy  of  De  Bry's  "  Voyages."  The  biblioma- 
niac forms  the  subject  of  the  13th  chapter  of 
the  Caracteres  of  La  Bruyere,  and  Dr.  Dibdin 
has  published  a  volume  entitled  "  Bibliomania, 
or  Book-Madness." 

I  li:i:  4.  Ernst  TOD,  baron,  a  German  naturalist 
and  author,  born  at  Schwebheim,  Bavaria,  June 
9, 1806.  He  studied  law  and  afterward  chemis- 
try, and  published  several  medical  and  chemi- 
cal works,  1840-'48.  He  explored  parts  of  Chili, 
Peru,  and  Brazil,  and  since  his  return  from 
South  America  has  resided  in  Nuremberg, 
where  his  scientific  collections  have  acquired 
some  celebrity.  His  works  include  Verglei- 
chende  Untersuchungen  uber  dan  Gehirn  des 
Memchen  unA  der  Wirlelthiere  (1854);  Seisen 
in  Siidamerika  (2  vols.,  1854);  Die  narkoti- 
scfien  Genussmittel  vnd  der  Mensch  (1855) ; 
Erinnerungen  aus  Siidamerika  (3  vols.,  1861); 
Aui  Chile,  Peru  und  Brasilien  (2  vols.,  1862) ; 
and  Hoffnungen  in  Peru  (3  vols.,  1 864).  He  has 
also  published  novels  and  other  writings,  and 
in  1869  the  first  part  of  an  archasological  work. 

BIBBACTE.     See  ATJTCN. 

KH'KTKK,  a  village  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  near  Sceaux,  on  the  way 
from  Fontainebleau  to  Paris,  celebrated  for  its 
hospital ;  pop.  (including  inmates  of  the  hospi- 
tal) about  5,500.  It  derives  its  name  from  and 
occupies  the  site  of  a  chateau  built  in  1290  by 
John,  bishop  of  Winchester.  A  military  hos- 
pital was  founded  here  by  Cardinal  Richelieu 
in  1632.  The  inmates  were  afterward  removed 


BICHAT 


BICKANEER 


623 


to  the  Invalicles,  and  Bicetre  became  a  hospital 
for  the  poor  and  an  asylum  for  vagrants.  Un- 
der Louis  XVI.  a  part  of  it  was  set  aside  for 
the  treatment  of  venereal  diseases,  the  patients 
invariably  receiving  a  flogging  as  the  first  step  in 
the  cure.  During  the  massacres  of  September, 
1792,  the  inmates  defended  themselves  despe- 
rately against  the  terrorists,  and  a  horrible 
slaughter  ensued.  The  establishment  now  has 
departments  for  the  following  classes :  1,  old  ser- 
vants of  the  hospital,  able-bodied  old  men,  and 
blind  lads ;  2,  the  sick  generally  ;  3,  old  men  not 
quite  disabled,  and  men  over  70  years  of  age ; 
4,  blind  old  men,  and  those  suffering  under 
grave  diseases ;  5,  incurable  invalids,  lunatics, 
idiots,  and  epileptics.  About  one  half  of  the 
inmates  are  paupers ;  the  majority  of  the  rest 
are  lunatics ;  the  whole  number  of  inmates  is 
from  3,000  to  4,000,  including  about  600  em- 
ployees with  their  families.  Women  are  not 
received,  and  children  are  taken  only  when 
they  are  insane  or  epileptic ;  of  these  there 
are  about  100.  The  annual  expenses  exceed 
1,300,000  francs.  The  buildings  include  a  gym- 
nasium, library,  church,  and  school,  and  work- 
shops in  which  those  who  are  able  to  labor  are 
employed  in  woollen  spinning,  glass  polishing, 
&c.  About  200  lunatics  are  occupied  in  agri- 
cultural labor  on  a  farm  near  the  hospital. 

ItlCIIAT,  Marie  Francois  Xavier,  a  French  anat- 
omist and  physiologist,  born  at  Thoirette-en- 
Bresse,  department  of  the  Ain,  Nov.  11,  1771, 
died  in  Paris,  July  22, 1802.  He  was  a  student 
of  the  Jesuit  seminary  of  St.  Iren6o  at  Lyons 
until  the  revolution  in  1789,  when  he  returned 
home  and  began  the  study  of  anatomy  under 
his  father,  a  physician  at  Poncin,  and  afterward 
attended  lectures  at  the  hospital  of  Lyons. 
Driven  from  Lyons  again  by  the  revolution,  he 
went  in  1793  to  Paris  to  study  surgery  under 
Desault  at  the  H&tel  Dieu,  who,  pleased  with 
his  zeal  and  ability,  invited  him  to  reside  in  his 
own  house,  subsequently  adopted  him  as  his 
son,  and  destined  him  to  be  his  successor.  After 
the  death  of  Desault  (1795)  Bichat  arranged 
and  published  the  works  of  his  master,  and 
opened  a  school  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and 
surgery.  He  also  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  chemical,  physical,  physiological, 
and  vital  properties  of  the  different  tissues  of 
the  animal  economy.  During  a  severe  attack 
of  illness,  caused  by  overwork,  he  passed  the 
time  in  maturing  his  views  of  anatomy  and 
physiology,  and  sketched  the  plan  of  the  works 
in  which  these  views  were  afterward  devel- 
oped. As  soon  as  he  had  partially  recovered, 
he  recommenced  his  labors.  In  spite  of  in- 
creasing weakness,  he  continued  to  pass  several 
hours  a  day  in  a  damp  cellar,  macerating  ani- 
mal tissues  and  making  various  experiments  to 
ascertain  the  properties  of  each  particular  kind 
of  structure  in  the  organs  of  the  body.  In  a 
short  time  he  was  seized  with  typhoid  fever, 
which  proved  fatal  in  the  course  of  14  days. 
Although  he  had  lived  less  than  31  years,  he 
had  done  enough  already  to  immortalize  his 
92  VOL.  ii. — 40 


name.  He  was  the  first  who  undertook  a  sys- 
tematic analysis  to  reduce  the  complex  struc- 
tures of  the  body  to  their  elementary  tissues, 
and  to  ascertain  the  peculiar  properties,  chem- 
j  ical,  physical,  and  vital,  which  characterize 
each  simple  tissue.  The  idea  of  such  a  work 
had  been  suggested  by  partial  analyses  before, 
but  his  Anatomie  generate  formed  a  new  era 
in  the  development  of  that  branch  of  science. 
The  work  abounds  with  minute  and  laborious 
research,  extensive  and  elaborate  experiment, 
conducted  with  intuitive  insight  and  practical 
skill ;  and  though  a  monument  of  fame,  it  was 
completed  and  published  in  a  year.  It  was 
recognized  at  once  and  universally  as  the  work 
of  a  great  genius.  Soon  after  its  publication  he 
commenced  his  Anatomie  descriptive,  conceived 
on  a  new  plan ;  this  was  left  unfinished,  but 
was  completed  according  to  his  directions  by 
his  friends  and  disciples.  There  was  little  sys- 
tematic order  in  the  study  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  before  this  time.  Dissections  were 
made  chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  practical  art 
of  surgery  alone,  and  not  with  any  compre- 
hensive view  of  general  analysis.  He  first  laid 
stress  on  the  general  distinction  between  con- 
scious and  unconscious  life  in  the  body,  and 
the  correspondingly  incessant  action  of  one  set 
of  organs,  sleeping  or  waking,  contrasted  with 
the  interrupted  action  of  another  set  of  or- 
gans, which  are  active  in  the  waking  state  and 
passive  during  sleep.  He  divided  the  organ- 
ism, therefore,  into  two  distinct  mechanisms 
which  he  called  the  organic  and  relational,  or 
the  vegetative  and  the  animal.  These  distinc- 
tions are  admitted  at  the  present  day,  although 
the  vegetative  or  the  organic  mechanism  is 
more  commonly  subdivided  into  the  nutritive 
and  the  reproductive  systems.  He  fell  into  some 
errors  by  generalizing  too  extensively,  without 
M  sufficient  knowledge  of  minor  facts,  and  these 
errors  have  deterred  his  followers  from  pursu- 
ing the  same  course.  His  Becherches  sur  la  lie 
et  la  mart  contains  the  germs  of  a  revolution 
in  the  study  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  but 
its  defective  definitions  and  manifest  errors 
have  caused  them  to  be  overlooked.  The  same 
idea  runs  through  all  his  works,  and  that  is 
the  distinction  between  conscious  and  uncon- 
scious bodily  life  and  motion. 

BICHE  DE  DUB.    See  SEA  CUCUMBER. 

BICKAJVEER,  or  Beykaneer.  I.  A  native 
state  of  N".  W.  Hindostan,  in  Rajpootana,  be- 
tween lat.  27°  30'  and  29°  55'  N.  and  Ion.  72° 
30' and  75°  40' E. ;  area,  17,676  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  540,000.  Its  length  from  E.  to  W.  is 
200  m.,  breadth  about  160  m.  The  surface  is 
flat,  sandy,  and  arid,  and  the  only  products 
are  various  kinds  of  pulse,  raised  by  irrigation. 
The  only  exports  are  horses  and  cattle  of  an 
inferior  kind.  The  climate  presents  extraor- 
dinary extremes  of  temperature  according  as 
the  sun  is  above  or  below  the  horizon.  The 
Rajpoots  are  the  predominant  race,  but  the 
majority  of  the  population  are  Jants.  Bicka- 
neer  was  admitted  under  British  protection  in 


621 


BICKEESTAFF 


BIDDEFORD 


1818.  II.  A  fortified  town,  capital  of  the 
state,  240  in.  W.  by  S.  of  Delhi ;  ]>op.  about 
60,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  desolate  tract,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  3£  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence, with  numerous  round  towers  and  battle- 
ments. There  are  some  elevated  buildings  and 
temples,  and  a  citadel  surrounded  by  a  wall  80 
ft.  high,  containing  the  residence  of  the  rajah  ; 
but  most  of  the  dwellings  are  mere  huts  with 
mud  walls  painted  red. 

BICKERSTAFF,  Isaac,  a  British  dramatist,  born 
in  Ireland  about  1735,  supposed  to  have  died 
on  the  continent  late  in  the  18th  or  early  in 
the  19th  century.  After  having  been  one  of 
the  pages  of  Lord  Chesterfield  at  the  vice- 
regal court  of  Dublin,  he  received  a  commis- 
sion in  the  marines,  in  which  service  he  was 
lieutenant  when  compelled  to  retire  in  dis- 
grace. He  wrote  numerous  comedies  and 
comic  operas,  which  were  produced  under  Gar- 
rick's  management,  and  were  at  one  time  very 
popular.  His  best  known  pieces  are  "  The  Maid 
of  the  Mill,"  "The  Captive,"  "Love  in  a  Vil- 
lage," "  The  Padlock,"  and  the  comedy  of  "  The 
Hypocrite." 

BICKERSTETH.  I.  Edward,  an  English  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Kirkby  Lonsdale,  March  19, 
1786,  died  at  "Watton,  Feb.  24,  1850.  He  was 
for  several  years  a  post  office  clerk  in  London, 
till  in  1812  he  began  business  as  a  solicitor  in 
Norwich.  Here  he  became  interested  in  reli- 
gious and  benevolent  movements,  and  was  or- 
dained in  1815  as  a  deacon  in  the  established 
church.  He  was  sent  in  1816  to  Africa  to  re- 
organize the  stations  of  the  church  missionary 
society,  and  during  the  next  15  years  he  was 
secretary  and  chief  acting  officer  of  that  so- 
ciety. In  1830  he  resigned  this  position  and 
became  rector  of  Watton,  Hertfordshire.  He 
belonged  to  the  evangelical  section  of  the  es- 
tablished church.  His  most  popular  manual, 
"The  Scripture  Help,"  has  been  translated 
into  French  and  other  languages,  and  reached 
a  sale  of  over  150,000  copies.  A  uniform  edi- 
tion of  his  principal  works  was  published  in 
17  vols.  in  1853,  and  there  are  5  vols.  more  of 
his  smaller  publications.  See  "Memoir  of  the 
Eev.  Edward  Bickersteth,"  by  T.  R.  Birks  (2 
vols.,  1851).  II.  Henry,  Lord  Langdale,  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  June 
18,  1783,  died  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  April  18, 
1851.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  his 
father,  who  was  a  surgeon  and  apothecary, 
after  which  he  travelled  on  the  continent  as 
medical  attendant  to  the  earl  of  Oxford,  sub- 
sequently studied  law,  and  rose  to  eminence  in 
the  courts  of  equity.  He  was  appointed  mas- 
ter of  the  rolls  and  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1836  as  Lord  Langdale.  As  he  died  childless, 
the  title  became  extinct.  His  widow,  sister 
of  the  earl  of  Oxford,  was  licensed  in  1853  to 
assume  her  family  name  of  Harley,  and  died 
Sept.  1,  1872.  III.  Mward,  an  English  clergy- 
man, nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Acton, 
Suffolk,  in  1814.  After  holding  various  eccle- 
siastical positions,  he  became  in  1853  vicar  of 


Aylesbury  and  archdeacon  of  Buckingham.  In 
December,  18fi8,  he  was  elected  for  the  third 
time  prolocutor  at  the  convocation  of  Can- 
terbury, and  he  is  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  for  the  revision  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. His  charges  at  his  different  visitations 
between  1855  and  1870,  as  well  as  many  of  his 
sermons,  have  been  published.  IV.  Robert,  an 
English  prelate,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Acton,  Aug.  24,  1816.  He  is  a  graduate  of 
Queen's  college,  Cambridge,  and  has  been  suc- 
cessively curate  at  Sapcote  (1841),  at  Reading 
(1843-'4),  Clapham  (1845),  rector  of  St.  Giles 
in  the  Fields  (1851),  and  canon  residentiary  of 
Salisbury  (1854).  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Ripon.  His  publications  include 
"Bible  Landmarks"  (1850),  "Lent  Lectures, 
Means  of  Grace"  (1851),  "Sermons"  (1  vol., 
1866),  and  charges  delivered  to  the  clergy  of 
his  diocese.  V.  Edward  Henry,  an  English 
clergyman  and  poet,  son  of  Edward  Bicker- 
steth, rector  of  Watton,  born  in  London,  Jan. 
25,  1825.  He  studied  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  curate  at  Birmingham  in 
1848,  and  at  Tunbridge  Wells  in  1852.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Hin- 
ton  Martell,  Dorsetsliire;  in  1855  vicar  of 
Christchurch,  Hampstead;  and  since  1861  he 
has  been  the  private  chaplain  of  his  relative, 
the  bishop  of  Ripon.  His  publications  include 
"  Poems  "  (1848) ;  "  The  Book  of  Ages  "  (1858) ; 
"Yesterday,  To-day,  and  For  Ever,"  a  poem  in 
12  books  (1866) ;  and  "The  Two  Brothers,  and 
other  Poems  "  (1871). 

BIDASSOA,  a  river  of  Spain,  45  m.  long,  the 
last  12  m.  forming  the  boundary  between 
France  and  Spain.  It  rises  in  Navarre,  and 
falls  into  the  bay  of  Biscay  near  Fuenterrabia, 
watering  the  Bastan  and  other  beautiful  val- 
leys. The  river  is  locally  called  Bastan  Zubi 
in  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  the  name  of 
Bidassoa  being  generally  applied  to  it  only  af- 
ter its  entrance  into  the  valley  of  San  Esteban. 
It  has  many  small  affluents.  Near  Irun,  where 
the  French  had  a  tete-de-pont  constructed  in 
1813,  is  the  Pheasants'  island,  a  sort  of  neutral 
ground,  also  called  the  Conference  island  from 
the  many  Franco-Spanish  conferences  held 
there.  The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  was  nego- 
tiated at  this  place  in  1659.  The  Spanish 
crossed  the  Bidassoa  thrice  in  1703,  defeating 
the  French,  who  in  July  were  finally  victo- 
rious. A  French  army  of  16,000  men  under 
Soult  was  defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Bidas- 
soa at  San  Marcial,  Aug.  31,  1813,  by  8,000 
British  and  Spanish  troops  under  Wellington. 
On  Oct.  7  of  the  same  year  AVellington  drove 
the  French  from  their  strong  intrenchments  at 
the  same  point. 

BIDUEFORD,  a  city  of  York  county,  Maine, 
on  the  Saco  river,  at  the  falls,  6  m.  from  its 
mouth  and  opposite  the  town  of  Saco,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  500  ft.  long ; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,285.  The  water  power  is  ex- 
cellent and  inexhaustible,  the  fall  being  42  feet. 
About  a  dozen  cotton  mills,  situated  on  both 


BIDDLE 


625 


sides  of  the  river,  are  worked  by  it ;  there  are 
also  extensive  manufactories  of  woollen  goods 
and  hardware,  iron  founderies,  and  large  saw 
mills,  and  the  place  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber. 
The  valuation  of  property  in  1870  was  $5,682,- 
402 ;  in  1800,  $4,593,647.  The  city  has  two  na- 
tional banks,  2  savings  banks,  1  Congregational- 
ist,  1  Methodist,  2  Baptist,  1  Universalist,  1  Epis- 
copal, and  2  Catholic  churches,  34  schools,  and 
2  weekly  newspapers.  There  are  large  fruit 
nurseries.  The  Portland,  Saco,  and  Ports- 
mouth railroad,  passing  through  the  city,  con- 
nects it  with  Portland  and  Boston.  The 
"  Pool,"  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where 
there  is  a  fine  beach  several  miles  in  extent,  is 
a  place  of  summer  resort.  Biddeford  was 
settled  about  1630,  and  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  1718,  and  as  a  city  in  1855.  It  was  named 
from  Bideford,  in  England. 

BIDDLE.  I.  Clement,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  May  10,  1740,  died  there, 
July  14,  1814.  He  was  a  member  of  the  so- 
ciety of  Friends,  a  descendant  of  an  early  Quaker 
settler  and  proprietary  of  West  Jersey,  and  was 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits.  In  1764  he 
joined  in  raising  a  military  corps  for  the  pro- 
tection of  friendly  Indians  against  a  lawless 
hand  called  the  Paxton  boys ;  and  in  1775  he 
was  an  officer  of  the  "Quaker"  company  of 
volunteers  raised  in  Philadelphia.  In  1776  he 
was  appointed  by  congress  deputy  quarter- 
master general  for  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey,  and  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Trenton,  and  in  conjunction  with  another 
officer  was  ordered  by  Washington  to  receive 
the  swords  of  the  Hessian  officers.  He  also 
participated  in  the  victory  of  Princeton,  the 
retreat  at  Brandywine,  and  the  enterprise  of 
Germantown.  During  the  winter  of  1777-'8 
he  shared  the  sufferings  of  the  American  army 
at  Valley  Forge,  rendering  important  service 
especially  during  the  famine.  After  the  battle 
of  Monmouth  he  retired  from  the  army  (Sep- 
tember, 1780).  In  1781  he  was  appointed  at 
the  urgent  request  of  Greene  quartermaster 
general  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1794  he  served 
against  the  whiskey  insurgents.  He  was  at  the 
same  time  an  active  politician,  urging  the  adop- 
tion of  the  state  constitution  of  1776,  of  which 
his  brother  Owen  was  one  of  the  framers. 
After  the  organization  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  1787,  he  was  appointed  United  States 
marshal  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  held  in 
high  regard  by  Washington,  with  whom  he 
was  in  frequent  intercourse  and  active  cor- 
respondence. II.  Clement  Cornell,  an  American 
political  economist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  24,  1784,  died  Aug.  21, 
1855.  He  early  entered  the  naval  service,  but 
soon  left  it  and  became  a  lawyer.  The  out- 
rage upon  the  U.  8.  ship  Chesapeake  in  June, 
1807,  led  him  to  solicit  military  employment, 
and  he  was  appointed  captain  of  dragoons,  but 
resigned  his  commission  on  the  speedy  settle- 
ment of  this  difficulty.  In  1812  he  raised  a  com- 
pany of  volunteers,  called  the  "  State  Fencibles," 


and  was  afterward  elected  colonel  of  a  volunteer 
regiment ;  but  the  retreat  of  the  British  from 
Baltimore  left  no  opportunity  for  active  service. 
After  the  restoration  of  peace  he  devoted  him- 
self chiefly  to  political  economy,  preparing 
notes  and  additions  to  the  translation  of  Say's 
"  Treatise  on  Political  Economy "  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1821;  new  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1851), 
which  were  commended  by  Dugald  Stewart. 
In  the  free  trade  convention  in  Philadelphia  in 
1831  he  bore  a  prominent  part ;  and,  although 
occupying  no  public  position,  he  contributed  to 
mould  the  policy  of  the  government  with  re- 
gard to  the  currency  and  foreign  commerce. 

BIDDLE,  James,  an  officer  of  the  United 
States  navy,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  February, 
1783,  died  there,  Oct.  1,  1848.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  February,  1800. 
During  the  war  with  Tripoli  he  served  on  the 
Constellation  and  Philadelphia,  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  detained  until  the  conclusion  of 
peace.  When  war  was  declared  against  Great 
Britain  he  sailed  as  lieutenant  on  board  the 
Wasp,  which  soon  captured  the  Frolic,  and 
was  put  in  command  of  the  prize ;  but  both 
vessels  were  soon  after  taken  by  the  Poictiers, 
a  British  74-gun  ship,  and  carried  to  Bermuda. 
Having  been  exchanged  (March,  1813),  Biddle 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  gunboats  on 
the  Delaware,  but  was  soon  transferred  to  the 
Hornet,  one  of  Decatur's  squadron.  He  was 
for  many  months  blockaded  in  the  harbor  of 
New  London ;  but  making  his  escape,  he  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Hornet,  which 
was  ordered  to  the  East  Indies ;  and  in  Febru- 
ary, 1815,  he  was  made  captain.  On  March 
23,  off  the  island  of  Tristan  d'Acunha,  he  cap- 
tured the  Penguin,  being  severely  wounded  in 
the  action.  For  this  he  received  a  gold  medal 
from  congress,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  captain.  After  the  war  he  held  several  im- 
portant commands,  including,  in  1830-'32,  that 
of  the  Mediterranean  squadron,  being  also  ap- 
pointed a  commissioner  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
with  the  Ottoman  government. 

BIDDLE,  John,  an  English  theologian,  called 
"the  father  of  English  Unitarians,"  born  at 
Wotton-under-Edge,  Gloucestershire,  in  1615, 
died  in  London,  Sept.  22,  1662.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  tradesman,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  elected  master  of  the  free  school  of 
Gloucester.  His  tract  entitled  "  Twelve  Argu- 
ments drawn  out  of  the  Scripture,  wherein  the 
commonly  received  opinion  touching  the  Deity 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  clearly  and  fully  refuted," 
led  to  his  dismissal  from  this  post  and  to  his 
arrest  (Dec.  2,  1645)  and  imprisonment,  the 
house  of  commons  ordering  all  printed  copies 
of  the  book  to  be  burned  by  the  common  hang- 
man. While  yet  in  prison  he  printed  a  "  Con- 
fession of  Faith  concerning  the  Holy  Trinity 
according  to  the  Scriptures,  with  the  Testi- 
monies of  several  of  the  Fathers  on  this  head  " 
(London,  1648).  This  was  followed  by  "  The 
Testimonies  of  Irenams,  Justin  Martyr,  Nova- 
tianus,  Theophilus,  &c.,  concerning  the  Persons 


626 


BIDDLE 


of  the  Holy  Trinity."  The  Presbyterians  passed 
a  measure  through  parliament,  by  which  every 
one  who  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
should  be  punished  with  death.  This  was 
aimed  at  Biddle,  and  he  was  about  to  suffer, 
when  a  sudden  opposition  arose  to  it  among 
the  Independents  and  the  army.  "When  the 
Independents  gained  the  upper  hand  (1649),  the 
penal  laws  against  heretics  were  mitigated  or 
repealed.  Biddle  was  released,  and  retired 
into  Staffordshire,  where  he  was  warmly  wel- 
comed by  a  magistrate,  who  procured  him  a 
congregation,  made  him  a  private  chaplain,  and 
left  him  a  legacy.  Bradshaw,  president  of  the 
council,  however,  remanded  him  to  prison. 
He  had  now  lost  not  only  his  fortune  and 
his  liberty,  but  his  friends.  Dr.  Gunning, 
afterward  bishop  .of  Ely,  was  the  only  theolo- 
gian who  visited  him  in  prison.  He  suffered 
great  privations,  but  his  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  Scriptures  induced  Roger  Daniel, 
a  London  printer,  to  give  him  for  correction 
the  proof-sheets  of  a  Greek  Septuagint,  and 
this  relieved  his  wants.  In  1651  an  act  of  in- 
demnity and  oblivion  for  all  heretical  offences 
was  passed  by  parliament,  and  Biddle  was 
again  released,  and  collected  around  him  those 
whom  his  writings  had  brought  to  his  way  of 
thinking;  Their  fundamental  law  was  that 
"  the  unity  of  God  is  a  unity  of  person  as  well 
as  nature."  The  members  of  this  new  sect 
were  called  Biddel'ians,  and,  when  their  har- 
mony with  the  doctrines  of  Socinus  was  per- 
ceived, Socinians.  A  translation  of  Biddle's 
"Twofold  Scripture  Catechisms"  (London, 
1654),  for  the  use  of  foreigners,  brought  him 
again  to  the  bar  of  the  house  of  commons ;  and 
on  his  refusal  to  criminate  himself,  he  was 
committed  for  contempt,  and  the  death  penalty 
ordinance  was  revived  against  him.  When 
Cromwell  dissolved  the  parliament,  Biddle  once 
more  regained  his  liberty  after  10  months'  con- 
finement. A  whole  Baptist  congregation  be- 
came converted  to  Biddle's  views,  and  this  was 
so  displeasing  to  the  Baptist  minister,  Mr. 
Griffin,  that  he  challenged  Biddle  to  a  public 
controversy.  The  latter  accepted  the  challenge, 
and  spoke  in  a  derogatory  manner  of  Christ's 
divine  nature.  He  was  thrown  into  the  Poul- 
try Compter,  July  3,  1655,  and  thence  removed 
to  Newgate,  and  tried  for  his  life  under  the 
long  parliament  ordinance  against  blasphemy 
and  heresy.  As  the  case  was  evidently  going 
against  him,  Cromwell  interposed,  the  trial  was 
stopped,  and  Biddle  was  remanded  to  jail.  In 
order  to  shelter  him  yet  more  securely  from 
his  persecutors,  Cromwell  banished  him  to 
Star  castle,  in  St.  Mary's,  one  of  the  Scilly 
islands,  with  an  annual  subsistence  of  100 
crowns  (October,  1655).  Here  he  continued  to 
devote  himself  to  the  study  of  theology.  After 
three  years  he  was  released  on  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpu*,  and  returning  to  London,  became  pas- 
tor of  an  Independent  congregation ;  but  fearing 
the  Presbyterians,  who  came  again  into  power 
after  the  death  of  Cromwell,  he  retired  into 


the  country.  Upon  the  final  dissolution  of  the 
rump  parliament,  he  again  went  to  London  and 
renewed  his  ministrations.  The  restoration 
of  Charles  II.  once  more  caused  him  to  retire 
from  publicity ;  but  he  suddenly  rejoined  his 
congregation  in  1662,  while  meeting  in  a 
private  house.  Biddle  was  fined  £100,  and 
each  of  the  audience  £20,  with  confinement  in 
default  of  payment.  The  prison  was  kept  in 
such  a  manner  that  five  weeks'  residence  in  it 
was  enough  to  cause  his  death.  Among  his 
writings  are  a  "History  of  the  Unitarians" 
and  several  pieces  translated  from  the  works 
of  the  Polish  Unitarians.  He  denied  the  doc- 
trines of  original  sin  and  the  atonement.  The 
Rev.  Joshua  Toulmin,  an  English  Unitarian 
minister,  wrote  a  "  Review  of  the  Life,  Char- 
acter, and  Writings  of  John  Biddle  "  (1789). 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  an  American  naval  com-  ' 
mander,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  10,  1750, 
killed  at  sea  March  7,  1778.  In  1765,  on  a 
voyage  to  the  West  Indies,  he  was  left  with 
two  others  on  an  uninhabited  island,  and  lived 
there  two  months.  In  1770  he  entered  the 
British  navy.  When  Capt.  Phipps,  afterward 
Lord  Mulgrave,  was  about  to  start  on  his  ex- 
ploring expedition,  young  Biddle,  though  a 
midshipman,  deserted  his  own  vessel  and 
shipped  as  a  seaman  on  the  Carcass,  serving 
through  the  cruise  with  Nelson,  who  was  a 
mate  of  Phipps's  vessel.  On  the  commence- 
ment of  the  American  revolution  he  returned 
to  America,  joined  the  colonists,  and  was  made 
captain  of  the  Andrew  Doria,  a  brig  of  14  guns 
and  130  men,  in  which  he  participated  in 
Commodore  Hopkins's  attack  on  New  Provi- 
dence. After  refitting  in  New  London  he  was 
ordered  on  a  cruise  to  the  hanks  of  New- 
foundland, and  in  1776  took  among  other 
prizes  two  transport  ships  with  valuable  cargoes 
and  with  a  battalion  of  Highlanders.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Randolph, 
a  32-gun  frigate,  in  February,  1777,  and  speed- 
ily carried  into  Charleston  four  prizes.  He 
was  now  made  commander  of  a  small  fleet  for 
a  cruise  in  West  Indian  waters.  In  March, 
1778,  he  was  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 
Yarmouth,  an  English  ship.  While  under  the 
hands  of  a  surgeon,  he  was  blown  up  with  the 
explosion  of  the  magazine,  the  315  men  on 
board  the  Randolph  all  perishing  except  four. 

BIDDLE,  Mi  hula-,  an  American  banker,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  8, 1786,  died  there,  Feb. 
27,  1844.  He  was  a  son  of  Charles  Biddle, 
vice  president  of  Pennsylvania  when  Benja- 
min Franklin  was  the  president,  and  nephew 
of  Commodore  Nicholas  Biddle.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Princeton  college,  and  became  sec- 
retary of  legation  in  Paris  under  Gen.  Arm- 
strong, and  in  London  under  Monroe.  In  1807 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  the  law.  He  edited  the  "Port 
Folio "  for  a  time  in  conjunction  with  Joseph 
Dennie,  compiled  a  "  Commercial  Digest,"  and 
prepared  the  narrative  of  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
expedition.  He  was  in  the  house  of  repre- 


BIDDLE 


BIELA 


627 


sentatives  of  Pennsylvania  1810-'ll,  and  was 
distinguished  by  his  efforts  to  establish  a  gener- 
al system  of  education.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
war  of  1812-'15  he  was  a  member  of  the  state 
senate,  and  ardently  supported  the  war.  He 
wrote  the  report  of  the  senate  committee  upon 
the  propositions  from  the  Hartford  convention, 
which  attracted  great  attention.  In  1817  he 
was  the  candidate  of  the  democratic  party  for 
congress,  but  was  defeated  by  the  federalists. 
In  1819  President  Monroe  appointed  him  a 
government  director  of  the  United  States  bank, 
and  in  1823,  on  the  resignation  of  Langdon 
Oheves,  he  became  its  president,  retaining  this 
place  during  the  violent  agitations  concerning 
that  institution  under  Gen.  Jackson,  till  the  ter- 
mination of  its  charter  in  1836.  He  was  then 
chosen  president  of  the  newly  established 
United  States  bank  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1839, 
his  health  being  much  impaired,  he  resigned, 
leaving  the  bank  apparently  in  a  prosperous 
condition.  Two  years  afterward  it  was  de- 
clared insolvent,  on  which  occasion  he  pub- 
lished a  series  of  letters  in  vindication  of  his 
administration.  He  was  an  earnest  promoter 
of  public  improvements,  and  exercised  by  his 
popular  manners,  force  of  character,  and  finan- 
cial ability,  a  commanding  influence.  He  was 
president  of  the  trustees  of  Girard  college.  His 
speeches  and  writings  are  elegant  and  vigorous. 

BIDDLE,  Kirlianl,  an  American  lawyer  and 
author,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Phil- 
adelphia, March  25,  1796,  died  in  Pittsburgh, 
July  7,  1847.  He  early  became  the  leader 
of  the  Pittsburgh  bar.  In  1827  he  visited 
England,  and  while  there  published  a  critical 
"Review  of  Capt.  Basil  Hall's  Travels  in 
North  America"  (1830),  and  "A  Memoir  of 
Sebastian  Cabot,  with  a  Review  of  the  History 
of  Maritime  Discovery  "  (London  and  Phila- 
delphia, 1831).  He  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  1837  to  1840. 

BIDEFORD,  a  seaport  town  of  Devonshire, 
England,  on  both  sides  of  the  Torridge,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  24  arches  and 
677  ft.  long,  35  m.  N.  W.  of  Exeter ;  pop.  in 
1871,  6,953.  The  town  has  a  large  mediaeval 
church  with  interesting  monuments,  a  fine 
quay  1,200  ft.  long,  and  manufactures  of  ropes, 
sails,  earthenware,  and  leather.  It  is  health- 
ful, and  is  a  place  of  summer  resort. 

BIDLOO,  Godfrled,  a  Dutch  anatomist,  born  in 
Amsterdam,  March  12,  1649,  died  in  Leyden 
in  April,  1713.  He  was  a  surgeon  in  the 
army,  professor  at  the  Hague  and  at  Leyden, 
and  nearly  eight  years  physician  of  William 
III.  of  England.  Subsequently  he  returned  to 
his  chair  at  Leyden,  teaching  anatomy,  sur- 
gery, and  chemistry.  His  principal  work, 
Anatomia  Humani  Corporis  (Amsterdam, 
1685;  Utrecht,  1750),  though  inaccurate  in 
some  respects,  was  an  important  advance  upon 
the  science  of  the  period.  Cowper,  the  English 
anatomist,  bought  300  copies  of  the  plates  of 
this  work,  and  published  them  with  alterations 
as  his  own  at  Oxford  in  1693. 


BIDPAY,  or  PUpay,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
collection  of  ancient  Hindoo  fables,  which  have 
been  spread  for  2,000  years  throughout  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  have  been  translated  into 
almost  all  languages.  Eighteen  of  the  fables 
of  La  Fontaine  are  copies  or  close  imitations 
of  them.  Recent  savants  are  of  opinion  that 
the  author  of  the  fables  of  Bidpay  was  a  Brah- 
man named  Vishnu-Sarma,  and  that  they  origi- 
nated from  the  ancient  Hindoo  collection  Pan- 
tchatantra  ("Five  Sections"),  of  which  an 
edition  in  Sanskrit  has  been  published  by  Kose- 
garten  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1848-'59),  and  a  Ger- 
man version  by  Benfey  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1859). 
The  same  materials  were  subsequently  worked 
up  in  the  Sanskrit  Hitopadesa  ("  Salutary  In- 
struction"), of  which  an  English  translation 
by  Wilkins,  a  Latin  by  Schlegel  and  Lassen,  and 
a  German  by  Max  Muller  have  been  published. 
The  principal  source  of  the  numerous  medi- 
aeval imitations  was  the  Pehlevi  version  pre- 
pared for  Chosroes  I.,  and  preserved  in  an 
Arabic  translation  of  the  8th  century. 

BIEBRICH,  or  Bieberieh,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  right 
hank  of  the  Rhine,  3  m.  S.  of  Wiesbaden ;  pop. 
in  1871,  including  Mosbach,  6,642.  The  palace 
of  Biebrich,  a  fine  modern  building,  though 
somewhat  dilapidated,  has  long  been  the  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  dukes  of  Nassau,  several 
of  whom  are  buried  in  the  church  here.  The 
adjoining  gardens  are  very  pretty  and  exten- 
sive, and  accessible  to  the  public.  They  con- 
tain fine  alleys,  famous  greenhouses,  and  a 
large  fountain;  and  within  their  circuit  is  a 
miniature  castle  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  old 
castle  of  Mosbach,  on  the  bank  of  a  small  ar- 
tificial lake.  Many  Roman  antiquities  were 
removed  to  the  castle  from  the  former  abbey 
of  Ebersbach.  S.  E.  of  Biebrich,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Castel  (opposite  Mentz),  are  traces  of  a 
Roman  fort.  C»sar  in  his  second  expedition 
against  the  Suevi,  and  Agrippa,  are  supposed 
by  some  authorities  to  have  crossed  the  Rhine 
in  this  vicinity.  Biebrich  became  a  free  port 
in  1831,  and  is  accessible  to  steamers  and  large 
sailing  vessels. 

BIEFVE,  Edonard  de,  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Brussels,  Dec.  4.  1808.  He  studied  in  Pa- 
ris under  David  d' Angers,  and  on  his  return  to 
Belgium  excelled  by  his  historical  pictures  and 
portraits.  His  "  Compromise  of  the  Brussels 
Nobles  of  Feb.  16,  1566,"  executed  by  order 
of  his  government,  was  much  admired  at  the 
Paris  exhibition  of  1855,  and  is  in  the  museum 
of  Brussels.  For  the  king  of  Prussia  he  paint- 
ed "The  Knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order  recog- 
nizing the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  as  their 
Grand  Master."  Among  his  other  works  are 
"The  Introduction  of  Rubens  to  Charles  V.," 
" Masaniello,"  "  Ugolino,"  and  "Raphael  and 
LaFornarina." 

BIEL.     See  BIENXE. 

BIELA,  TTilhelm  Ton,  baron,  a  German  sol- 
dier and  astronomer,  born  at  Rosla,  near 
Nordhausen,  March  19,  1782,  died  in  Venice, 


C28 


BIELEFELD 


BIENNE 


Feb.  18,  1856.  He  was  an  officer  in  the  Aus- 
trian army,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  ma- 
jor, lie  discovered  telescopic  comets  in  1823 
and  1825,  and  acquired  celebrity  in  1826  by 
the  discovery  on  Feb.  27,  while  stationed  at 
Josephstadt,  Bohemia,  of  a  periodical  comet 
visible  every  6f  years,  and  which  is  called  after 
him.  Hia  most  important  contributions  to  as- 
tronomical science  are  contained  in  Schuma- 
cher's Astronomische  Nachrichten. 

BIELEFELD,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  West- 
phalian  district  of  Minden,  divided  by  the  small 
river  Butter  into  an  old  and  new  town,  26  m. 
S.  W.  of  Minden;  pop.  in  1871,  21,803.  It  is  a 
celebrated  centre  of  the  flax  and  linen  trade, 
the  renowned  Ravensburg  flax  manufactory 
having  nearly  30,000  looms,  including  about 
5,000  in  the  branch  establishment  at  Wolfen- 
buttel.  The  bleacheries  are  after  the  Irish 
and  Belgian  systems,  and  produce  annually 
over  150,000  pieces  of  linen  and  50,000  cwt. 
of  yarn.  The  ready-made  linen  factories  here 
employed  in  1870  over  2,000  women.  There 
are  also  manufactories  of  silk,  velvet,  glass, 
machines,  and  other  articles.  Bielefeld  be- 
came a  Hanse  town  in  1270,  and  in  the  17th 
century  it  passed  with  the  county  of  Ravens- 
berg  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of  Bran- 
denburg. The  neighboring  castle  of  Sparren- 
burg  on  the  Sparren  mountain,  formerly  a  bone 
of  contention  in  times  of  war,  is  at  present 
used  as  a  prison. 

BIELEV,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tula,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Oka,  about  155  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Moscow; 
pop.  in  1867,  8,123.  It  has  considerable  trade, 
the  chief  articles  of  which  are  grain,  hemp, 
and  linseed  oil.  Two  great  fairs  are  annually 
held.  The  town  has  several  tallow,  oil,  and 
rope  factories,  a  sugar  factory,  19  churches, 
and  3  monasteries.  On  May  16,  1826,  the  em- 
press Elizabeth,  widow  of  Alexander  I.,  died 
here,  and  a  monument  to  her  memory  has  been 
erected.  The  house  in  which  she  died  has  been 
converted  into  a  widows'  home. 

BIELGOROD.     See  BELGOROD. 

BIELITZ,  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia,  on  the 
N.  W.  declivity  of  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
and  on  the  river  Biala,  opposite  the  Galician 
town  of  Biala,  and  18  m.  E.  N".  E.  of  Teschen ; 
pop.  in  1869,  10,721,  chiefly  Protestants.  It 
is  well  built,  contains  a  fine  castle  and  park, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  consistory  with 
jurisdiction  over  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia. 
t  is  the  principal  depot  of  Galician  salt  for 
Moravia  and  Silesia.  Cloth  and  other  articles 
are  manufactured,  and  the  dye  works  are 
renowned.  The  town  dates  from  the  13th 
century.  It  was  formerly  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Teschen,  and  after  having  been  for  some 
time  independent,  the  emperor  Francis  I.  raised 
it  in  1752  to  a  principality  for  Prince  Alexan- 
der Joseph  Sulkowski.  The  neighboring  vil- 
lage of  Old  Bielitz  has  over  3,000  inhabitants. 

BIELLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Novara,  Piedmont,  on  the  Cervo  and  Aurena, 


in  a  hilly  neighborhood,  12  m.  N.  E.  of  Ivrea; 
pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral  with  pictures  by  Ca- 
gliari,  besides  other  churches,  and  a  college. 
Its  trade  is  active,  and  cloth,  silk,  linen,  and 
paper  are  manufactured.  The  neighboring 
village  of  Oropa  has  a  famous  pilgrim  church. 

BIELOWSKI,  August,  a  Polish  writer,  born  at 
Krechowiec  in  Galicia  in  1806.  He  studied  at 
Lemberg,  devoting  himself  especially  to  litera- 
ture and  history.  After  completing  his  stu- 
dent's course  he  pursued  his  literary  studies  in 
the  same  town,  and  after  a  time  was  made 
librarian  of  the  Ossolinski  library  there.  He 
published  in  1830  a  volume  of  poems  and 
translations  of  Servian  songs  under  the  title 
Haliczanin.  His  other  principal  works  are 
Wyprawa  Igora  na  Polowcbw  ("  Igor's  Expedi- 
tion against  the  Polovtzi,"  Lemberg,  1833), 
and  Wystep  krytyany  do  dziejow  PolM 
("  Critical  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Poland,"  1850).  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
Polish  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust,  and  of 
numerous  articles  in  Polish  periodicals. 

BIELSHOHLE,  a  cave  in  the  Bielstein,  one  of 
the  mountains  of  the  Hsrtz,  lying  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Bode  river,  about  6  m.  from 
Blankenburg,  in  Brunswick,  northern  Ger- 
many. It  was  discovered  in  1762,  and  in  1768 
a  man  named  Becker  arranged  a  passage  or 
path  by  which  it  might  be  easily  reached.  The 
cavern  is  about  600  ft.  in  depth,  and  its  en- 
trance lies  a  little  more  than  100  ft.  above  the 
Bode.  It  contains  11  chambers,  besides  an 
upper  cave,  entered  through  the  roof  of  the 
seventh  division  of  the  main  portion.  Stalac- 
tites of  picturesque  form  and  arrangement  are 
the  chief  feature  of  interest  in  the  cavern ;  in 
the  eighth  chamber  their  masses  resemble  an 
immense  organ,  and  in  the  ninth  the  stalag- 
mites take  the  form  of  waves.  According  to 
tradition,  the  forest  god  Biel,  a  divinity  of  the 
old  Saxons,  was  once  worshipped  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of,  if  not  in  this  cave;  and  a  shrine 
near  by  contained  his  image,  which  the  legend 
says  was  destroyed  by  St.  Boniface. 

BIELSKI,  Ilardn,  a  Polish  historian,  born  at 
the  family  estate  of  Biala,  near  Sieradz,  died 
there  in  1576.  He  served  in  the  army,  and 
participated  in  1530  in  the  battle  of  Obertyn. 
His  Kronika  s-wiata  (Cracow,  1550  and  1564), 
a  universal  history,  and  his  Kronika  polska,  a 
history  of  Poland,  brought  down  by  his  son 
Joachim  to  the  year  1597  (Cracow,  1597; 
Warsaw,  1764),  wrere  the  first  historical  works 
published  in  the  Polish  language.  They  were 
interdicted  in  1617  by  the  bishop  of  Cracow 
on  account  of  alleged  heterodox  statements. 

BIEMVE  (Ger.  Biel).  I.  A  town  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Bern,  pleasantly  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  the  Suze  (Ger. 
Schilss),  at  the  E.  foot  of  the  Jura,  about  1  m. 
from  the  head  of  the  lake  of  Bienne,  16  m.  N. 
W.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  8,113,  chiefly  Prot- 
estants speaking  the  German  language,  al- 
though in  neighboring  villages  a  French  patois 


BIENVILLE 


629 


prevails.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  watch 
towers,  and  has  an  old  castle  used  as  a  town 
hall,  a  fine  parish  church  and  gymnasium,  and 
other  public  buildings.  The  town  is  especially 
noted  for  its  manufactures  of  watches  and  of 
cotton  prints,  besides  which  cigars,  leather, 
and  other  articles  are  made.  Formerly  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  see  of  Basel  and  involved 
in  a  protracted  conflict  with  that  bishopric,  it 
fell  to  France  in  1798,  and  in  1815  to  the  can- 
ton of  Bern.  II.  Lake  of  (Ger.  Bielenee),  a 
sheet  of  water  about  10  m.  long  and  nearly 
3  m.  wide,  commencing  3  m.  N.  of  the  lake 
of  Neufchatel,  and  extending  along  the  Jura 
mountains.  It  is  about  1,400  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  abounds  in  fish  at  a 
depth  of  over  200  feet.  It  has  for  its  only  af- 
fluent a  branch  of  the  Suze  or  Schuss  river, 
and  receives  the  waters  of  the  lake  of  Neuf- 
chatel at  its  S.  end  through  the  Thiele,  dis- 
charging them  again  at  the  N.  E.  end  through 
the  same  river.  One  of  the  shores  is  dotted 
with  villages  and  villas,  while  the  other  is 
rather  desolate.  Excellent  wine  is  produced 
at  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  lake  between  Neuve- 
ville  and  Bozingen.  The  scenery  is  attractive 
without  being  very  striking,  and  the  lake  ac- 
quired celebrity  through  Rousseau,  who  resided 
for  some  time  in  1765  on  the  island  of  St.  Pierre, 
crowned  by  a  grove  of  fine  oaks,  about  6  m. 
from  the  town  of  Bienne,  and  who  gave  a  glow- 
ing description  of  it.  His  room  is  preserved 
nearly  in  the  state  in  which  he  left  it.  On  the 
S.  E.  shore  of  the  lake  is  the  most  extensive 
peat  moss  of  Switzerland,  the  peat  being  manu- 
factured into  petroleum,  benzine,  and  pigments, 
in  an  establishment  which  was  formerly  known 
as  the  Gothic  abbey  of  St.  John.  An  ancient 
lacustrine  village  has  been  dug  out  recently 
from  the  morass. 

BIENVILLE,  a  N.  W.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
bounded  W.  by  Lake  Bistineau,  which  commu- 
nicates with  Red  river ;  area,  081  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,636,  of  whom  5,047  were  colored. 
It  is  traversed  by  Black  Lake  and  Saline  ba- 
yous, and  intersected  in  its  S.  E.  corner  by 
Dugdemona  river.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  192,164  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  27,- 
621  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  7,253  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  1,313  horses,  2,786  milch 
cows,  5,912  other  cattle,  4,340  sheep,  and 
12,485  swine  Capital,  Sparta. 

BIEXVILLE,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Iloyne,  sicur  de, 
French  governor  of  Louisiana,  born  in  Mon- 
treal, Feb.  23,  1680,  died  in  France  in  1768. 
He  was  son  of  Charles  le  Moyne,  and  the  third 
of  four  brothers  (Iberville,  Serigny,  Bienville, 
and  Chateauguay)  who  played  important  parts 
in  the  early  history  of  Louisiana.  Bienville 
while  a  lad  was  severely  wounded  in  a  naval 
action  off  the  coast  of  New  England,  in  which 
the  French  ship  Pelican,  42  guns,  commanded 
by  Iberville,  successfully  encountered  three 
English  vessels,  each  of  fully  equal  power 
with  his  own.  In  1698  Iberville  set  out  from 
France  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the 


Mississippi,  taking  with  him  his  brother  Bien- 
ville, and  Sauvolle.  The  first  settlement  was 
made  at  Biloxi,  where  Sauvolle  was  left  in 
command,  while  Bienville  was  engaged  in  ex- 
ploring the  surrounding  country.  Iberville, 
who  had  returned  to  France,  came  back  with 
a  commission  appointing  Sauvolle  governor  of 
Louisiana.  In  1700  Bienville  constructed  a 
fort  54  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Sauvolle  died  in  1701,  and  Bienville  succeeded 
to  the  direction  of  the  colony,  the  seat  of 
which  was  transferred  to  Mobile.  In  1704  he 
was  joined  by  his  brother  Chateauguay,  who 
brought  from  Canada  17  settlers.  A  ship  from 
France  brought  20  females,  who  had  been 
sent  out  to  be  married  to  the  settlers  at  Mobile. 
Iberville  soon  after  died ;  troubles  arose  in  the 
colony,  Bienville  was  charged  with  various 
acts  of  misconduct,  and  in  1707  was  dismissed 
from  office;  but  his  successor  dying  on  the 
voyage  from  France,  Bienville  retained  the 
command.  Meanwhile,  the  attempt  to  culti- 
vate the  land  by  Indian  labor  having  failed, 
Bienville  proposed  to  the  home  government  to 
send  negroes  from  the  Antilles  to  be  exchanged 
for  Indians,  at  the  rate  of  three  Indians  for 
two  negroes.  In  1709  and  1710  the  colony 
was  reduced  to  famine.  In  1712  the  French 
king  granted  to  Antoine  Crozat  the  exclusive 
right  to  trade  in  Louisiana,  and  to  introduce 
slaves  from  Africa.  In  1713  Cadillac  was  sent 
out  as  governor,  bringing  with  him  a  commis- 
sion for  Bienville  as  lieutenant  governor. 
Quarrels  arose  between  them,  and  the  gov- 
ernor sent  Bienville  on  an  expedition  to  the 
Natchez  tribe,  hoping  that  he  would  lose  his 
life.  But  Bienville  succeeded  in  inducing  the 
Natchez  to  build  a  fort  for  him,  in  which  he 
left  a  garrison,  and  returned  to  Mobile.  In 
1717  Cadillac  was  superseded  by  Epinay,  and 
Bienville  received  the  decoration  of  the  cross 
of  St.  Louis.  Crozat  surrendered  his  charter 
in  1717,  and  Law's  Mississippi  company  was 
formed  the  same  year,  its  first  expedition  ar- 
riving in  1718,  with  a  commission  for  Bienville  . 
as  governor.  He  now  founded  the  city  of  New 
Orleans.  War  breaking  out  between  France 
and  Spain,  Bienville  took  Pensacola,  placing 
Chateauguay  in  command.  In  1723  the  seat 
of  government  was  transferred  to  New  Or- 
leans. The  next  year  Bienville  was  summoned 
to  France,  to  answer  charges  which  had  been 
brought  against  him.  He  left  a  code  regu- 
lating the  condition  of  the  slaves,  banishing 
the  Jews,  and  prohibiting  every  religion  ex- 
cept the  Roman  Catholic.  In  1726  he  was 
removed  from  office,  and  Chateauguay  was 
also  displaced  as  lieutenant  governor,  and  or- 
dered back  to  France.  Bienville  remained  in 
France  till  1733,  when  he  was  sent  back  to 
the  colony  as  governor,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant general.  In  1736,  1739,  and  1740,  he 
made  unsuccessful  expeditions  against  the 
Chickasaws,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
superseded,  and  in  1743  returned  to  France, 
where  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed. 


630 


BIERNACKI 


BIGELOW 


BIERNACKI,  Alolzy  Prosper,  a  Polish  agricultu- 
ral reformer,  born  near  Kalisz  in  1778,  died 
in  Paris  in  August,  1856.  lie  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  agriculture,  and  established  on  his 
estates  a  school  of  mutual  instruction  on  the 
Lancasterian  method.  He  improved  the  breed 
of  sheep  by  introducing  into  Poland  merinos 
of  a  superior  quality,  and  to  his  indefatigable 
exertions  Poland  is  greatly  indebted  for  agri- 
cultural improvements.  His  estate,  Sulislawice, 
near  Kalisz,  was  the  earliest  model  farm  in 
Poland,  established  at  his  own  cost,  long  before 
the  existence  of  any  other  similar  institution. 
He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  constitutional 
party  under  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas,  and  du- 
ring the  revolution  of  1830-'31  was  for  a  short 
time  minister  of  finance.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  revolution  he  emigrated  to  Paris,  where 
he  lived  in  studious  occupation  till  his  death. — 
His  elder  brother  JOZEF,  also  of  high  mental 
accomplishments,  a  fervent  and  devoted  patriot, 
fought  in  the  French  revolutionary  army  in 
Italy  against  the  Austrians  and  Kussians,  and 
after  participating  in  the  Polish  revolution  of 
1830-'31,  and  in  some  subsequent  movements, 
he  died  in  1836,  a  state  prisoner  in  Russia. 

BIERSTADT,  Albert,  an  American  artist,  born 
in  Dusseldorf,  Germany,  in  1829.  When  he 
was  two  years  of  age  his  family  emigrated  to 
Massachusetts,  and  finally  settled  in  New  Bed- 
ford, where  his  youth  and  early  manhood  were 
passed.  He  soon  discovered  a  talent  for  draw- 
ing, and  in  1851  began  to  paint  in  oils.  Two 
years  later  he  went  to  Europe  and  entered  upon 
a  course  of  study  at  Dusseldorf.  For  four  years 
he  labored  assiduously  at  his  art,  spending  the 
summer  months  in  sketching  tours  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  and  passing  one  winter  in 
Rome.  In  1857  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  accom- 
panied Gen.  Lander  on  his  expedition  to 
survey  and  construct  a  wagon  route  to  the. 
Pacific  coast.  From  this  and  subsequent  visits 
to  the  great  plains  and  the  Rocky  mountains 
he  obtained  the  materials  for  a  series  of  large 
landscapes,  on  which  his  reputation  as  a  painter 
mainly  rests.  They  comprise  "The  Rocky 
Mountains — Lander's  Peak"  (which  was  ex- 
hibited in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  and 
received  marked  attention  in  the  Paris  exposi- 
tion of  1867),  "  The  Domes  of  the  Yo-Semite," 
"Looking  down  the  Yo-Semite,"  "Storm  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains,"  "  Laramie  Peak," 
"  Emigrants  Crossing  the  Plains,"  and  "  Mount 
Hood,"  besides  a  number  of  smaller  works. 
For  several  of  the  larger  pictures  he  obtained 
very  high  prices  for  this  class  of  works.  They 
are  eifectively  painted,  and  in  many  points  re- 
call the  general  style  of  the  Dusseldorf  school, 
though  his  works  are  executed  with  greater 
boldness.  He  has  lately  been  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  engaged  upon  new  pictures  relating  to 
that  region.  In  1871  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  of  St.  Petersburg 

BI  US-BOSCH,  a  marshy  lake  of  the  Nether- 
lands, between  the  provinces  of  South  Holland 


and  North  Brabant,  comprising  about  75  sq. 
m.  It  is  very  shallow  and  contains  numerous 
islands.  The  Maas  flows  into  it,  and  issues 
from  it  under  the  name  of  Holland's  Diep. 
The  lake  was  formed  Nov^  18  and  19,  1421,  by 
an  inundation,  which  is  said  to  have  submerged 
72  villages,  drowning  100,000  people. 

BIGAMY,  the  wilfully  contracting  a  second 
marriage  with  knowledge  that  the  first  is  still 
subsisting.  If  the  first  marriage  was  void  or 
has  been  dissolved  by  the  death  of  one  party, 
or  by  a  divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony, 
the  oft'enee  is  not  committed  ;  but  a  divorce 
from  bed  and  board  is  no  defence.  By  the 
English  statute  a  person  whose  husband  or  wife 
shall  have  remained  absent  for  seven  years 
without  being  heard  from  is  excused  from  the 
penalties  of  bigamy ;  and  in  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican states  there  are  similar  statutes.  In  pros- 
ecutions for  bigamy  strict  proof  of  the  mar- 
riages is  required ;  they  cannot  be  made  out  by 
reputation. 

BIG  BLACK  RIVER,  a  river  which  rises  in 
Choctaw  county,  Miss.,  and  after  a  S.  W.  course 
of  about  200  m.  enters  the  Mississippi  through 
two  mouths,  one  of  which  is  in  Warren  county, 
and  the  other  in  Claiborne  county,  at  Grand 
Gulf.  It  is  bordered  throughout  most  of  its 
course  by  rich  cotton  plantations. 

BIG  BOSE  LICK,  a  salt  spring  in  Boone 
county,  Ky.,  especially  interesting  to  geologists 
and  naturalists,  on  account  of  the  deposits  of 
fossil  bones  of  the  mastodon  and  several  species 
of  mammalia  found  there.  The  soil  containing 
the  deposit  is  dark-colored  and  marshy,  gener- 
ally overlaid  with  gravel,  resting  on  blue  clay. 

BIGELOW,  Erastns  Brigham,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  at  West  Boylston,  Mass.,  in  April, 
1814.  He  was  intended  for  a  physician,  but 
his  father  having  failed  in  business,  he  was 
unable  to  pursue  his  studies,  and  turned  his 
attention  to  mechanical  inventions.  Before  he 
was  18  he  had  invented  a  hand  loom  for  weav- 
ing suspender  webbing,  and  another  for  making 
piping  cord.  In  1838  he  obtained  a  patent  for 
an  automatic  loom  for  weaving  knotted  coun- 
terpanes, and  contracted  to  build  three  of  the 
machines ;  but  having  seen  some  imported 
counterpanes  which  would  supersede  those  to 
be  produced  by  his  loom,  he  consented  to  the 
cancelling  of  the  contract,  and  in  a  few  months 
invented  a  loom  capable  of  producing  the  new 
fabric.  In  1839  he  entered  into  an  agreement 
with  the  Lowell  manufacturing  company  to 
construct  a  power  loom  for  weaving  two-ply 
ingrain  carpets,  heretofore  woven  exclusively 
by  the  hand  loom,  which  could  only  produce 
8  yards  a  day.  Mr.  Bigelow's  first  loom  pro- 
duced 10  or  12  yards  a  day,  and  it  has  since 
been  greatly  improved  by  the  inventor.  In 
the  mean  time  he  had  invented  a  loom  for 
weaving  coach  lace.  In  1862  he  proposed  a 
scheme  of  uniform  taxation  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  published  "  The  Tariff  Ques- 
tion considered  in  regard  to  the  Policy  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Interests  of  the  United  States." 


BIGELOW 


BIG  HORN  EIVER 


631 


He  is  the  founder  of  the  flourishing  manufac- 
turing village  of  Clinton,  Worcester  county, 
Mass.,  in  which,  besides  other  large  manufac- 
turing establishments,  are  the  extensive  works 
of  the  Bigelow  carpet  company. 

BIGELOW,  Jaeob,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  American 
physician  and  writer,  born  in  Sudbury,  Mass., 
in  1787.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  university 
in  1806,  and  commenced  practice  in  Boston  in 
1810.  He  early  became  known  as  a  skilful  bot- 
anist, had  an  extensive  correspondence  with 
European  botanists,  and  different  plants  were 
named  for  him  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  in  the  sup- 
plement to  "Rees's  Cyclopedia,"  by  Schrader 
in  Germany,  and  De  Candolle  in  France.  He 
published  Florida  Bostoniensig  (8vo,  1814;  en- 
larged eds.,  1824  and  1840),  and  "American 
Medical  Botany  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1817-'21).  For 
more  than  40  years  he  was  an  active  practi- 
tioner of  medicine  in  Boston ;  during  half  of 
this  time  he  was  a  physician  of  the  Massachu- 
setts general  hospital,  and  held  the  offices  of 
professor  of  materia  medica  and  of  clinical 
medicine  in  Harvard  university.  He  also  for 
10  years  (1816-'27)  delivered  lectures  on  the 
application  of  science  to  the  useful  arts,  at 
Cambridge,  as  Rumford  professor ;  these  were 
afterward  published  under  the  title  of  "  Ele- 
ments of  Technology  "  (new  ed.,  "  The  Useful 
Arts  considered  in  connection  with  the  Appli- 
cations of  Science,"  2  vols.  12mo,  1840).  H« 
was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  selected  in 
1820  to  form  the  "American  Pharmacopoeia;" 
and  the  nomenclature  of  the  materia  medica 
afterward  adopted  by  the  British  colleges,  which 
substituted  a  single  for  a  double  word  when 
practicable,  is  due  in  principle  to  him.  He  has 
published  numerous  medical  essays  and  dis- 
courses, some  of  which  are  embodied  in  a  vol- 
ume entitled  "  Nature  in  Disease  "  1854) ;  one 
of  these  essays,  "A  Discourse  on  Self-Limited 
Diseases,"  delivered  before  the  Massachusetts 
medical  society  in  1835,  had  unquestionably  a 
great  influence  in  modifying  the  practice  of 
physicians  at  that  time  and  since.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Mt.  Auburn  cemetery,  near  Boston, 
the  first  establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  model  of  those  which  have 
followed ;  the  much  admired  stone  tower, 
chapel,  gate,  and  fence  were  all  made  after  his 
designs.  He  has  the  reputation  of  an  accom- 
plished classical  scholar,  and  has  been  an  oc- 
casional contributor  to  the  literary  periodicals 
and  reviews;  he  is  an  excellent  humorous 
writer  both  in  prose  and  verse,  and  a  volume 
of  poems,  entitled  "Eolopoesis,"  has  been  at- 
tributed to  him.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  medical  society, 
and  of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and 
sciences.  In  commemoration  of  his  services, 
the  trustees  of  the  hospital  in  1856  ordered  his 
marble  bust  to  be  placed  in  the  hall  of  that 
institution.  Since  his  retirement  from  active 
practice  he  has  given  much  thought  to  matters 
of  education,  and  has  been  specially  interested 
in  technological  schools,  or  such  as  are  to  give 


a  technical  or  utilitarian  education  as  contrast- 
ed with  a  classical  or  literary  one.  He  has 
been  a  pioneer  in  the  so-called  "new  educa- 
tion," which  aims  to  employ  the  time  and  labor 
of  the  student  in  the  pursuit  of  special  techni- 
cal branches  of  knowledge,  without  wasting  his 
energy  on  classical  or  other  subjects  irrelevant 
to  his  special  vocation.  See  an  address  deliv- 
ered by  him  in  1865,  before  the  Massachusetts 
institute  of  technology,  "On  the  Limits  of 
Education." 

BIGELOW,  John,  an  American  journalist  and 
author,  born  at  Maiden,  Ulster  county,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  25,  1817.  He  graduated  at  Union  college 
in  1835,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York 
city  in  1839,  became  connected  with  journalism, 
and  editor  of  Gregg's  "  Commerce  of  the  Prai- 
ries" and  other  books  of  travel.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  inspectors  of  the  Sing 
Sing  state  prison,  serving  till  1848.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1850,  he  became  a  partner  with  Mr.  Bry- 
ant in  the  ownership  of  the  "  New  York  Even- 
ing Post,"  and  was  the  managing  editor  of  that 
journal  till  1861,  when,  after  the  accession  of 
President  Lincoln,  he  went  as  United  States 
consul  to  Paris.  This  office  he  retained  till 
after  the  death  of  Mr.  Dayton,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1865,  as  minister  at  the  court  of 
Napoleon  III.,  where  he  remained  till  1866. 
In  1869,  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Raymond,  he 
was  for  a  short  time  editor  of  the  "New 
York  Times,"  after  which  he  went  to  reside  in 
Berlin.  His  works  include  "Jamaica  in  1850," 
"  Life  of  Fremont "  (1856),  and  Les  £tats-  Unis 
d'Amerique  en  1863  (Paris).  In  1868  he  edited 
the  autobiography  of  Franklin  from  materials 
collected  in  France;  and  in  1869  he  published 
"  Some  Recollections  of  the  late  Antoine  Pierre 
Berryer." 

BIGELOW,  Timothy,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Worcester,  Mass.,  April  30,  1767,  died  May 
18,  1821.  He  was  the  son  of  Col.  Timothy 
Bigelow,  who  served  in  Arnold's  expedition  to 
Quebec.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1786,  and  practised  law  at  Groton,  Mass.,  from 
1789  to  1807,  when  he  removed  to  Boston.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  a  firm  federal- 
ist, was  for  20  years  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature,  and  11  years  speaker  of  the  house 
of  representatives,  and  a  member  of  the  Hart- 
ford convention.  He  stood  at  the  head  of  his 
profession,  and  in  the  course  of  32  years  was 
supposed  to  have  argued  10,000  causes. 

BIG  HORN.    See  SHEEP. 

BIG  HORN,  the  S.  E.  county  of  Montana  ter- 
ritory, bounded  E.  by  Dakota  and  S.  by  Wyo- 
ming territory;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  88.  It  is  intersected  by  Yellowstone 
river,  and  watered  by  its  tributaries  and  by 
Mussel  Shell  river.  Thick-Timbered  river 
crosses  the  S.  E.  corner.  There  are  mountains 
in  the  E.  part.  The  Northern  Pacific  railroad 
will  pass  through  the  N.  part. 

BIG  HORN  RIVER,  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  Yellowstone,  rising  in  the  Rocky  moan- 
tains  a  little  N.  of  Fremont's  peak,  in  the  N. 


632 


BIG  STONE 


BILBAO 


W.  part  of  Wyoming  territory,  where  it  is 
known  as  Wind  river.  Pursuing  first  a  S.  E., 
then  a  N.  course,  for  about  350  m.,  during 
which  it  receives  several  tributaries,  it  falls 
into  the  Yellowstone  at  Big  Horn  City,  Mon- 
tana territory. 

BIG  STONE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
chiefly  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Minnesota  river, 
which  crosses  the  N.  portion,  and  W.  by  Da- 
kota territory  and  Big  Stone  lake,  the  main 
source  of  the  Minnesota;  area,  about  1,700  sq. 
m.  ;pop.  in  1870, 24.  It  is  well  watered  by  afflu- 
ents of  the  Minnesota. 

BIHAR,  the  largest  county  of  Hungary,  situ- 
ated E.  of  the  Theiss  and  W.  of  Transylvania, 
and  traversed  by  the  Swift  and  Black  Koros 
and  other  rivers ;  area,  4,280  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  557,337,  chiefly  Magyars  and  Wallachs. 
It  is  mountainous  or  hilly  in  its  eastern  portions, 
and  level  in  the  western,  and  generally  fertile, 
producing  grains,  fruits,  tobacco,  and  wines  of 
good  quality.  It  is  rich  in  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep.  The  principal  towns  are  Gross- War- 
dein  (Hun.  Nagy-  Vdrad),  the  capital,  and  De- 
breczin. 

Ill  I  IN  \U  I!,  or  Blsnagnr,  a  ruined  city  of 
southern  India,  oti  both  sides  of  the  Tumbud- 
dra,  here  800  yards  wide,  30  m.  N.  W.  of  Bel- 
lary.  The  city  stands  in  a  plain  surrounded 
by  enormous  masses  of  granite,  and  strewn 
with  blocks  of  that  material,  with  which  the 
streets  are  paved.  The  remains  of  numerous 


temples  and  other  buildings,  all  of  granite,  ex- 
hibit tlie  purest  style  of  Hindoo  architecture. 
The  portion  of  the  city  S.  E.  of  the  river  is  en- 
closed by  walls  or  blocks,  and  is  8  m.  in  cir- 
cuit. It  contains  a  splendid  temple  dedicated 
to  Mahadeva,  surrounded  by  numerous  cells 
for  worshippers,  with  a  pyramidal  portico  fac- 
ing the  east,  which  is  150  ft.  high,  and  is  divi- 
ded into  10  stories.  Many  pilgrims  resort  to 
the  annual  festival.  Near  the  centre  of  the 
city  is  another  temple  sacred  to  Wittoba,  which 
consists  of  a  group  of  buildings  occupying  a 
space  of  about  400  ft.  by  200.  The  columns 
supporting  the  roof  of  the  chief  edifice  are  or- 
namented with  figures  of  lions,  and  the  ceiling 
is  also  sculptured.  That  portion  of  the  city 
N.  W.  of  the  river,  also  known  as  Annagoondy, 
contains  a  temple  sacred  to  Krishna.  Bijana- 
gur  was  built  between  1336  and  1343,  and  was 
the  metropolis  of  the  Brahmanical  kingdom  of 
Bijayanagar.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Moham- 
medan confederacy  of  the  Deccan  in  1564. 

I'.l.l A\\  I  U.  or  Brjmir.  a  state  of  Bundelcund, 
Hindostan,  between  lat.  24°  22'  and  25°  N. 
and  Ion.  78°  58'  and  79°  50'  E. ;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  90,000.  The  state 
maintains  a  small  military  force,  and  has  an 
annual  revenue  of  about  $125,000.  Capital, 
Bijawur,  a  small  town  23m.  8.  of  Chutterpore. 

BILBAO,  a  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  Basque 
province  of  Biscay,  45  m.  W.  of  St.  Sebastian, 
on  the  Nervion,  about  9  m.  above  its  entrance 


Bilbao. 


into  the  sea  at  Portugalete ;  pop.  about  18,700. 
It  is  a  fine  city,  consisting  of  a  new  and  an  old 
town,  connected  by  bridges,  with  rich  convents, 
a  number  of  churches,  schools,  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  corporation  derives  a  large  reve- 
nue from  tolls  on  imports  and  the  monopoly  of 


beef.  The  abattoirs  of  the  city  are  among  the  best 
in  Spain.  Rope,  anchors,  leather,  hardware,  pa- 
per, hats,  tobacco,  earthenware,  and  other  arti- 
cles are  manufactured,  and  there  are  several  ship 
yards.  Not  far  from  the  city  are  the  highly  pro- 
ductive iron  mines  of  Veneras.  Bilbao  is  the 


BILBERRY 


BILE 


633 


chief  seaport  of  N.  Spain,  though  only  small  craft 
can  come  up  to  the  city,  large  ones  landing 
goods  at  Olaveaga,  2  m.  below.  The  registered 
shipping  is  between  500  and  GOO  vessels,  and 
the  fisheries  are  important.  The  annual  value 
of  imports  exceeds  $13,000,000.  The  exports 
of  wool,  once  so  important,  have  fallen  off, 
owing  to  the  preference  given  to  Saxon  wools ; 
and  the  value  of  exports,  consisting  chiefly  of 
wine,  lead  ore,  zinc,  iron,  corn,  and  flour,  has 
declined  to  about  $1,000,000.  The  Bilbao  and 
Tudela  railway,  completed  in  1863,  intersects  at 
Miranda  the  North  of  Spain  line,  and  places  Bil- 
bao in  direct  communication  with  Madrid  and 
with  France.  There  are  steamers  to  Spanish, 
English,  French,  and  Dutch  ports.  Bilbao  was 
founded  in  1300,  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  was  bravely  defended 
against  the  Carlist  general  Zumalacarreguy, 
who  was  mortally  wounded  here  in  1835. — 
The  province  of  Biscay  is  also  called  Bilbao. 
(See  BISCAY.) 

BILBERRY,  or  Blncbcrry,  the  name  of  a  shrub 
and  its  fruit,  a  species  of  vaccinium,  or  whortle- 
berry. There  are  two  kinds  of  this  shrub :  a 


Bilberry  (Vacctntum  myrtlllus). 

taller  and  a  dwarf  variety.  The  fruit  of  the 
dwarf  shrub  in  Europe,  and  that  of  the  taller 
variety  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  are 
both  called  bilberry. 

BILDERDIJK,  Willem,  a  Dutch  poet,  born  in 
Amsterdam,  Sept.  7, 1756,  died  in  Haarlem,  Dec. 
18,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Leyden,  pub- 
lished in  1779  a  volume  of  poems,  consisting 
principally  of  imitations  and  translations  of  the 
Greek  poets,  and  the  next  year  gained  a  prize 
from  the  literary  society  of  Leyden.  He  prac- 
tised as  an  advocate  at  the  Hague,  attached 
himself  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and  was  obliged 
to  emigrate  when  the  French  invaded  Hol- 
land in  1795.  He  visited  Germany,  remaining 
two  years  at  Brunswick,  where  he  published 
various  small  pieces,  a  didactic  poem  on  astron- 
omy, and  a  translation  of  Voltaire's  Ce  qui  plait 


aux  dames.  He  passed  thence  in  1800  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  lectured  upon  literature  and 
jurisprudence,  and  translated  into  Dutch  many 
of  the  poems  ofOssian.  Returning  to  Amster- 
dam in  1806,  he  was  appointed  by  Louis  Bona- 
parte member  and  professor  of  the  newly  estab- 
lished institute  of  Holland ;  but  upon  the  king's 
abdication  in  1810  he  lost  the  pension  which 
the  latter  had  given  him,  and  retired  to  Haar- 
lem. Though  not  as  remarkable  for  his  artistic 
taste  as  for  his  vigor  of  thought,  his  countrymen 
place  him  by  the  side  of  Schiller  and  Byron,  and 
he  is  better  known  out  of  Holland  than  almost 
any  other  Dutch  poet.  Besides  smaller  poems, 
translations,  and  patriotic  fragments,  he  left  a 
number  of  tragedies,  and  an  epic,  "The  Destruc- 
tion of  the  First  World "  (De  ondergang  der 
eente  wereld,  Amsterdam,  1820).  His  histori- 
cal work  on  Holland,  Geechiedenis  des  voder- 
lands,  was  edited  after  his  death  by  Tijdemann 
(12  vols.,  Leyden,  1832-'9);  and  his  complete 
poetical  works  (Itichtwerkeri)  were  published 
at  Haarlem  in  1857-'60,  in  16  vols. — His  second 
wife  (1777-1830)  wrote  excellent  poetry  (Dicht- 
werken,  2-*vols.,  1859),  besides  tragedies.  A 
translation  of  Southey's  "  Roderick "  into 
Dutch  verse  (Rodrigo  de  Goth)  is  one  of  her 
finest  productions. 

BILE,  the  green  and  bitter  liquid  secreted  by 
the  liver.  This  liquid  presents  differences  in 
the  various  classes  of  animals,  although  its  prin- 
cipal characters  are  everywhere  the  same. 
Taken  from  the  gall  bladder,  it  is  a  mucous, 
viscous,  somewhat  transparent  fluid,  capable  of 
being  drawn  out  in  threads  of  a  green  or  brown 
color,  of  a  bitter  but  not  astringent  taste,  some- 
times leaving  a  rather  sweet  after-taste,  and  of 
a  peculiar  odor,  often  having  when  warmed 
the  smell  of  musk.  It  is  usually  weakly  alka- 
line, often  perfectly  neutral,  and  only  in  disease, 
in  rare  cases,  acid.  It  differs  from  other  ani- 
mal juices  in  long  resisting  putrefaction,  when 
the  mucus  mixed  with  it  has  been  taken  away. 
The  chemical  composition  of  bile  is  still  but 
little  known,  the  best  chemists  being  in  com- 
plete disagreement  in  this  respect.  However, 
there  are  some  points  which  seem  to  be  decided. 
For  instance,  there  is  in  bile  a  resinous  sub- 
stance, which  is  a  combination  of  one  or  two 
acids  with  soda;  there  is  a  coloring  principle 
(the  hiliverdine),  a  peculiar  fatty  matter,  the 
cholesterine,  and  other  fatty  substances,  salts, 
and  water.  According  to  Demarcay,  the  bile 
of  oxen  has  the  following  composition : 

Water  87S 

Choleate  of  soda 110 

Coloring  and  fatty  matters,  mucus,  &c 6 

Salts 10 

1,000 

Demarcay  admitted  only  one  acid  in  bile,  and 
he  considered  this  liquid  as  a  fluid  soap,  result- 
ing from  the  combination  of  this  acid  (cholic 
acid)  with  soda.  Strecker  has  found  that  the 
cholic  acid  of  the  French  chemist  is  a  complex 
one,  and  he  has  shown  that  it  is  composed  of 
two  acids,  one  of  which  he  calls  cholic  and  the 


631 


BILE 


other  choloie.  According  to  tho  researches  of 
Bensch  and  Strecker,  the  choleate  of  soda  is 
the  chief  principle  of  bile,  as  regards  its  relative 
quantity,  and  also  its  importance.  The  choleic 
acid  is  a  nitrogenized  substance,  containing 
sulphur  in  greater  proportion  than  the  other 
nitrogenized  matters.  As  in  the  bile  of  most 
animals  sulphur  exists  only  in  the  choleic  acid, 
and  in  the  proportion  of  6  per  cent.,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  ascertain  easily  the  quantity  of  this  acid 
in  any  kind  of  bile.  It  has  thus  been  found 
that  almost  the  whole  of  the  alcoholic  extract 
of  bile  consists  in  choleic  acid  in  the  fox,  the 
sheep,  the  dog,  &c.,  while  in  the  bile  of  the  ox 
there  is  as  much  cholio  as  choleic  acid.  The 
salts  formed  by  these  two  acids  amount  to  at 
least  75  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of  the  solid  con- 
stituents of  bile.  Normal  human  bile  contains, 
according  to  Frerichs,  about  14  per  cent,  of 
solid  constituents;  butLehmann  justly  remarks 
that  the  quantity  of  water,  and  consequently 
the  proportion  of  solid  constituents,  may  be  as 
variable  in  bile  as  in  most  of  the  other  secre- 
tions. Gorup-Besanez  found  9'13  per  cent. 
of  solid  constituents  in  the  bile  of  an  old 
man,  and  17'19  per  cent,  in  that  of  a  child 
aged  12  years;  but  many  more  proofs  are 
necessary  to  determine  that  bile  is  more  aque- 
ous in  old  age  than  in  childhood.  Lehtnann 
says  that  the  organic  constituents  of  human 
bile  amount  to  about  87  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  solid  residue.  The  proportion  of  the 
other  elements  of  bile,  i.  «.,  bile  pigment  (bili- 
verdine),  cholesterine,  fats,  and  mineral  salts, 
has  not  yet  been  positively  determined.  The 
two  special  organic  acids  of  bile  can  be  decom- 
posed into  various  substances.  They  both, 
when  treated  by  alkalies,  give  origin  to  cholalic 
acid,  and  to  dyslysine,  but  one  of  them  (the 
cholic  acid)  produces  also  glycocoll,  and  the 
other  (the  choleic  acid)  taurine.  When  treated 
by  powerful  acids,  cholic  acid  gives  origin  to 
choloiidic  acid,  glycocoll,  and  dyslysine,  while 
choleic  acid  produces  taurine,  choloiidic  acid, 
and  dyslysine.  Cholesterine  and  margaric  and 
oleic  acids  are  kept  in  solution  in  bile  by  the 
two  principal  organic  acids  of  this  secretion. 
The  biliverdine,  or  the  coloring  principle  of 
bile,  is  a  substance  resembling  in  its  composi- 
tion the  hematosine  or  coloring  principle  of 
blood.  It  contains  nitrogen  and  iron,  as  do  all 
the  organic  coloring  matters,  according  to  M. 
Verdeil.  The  biliary  sugar,  or  picromel,  seems 
to  be  only  a  product  of  decomposition  of  some 
of  the  constituents  of  bile.  The  biline  of  Ber- 
zelius  and  Mulder  seems  to  be  a  mixture  of  al- 
kaline cholates  and  choleates. — The  ancient 
physicians  and  physiologists  used  to  consider 
the  organ  which  secretes  bile,  the  liver,  as  a 
most  important  one  ;  but  after  Aselli,  in  1622, 
had  discovered  the  lymphatic  vessels,  a  reac- 
tion took  place  against  the  importance  attribu- 
ted to  the  liver,  and  some  physiologists  went  so 
far  as  to  think  that  its  share  in  the  vital  actions 
was  almost  null.  In  France  the  researches  of 
many  physiologists,  and  particularly  of  Prof. 


Bernard,  have  shown  that  the  liver  is  one  of 
our  most  important  organs,  and  recent  experi- 
ments have  proved  that  bile  is  a  very  useful 
secretion,  if  not  an  essential  one.  Schwann 
opened  the  abdomen  and  the  gall  bladder  in 
many  dogs,  and  succeeded  in  forming  a  biliary 
fistula,  after  having  tied  the  bile  duct.  Nine 
of  these  animals  very  quickly  died ;  six  lived  7, 
13,  17,  25,  64,  and  80  days;  two  only  survived 
definitively,  but  in  them  a  new  bile  canal  was 
formed.  Of  the  six  dogs  that  lived  from  7  to 
80  days,  four  seemed  to  die  starved,  having 
lost  their  fat.  The  two  others  after  a  few  days 
began  to  regain  their  fat,  and  reached  their 
initial  weight  up  to  a  certain  time,  when  they 
became  again  emaciated  and  finally  died. 
Blondlot  has  seen  a  dog  living  five  years  after 
the  occlusion  of  the  bile  duct,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  biliary  fistula,  through  which  the  bile 
flowed  out.  During  this  long  period  the  health 
of  the  animal  was  usually  very  good.  More 
recently  Schwann  has  repeated  his  experiments 
on  20  dogs,  out  of  which  only  two  survived, 
one  four  months,  and  another  a  year.  Nasse 
kept  a  dog  alive  five  months  with  a  biliary  fis- 
tula. Its  appetite  was  good,  and  it  ate  about 
double  the  quantity  of  meat  that  a  healthy  dog 
of  the  same  size  would  have  taken,  and  never- 
theless it  died  almost  completely  deprived  of 
fat.  It  results  from  very  careful  experiments  of 
Bidder  and  Schmidt,  and  of  their  pupil  Schell- 
bach,  that  the  cause  of  death,  when  bile  is  not 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  bowels  and  passes 
out  of  the  body,  is  that  the  animal  has  a  great 
difficulty  in  repairing  the  loss  of  fat  and  of  ni- 
trogenized substances  which  go  out  with  the 
bile.  In  a  dog  operated  upon  by  these  physi- 
ologists, the  quantity  of  food  taken  was  much 
greater  than  before  the  operation,  and  the  con- 
sequence was  that  the  animal  did  not  lose  his 
forces  and  remained  fat,  though  less  so  than 
before.  Prof.  Bernard,  according  to  Dr.  Por- 
chat,  has  ascertained  that  if  adult  dogs  may 
live  many  months  when  bile  flows  out  of  their 
body  by  a  biliary  fistula,  it  is  not  so  with  young 
dogs,  in  which  death  always  occurs  quickly  in 
such  circumstances.  Some  facts  observed  in 
men  (in  children  by  Dr.  Porchat,  in  adults  by 
Dr.  Budd)  seem  to  prove  also  that  adults  may 
live  much  longer  than  children  when  there  is 
no  bile  passing  into  the  bowels.  It  seems  very 
probable  that  bile  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  digestion,  as  some  animals  have  lived  a  long 
while  without  bile  ;  but  even  in  these  cases 
there  is  room  for  doubt.  For  instance,  Blond- 
lot's  dog  was  not  prevented  licking  its  wound, 
and  probably  swallowed  a  little  bile,  as 
Schwann  has  seen  his  dogs  doing ;  and  Bidder 
and  Schellbach,  we  cannot  understand  why,  at 
times  gave  pieces  of  liver  (containing  bile)  as 
food  to  the  one  of  their  dogs  that  was  the  least 
affected  by  the  operation.  We  may  sum  up 
thus:  1.  Bile  has  not  yet  been  positively 
proved  not  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  diges- 
tion and  to  life.  2.  It  seems  probable,  how- 
ever, that  its  function  is  not  absolutely  essen- 


BILE 


635 


tial.  3.  When  bile  is  missing  in  the  bowels 
(and  flowing  out  of  the  body  by  a  fistula),  the 
principal  cause  of  death  is  the  loss  of  fat  and 
of  albuminous  matters.  We  will  add  to  this 
last  conclusion  that,  according  to  Dr.  Brown- 
Sequard,  it  would  be  very  important  to  repeat 
the  experiments  of  Blondlot,  Bidder,  and  oth- 
ers, in  trying  to  repair  by  food  the  loss  of  cer- 
tain materials  of  the  body  which  go  out  with 
bile,  and  which  are  not  present  in  sufficient 
amount  in  meat  and  bread.  Among  these  ma- 
terials sulphur  is  the  principal,  and  it  would  be 
easy  to  give  a  great  deal  of  it  by  feeding  the 
animals  upon  eggs  and  other  kinds  of  food 
which  contain  more  sulphur  than  meat  and 
bread.  This  view  of  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  is 
grounded  not  only  on  the  fact  that  bile  flowing 
out  of  the  body  takes  away  a  great  quantity 
of  sulphur  and  other  principles,  but  also  that 
when  hile  passes  freely  into  the  bowels,  its  ele- 
ments, and  particularly  soda  and  sulphur,  ac- 
cording to  Liebig,  are  absorbed. — A  question 
which  is  intimately  connected  with  that  we 
have  examined  already  concerning  the  impor- 
tance of  bile,  is  whether  this  liquid  is  to  be 
considered  as  an  excrement  or  as  a  useful  se- 
cretion. It  appears  to  be  certain  that  some,  at 
least,  of  the  principles  of  bile  are  absorbed  in 
the  bowels,  if  not  most  of  them,  as  Liebig 
thought,  and  that  therefore  bile  cannot  be  said 
to  be  entirely  an  excrement.  However,  some 
of  the  compound  constituents  of  bile  are  trans- 
formed in  the  bowels,  as  Mulder  and  Frerichs 
have  shown,  and  they  are  expelled  with  the 
fecal  matters.  We  are  consequently  led  to  con- 
clude that  bile  is  only  partly  an  excrement,  if  it 
is  so  at  all.  We  say  if  it  is  so,  because  the  part 
of  it  which  is  expelled  with  the  fecal  matters 
may  have  some  use  before  being  expelled. — The 
fact  that  there  is  a  very  great  quantity  of  bile 
secreted  in  a  day  throws  some  light  on  the 
question  of  its  reabsorption.  Blondlot  says 
that  a  dog  of  a  medium  size  secretes  from  40  to 
50  grammes  (nearly  1J  ounce)  a  day.  Nasse 
and  Plainer  speak  of  200  grammes  (6J  ounces) 
as  the  secretion  of  bile  in  a  dog  weighing  10 
kilogrammes  (22  Ibs.),  which  gives  a  propor- 
tion of  1  to  50.  Bidder  and  Schmidt  have  found 
that  the  quantity  of  bile  varies  extremely  with 
the  species  of  the  animal  experimented  upon. 
While  for  each  2  pounds  of  the  body  of  a  cat 
there  is  a  secretion  of  14  grammes  ($  ounce) 
of  bile  in  a  day,  in  the  dog  there  is  almost  20 
grammes  (f  ounce),  in  the  sheep  25£  grammes 
(f  ounce),  and  in  the  rabbit  the  enormous  quan- 
tity of  136  grammes  (4J  ounces).  In  weigh- 
ing the  solid  residue  of  the  fecal  matters  of  a 
dog  for  many  days,  and  comparing  the  result 
obtained  in  so  doing  to  the  weight  of  the  solid 
residue  of  bile  during  the  same  time,  Bidder  and 
Schmidt  have  found  that  the  two  quantities 
were  nearly  alike,  so  that  necessarily  a  good  part 
of  the  principles  of  bile  is  absorbed  in  the  bow- 
els. They  have  also  ascertained  that  almost 
all  the  sulphur  of  the  bile  is  absorbed.  They 
think  that  only  a  small  quantity  of  bile,  trans- 


formed into  an  insoluble  substance  (dyslysine), 
remains  unabsorbed  and  goes  out  with  the  ex- 
crements.— Sylvius  do  la  Boe,  and  afterward 
Boerhaave,  imagined  that  bile  is  employed  to 
neutralize  the  product  of  gastric  digestion, 
chyme,  which  is  very  acid.  This  view  has 
been  considered  quite  wrong  by  almost  every 
one,  but  Lehmarin  justly  remarks  that  there  is 
some  truth  in  it,  and  he  affirms  that  bile  cer- 
tainly contributes  to  the  neutralization  of  the 
free  acids  of  chyme.  Bile  no  doubt  acts  as  a 
solvent  of  fat,  at  least  by  one  of  its  constitu- 
ents, the  choleato  of  soda,  as  has  been  shown 
by  Strecker,  although  Bidder  and  Schmidt  have 
found  no  difference  in  the  quantity  of  fat  ab- 
sorbed, whether  the  bowels  contained  bile  or 
not.  But  their  mode  of  deciding  this  question 
is  open  to  many  objections.  It  has  been  said 
that  bile  prevents  putrefaction  taking  place  in 
chyme,  or  at  least  in  fecal  matters.  Most  of 
the  recent  experimenters  agree  with  Tiede- 
mann  and  Gmelin  in  admitting  this  influence 
of  bile.  Dr.  Porchat  has  observed,  in  children 
in  whom  bile  cquld  not  pass  in  the  bowels 
on  account  of  the  occlusion  of  the  bile  duct, 
that  the  fecal  matters  were  putrefied,  as  Bid- 
der and  Schmidt,  Frerichs,  and  others,  have 
observed  in  animals  in  which  they  had  tied 
this  duct.  However,  it  seems  that  in  some 
cases  the  absence  of  bile  is  not  sufficient  to  al- 
low putrefaction  to  take  place  in  the  fecal  mat- 
ters, as  Blondlot  says  that  he  has  observed  no 
difference  between  these  matters  in  dogs  in 
good  health  and  in  those  operated  upon.  The 
water  contained  in  bile  helps  in  the  dissolution 
of  certain  elements  of  chyme,  and  in  so  doing 
renders  their  absorption  more  easy. — Bile  acts 
as  an  excitant  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
bowels,  to  produce  reflex  contractions,  favor- 
ing in  this  way  the  propulsion  of  food  and  of 
fecal  matters.  According  to  Schiff,  bile  pro- 
duces contractions  in  the  intestinal  villi.  It  is 
said  also  that  bile  increases  the  secretion  of 
the  intestinal  mucus,  and  prevents  constipa- 
tion. All  these  views  may  be  partly  true,  but 
it  is  certain  that  without  bile  the  expulsion 
of  fecal  matters  takes  place  regularly. — Many 
physiologists  think  that  bile,  like  most  of  the 
secretions,  contains  some  effete  matters  which 
cannot  be  of  any  use  in  the  blood,  or  which 
might  bo  deleterious.  In  opposition  to  the 
views  of  those  who  admit  that  the  secretion 
of  bile  is  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the 
blood,  and  who  still  regard  this  liquid  merely 
as  an  effete  carbonaceous  matter  which  the 
respiration  has  not  removed,  Lehmann  says  that 
the  bile — a  secretion  by  no  means  poor  in  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen — is  not  separated  in  any 
increased  quantity  when  the  process  of  oxida- 
tion in  the  lungs  happens  to  be  disturbed  ;  that 
there  are  no  pathologico-anatomical  facts  which 
favor  the  view  that  the  liver  can  act  vicarious- 
ly for  the  lungs ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  separa- 
tion of  carbon  by  the  liver,  as  compared  with 
that  by  the  lungs,  is  so  trifling,  as  shown  by 
Bidder  and  Schmidt,  that  the  liver  can  hardly 


636 


BILE 


BILIN 


be  regarded  as  essentially  a  blood-purifying  or- 
gan, in  so  far  as  the  elimination  of  carbon  is  con- 
cerned. However,  it  is  certain  that  when  bile 
is  not  excreted  freely  in  man,  jaundice,  and  fre- 
quently certain  nervous  disturbances,  are  pro- 
duced, and  these  phenomena  must  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  action  of  some  of  its  principles. 
But  three  explanations  may  be  given  concern- 
ing the  production  of  these  phenomena,  and 
we  do  not  yet  positively  know  which  is  the 
best.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  that  the 
principles  of  bile  preexist  in  the  blood,  and  that 
when  they  are  not  secreted,  their  quantity  in- 
creasing, they  produce  the  deleterious  influence 
which  sometimes  results  in  jaundice;  in  the 
second  place,  they  may  be  secreted,  and,  in 
consequence  of  some  obstruction  of  the  bile 
duct,  they  may  be  absorbed,  and  then  produce 
their  ill  effects;  in  the  third  place,  they  may 
be  changed  into  toxical  substances  either  in 
the  blood  or  in  the  liver  or  the  biliary  ducts. 
As  regards  the  first  of  these  views,  Lehmann 
has  tried  to  prove,  on  good  grounds,  that  the 
secretion  of  bile  is  not,  like  the  urinary  secre- 
tion, a  mere  separation  of  certain  principles 
from  the  blood ;  and  therefore  we  may  con- 
clude that  it  is  not  probable  that  bile,  even  if 
it  contains  toxical  substances,  results  from  a 
depuration  of  the  blood.  If  we  admit  the 
second  view,  that  the  liver  produces  most  of 
the  principles  of  bile,  and  that  these  princi- 
ples are  absorbed  in  cases  of  jaundice,  we  find 
that  we  cannot  explain  the  toxical  phenomena 
which  then  sometimes  take  place,  because  they 
are  not  constant,  and  they  exist  in  cases  where 
jaundice  is  or  is  not  very  considerable,  while 
they  may  not  appear  in  cases  of  deep  jaundice. 
Dr.  Budd  has  been  led  to  the  third  view  above 
stated,  which  is  that  poisonous  substances  are 
formed  in  the  blood  from  the  principles  of  bile. 
The  function  of  depuration  of  the  blood,  at- 
tributed to  the  liver,  seems  therefore  to  be  of 
much  less  importance  than  some  persons  have 
thought.  Dr.  Budd  relates  several  cases  in 
which  the  passage  of  bile  into  the  bowels  was 
entirely  prevented  by  the  complete  closure  of 
the  bile  duct,  and  in  which,  nevertheless,  life 
was  prolonged  for  many  months.  We  must 
say,  however,  that  the  secretion  of  sub- 
stances which  may,  when  they  are  absorbed, 
and  when  they  accumulate  in  the  blood,  be 
transformed  into  a  poison,  ought  in  some  re- 
spects to  be  considered  as  a  depuration. — It 
has  been  a  much  debated  question  whether 
bile  is  secreted  from  the  blood  of  the  portal 
vein  or  that  of  the  hepatic  artery.  Experi- 
ments on  animals  and  pathological  facts  have 
been  mentioned  in  favor  of  both  these  opinions. 
When  a  ligature  is  placed  on  the  portal  vein, 
bile  not  only  continues  to  be  secreted,  but  the 
other  functions  of  the  liver  also  continue ;  but 
this  fact,  as  Brown-S6quard  remarks,  cannot 
prove  that  the  blood  of  the  portal  vein  is  not 
necessary  for  these  functions,  as  this  blood 
after  the  ligature  passes  into  the  vena  cava, 
and  afterward  into  the  arterial  circulation,  and 


therefore  into  the  liver,  by  the  hepatic  artery. 
It  seems  very  probable,  indeed,  from  the  great 
quantity  of  bile  produced  in  a  day,  that  the 
portal  blood,  if  not  the  only  source  of  the  se- 
cretion of  bile,  is  at  least  employed  in  a  great 
measure  for  this  secretion. 

BII.KIM  l.-.l i:i;il».     See  BELED-UL-JEEID. 

BILFINGER,  or  Biilffiuger,  (Jeorg  Brrnhard,  a 
German  philosopher,  born  in  Cannstadt,  Jan. 
23,  1093,  died  in  Stuttgart,  Feb.  18,  1750.  The 
name  of  the  family  proceeds  from  the  hered- 
itary possession  of  a  sixth  finger  and  toe,  which 
in  his  instance  were  removed  by  an  operation. 
A  disciple  of  Wolf  and  Leibnitz,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Peter  the  Great  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  St.  Petersburg.  He  won  a  prize 
there  for  his  improved  system  of  fortification, 
and  another  from  th"e  French  academy  for  his 
memoir  Sw  la  cause  dela  pesanteur  des  corps. 
Afterward  he  became  a  professor  of  theology 
at  Tubingen,  and  was  appointed  privy  coun- 
cillor of  Wurtemberg,  in  which  office  he  de- 
voted himself  especially  to  education,  com- 
merce, and  agriculture.  Prominent  among  his 
many  works  are  Elementa  Physices  (Leipsic, 
1742)  and  Nouveau  systeme  de  fortification 
(Stuttgart,  1734). 

BIUilER,  Paul  Rudolf  von,  a  German  chess 
player,  born  at  Ludwigslust,  Sept.  21, 1815,  died 
in  Berlin  in  September,  1840.  He  was  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Prussian  army,  and  retired  on 
account  of  his  health.  In  1840  at  Berlin  he 
played  three  games  at  once  with  as  many  dif- 
ferent opponents,  conducting  two  of  the  con- 
tests without  seeing  the  boards  and  men.  His 
HandbvcTi  des  Schachspiels  (Berlin,  1843),  com- 
pleted and  published  after  his  death  by  his 
friend  Von  Heydebrand  von  der  Lasa  (4th  ed., 
Leipsic,  1864),  is  still  the  best  practical  work 
on  that  game. 

BILIARY  DUCTS,  small  ducts  through  which 
the  bile  flows  from  the  liver  and  the  gall  blad- 
der to  the  duodenum.  The  main  biliary  duct, 
which  leads  directly  from  the  liver  to  the  duo- 
denum, gives  off  a  branch  which  leads  into  the 
gall  bladder,  in  which  the  gall  is  collected. 
This  branch  is  called  the  cystic  duct,  and  that 
part  of  the  bile  duct  which  leads  from  the 
liver  to  the  junction  with  the  cystic  duct  is 
called  the  hepatic  duct ;  while  the  rest  of  the 
bile  duct,  leading  from  this  point  of  junction  to 
the  duodenum,  is  called  the  ductus  communis 
choledochus.  This  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose 
quill,  and  three  inches  long.  It  terminates  in 
the  descending  portion  of  the  duodenum,  about 
four  inches  from  the  pyloric  extremity  of  the 
stomach. 

BILI\,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  .Bila,  42 
m.  N.  W.  of  Prague ;  pop.  in  1869,  3,620.  It 
has  two  castles,  and  manufactories  of  mag- 
nesia, beet-root  sugar,  cloth,  and  earthen  flasks. 
It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  mineral  springs  (alka- 
line), four  in  number.  The  water  is  clear,  has 
a  sourish  taste,  and  a  temperature  of  59°-66° 
F.  The  springs  are  not  much  resorted  to,  but 
from  80,000  to  100,000  flasks  of  the  water  are 


BILIOUS  FEVER 


BILL 


637 


yearly  sent  to  the  other  Bohemian  watering 
places. 

BILIOUS  FEVER,  a  term  heretofore  applied 
to  cases  of  intermittent  and  remittent  fever. 
Its  use  was  based  on  the  conjecture  that  the 
disease  involved,  as  an  essential  pathological 
condition,  a  superabundance  of  bile.  The  name 
"  bilious  "  has  also  been  applied  to  many  affec- 
tions which,  in  like  manner,  were  supposed 
to  depend  more  or  less  on  an  excessive  secre- 
tion of  bile.  At  the  present  time  the  term,  as 
applied  either  to  diseases  or  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease, is  not  much  used  by  medical  writers. 
It  is,  however,  a  popular  term  as  applied  to 
disorders  of  the  digestive  system.  An  acute 
form  of  dyspepsia  is  popularly  known  as  a 
"  bilious  attack,"  and  this  name  is  not  unfre- 
qnently  used  by  physicians.  (See  STOMACH, 

DlSEASCS   OF.) 

BILL,  the  proposed  form  of  a  legislative  act 
or  statute,  while  in  the  course  of  legislation, 
and  before  it  becomes  a  law.  In  American 
legislation  a  joint  resolution  or  resolve  is  also 
properly  speaking  a  bill.  A  public  bill  is  one 
which  pertains  to  matters  in  which  the  whole 
community  is  interested.  A  private  bill  is  one 
for  the  benefit  or  particular  interest  of  individ- 
uals, or  distinct  bodies  of  individuals,  as  a 
single  person,  or  a  town,  or  a  county.  In  an- 
cient times  the  chief  purpose  of  summoning 
the  commons  to  parliament  was  that  they 
should  furnish  supplies  to  the  crown  ;  but  be- 
ing convened,  they  took  occasion  to  submit 
petitions  on  various  subjects  to  the  sovereign, 
and  his  answers  to  them,  made  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  lords  and  prelates,  together 
with  the  petitions,  were  entered  on  the  rolls 
of  parliament,  and  at  the  close  of  the  session 
the  judges  or  others  of  the  king's  council  put 
these  matters  into  the  form  of  an  act.  But  it 
often  happened  that  by  additions  to  or  modifi- 
cations of  the  matter  submitted,  or  of  the 
crown's  answer  to  it,  the  actual  purpose  of  the 
parties  to  the  proceeding  was  defeated.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  V.  remonstrances  were  made 
by  the  commons  touching  these  evils.  They 
demanded  that  the  statutes  should  be  made 
according  to  the  tenor  of  their  petitions,  and  in 
this  reign  or  that  of  Henry  VI.  the  practice 
was  established  of  presenting  the  subject  to 
which  the  approval  of  the  sovereign  was  soli- 
cited in  the  form  of  a  bill.  Ever  since  that 
time  it  has  been  a  rule  of  the  English  constitu- 
tional law  not  only  that  nothing  shall  be  enact- 
ed without  the  consent  of  the  commons,  but  also 
that,  although  the  crown  may  reject  or  assent 
at  pleasure  to  bills  in  parliament,  it  may  not 
alter  them.  But  if  the  crown  is  specially  in- 
terested in  a  bill,  its  assent  to  it  must  be  pro- 
cured at  some  stage  of  its  progress  before 
its  passage  by  the  houses ;  and  if  the  bill  in- 
terferes with  the  royal  patronage  in  any  way, 
the  royal  assent  to  it  must  be  had  before  it  can 
proceed  at  all.  The  tenor  of  bills  pertaining 
to  attainders  or  for  granting  titles  must  be 
communicated  to  the  sovereign  before  they  are 


presented  in  parliament.  The  house  of  com- 
mons will  not  entertain  a  supply  bill  unless  it 
is  first  communicated  to  it  by  the  crown ;  and 
a  bill  for  a  pardon  is  regularly  first  signed  by 
the  king  before  it  proceeds  at  all,  and  it  is  read 
only  once  in  each  of  the  houses.  But  in  gen- 
eral bills  are  entertained  by  one  house  or  the 
other  in  the  first  instance  and  independently 
of  the  crown,  though  they  cannot  become  laws 
until  they  have  received  its  assent.  Practically 
assent  is  never  withheld,  and  it  is  given  either 
by  the  sovereign  in  person  in  the  house  of 
lords,  the  commons  being  called  into  that  house 
for  the  occasion,  or  more  usually  it  is  signified 
by  the  royal  commission.  For  the  most  part 
bills  may  originate  in  either  house  indifferently, 
but  bills  for  supply  must  begin  in  the  commons, 
and  bills  relating  to  the  peerage,  or  to  restitu- 
tion of  blood,  must  begin  in  the  lords.  In  the 
commons  again  certain  bills  must  originate  in 
the  committee  of  the  whole  house,  such  bills 
for  example  as  those  for  granting  money,  or 
those  relating  to  trade,  or  to  the  alteration  of 
the  laws  concerning  religion.  But,  with  these 
and  a  few  other  exceptions,  any  member  of  the 
commons  may  ask  leave  to  introduce  a  public 
bill.  If  the  motion  prevails,  it  is  ordered  that 
the  bill  be  prepared  and  brought  in  by  the  mover 
or  by  a  select  committee  to  whom  the  matter  is 
referred.  In  the  lords  any  member  may  offer 
a  bill  without  first  obtaining  leave.  In  either 
house  a  public  bill  goes  regularly  through  five 
stages,  namely :  the  first  reading,  the  second 
reading,  the  commitment,  the  third  reading,  and 
finally  the  motion  for  its  passage.  The  bill  is 
usually  first  read  when  it  is  presented.  It  is  not 
common  to  debate  it  at  this  stage,  though,  if  it 
appears  to  be  of  a  mischievous  or  extraordinary 
character,  it  may  be  discussed  then.  The  first 
discussion  of  the  bill  usually  takes  place  on  the 
second  reading.  The  commitment  is  a  refer- 
ence to  a  committee,  either  of  the  whole  house, 
or  if  the  subject  of  it  is  of  a  technical  nature, 
or  for  any  reason  it  is  desired  to  have  special 
information  about  it,  the  bill  goes  to  a  special 
committee,  and  in  that  case  it  must  still  go  to 
the  committee  of  the  whole  house  before  it 
passes  to  a  third  reading.  In  this  committee 
the  whole  bill  is  read  and  considered  clause  by 
clause,  and  approved  as  it  is  drawn,  or  amended, 
as  may  be  decided.  The  chairman  of  the 
committee  then  reports  the  bill  as  approved  to 
the  house  itself,  and  it  is  then  discussed  again 
clause  by  clause,  and  the  amendments  made  by 
the  committee,  or  any  new  amendments  pro- 
posed by  the  house,  are  debated.  After  the 
consideration  of  the  bill  upon  the  report  of  the 
committee  of  the  whole  house,  it  advances  to 
the  third  reading.  In  the  house  of  commons 
no  substantial  amendment  can  then  be  made. 
After  the  bill  has  been  read  for  the  third  time 
the  vote  is  taken  on  its  passage,  and  when  it  is 
passed  and  the  title  is  added,  it  is  sent  to  the 
other  house  for  its  concurrence ;  and  there  it 
goes  through  the  same  course  as  in  the  com- 
mons. If  the  lords  pass  the  bill,  they  commu- 


638 


BILL 


nicate  their  assent  to  the  commons,  and  unless 
it  be  a  supply  bill  it  remains  with  the  upper 
house.  If  the  lords  reject  the  bill,  it  fails  to 
become  a  law ;  and  if  they  amend  it,  they 
send  it  with  their  amendments  to  the  commons, 
who  if  they  accept  them  signify  their  concur- 
rence to  the  upper  house,  or  if  not  they  may 
ask  a  conference  on  the  bill.  When  the  two 
houses  have  finally  agreed  upon  a  bill,  it  is  de- 
posited with  the  lords  to  receive  the  royal  as- 
sent, though  if  it  is  a  supply  bill  it  remains 
with  or  is  sent  to  the  commons.  Substantially 
the  same  course  of  proceeding  here  detailed  is 
followed  in  the  case  of  a  public  bill  which 
originates  with  the  lords. — With  reference  to 
private  bills  the  procedure  is  in  some  respects 
different,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages.  By 
certain  standing  orders  bills  relating  to  local 
improvements  or  to  public  works  like  railways, 
involving  condemnation  of  lands  and  other 
property,  or  to  municipal  regulations,  cannot 
be  introduced  except  on  petitions  which  have 
been  for  a  certain  period  deposited  in  the  pri- 
vate bill  office,  and  after  certain  notices  have 
been  given  to  persons  whose  interests  are  to  be 
affected.  Officers  called  examiners  inquire  in- 
to and  report  upon  the  regularity  of  these  pre- 
liminary proceedings  before  the  promoters  of 
such  a  bill  can  introduce  it.  The  bill  is  after 
its  introduction  referred  to  a  special  com- 
mittee, who  inquire  farther  into  the  merits  of 
the  proposed  enactment.  Petitions  against  the 
bill  may  be  presented,  and  the  remonstrants 
and  petitioners  are  heard  by  the  committee, 
who  report  the  results  to  the  house  at  different 
stages  of  the  bill. — The  course  of  proceeding 
upon  bills  in  our  legislative  assemblies  is  very 
similar  to  that  observed  in  the  British  parlia- 
ment, upon  the  practice  and  usages  of  which 
indeed  our  parliamentary  law  is  modelled. 
In  our  legislatures  hills  are  presented  without 
any  special  formality.  A  member  who  wishes 
to  introduce  one,  whether  reported  by  a  com- 
mittee or  otherwise,  makes  a  suggestion  to  that 
effect  in  the  house,  and  the  bill  is  received  if  no 
objection  is  made.  In  congress  one  day's  no- 
tice of  the  presentment  of  the  bill  must  be 
given.  Bills  which  have  originated  in  one 
house  are  presented  by  it  to  the  other  by  mes- 
sage. By  an  old  rule  of  congress  it  is  declared 
that  the  first  reading  of  a  bill  is  for  informa- 
tion, and  if  opposition  be  made  to  it  the  ques- 
tion is  put  whether  the  bill  shall  be  rejected ; 
if  that  is  decided  in  the  negative,  or  if  there  is 
no  opposition  to  the  reception  of  the  bill,  it 
goes  to  a  second  reading.  The  second  reading 
usually  takes  place  at  some  later  day  than  that 
of  the  first  reading,  but  in  cases  of  urgency 
not  only  both  these  readings  but  all  the  pro- 
ceedings on  the  bill  may  take  place  on  the  same 
day.  The  second  reading  is  the  most  impor- 
tant stage.  The  principles  and  merits  of  the 
bill  are  then  thoroughly  discussed.  Then  fol- 
lows the  commitment,  public  bills  being  refer- 
red to  the  committee  of  the  whole  house  and 
private  bills  being  sent  to  special  committees. 


The  object  of  the  commitment  is  to  put  the 
bill  into  the  form  which  will  effectuate  its  ob- 
ject. In  this  stage  it  receives  amendments 
or  additions,  amendments  being  changes  in  the 
matter  of  the  bill  as  it  is  proposed,  and  ad- 
ditions being  substantive  interpolations  in  the 
form  of  qualifying  or  restrictive  clauses,  such 
as  provisos.  The  report  of  the  committee 
either  approves  the  bill  as  it  is  proposed,  or  re- 
turns it  with  such  amendments  or  additions  ; 
and  it  is  presented  to  the  house  by  its  chair- 
man. The  next  proceeding  is  engrossment  of 
the  bill  preparatory  to  the  third  reading.  The 
engrossment  of  bills  has  been  discontinued  in 
the  British  parliament  since  1849,  but  it  is  still 
practised  in  congress  and  in  many  of  our 
states.  The  proceedings  in  committee  of  the 
whole  house  and  on  the  third  reading  are 
substantially  like  those  in  the  English  parlia- 
ment. In  some  of  the  states  it  is  ordered 
by  constitutional  provisions  that  the  bill  be 
read  three  times,  and  in  others  that  the 
readings  be  on  three  different  days  before  it 
can  become  a  law,  though  in  some  instances 
this  requirement  may  be  dispensed  with  by  a 
vote  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the  members 
of  the  legislature.  It  has  been  mentioned  that 
money  bills  in  England  must  originate  in  the 
house  of  commons.  A  provision  of  a  similar 
character,  requiring  such  bills  to  proceed  from 
the  lower  or  popular  branch  of  the  legislature, 
exists  in  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  many  of  our  state  constitutions ;  but  it 
does  not  exist  in  those  of  New  York,  Connecti- 
cut, Illinois,  Michigan,  California,  and  several 
others. — The  practice  in  this  country  with  ref- 
erence to  bills  after  they  have  passed  both 
houses  is  regulated  by  the  rules  of  these  bodies 
in  the  several  states.  The  practice  in  congress, 
which  is  followed  in  many  of  the  states  substan- 
tially, is  governed  by  a  rule  adopted  in  1794. 
After  passing  both  houses  the  bill  is  engrossed 
on  parchment,  then  certified  by  the  clerk  of  the 
house  in  which  it  originated,  and  then  deliv- 
ered to  the  committee  on  enrolled  bills  for  ex- 
amination. Enrolled  bills  after  their  examina- 
tion are  signed  by  the  speaker  of  the  house 
and  by  the  president  of  the  senate,  and  entered 
on  the  journal  of  each  house.  The  committee 
then  presents  the  bill  to  the  executive  for  his 
approval.  There  is  ordinarily  no  time  pre- 
scribed in  which  the  bill  is  to  be  presented  to 
the  executive,  and  it  may  be  immediately  upon 
the  passage  of  the  bill  and  before  the  close  of 
the  session.  If  the  executive  does  not  approve 
the  bill,  he  is  required  to  return  it  with  his  ob- 
jections to  the  house  in  which  it  originated 
within  a  certain  number  of  days,  and  if  it  is  not 
returned  within  that  time  it  becomes  a  law  as 
if  he  had  signed  it,  though  in  some  of  the 
states  it  is  provided  that  the  omission  on  the 
part  of  the  executive  shall  not  render  the  bill 
a  law  if  the  house  adjourns  within  a  certain 
period  after  the  bill  is  sent  to  him.  The  period 
within  which  the  executive  must  sign  the  bill 
varies  in  the  different  states.  In  many  it  is 


BILL 


BILL  IN  EQUITY 


639 


ten  days,  in  others  six,  in  others  five,  and  in 
one  or  two  cases  three.  It  is  usually  provided 
however  by  the  state  constitutions  that  though 
a  bill  is  returned  unsigned  and  with  objections 
by  the  executive,  yet  if  on  a  reconsideration  it 
be  passed  by  the  houses  by  certain  majorities 
it  shall  become  a  law  notwithstanding  the 
veto.  This  constitutional  majority  differs  in 
different  states.  In  some  it  is  two  thirds  or 
other  proportion  of  the  actual  members  of  the 
legislative  body,  and  in  some  such  proportion 
of  the  members  actually  present.— The  consti- 
tutions of  most  of  our  states  contain  provisions 
relating  to  the  form  of  bills.  Thus,  to  prevent 
abuses  by  putting  in  the  body  of  a  bill  matters 
which  are  not  suggested  by  its  title,  by  which 
contrivance  the  legislature  or  the  people  may 
be  misled  and  deceived  as  to  the  real  purport 
of  an  enactment,  it  is  declared  in  many  of  the 
states  that  no  bill  shall  embrace  more  than  one 
subject,  and  that  that  shall  be  expressed  in  its 
title.  In  some  of  the  states  this  prohibition 
is  restricted  to  private  or  local  bills;  and  in 
some  of  them  it  is  declared  that  when  this  re- 
quirement is  violated  the  bill  shall  be  invalid 
only  as  to  so  much  of  it  as  is  not  disclosed  by 
the  title. — When  an  enacting  style,  as  it  is  called, 
is  furnished  by  constitution  or  statute,  it  must 
be  followed  in  the  language  of  the  bill  or  it 
cannot  become  a  law.  In  England  the  present 
form  is:  "Be  it  enacted  by  the  queen's  most 
excellent  majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal  in 
this  present  parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same."  The  constitution  of 
the  United  States  provides  no  such  enacting 
clause,  nor  was  there  any  statute  upon  the 
subject  until  the  year  1871.  By  an  act  of 
"Feb.  25  of  that  year  (ch.  71)  it  is  provided 
that  the  enacting  clause  of  all  acts  of  congress 
henceforth  shall  be  in  the  following  form :  "  Be 
it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  house  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  in  congress 
assembled ; "  and  the  like  clause  of  joint  reso- 
lutions shall  be :  "  Resolved  by  the  senate  and 
house  of  representatives  in  congress  assem- 
bled ; "  and  no  further  enacting  or  resolving 
words  shall  be  used  in  any  subsequent  section 
or  resolution  after  the  first. — The  constitution 
of  the  United  States  prohibits  congress  from 
passing  any  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  pott  facto 
law,  and  prohibits  the  states  from  passing 
either  of  these  or  any  law  impairing  the  obli- 
gation of  contracts.  Some  of  the  states  forbid 
their  legislatures  from  passing  bills  of  attainder 
for  treason  or  felony.  Many  of  the  state  con- 
stitutions also  forbid  the  enactment  of  retro- 
spective laws.  This  provision  covers  as  well 
civil  as  criminal  cases,  and  is  therefore  of  wider 
scope  than  the  prohibition  of  ex  post  facto  laws, 
which  refers  to  criminal  laws  only.  In  some 
states  the  passing  of  judicial  bills  such  as  those 
which  grant  divorces  is  also  prohibited. 

BILL,  Brownbill,  Glaive,  Vonlge,  or  Gisanne,  all 
names  for  nearly  the  same  instrument,  which, 
with  some  slight  modification,  was  the  stand- 
93  VOL.  n.— 41 


ing  weapon  of  the  English  infantry  at  close 
quarters,  from  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings till  that  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  origi- 
nal brownbill  was  a  ponderous  cutting  weapon 
with  two  edges,  that  forward  of  the  shaft  hav- 
ing a  concave  or  sickle  blade,  that  to  the  back 
a  sort  of  angular  cutting  face,  the  upper  part 
projecting  before  the  base,  so  as  to  give  a 


drawing  blow.  This  terrible  instrument  was 
nearly  3  ft.  in  length  and  10  or  12  Ibs.  in 
weight,  set  erect  on  a  shaft  of  3  or  4  ft.  It 
was  wielded  with  both  hands,  and  could  sever 
a  horse's  head  or  a  man's  thigh  or  shoulder, 
through  the  strongest  mail  or  plate  armor. 
The  weapon  was  afterward  lengthened  and 
lightened,  and  provided  with  a  spear  head,  so 
that  the  holder  could  charge  it  like  a  lance, 
and  sometimes  with  a  cutting  hook,  for  sever- 
ing the  bridles  of  the  men-at-arms,  or  pulling 
them  out  of  their  saddles. 

BILL  OF  CREDIT,  paper  issued  by  the  au- 
thority and  upon  the  faith  of  the  state,  and  de- 
signed to  circulate  as  money.  By  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  the  states  are  pro- 
hibited from  issuing  bills  of  credit ;  but  it  has 
been  held  that  the  bills  of  banking  corporations 
chartered  by  the  state  do  not  come  within  the 
inhibition,  even  though  the  state  may  be 
owner  in  whole  or  in  part  of  the  stock. 

BILL  IN  EQUITY,  the  statement  of  the  plain- 
tiff's case  in  an  equity  suit.  In  English  law  it 
is  addressed  to  the  lord  chancellor,  and,  com- 
mencing with  the  names  of  the  plaintiffs,  pro- 
ceeds to  state  the  circumstances  of  their  case 
and  the  grievance  to  be  redressed,  setting  out 
or  making  reference  to  all  documentary  evi- 
dence relied  on.  From  the  statement  it  pro- 
ceeds to  charge  against  the  defendants,  col- 
lectively or  individually,  the  various  facts 
which  either  specifically  or  by  induction  con- 
stitute the  gravamen  of  the  case.  It  concludes 
with  the  prayer  for  relief,  and  with  interroga- 
tories, both  general  and  specific,  to  which  the 
plaintiffs  require  an  answer.  The  bill  may  not 
join  distinct  subjects  of  complaint ;  if  it  does,  it 
is  objectionable  for  multifariousness.  It  must 
contain  no  irrelevant  matter,  otherwise  it  may 
be  excepted  to  for  impertinence ;  nor  scandal- 
ous matter,  that  is,  the  narrative  of  mere  hear- 
say report,  or  personally  offensive  expressions, 
which  may  be  expunged.  The  introductory  or 
narrative  part  must  support  the  charging  part ; 
the  charges  must  cover  all  the  case  intended 
to  be  made  against  the  defendants,  and  the  in- 
terrogatories must  demand  specific  informa- 
tion, either  affirmation,  denial,  or  explanation, 
upon  all  those  points  which  are  important  to 


640 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE 


BILLAUD-VARENNE 


the  establishment  of  the  plaintiffs'  case.  As 
new  facts  come  to  the  plaintiffs'  knowledge, 
either  from  the  defendants'  admissions  or  from 
other  sources,  the  bill  may  be  amended,  and 
new  interrogatories  added ;  while  bills  of  re- 
vivor  and  supplement  are  filed  to  bring  the 
representatives  of  deceased  parties,  assignee's 
ef  parties,  or  newly  born  children  before  the 
court.  The  bill  is  met  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
fendants either  by  demurrer,  which  admits  the 
facts  alleged,  but  denies  that  they  make  out  a 
cause  of  equitable  jurisdiction;  or  by  plea, 
which  presents  some  single  ground  of  defence 
supposed  to  constitute  a  bar;  or  by  answer, 
which  is  a  specific  reply  to  the  various  allega- 
tions of  the  bill.  A  demurrer  or  plea  will  pre- 
sent an  issue  of  law  for  argument ;  but  if  the 
plaintiff  wishes  to  dispute  the  facts  set  up  in 
the  plea  or  answer,  he  will  do  so  by  replica- 
tion, whereby  an  issue  will  be  made  upon 
which  proof's  can  be  taken.  The  plaintiff'  in 
equity  is  called  complainant,  and  in  addressing 
the  court  in  his  bill  he  will  style  himself  "  your 
orator." — By  codes  in  New  York  and  many 
other  American  states  the  old  forms  of  equity 
pleading  are  abolished,  and  a  simple  complaint 
reciting  the  facts  constituting  the  supposed 
cause  of  action  is  substituted  for  the  bill. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE.     See  EXCHANGE. 

BILL  OF  HEALTH.     See  QUARANTINE. 

BILL  OF  INDICTMENT.     See  INDICTMENT. 

BILL  OF  LADING,  a  commercial  instrument, 
signed  by  the  master  of  a  ship  as  the  receipt 
for  cargo  to  be  conveyed  as  freight.  This 
document  specifies  the  goods,  the  ship,  the  con- 
signor and  consignee,  the  price,  and  the  port 
of  delivery,  with  such  other  particulars  as  may 
be  requisite.  It  stipulates  for  their  safe  de- 
livery, and  constitutes  the  contract  between 
the  shipper  and  the  ship  owner.  It  is  generally 
signed  in  duplicate,  the  two  parts  of  which  are 
transmitted  to  the  consignee  by  different  chan- 
nels. Certain  exceptions  are  usually  men- 
tioned, against  which  the  carrier  does  not 
guarantee  the  goods,  as  the  acts  of  God,  ene- 
mies in  time  of  war,  fire,  and  the  accidents  of 
navigation.  The  goods  are  usually  deliverable 
to  consignees  or  their  order,  sometimes  to  the 
order  of  the  shipper,  upon  payment  of  freight, 
as  mentioned,  primage,  and  average.  Primage 
is  a  perquisite  to  the  master — a  small  percent- 
age on  the  freight.  Average  is  the  share  in 
certain  small  expenses  of  the  ship — pilotage, 
towage,  harbor  dues,  &c.  The  bill  of  lading  is 
assignable,  and  transfers  the  ownership  of  the 
goods,  subject  to  the  shipper's  right  of  stop- 
page in  transitu.  Accordingly,  the  assignee 
can  maintain  an  action  for  recovery  of  the 
goods  from  the  carrier.  The  master's  con- 
tract is  complete  on  delivery  of  the  goods,  in 
good  order,  at  the  usual  place  of  delivery  of 
the  port,  and  upon  notice  given  thereof  to  the 
consignee,  unless  there  be  any  particular  stipu- 
lation as  to  the  mode  of  delivery. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  in  English  constitutional 
law,  properly,  the  act  of  parliament  1  William 


and  Mary  (sess.  2,  c.  ii.),  by  which  certain 
claims  contained  in  the  declaration  of  rights 
were  enacted  as  fundamental  principles  of 
political  liberty.  The  declaration  had  been 
delivered  at  the  time  the  crown  was  tendered 
to  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13, 
1689.  It  recited  the  principal  grievances 
which  the  nation  had  suffered  under  the  pre- 
ceding reign,  viz. :  the  assumption  as  a  royal 
prerogative  to  grant  a  dispensation  from  penal 
acts  of  parliament ;  the  establishment  of  a  new 
tribunal  to  determine  ecclesiastical  questions ; 
levying  taxes  without  consent  of  parliament; 
maintaining  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace ; 
interfering  with  the  administration  of  justice 
and  the  freedom  of  elections;  exacting  exces- 
sive bail  from  prisoners;  inflicting  barbarous 
and  unusual  punishments;  and  treating  as 
criminal  petitions  for  a  redress  of  wrongs — all 
of  which  acts  were  declared  to  be  illegal.  It 
then  asserted  the  right  of  subjects  to  petition ; 
the  right  of  parliament  to  freedom  of  debate ; 
the  right  of  electors  to  choose  representatives 
freely ;  and  various  other  privileges.  These 
were  reiterated  in  the  act  of  parliament  above 
referred  to,  with  some  additional  stringency, 
as  in  respect  to  the  dispensing  power,  which 
by  the  declaration  had  been  condemned,  as  ex- 
ercised by  James,  as  unlawful,  but  by  the  act 
was  absolutely  and  for  ever  taken  away.  These 
rights  were  again  asserted,  with  some  addi- 
tions, in  the  act  of  settlement,  by  which  the 
crown  was  limited  to  the  Hanover  family  (12 
and  13  William  III.,  c.  ii.).  Similar  provisions 
were  appended  to  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  as  amendmenta  thereto.  They 
are  chiefly  declaratory  of  the  freedom  of  speech 
and  of  the  press ;  of  the  right  of  citizens  peace- 
ably to  assemble  and  petition  government  for 
the  redress  of  grievances ;  of  the  right  of  trial 
by  jury ;  that  private  property  shall  not  be 
taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensa- 
tion ;  that  no  law  shall  be  passed  by  congress 
for  the  establishment  of  any  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof.  In  the  con- 
stitutions or  laws  of  several  states  of  the 
American  Union  is  to  be  found  a  similar  recital 
of  rights,  usually  including  the  privilege  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

BILL  OF  SALE,  an  instrument  in  writing  by 
which  personal  property  is  transferred.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  it  should  be  under  seal,  nor 
would  a  seal  create  any  difference  in  the  legal 
effect,  other  than  that  the  seal  imports  a  con- 
sideration. A  bill  of  sale  of  a  ship  or  vessel  is 
a  muniment  of  title  of  peculiar  importance.  In 
most  countries  it  is  either  by  custom  or  statute 
absolutely  required.  In  this  country  every 
transfer  of  a  registered  ship  must  be  accom- 
panied by  a  bill  of  sale  setting  forth  the  certifi- 
cate of  registry. 

BILLACD-VARENNE,  Jean  Nicolas,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  La  Rochelle,  April  23, 
1756,  died  in  Hayti,  June  3,  1819.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  Paris,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution  became  conspicuous  for  his  hostility 


BILLE 


BILLIARDS 


641 


to  the  government  and  the  clergy,  whom  he 
assailed  in  several  publications.  On  July  1, 
1791,  at  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  "Friends 
of  the  Constitution,"  he  proposed  to  change 
the  French  monarchy  into  a  republic ;  the  same 
year  he  published  his  celebrated  pamphlet 
Acephalocratie,  and  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  commune  of  Paris.  In  1T92  he  took  his 
seat  in  the  convention,  where  he  voted  not 
only  for  the  death  of  the  king,  but  for  that  of 
the  queen  and  ministers.  He  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  convention,  and  member  of  the 
committee  of  public  safety,  and  in  this  capacity 
founded  the  still  existing  Bulletin  des  lois,  and 
was  the  framer  of  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment. In  1794  he  took  part  in  the  overthrow 
of  Robespierre,  but  was  himself  soon  after  ac- 
cused by  his  new  allies  (May  25,  1795),  and  to- 
gether with  Collot-d'Herbois,  Barrere,  and  Va- 
dier  sentenced  to  transportation.  For  20  years 
he  lived  at  Cayenne,  refusing  to  avail  himself 
of  the  amnesty  offered  by  Napoleon  after  the 
18th  Brumaire.  In  1816,  however,  he  escaped, 
and  established  himself  at  Port-au-Prince, 
where  he  barely  made  a  living  by  the  law. 

BILLE,  si  ecu  Andersen,  a  Danish  naval  officer, 
born  in  Copenhagen,  Dec.  5,  1797.  He  is  the 
son  of  a  distinguished  admiral,  served  alter- 
nately under  the  Danish  and  French  flags,  and 
was  on  board  the  Bellone  during  the  expedi- 
tion of  that  vessel  to  South  America  in  1840. 
In  1845  he  made  in  the  Danish  corvette  Gala- 
tea, a  voyage  round  the  world,  an  account  of 
which  he  published  at  Copenhagen  in  3  vols. 
(1849-'51).  During  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war 
he  was  employed  in  the  blockade  of  the  Elbe 
and  Weser,  and  of  the  Holstein  coast.  In  1852 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  marine,  council- 
lor, and  rear  admiral,  and  retired  in  1854. 

BILLIARDS,  a  game  played  with  ivory  balls, 
propelled  by  a  cue  or  tapering  wooden  wand 
in  the  hands  of  the  player,  upon  an  oblong 
level  table.  The  billiard  tables  in  common  use 
in  America  are  of  three  sizes :  6  ft.  in  width  by 
12  in  length,  5  by  10,  and  4  by  8.  They  con- 
sist of  a  heavy  frame  of 
wood  (generally  rosewood 
or  walnut),  which  supports 
a  bed  of  marble  or  slate. 
This  bed  is  covered  with  a 
heavy  and  very  fine  green 
cloth,  stretched  tightly,  so 
that  the  surface  of  the  table  presents  not 
even  the  most  trifling  inequality.  This  sur- 
face should  be  about  32  inches  above  the 
floor ;  and  its  horizontal  position  must  be  estab- 
lished with  mathematical  exactness.  Around 
the  bed  the  frame  of  the  table  rises  in  a 
rim  about  an  inch  and  a  half  high;  the  in- 
side of  this,  toward  the  bed,  is  lined  with 
elastic  cushions  composed  of  vulcanized  rubber 
combined  with  other  substances,  horizontal  on 
the  top,  and  slanting  upward  and  inward  from 
the  bottom  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  a  thin 
edge  to  be  struck  by  the  ball  when  propelled 
against  it.  These  cushions  must  be  made  with 


Cushion  and  Ball. 


the  greatest  care,  as  a  very  great  part  of  the 
skill  attainable  in  the  game  consists  in  the 
proper  calculation  of  the  angles  of  incidence 
and  reflection  of  the  balls,  in  striking  and  leav- 
ing the  elastic  sides.  The  cushions,  as  formerly 
constructed,  were  of  heavy,  hard  cloth,  or  of 
simple  india  rubber  in  what  is  called  the 
"raw"  state.  Both  kinds  were  found  ex- 
ceedingly defective ;  the  cloth  was  deficient  in 
elasticity,  making  the  angle  of  reflection  more 
obtuse  than  it  should  have  been ;  while  at- 
mospheric changes  so  affected  the  rubber  as  to 
make  it  on  a  cold  day  as  hard  and  dead  as 
wood,  and  on  a  warm  day  so  soft  that  the  ball 
sank  into  it,  rebounding  at  a  more  acute  angle 
than  was  expected.  The  combination  cushions 
now  in  use  were  patented  in  1857  by  Michael 
Phelan,  a  celebrated  American  player.  They 
are  manufactured  by  combining  with  the  raw 
rubber  strips  of  other  materials,  and  then  vul- 
canizing the  whole.  Billiard  tables  are  divided 
into  three  classes :  they  may  have  four  "  pock- 
ets," six,  or  none  at  all.  A  four-pocket  table 
has  at  each  corner  an  opening  between  the 
cushions,  allowing  a  ball  to  pass  through  and 
fall  into  a  bag  or  pocket  of  network  hanging 
below.  A  six-pocket  table,  besides  pockets  at 
the  corners,  has  one  pocket  in  the  middle  of 
each  side.  In  a  table  with  no  pockets,  called 
a  carom  table,  the  cushions  continue  uninter- 
ruptedly around  the  whole  perimeter.  Upon 


Carom  Table. 

the  cloth  of  every  table  there  are  two  black 
spots,  situated  as  represented  in  the  engravings 
given  herewith,  and  used  to  mark  the  positions 
of  the  balls  under  certain  circumstances  to  be 
hereafter  explained.  The  balls  should  be  of 
the  finest  ivory  (the  East  Indian  is  the  best), 
turned  with  the  greatest  care,  and  of  uniform 
size.  The  cue  is  a  staff  or  wand  of  hard  wood, 
generally  ash,  varying  in  length  from  6  ft.  to 
5  ft.  5  or  6  inches,  and  in  weight  from  7  to  24 
oz. ;  it  tapers  from  the  butt,  which  is  about  an 
inch  thick,  to  the  point,  which  is  about  half 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  tip  is  formed  of  two 
layers  of  leather :  a  hard  piece  of  sole  leather 
is  glued  to  the  wood;  and  glued  to  this  is  a 


One  and  Mace. 

piece  of  fine  French  leather,  slightly  convex, 
and  somewhat  rough  on  its  exposed  surface  to 
prevent  its  slipping  from  the  balls;  chalk  is 
applied  to  it  at  short  intervals  while  playing, 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  mace,  a  staff  of 


642 


BILLIARDS 


light  wood  with  a  boxwood  head,  square- 
fronted,  and  bevelled  so  as  to  slide  along  the 
cloth,  is  still  used  to  some  extent  by  ladies 
and  children  in  playing  billiards,  and  it  was 
the  first  instrument  employed  in  the  game.  A 
rough  form  of  cue  was  first  used  about  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  and  the  improved 
leather-tipped  cue  invented  by  M.  Mingaud,  a 
Parisian  billiard  player,  some  years  later.  Only 
after  the  introduction  of  this  instrument  did 
any  really  great  skill  in  playing  become  pos- 
sible.— In  playing,  the  cue  should  be  loosely 
held  near  the  butt  by  the  right  hand,  the  por- 
tion near  the  tip  resting  on  a  "bridge"  formed, 
as  represented  in  the  cut,  by  the  left  hand, 


Position  of  the  Left  Hand. 

which  should  in  turn  rest  firmly  and  steadily 
upon  the  table,  about  six  inches  from  the  ball 
which  is  to  be  struck  with  the  cue.  The  stroke 
of  the  cue  should  be  given  by  the  force  of  the 
wrist  and  forearm  only,  and  should  be  quick 
and  firm,  not  heavy  even  in  the  strongest 
shots.  Skill  and  quickness  are  required  rather 
than  muscular  strength.  To  strike  with  his 
own  ball,  in  a  single  play,  and  either  directly 
or  by  rebounding  from  the  cushions,  more  than 
one  of  the  other  balls  on  the  table — that  is,  in 
technical  phrase,  "to  make  a  carom" — may 
be  said,  in  brief,  to  be  the  main  object  of  each 
player  in  the  game  of  billiards ;  for  those  forms 
of  the  game  in  which  a  principal  aim  is  to 
drive  the  balls  into  the  pockets  are  rapidly 
passing  out  of  use.  In  the  game  of  billiards 
most  common  in  America,  four  balls  are  used 
— one  red,  one  pink,  one  entirely  white,  and 
the  fourth  white  with  a  black  point,  from 
which  it  is  commonly  called  the  sgot  ball,  or 
simply  "the  spot."  At  the  beginning  of  the 
game  the  red  balls  are  placed  upon  the  spots 
marked  A  and  B  in  the  engravings.  One  play- 
er takes  the  white,  the  other  the  spot  ball,  and 
the  question  of  the  first  play  or  "lead"  is 
decided  as  follows :  The  players,  placing  their 
balls  as  they  choose  at  the  end  of  the  table 
known  as  the  head — it  being  only  necessary 
that  both  shall  be  inside  an  imaginary  line  (the 
string)  drawn  across  the  table  at  the  point  A 
— -proceed  to  play  against  the  cushion  at  the 
other  end ;  he  who  succeeds  in  making  his  ball, 
on  rebounding  from  it,  approach  the  nearer 
to  the  head  cushion  from  the  vicinity  of  which 
he  played,  leads  in  the  game.  The  loser  in 
"  stringing  for  the  lead,"  as  this  is  called,  now 
places  his  ball  near  the  foot  of  the  table,  and  in- 
side an  imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  point 
B;  and  the  play  begins  by  the  leader's  play- 
ing from  within  the  string  on  the  ball  of  his 
antagonist.  After  the  first  shot  no  regard  is 
paid  to  the  string,  to  its  corresponding  limit  at 


the  foot  of  the  table,  or  to  the  spots,  unless  one 
of  the  balls  is  accidentally  played  off  the  table, 
when  if  it  be  a  player's  ball  its  owner  must 
play  next  time  from  within  the  string,  and  if 
it  be  a  red  ball  it  must  be  placed  on  its  ap- 
propriate spot.  A  carom  on  a  red  and  white 
ball  counts  two,  in  the  regular  rules  of  the 
game ;  one  on  the  two  reds  counts  three,  and 
on  all  the  balls  six.  But  these  methods  of 
counting  are  very  frequently  varied ;  it  being 
common  to  count  every  carom  three,  or  as 
often  to  count  each  carom  one.  The  game  is 
won  by  the  player  who  first  makes  a  certain 
number  of  points;  100,  60,  34,  and  21  are 
common  numbers,  according  to  the  different 
games  played.  Where  a  pocket  table  is  used 
and  a  pocket  game  played,  to  pocket  a  red  ball 
counts  three ;  an  adversary's  ball  (though  this 
is  seldom  done  by  good  players),  two;  to 
pocket  one's  own  ball  loses  three  if  off  a  red, 
two  if  off  an  adversary's,  three  if  direct.  In 
beginning  play  again  with  or  upon  pocketed 
balls  the  same  rules  apply  for  replacing  them 
that  have  just  been  given  for  replacing  balls 
played  off  the  table. — In  England,  two  white 
balls  and  one  red  are  generally  used  on  a  six- 
pocket  table,  and  the  pocketing  of  a  ball  is 
called  a  "  hazard ;  "  a  "  red  winning  hazard  " 
(counting  three)  if  the  red  be  pocketed;  a 
"  white  winning  hazard  "  (counting  two)  if  the 
white.  Should  the  player  pocket  his  own  ball 
off  the  red,  it  is  a  "  red  losing  hazard  "  (losing 
three) ;  if  off  the  white,  a  "  white  losing  haz- 
ard "  (losing  two).  Each  carom,  called  in  Eng- 


Six-pocket  Table. 

land  "cannon,"  counts  two.  The  common 
limits  for  the  game  are  21  and  50. — The  game 
played  in  France  is  that  best  calculated  to  call 
out  skill  in  the  player.  Three  balls  are  used, 
two  white  and  one  red,  on  a  carom  table. 
Each  carom  counts  one.  This  method,  though 
universally  called  the  French,  is  becoming  very 
common  among  the  better  players  in  America, 
and  is  undoubtedly  the  highest  form  of  bil- 
liards.— In  speaking  of  the  game  thus  far,  we 
have  assumed  that  only  two  players  are  en- 
gaged ;  but  billiards  can  also  be  played  by  four, 
in  two  sets  of  partners;  and  a  "three-handed 
game,"  though  somewhat  irregular,  is  also 
frequently  made  up,  each  player  using  that 
white  ball  which  his  predecessor  had  not  used 
— playing  with  "the  still  ball,"  as  is  techni- 
cally said. — It  is  of  course  impossible  in  this 
article  to  describe  or  give  directions  for  any 
of  those  peculiar  methods  of  play  which  only 
practice  can  teach,  and  by  which  the  balls  can 
be  made  to  perform  such  apparently  impossible 


BILLINGS 


BILSTON 


643 


feats.  For  these  and  their  technical  names  ref- 
erence must  be  made  to  special  works  on  bil- 
liards. The  best  of  these  published  in  America 
is  "  The  Game  of  Billiards,"  by  Michael  Phelan. 
In  this  manual  will  also  be  found  descriptions 
of  other  games  played  on  the  billiard  table, 
such  as  pyramid  pool,  pin  pool,  &c. — The  ori- 
gin of  billiards  is  unknown,  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  the 
East  at  the  time  of  the  crusades,  when  it  be- 
came a  popular  game  among  the  templars,  and 
one  of  the  favorite  amusements  of  monks  in 
their  monasteries.  Little  is  known  of  its  his- 
tory until  the  time  of  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
who  introduced  it  into  his  court.  Henry  III. 
of  France  was  also  a  prominent  patron  of  bil- 
liards, and  after  his  time  it  became  common 
among  the  higher  classes  on  the  continent,  and 
was  gradually  introduced  into  England. 

BILLINGS,  Joseph,  an  English  navigator  in  the 
service  of  Russia,  lived  at  the  end  of  the  18th 
century.  He  accompanied  Cook  in  his  last 
voyage,  and  was  intrusted  with  the  astronom- 
ical department.  In  1785  Catharine  II.  took 
him  into  her  service,  and  sent  him  on  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  seas  situated 
between  Siberia  and  the  continent  of  America. 
He  set  out  overland  in  October,  1785,  reached 
the  Kolyma  river  in  N.  Siberia,  and  put  to  sea 
with  two  vessels  in  1787.  The  expedition  sail- 
ed toward  the  Arctic  ocean,  went  five  leagues 
beyond  Cape  Baranov,  and  returned  to  the 
Kolyma,  whose  course  he  explored  for  a  con- 
siderable distance.  At  Okhotsk,  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  he  built  two  ships  for  the  American  ex- 
pedition, started  anew  in  September,  1789, 
lost  one  of  his  ships,  and  cast  anchor  at  the 
port  of  Petropavlovsk,  where  he  wintered.  In 
March,  1790,  he  set  out  to  visit  the  islands 
on  the  south  of  Alaska,  landed  at  Unalashka, 
traversed  the  island  of  Unimak,  and  cast  an- 
chor at  Kadiak.  In  July  he  penetrated  into 
Prince  William  sound,  and  cast  anchor  where 
Cook  had  been  in  1778.  He  examined  Cook 
strait  thoroughly.  His  provisions  now  began 
to  run  short,  and  not  having  means  to  winter 
in  these  savage  regions,  he  returned  to  Kam- 
tchatka  in  1791.  An  account  of  his  voyage, 
written  by  Martin  Sauer,  was  published  in 
English  at  London  in  1802. 

BILLINGS,  William,  an  American  composer, 
born  in  Boston,  Oct.  7,  1746,  died  there,  Sept. 
26,  1800.  He  forsook  the  trade  of  tanner  to 
become  a  teacher  of  singing  and  a  composer  of 
psalm  tunes,  which  eventually  found  their  way 
into  every  church  choir  of  New  England.  He 
published  six  collections  of  tunes,  which,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  were  of  his  own  composition. 
Though  his  musical  education  was  very  slight, 
he  had  a  taste  in  melody,  and  his  tunes  became 
very  popular.  Many  of  them  were  sung  and 
played  wherever  New  England  troops  were 
stationed.  Billings  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Samuel  Adams,  who  frequently  sat  with  him  at 
church  in  the  singing  choir.  He  is  the  first 
American  composer  of  whom  there  is  record. 


BILLINGTON,  Elizabeth,  an  English  singer, 
born  in  London  in  1769,  died  near  Venice 
in  August,  1818.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
German  musician  named  Weichsel,  and  at 
the  age  of  11  played  her  own  compositions 
in  London.  She  married  her  music  master, 
Mr.  Billington,  whom  she  accompanied  to 
Dublin,  where  she  made  her  first  appearance 
on  the  stage.  She  remained  there  till  1786, 
when  she  returned  to  London ;  but  meeting 
with  no  success  she  went  to  Paris,  and  took 
lessons  from  Sacchini,  by  whose  advice  she 
visited  Italy  in  1794,  to  perfect  herself  in  her 
art.  She  lost  her  husband  in  Italy,  under  sus- 
picious circumstances,  and  married  at  Lyons  a 
M.  Florissant.  On  her  return  to  England  in 
1801,  she  was  greatly  admired  both  for  the 
richness  and  culture  of  her  voice  and  her  per- 
sonal graces.  She  sang  at  Covent  Garden  and 
Drury  Lane  theatres  alternately.  In  1809  she 
retired  from  the  stage.  Her  husband  left  Eng- 
land in  consequence  of  the  alien  act,  and  she 
followed  him  in  1817. 

BILLITON,  an  island  of  the  Malay  archipel- 
ago, separated  by  the  Carimata  or  Billiton  pas- 
sage from  Borneo,  and  by  Gaspar  strait  from 
Banca.  Its  highest  peak,  near  its  N.  W.  point, 
which  is  2,300  ft.  high,  is  in  lat.  3°  13'  S.,  Ion. 
108°  7'  E. ;  area,  about  2,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1869  estimated  at  22,000.  It  is  noted,  like  the 
neighboring  island  of  Banca,  which  it  resem- 
bles in  geological  formation,  for  its  production 
of  grain  tin  from  alluvial  deposits.  Iron  pos- 
sessing strong  magnetic  properties  is  found  in 
abundance ;  and  the  peculiar  white  iron,  called 
pamor,  used  in  damasking  the  Bornean  Dyak 
sword  blades,  is  found  here  in  small  quantities, 
Billiton  and  Celebes  being  the  only  countries 
where  it  is  found.  Iron  has  been  worked  since 
an  early  period  by  the  native  Sikas ;  but  the 
mining  of  tin  did  not  commence  till  1850. 
The  mines  are  worked  by  Chinese  colonies. 
The  soil  is  generally  sterile,  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  rice  for  the  consumption  of  the 
miners  is  brought  from  Java  and  Bali.  Odor- 
iferous woods  are  exported  to  some  extent. 
The  aborigines,  a  rude  race  called  Sikas,  sub- 
sist chiefly  by  fishing,  and  are  accused  of  being 
prone  to  piracy.  The  island  is  a  dependency 
of  Holland. 

BILSON,  Thomas,  an  English  divine  and  author, 
born  in  Winchester  in  1536,  died  in  Westmin- 
ster, June  18,  1616.  In  1596  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Worcester,  and  the  following 
year  became  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council.  He  published 
"  The  true  Difference  between  Christian  Sub- 
jection and  Unchristian  Rebellion  "  (4to,  Ox- 
ford, 1585),  a  vindication  of  the  supremacy  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  her  policy  in  the  Low 
Countries;  "The  Perpetual  Government  of 
Christ's  Church  "  (4to,  London,  1593 ;  new  ed., 
Oxford,  1842),  an  argument  for  episcopacy ; 
and  other  works. 

BILSTON,  a  market  town  of  Staffordshire, 
England,  3  m.  S.  E.  of  Wolverhampton ;  pop. 


644 


BIMA 


BINGEN 


about  25,000.  It  is  the  centre  of  extensive 
coal  mines,  and  of  a  large  iron  trade,  the  foun- 
deries  being  engaged  in  every  kind  of  iron 
work,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  steel 
and  japanned  wares.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  re- 
markable quarry,  the  stone  of  which  is  man- 
ufactured into  grindstones,  whetstones,  and 
millstones.  At  Bradley,  an  adjoining  village, 
is  a  coal  mine  which  has  been  on  fire  for 
about  80  years.  A  market  hall  has  recently 
been  erected.  The  "  orphan  cholera  school  " 
was  endowed  in  1833,  for  the  education  of 
the  children  of  victims  of  the  cholera,  which 
had  carried  off  great  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants in  the  previous  year.  Numerous  canals 
facilitate  transportation.  It  was  at  Bilston 
that  James  Watt  first  applied  the  steam  blast 
to  furnaces.  The  town  is  included  in  the  par- 
liamentary borough  of  Wolverhampton. 

BIMA,  the  principal  state  of  the  island  of 
Sumbawa,  and  seat  of  a  Dutch  residency,  occu- 
pying the  E.  part  of  the  island.  The  Dutch 
fort  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Bima  is  in  lat. 
8°  35'  8.,  Ion.  118°  40'  E.  Before  the  eruption 
of  the  mountain  Tomboro  (1815),  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  the 
island,  which  was  the  most  terrific  volcanic 
eruption  on  record,  the  inhabitants  numbered 
90,000,  but  at  present  there  are  only  about  45,- 
000.  It  is  governed  by  a  sultan,  who  acknowl- 
edges the  sovereignty  of  Holland.  The  soil  is  un- 
productive. The  surface  consists  of  trachytic 
ridges,  separated  by  ravines  often  very  deep, 
in  which  run  streams  impetuous  in  the  rainy 


season,  and  very  small  in  the  dry.  The  chief 
productions  which  have  attracted  Europeans 
are  sandal  and  sapan  wood ;  salt  and  rice  are 
also  produced.  Saltpetre  and  sulphur  are  found, 
and  beeswax  and  horses  are  exported  to  Java. 
The  horses  of  Bima  are  much  esteemed  in  the 
Indian  islands.  The  inhabitants  speak  a  lan- 
guage which  has  been  regarded  by  some  philol- 
ogists as  distinct  from  the  Malay  or  any  other 
language  of  the  archipelago.  The  Dutch  fort 
has  a  small  garrison,  chiefly  of  Javanese  and 
Bughis  troops.  There  are  also  several  thou- 
sand Bughis  settlers  in  the  territory.  The  in- 
habitants are  principally  Mohammedans.  The 
chief  town  and  port  also  is  called  Bima. 

BIMIM,  an  imaginary  island  of  the  Bahamas, 
said  to  contain  the  fountain  of  youth,  in  search 
of  which  Ponce  de  Leon  set  out  from  Porto  Rico 
in  March,  1512,  on  the  expedition  which  re- 
sulted in  the  discovery  of  Florida. 

BINARY  ARITHMETIC.     See  ARITHMETIC. 

BINDRABinVD,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
British  district  of  Muttra,  Northwestern  Prov- 
inces, on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Jumna,  about  35 
m.  N.  W.  of  Agra;  pop.  20,000.  It  is  a  place 
of  resort  for  Hindoo  pilgrims,  who  hold  it  in 
veneration  as  the  residence  of  the  god  Krishna 
during  his  youth.  It  contains  a  number  of  tem- 
ples, and  the  river  for  about  a  mile  is  lined 
with  red  stone  steps,  where  the  devotees  per- 
form their  ablutions. 

BI.\GEN  (anc.  Vineum  or  Bingiuni),  a  town 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  opposite  Kudesheim,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  the  mouth  of  the 


Bingeu. 


Nahe,  17  m.  W.  of  Mentz ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,936. 
A  famous  wine  called  Scharlachberger  is  pro- 
duced upon  the  neighboring  Scarlet  or  Scharlach 
mountain.  Near  Bingen  is  the  Bingerloch,  or 


Bingen  hole,  a  compression  of  the  Rhine  into 
a  narrow  strait  between  towering  rocks.  High 
above  them  rises  the  Mausethurm,  or  mice 
tower,  so  called  from  the  legend  that  Arch- 


BINGHAM 


BINNEY 


645 


bishop  Hatto  of  Mentz,  who  used  it  as  a  gran- 
ary for  speculative  purposes  during  times  of 
famine,  was  gnawed  to  death  there  by  mice 
in  969.  According  to  another  tradition,  the 
original  name  of  the  tower  was  Mauththurm, 
or  toll  tower.  This  tower  was  in  a  very 
dilapidated  condition  till  1856,  when  it  was 
restored.  The  picturesque  aspect  of  Bingen  is 
enhanced  by  the  adjoining  Rupertsberg,  with 
the  ruins  of  a  convent,  and  the  Rochusberg, 
upon  the  summit  of  which  stands  a  chapel,  an- 
nually visited  by  pilgrims,  as  well  as  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  castle,  where  in  1105  the  German 
emperor  Henry  IV.  was  imprisoned  by  his  son. 
In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  town  formed 
part  of  Belgic  Gaul.  The  castle  built  by  the 
Romans  upon  the  Rochusberg  bore  in  the  mid- 
dle ages  the  name  of  Klopp  castle.  The  name 
of  its  principal  tower  is  Drususthurm.  Hence 
the  name  of  Drususbrucke  applied  to  the  beau- 
tiful bridge  over  the  river  Nahe.  The  Nibe- 
lungenhort,  or  the  treasure  of  King  Nibelung, 
which  gave  the  name  to  the  celebrated  Nibe- 
lungenlied,  was,  according  to  tradition,  sunk  in 
the  Rhine  not  far  from  Bingen. 

IJIM.imi.  Joseph,  an  English  scholar  and 
divine,  born  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1668,  died  Aug.  17,  1723.  An  unfor- 
tunate controversy,  in  which  he  took  a  prom- 
inent part,  forced  him  to  resign  his  fellowship 
at  Oxford ;  he  was,  however,  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Headbourn-Worthy,  in  Hampshire. 
There  he  began  his  famous  "  Origines  Ecclesi- 
asticse,  or  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church  " 
(10  vols.,  1708-'22).  In  .1712  he  was  present- 
ed to  the  rectory  of  Havant,  near  Portsmouth. 
In  1720  he  was  one  of  the  many  that  were  ru- 
ined by  the  South  sea  bubble. 

BINGHABITON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Broome 
county,  N.  Y.,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Chenango  and  Susquehanna  rivers,  about  8 
m.  from  the  Pennsylvania  boundary,  and  118 
m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Albany;  pop.  in  1870,  12,962. 
It  is  on  the  Erie  railway,  at  the  terminus  of 
the  Albany  and  Susquehanna,  Syracuse  and 
Binghamton,  and  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  railroads,  and  also  on  the  Chenango 
canal.  It  is  handsomely  laid  out ;  is  well  sup- 
plied with  water  power  by  the  Chenango  river ; 
has  numerous  manufactures  and  an  extensive 
flour  and  lumber  trade ;  and  contains  15  schools, 
11  churches,  2  newspaper  offices,  and  several 
banks.  The  state  inebriate  asylum  is  located 
here.  Binghamton  was  settled  in  1787  by 
William  Bingham  of  Philadelphia,  and  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1867. 

BINGTANG,  or  Bintang,  an  island  of  the  Rhio- 
Linga  group,  in  the  Malay  archipelago.  Mt. 
Bingtang,  its  highest  peak,  1,368  ft.  high,  is  in 
lat.  1°  4'  K,  Ion  104°  28'  E.  Rhio,  the  Dutch 
free  port,  is  in  lat.  1°  54'  N.,  Ion.  104°  26'  E. 
Area  of  the  island,  about  450  sq.  m ;  pop.,  with 
Rhio,  situated  on  Tanjong  Pinang,  an  adjoin- 
ing islet,  about  20,000.  Iron  and  tin  are 
found,  but  not  extensively  mined.  The  gam- 
bier  plant  (imcaria  gambir),  which  produces 


terra  japonica,  is  the  chief  product  of  the  isl- 
and. A  large  number  of  gambler  plantations, 
yielding  about  4,000  tons  a  year,  are  cultivated 
by  Chinese  colonists,  who  raise  black  pepper 
at  the  same  time.  Other  productions  are  cocoa- 
nuts,  durian  fruit,  much  prized  by  the  natives, 
caoutchouc,  gutta  percha,  and  damar.  The 
native  Malays  are  outnumbered  by  the  Chi- 
nese. The  island  is  subject  to  the  sultan  of 
Johore,  on  the  peninsula. 

BINNACLE  (formerly  spelled  bittacle ;  Fr.  ha- 
bitacle,  a  little  habitation),  a  case  or  box  in 
which  the  compass  and  lights  are  kept  on 
board  ship.  It  is  sometimes  divided  into  three 
compartments,  the  two  sides  containing  a  com- 
pass, and  the  middle  division  a  lamp.  In  order 
that  the  needle  may  not  be  affected,  the  bin- 
nacle is  put  together  without  nails  or  any  iron 
work.  On  board  iron  steamers,  it  is  an  object 
of  the  first  importance  to  isolate  the  binnacle 
as  completely  as  possible. 

BIMEY,  Amos,  an  American  savant  and  pat- 
ron of  art  and  science,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  18,  1803,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  18,  1847. 
He  was  educated  at  Brown  university  and 
studied  medicine,  but  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits,  and  devoted  a  great  deal  of  time  to 
science,  especially  mineralogy  and  conchology. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Boston  so- 
ciety of  natural  history,  and  its  president  from 
1843  to  1847,  a  member  of  all  the  scientific  so- 
cieties in  the  country,  and  active  in  the  for- 
mation and  promotion  of  the  American  asso- 
ciation of  geologists  and  naturalists,  of  which 
he  was  the  president  elect  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  When  a  member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture he  used  his  influence  to  sustain  the  geolo- 
gical survey  of  the  state,  and  succeeded  in 
having  attached  to  it  a  commission  for  the  zo- 
ological and  botanical  survey  also,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  important  volumes  of  Harris  on 
insects  injurious  to  vegetation,  Emerson  on 
forest  trees,  Storer  on  fishes,  Gould  on  inverte- 
brata,  &c.  He  wrote  many  valuable  papers  in 
the  proceedings  and  the  journal  of  the  Boston 
society  of  natural  history,  devoted  many  years 
to  the  study  of  the  terrestrial  mollusks  of  the 
United  States,  and  fitted  out  several  expedi- 
tions to  Florida,  Texas,  and  other  unexplored 
regions,  to  collect  materials.  He  employed 
the  best  artists  to  delineate  and  engrave  figures 
for  his  work  on  this  subject,  "  Terrestrial  and 
Air-breathing  Mollusks  of  the  United  States 
and  adjacent  Territories  of  North  America," 
which  was  published  after  his  death,  under  di- 
rection of  his  friend  Dr.  A.  A.  Gould  (2  vols. 
jof  text  and  1  vol.  of  plates,  Boston,  1851). 

BIMEY,  Horace,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  4,  1780.  He  was  long 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Philadelphia  bar,  and 
has  published  "Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Pennsylvania  from  1799  to 
1814"  (6  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1809-'15),  and  a 
number  of  legal  pamphlets,  addresses,  &c.  He 
was  for  many  years  director  in  the  first  bank 
of  the  United  States,  and  acted  as  trustee  in 


646 


BINNEY 


BIOT 


winding  up  the  affairs  of  that  institution.  He 
took  no  prominent  part  in  national  politics 
until  the  election  of  Gen.  Jackson ;  but  he  then 
came  forward  in  opposition  to  that  administra- 
tion, and  was  elected  to  congress.  In  that 
body  he  immediately  obtained  a  commanding 
position.  Since  his  retirement  from  political 
life  his  most  celebrated  effort  was  the  defence 
of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  in  the  supreme 
court  against  the  suit  brought  by  the  heirs  of 
Stephen  Girard.  The  arguments  of  Mr.  Binney 
and  others  in  this  case  have  several  times  been 
printed  in  book  form  by  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia. His  sketch  entitled  "  The  Leaders  of  the 
Old  Bar  of  Philadelphia"  (1859)  gives  a  vivid 
portraiture  of  some  of  the  remarkable  jurists 
of  the  time.  In  1862  he  published  two  pam- 
phlets on  "  The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas 
Corpus  under  the  Constitution,"  in  defence  of 
the  power  of  the  president  to  suspend  the  writ 
without  a  previous  authority  from  congress. 
In  a  third  essay  written  in  1865  he  showed 
that  the  suspension  of  the  writ  does  not  involve 
the  right  to  proclaim  martial  law  or  arrest  a 
citizen  without  a  warrant  and  cause  assigned. 

BINNEY,  Thomas,  an  English  dissenting  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1798. 
He  studied  at  Wymondley  college,  was  for 
some  time  minister  of  an  Independent  chapel 
at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  and  from  1829  to 
1871  of  the  King's  Weigh-house  chapel,  then 
in  Eastcheap,  afterward  in  the  new  building 
on  Fish  street  hill,  London.  The  degree  of 
LL.  D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  university 
of  Aberdeen,  and  that  of  D.  D.  he  received 
in  the  United  States,  which  he  visited  in  1845 
as  well  as  Canada;  and  in  1857-'9  he  visited 
Australia.  He  introduced  chanting  into  the 
service  of  Independent  congregations,  improved 
the  psalmody  by  his  "  Service  of  Song  in  the 
House  of  the  Lord,"  and  acquired  renown  as 
one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  England. 
He  has  published  many  works  of  a  religious 
character,  several  being  expressly  designed  for 
the  young.  Among  them  are:  "Fiat  Jus- 
titia,"  a  series  of  pamphlets  treating  upon 
topics  which  have  agitated  the  religious  public ; 
"Dissent  not  Schism,"  "The  Christian  Min- 
istry not  a  Priesthood,"  and  others  of  a  polem- 
ical nature.  "  The  Practical  Power  of  Faith  " 
(1830)  is  a  series  of  sermons  on  the  llth  chap- 
ter of  Hebrews.  The  "Life  of  Sir  Thomas 
Fowell  Buxton,"  and  "  Is  it  Possible  to  Make 
the  Best  of  Both  Worlds?  "  were  originally  de- 
livered as  lectures.  During  his  visit  to  Austra- 
lia he  wrote  a  review  of  the  bishop  of  Ade- 
laide's "Idea  of  the  Church  of  the  Future," 
which  he  afterward  expanded  into  the  "  Lights 
and  Shadows  of  Church  Life  in  Australia."  In 
1868  he  published  "  From  Seventeen  to  Thirty," 
a  work  for  the  young;  and  in  1869  a  volume 
of  sermons.  Other  works  are,  "St.  Paul,  his 
Life  and  Ministry,  "  "  Micah  the  Priest-maker," 
and  "  Thoughts  on  some  Things  at  Home." 

BIOBIO,  a  river  of  Chili,  which  rises  in  Lake 
Huehueltui,  about  lat.  38°  S.,  Ion.  71°  W.,  and 


flows  N.  W.  through  the  provinces  of  Arauco 
and  Concepcion,  partly  separating  them.  It 
receives  several  mountain  streams  and  small 
rivers,  and  after  a  course  of  180  m.  falls  into 
the  Pacific  at  the  city  of  Concepcion,  through 
a  channel  If  in.  wide,  with  a  bar  which  im- 
pedes the  entrance  of  large  vessels.  It  is  navi- 
gated most  of  the  year  by  small  craft  and  bar- 
ges to  Nacimiento,  80  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
in  most  parts  is  very  picturesque.  The  Bio- 
bio,  called  by  the  aborigines  Biu-biu  (double 
string),  or  Butanleuvu  (great  river),  was  the 
scene  of  Valdivia's  first  onslaught  against  the 
Araucanians,  and  of  numerous  battles  during 
the  wars  of  conquest  and  of  independence. 

BIOLOGY  (Gr.  plot,  life,  and  Myof,  doctrine), 
the  study  of  the  conditions  and  phenomena  of 
life  and  living  beings.  This  term  was  introduced 
by  Lamarck  and  Treviranus  in  1802,  and 
has  been  used  by  Carus,  Oken,  Schelling,  and 
other  German  philosophers,  to  denote  the  ulti- 
mate conditions  of  human  life.  It  was  par- 
tially revived  by  Comte  (Philosophic  positive) 
in  1838,  and  has  since  been  employed  by  some 
writers  in  preference  to  physiology,  as  being  a 
term  of  greater  scientific  comprehensiveness 
and  exactitude.  We  have  accordingly  the  "  Bi- 
ological Journal"  and  the  "Society  of  Biolo- 
gy," and  Herbert  Spencer  has  made  biology 
the  title  of  one  of  the  departments  in  his  sys- 
tem of  "Synthetic  Philosophy." 

BION,  a  Greek  pastoral  poet,  born  near 
Smyrna,  flourished  about  280  B.  C.  On  at- 
taining manhood  he  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where 
he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  and  died  of 
poison.  His  poems  are  all  '  in  hexameter 
verse,  some  of  them  erotic.  A  few  remain  en- 
tire, and  fragments  of  others  are  extant ;  they 
are  generally  printed  with  the  bucolic  poems 
of  his  disciple  Moschus  and  of  Theocritus. 

BIOT,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  savant,  born  in 
Paris,  April  21,  1774,  died  Feb.  2,  1862.  He 
served  for  some  time  in  the  artillery,  entered 
the  polytechnic  school  in  1794,  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  central  school  of  Beauvais,  and 
in  1800  professor  of  physics  in  the  college  de 
France.  In  1803  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  the  following 
year  entered  the  observatory  of  Paris.  In  con- 
junction with  Arago  he  continued  the  re- 
searches into  the  refracting  power  of  gases, 
already  begun  by  Borda.  In  1806  he  was  as- 
sociated with  Arago,  in  Spain,  in  measuring 
an  arc  of  the  meridian.  He  was  next  ap- 
pointed professor  of  physical  astronomy  in  the 
faculty  of  sciences,  and  in  1817  he  made  a 
journey  to  the  Orcades  for  the  purpose  of  cor- 
recting the  observations  relating  to  the  measure 
of  the  meridian.  In  1856  he  became  a  member 
of  the  French  academy.  His  fame  rests  chiefly 
upon  his  astronomical,  mathematical,  and  phys- 
ical writings.  His  Traite  de  physique  experi- 
mentale  et  mathematique  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1816) 
is  regarded  as  his  masterwork.  A  third  edition 
of  his  Traite  elementaire  d'astronomie  physique 
was  completed  in  5  vols.  in  1857.  In  1858  he 


BIPONT  EDITIONS 


BIRCH 


647 


collected  three  volumes  of  his  Melanges  seien- 
tifiques  et  litteraires. 

BIPONT  EDITIONS,  famous  editions  of  the 
Latin  classics,  published  in  the  city  of  Deux- 
Ponts  or  Zweibrucken  (Lat.  Bipontium),  in  the 
Rhenish  Palatinate.  The  publication  was  be- 
gun in  1779,  but  after  the  French  conquest  was 
finished  in  Strasburg.  The  collection  forms  50 
vols.  8vo. 

BIRCH  (betula),  a  genus  of  monoecious  trees 
or  shrubs,  which  have  as  generic  features  both 
sterile  and  fertile  flowers  in  scaly  catkins,  three 
of  each  under  each  bract,  with  no  involucre  to 
the  broadly  winged  nutlet  which  results  from  a 
naked  ovary.  The  sterile  catkins  are  long  and 
drooping,  formed  in  summer,  remaining  naked 
through  the  succeeding  winter,  and  expanding 
their  golden  flowers  in  early  spring,  preceding 
the  leaves.  The  fertile  catkins  are  oblong  or 
cylindrical,  protected  by  scales  through  the 
winter,  and  developed  with  the  leaves.  The 


Leaves  and  Catkin  of  White  Birch. 

outer  bark  is  usually  separable  in  thin  horizon- 
tal sheets;  the  twigs  and  leaves  are  often  spicy 
and  aromatic,  and  the  foliage  is  mostly  thin  and 
light.  The  birch  and  the  alder  (almis)  were 
classified  in  the  same  genus  by  Linnsus  in  his 
later  works,  but  are  now  generally  regarded  as 
distinct  by  botanists. — There  are  19  recognized 
species  of  birch,  for  the  most  part  lofty-growing 
and  ornamental  trees,  found  native  in  Asia,  Eu- 
rope, and  America,  and  almost  all  preferring 
the  cold  regions  of  the  northern  latitudes.  The 
most  widely  extended  of  them  is  B.  alba,  or 
common  white  birch,  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
found  in  America,  near  the  coast,  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  Maine,  which  thrives  in  every  kind 
of  difficult  and  sterile  soil,  but  decays  where 
the  ground  is  rich.  It  is  found,  though  dwarfed 
in  size,  higher  on  the  Alps  than  any  other  tree, 
approaches  near  to  the  icy  regions  of  the  north, 
and  is  almost  the  only  tree  which  Greenland 
produces.  It  has  a  chalk- white  bark,  and  trian- 
gular, very  taper-pointed,  shining  leaves,  trem- 


ulous as  those  of  an  aspen.  It  serves  many  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy.  The  bark  is  em- 
ployed by  the  Greenlanders,  Laplanders,  and 
inhabitants  of  Kamtchatka  in  covering  their 


Trunk  of  White  Birch. 

huts  and  in  making  baskets  and  ropes.  An  in- 
fusion of  the  leaves  makes  a  yellow  dye,  and  is 
also  drunk  like  tea  by  the  Finns ;  and  the  Rus- 
sians and  Swedes  prepare  from  the  sap  of  the 
trunk  a  fermented  liquor  resembling  champagne. 
— The  most  graceful  tree  of  the  genus  is  the  B. 
pendwla,  growing  both  in  mountainous  situa- 
tions and  bogs,  from  Lapland  to  the  subalpine 
parts  of  Italy  and  Asia.  Its  popular  name  is 
the  weeping  birch,  and  it  is  distinguished  for  its 


Weeping  Birch. 

suppleness  and  the  graceful  bend  and  falling  in- 
clination of  its  long  boughs.  Its  picturesque 
appearance,  with  its  white  and  brilliant  bark 
and  gleaming,  odoriferous  leaves,  makes  it  a 


648 


BIRCH 


BIRD 


favorite  in  parks  and  gardens. — The  B.  lenta, 
cherry  or  black  birch,  called  also  the  mountain 
mahogany  from  the  hardness  of  its  wood,  has 
a  dark,  chestnut-brown  bark,  and  abounds  par- 
ticularly from  New  England  to  Ohio,  and  on 
the  summits  of  the  Allegheny  mountains.  Its 
leaves,  bark,  and  wood  are  aromatic ;  the  wood 
is  rose-colored,  fine-grained,  and  valuable  for 
cabinet  work. — The  B.  papyracea,  or  paper 
birch,  is  that  from  which  the  aborigines  of 
America  make  the  canoes  with  which  they 
navigate  lakes  and  rivers,  and  hence  it  is  also 
called  the  canoe  birch.  It  is  a  native  of 
Canada  and  the  northern  United  States,  and 
is  superior  to  all  other  species  for  its  tough 
bark,  in  paper-like  layers,  which  is  so  durable 
that  the  wood  of  the  fallen  tree  will  rot  en- 
tirely away  while  the  case  of  bark  remains 
sound  and  solid. — The  B.  niyra,  the  river  or 
red  birch,  is  an  alder-like  American  species, 
with  whitish  leaves  and  reddish-brown  bark, 
found  from  Massachusetts  to  the  southern 
states.  Barrel  hoops  are  made  from  its 
branches,  and  its  tough  twigs  are  the  best  ma- 
terials for  coarse  brooms.  The  negroes  also 
make  vessels  from  it  to  contain  their  food  and 
drink.— The  B.  nana,  dwarf  or  Alpine  birch,  is 
a  native  of  the  Alps  and  of  the  mountains  of 
Lapland.  The  Laplanders  burn  it  on  summer 
nights  to  drive  off  a  kind  of  mosquito,  and 
sleep  in  the  fragrant  smoke.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  and  appears  as  a  small 
shrub  on  the  summit  of  mountains  in  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  in  other  frigid  situa- 
tions northward. 

BIRCH,  Samuel,  an  English  Egyptologist,  born 
In  London,  Nov.  3,  1813.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
clergyman,  entered  the  office  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  public  records  in  1834,  and  in  1836 
became  connected  with  the  archaeological  de- 
partment of  the  British  museum,  where  from 
1861  to  1870  he  had  charge  of  the  oriental, 
mediaeval,  and  British  antiquities  and  ethnog- 
raphy, but  since  1870  only  of  the  Egyptian 
and  oriental  antiquities.  His  publications  in- 
clude descriptions  of  antiquities  of  the  British 
museum  ("Gallery  of  Antiquities,"  1842);  the 
text  for  Owen  Jones's  "  Views  on  the  Nile  " 
(1843);  "Catalogue  of  Greek  and  Etruscan 
Vases  in  the  British  Museum,"  in  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Newton  (1851);  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphs,"  contribut- 
ed to  Wilkinson's  "  Egyptians  in  the  Time  of 
the  Pharaohs"  (1857);  "History  of  Ancient 
Pottery  "  (2  vols.,  1858) ;  and  "  Description  of 
the  Papyrus  of  Nas-Khem,"  privately  printed 
in  1863  at  the  request  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
under  whose  direction  this  discovery  had  been 
made  at  Thebes.  He  also  prepared  brief  stories 
and  romances  from  the  Chinese,  including  in 
1863  "The  Elfin  Foxes."  At  the  request  of 
his  friend  Bunsen  he  edited  after  his  death  and 
wrote  the  greater  part  of  the  5th  and  last  vol- 
ume of  his  work  on  Egypt,  bringing  the  Egyp- 
tological discoveries  down  to  1867  in  this  as 
well  as  in  his  second  edition  of  the  first  volume. 


BIRCH,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  an  English  historical 
and  biographical  writer,  born  in  London,  Nov. 
23,  1705,  died  by  falling  from  his  horse,  Jan.  9, 
1766.  He  was  of  Quaker  parentage,  entered 
the  priesthood  of  the  church  of  England  with- 
out a  university  education,  and  became  secre- 
tary of  the  royal  society.  "Thurlow's  State 
Papers,"  "  Lives  of  Archbishop  Tillotson  and 
Hon.  Robert  Boyle,"  editions  of  Milton's  prose 
works  and  of  the  works  of  Raleigh,  "  A  Gen- 
eral Dictionary,  Historical  and  Critical,"  and 
"  A  Series  of  Biographical  Memoirs,"  are  among 
his  publications. 

l!l  Kt  II-  I'l  I  1 1  1 1  K.  Charlotte,  a  German  actress 
and  dramatist,  born  in  Stuttgart  in  1800,  died 
in  Berlin,  Aug.  25,  1868.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Pfeiffer,  and  she  married  in  1825  Dr. 
Birch  of  Copenhagen.  For  about  20  years  she 
performed  in  the  various  theatres  of  Germany, 
made  excursions  to  St.  Petersburg,  Pesth,  Am- 
sterdam, and  other  cities,  and  in  1837  under- 
took the  management  of  the  Zurich  theatre, 
which  she  retained  till  1843,  when  she  received 
an  appointment  at  the  royal  theatre  of  Berlin. 
She  wrote  several  novels  and  some  70  plays. 

BIRD,  Edward,  an  English  painter,  born  in 
Wolverhampton,  April  12,  1772,  died  in  Bris- 
tol, Nov.  2,  1819.  He  was  the  son  of  a  car- 
penter, and  after  serving  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  painter  and  japanner,  opened  a  drawing 
school  at  Bristol.  He  succeeded  best  with  do- 
mestic and  general  subjects. 

BIRD,  Golding,  an  English  physician  and 
author,  born  in  Norfolk  in  1815,  died  at  Tun- 
bridge  Wells  in  October,  1854.  He  early  re- 
ceived a  prize  from  the  apothecaries'  company 
for  his  proficiency  in  botany,  and  in  his  22d 
year  he  became  lecturer  on  natural  philosophy, 
and  subsequently  also  on  materia  medica,  at 
Guy's  hospital,  London.  He  had  besides  an  ex- 
tensive medical  practice.  His  "Elements  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  being  an  Experimental  In- 
troduction to  the  Physical  Sciences"  (in  con- 
cert with  C.  Worth,  London,  2d  ed.,  1844),  is  a 
standard  work  of  great  popularity  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States.  His  other  publica- 
tions are :  "  Lectures  on  Electricity  and  Gal- 
vanism in  their  Physiological  and  Therapeutical 
Relations  "  (revised  and  enlarged  ed.,  1847),  and 
"  Urinary  Deposits  "  (5th  ed.,  by  E.  L.  Birkett, 
1857).  See  "  Biographical  Sketches  of  the  late 
Dr.  Golding  Bird,"  by  John  Hutton  Balfour 
(London,  1855). 

BIRD,  Robert  Montgomery,  nn  American  physi- 
cian and  author,  born  at  Newcastle,  Del.,  in 
1803,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  22,  1854.  He 
was  educated  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  began 
the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  made  his  first 
literary  ventures  in  the  columns  of  the  "  Month- 
ly Magazine."  His  tragedy  of  "  The  Gladiator  " 
long  retained  its  popularity  upon  the  stage, 
chiefly  through  the  personation  of  Mr.  Edwin 
Forrest.  His  novels,  published  at  intervals  be- 
tween 1830  and  1840,  are  chiefly  historical  ro- 
mances. The  scene  of  "  Calavar  "  and  "The 
Infidel "  is  in  Mexico,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 


BIRDE 


BIRD  OF  PARADISE 


649 


conquest ;  that  of  "  Nick  of  the  Woods,  or  the 
Jibbenainosay,"  in  Kentucky,  at  the  close  of 
the  war  of  the  revolution ;  "  Peter  Pilgrim  " 
contains  a  minute  description  of  the  Mammoth 
cave  in  Kentucky ;  and  "  The  Adventures  of 
Robin  Day "  is  the  story  of  a  shipwrecked 
orphan.  Dr.  Bird  was  for  some  time  editor  of 
the  '•  North  American  Gazette." 

BIRDE,  or  Byrd,  William,  an  English  composer, 
born  about  1540,  died  July  21,  1623.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Tallis,  and  in  1563  was  chosen  or- 
ganist of  Lincoln  cathedral.  In  1569  he  was 
appointed  gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal,  and 
six  years  afterward  organist  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. The  number  of  his  vocal  compositions, 
chiefly  sacred,  was  enormous;  and  his  pieces 
for  the  organ  and  virginals  were  almost  as  nu- 
merous. Among  the  latter  is  a  collection  of 
nearly  70  MS.  compositions,  known  as  Queen 
Elizabeth's  virginal  book.  The  fine  canon,  Non 
nobis,  Domine,  frequently  sung  in  England,  is  a 
good  specimen  of  his  sacred  vocal  music. 

BIRD  ISLANDS,  a  cluster  of  the  Leeward 
islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  immediately  N. 
of  the  gulf  of  Triste,  Venezuela.  They  are  so 
named  from  the  immense  numbers  of  birds 
that  frequent  them.  They  belong  to  the  Dutch, 
and  are  inhabited  by  only  a  few  fishers. 

BIRD  LIME,  a  glutinous,  viscid  substance,  of 
greenish  color  and  bitterish  taste,  prepared  by 
boiling  the  middle  bark  of  the  European  holly 
(ilex  aquifolium),  or  the  young  shoots  of  elder 
and  other  plants,  as  the  mistletoe  and  other 
parasites,  separating  the  gummy  matter  from 
the  liquid,  and  leaving  it  for  a  fortnight  in  a 
moist  cool  place  to  become  viscid.  It  is  next 
pounded  into  a  tough  paste,  well  washed,  and  put 
aside  for  some  days  to  ferment.  Some  oil  or  thin 
grease  is  incorporated  with  it,  when  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Its  characteristic  properties  appear 
to  identify  it  with  the  principle  glu  of  the 
French  chemists,  which  exudes  spontaneously 
from  certain  plants.  It  differs  from  resins  in 
being  insoluble  in  the  fixed  oils.  Bird  lime  is 
so  tenacious  that  small  birds  alighting  upon 
sticks  daubed  over  with  it  are  unable  to  escape. 
It  is  used  for  this  purpose  and  also  for  destroy- 
ing insects.  Large  quantities  of  it  were  for- 
merly exported  from  Great  Britain  to  India,  but 
it  is  now  imported  into  England  from  Turkey. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE  (genus  paradisea,  Linn.), 
a  name  given  to  a  group  of  moderate-sized, 
cone-billed  birds  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
noted  for  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  plumage,  its  extreme  delicacy,  and  brilliant 
colors.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  a  long, 
strong  bill,  with  the  culmen  curved  to  the 
emarginated  tip,  and  the  sides  compressed ;  the 
nostrils  lateral  and  covered  by  short  feathers 
which  conceal  the  base  of  the  mandible ;  the 
wings  long  and  rounded,  with  the  4th  and  5th 
quills  equal  and  longest ;  the  tail  is  of  various 
lengths,  even  or  rounded ;  the  tarsi  as  long  as 
the  middle  toe,  robust  and  covered  by  a  single 
lengthened  scale ;  the  toes  very  long  and  strong, 
the  outer  larger  than  the  inner,  and  united  at 


the  base,  the  hind  toe  long  and  robust ;  the  claws 
long,  strong,  much  curved  and  acute ;  the  sides 
of  the  body,  neck,  breast,  tail,  and  sometimes 
the  head,  ornamented  with  prolonged  showy 
feathers.  These  birds  are  active  and  lively  in 
their  movements,  and  are  usually  seen  on  the 
tops  of  high  trees,  though  they  descend  in  the 
morning  and  evening  to  the  lower  branches  to 
search  for  food,  and  to  hide  in  the  thick  foliage 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  food  consists 
chiefly  of  the  seeds  of  the  teak  tree,  and  of  a 
species  of  fig ;  they  also  devour  grasshoppers 
and  other  insects,  stripping  off  the  wings  and 
legs  before  swallowing  them ;  in  confinement 
they  will  eat  boiled  rice,  plantains,  and  similar 
food.  Their  cry  is  loud  and  sonorous,  the  notes 
being  in  rapid  succession ;  the  first  four  notes 


Greater  Paradise  Bird  (Paradises  apoda). 

are  said  by  Mr.  Lay  to  be  clear,  exactly  in- 
tonated, and  very  sweet,  while  the  last  three 
are  repeated  in  a  kind  of  caw,  resembling 
those  of  a  crow  or  daw,  though  more  refined. — 
The  best  known  species  is  the  greater  paradise 


650 


BIED  OF  PARADISE 


bird  (P.  apoda,  Linn.),  whose  body  is  about  as 
large  as  a  thrush,  though  the  thick  plumage 
makes  it  appear  as  large  as  a  pigeon ;  it  is 
about  12  inches  long,  the  bill  being  1£  inch. 
The  head,  throat,  and  neck  are  covered  with 
very  short  dense  feathers,  of  a  pale  golden  color 
on  the  head  and  hind  part  of  the  neck,  the 
base  of  the  bill  being  surrounded  with  black 
velvety  ones,  with  a  greenish  gloss;  the  fore 
part  of  the  neck  is  green  gold,  with  the  hind 
part,  back,  wings,  and  tail  chestnut ;  the  breast 
chestnut,  inclining  to  purple.  Beneath  the 
wings  spring  a  large  number  of  feathers,  with 
very  loose  webs,  some  18  inches  long,  resem- 
bling the  downy  tufts  of  feather  grass ;  these 
are  of  different  colors,  some  chestnut  and  pur- 
plish, others  yellowish,  and  a  few  nearly  white. 
From  the  rump  spring  two  middle  tail  feath- 
ers, without  webs  except  for  the  first  few 
inches  and  at  the  tip,  and  nearly  three  feet 


Red  Bird  of  Par- 
adise (Paradi- 
sea  rubra). 


in  length;  the 
remaining  tail 
feathers  are 
about  6  inches 
long,  and  even 
at  the  end. 
call  this  bird 
manuk-dewata,  or  "bird 
of  the  gods,"  from  which 
perhaps  the  common  name 
is  derived.  The  Malay  tra- 
ders, who  first  brought  them 
from  Papua,  cut  off  the  legs 
of  these  birds,  and  pretend- 
ed that  they  lived  in  the 
air,  buoyed  up  by  their  light  plumage,  never 
descending  to  the  ground,  and  resting  at 
night  suspended  from  the  trees  by  the  long 
tail  feathers ;  hence  their  specific  name.  Other 
fables,  such  as  that  they  fed  on  the  morning 
dew,  hatched  their  eggs  out  between  the  shoul- 
ders, and  came  from  the  "terrestrial  paradise," 
were  added  in  order  to  increase  the  value  of 
these  beautiful  birds  in  the  Indian  markets. 
From  the  nature  of  their  plumage  they  cannot  fly 
except  against  the  wind;  when  the  feathers 
get  disordered  by  a  contrary  breeze  they  fall 


to  the  ground,  from  which  they  cannot  read- 
ily rise ;  in  this  way  many  are  caught ;  others 
are  taken  by  bird  lime,  or  shot  by  blunt  ar- 
rows, or  so  stupefied  by  cocculus  Indicus  as  to 
be  caught  by  the  hand.  When  at  rest  they 
seem  to  be  very  proud  of  their  beauty,  care- 
fully picking  from  their  feathers  every  particle 


King  Bird  of  Paradise  (Cicinnurus  regius). 

of  dust.  They  are  shy  and  difficult  of  approach. 
Batavia  and  Singapore  are  the  chief  ports 
whence  these  birds  are  exported  to  Europe; 
the  Bughis  of  Celebes  bring  great  numbers  of 
them  thither  in  their  boats  from  Papua  and  the 
Arroo  group.  The  whole  bird  is  a  highly  cov- 
eted ornament  for  the  heads  of  the  East  Indian 
grandees,  as  well  as  for  the  bonnets  of  the  civil- 
ized fair  sex. — The  P.  Papuana  (Bechst.)  is  a 
smaller  bird,  of  the  same  general  appearance, 
with  the  throat  and  neck  before  green ;  top  of 


Superb  Bird  of  Paradise  (Lophorina  atra). 

the  head,  nape,  and  neck  ferruginous  yellow ; 
back  yellow  with  a  grayish  tinge ;  breast,  belly, 
and  wings  chestnut.  This  and  the  preceding 
species  are  said  to  fly  in  flocks,  led  by  a  king 
who  flies  higher  than  the  rest. — The  P.  rubra 


BIRD  OF  PARADISE 


651 


(Vieill.)  is  about  9  inches  long,  and  principally 
characterized  by  the  fine  red  color  of  the  sub- 
axillary  feathers,  and  the  two  long,  slender,  rib- 


Gold-breasted  Bird  of  Paradise  (Parotia  scrpennis). 

bon-like  shafts. — Since  the  time  of  Linnaeus 
the  genus  paradisea  has  been  subdivided  into 
several  others.  To  the  genus  cicinnurus  be- 
longs the  king  paradise  bird  (0.  regius),  about 
7  inches  long ;  it  has  the  head,  neck,  back,  tail, 
and  wings  purplish  chestnut,  with  the  crown 
approaching  to  yellow  and  the  breast  to  blood- 
red,  all  with  a  satiny  gloss ;  on  the  breast  is  a 
broad  bar  of  brilliant  green,  below  which  the 
belly  is  white;  the  subaxillary  feathers  are 
grayish  white,  tipped  with  shining  green ;  the 
middle  tail  feathers  are  spirally  coiled,  with 
the  webs  of  a  glossy  green  color.  The  superb 
paradise  bird  (lophorina  atra,  Vieill.)  has  a 
black  crest,  with  the  head,  hind  neck,  and 
back  of  a  greenish  gold  color,  of  a  velvety 
appearance,  and  overlying  each  other  like  the 
scales  of  a  fish  ;  the  wings  a  dull  deep  black ; 
tail-black,  with  a  blue  gloss,  and  even  at  the 


Twelve-wired  Paradise  Bird  (Seleucides  alba). 

end ;  throat  changeable  violet ;  belly  bright 
golden  green ;  subaxillary  plumes  black  and 
velvety,  rising  upon  the  back  and  resembling  a 


second  pair  of  wings.  The  gold-breasted  para- 
dise bird  (Parotia  sexpennis,  Vieill.)  is  also 
crested;  the  top  of  the  head,  cheeks,  and 
throat  changeable  violet  black ;  fore  neck  and 
breast  brilliant  changeable  green ;  back  deep 
black,  with  a  violet  gloss ;  wings  and  tail  black ; 
the  subaxillary  feathers  are  long  and  black, 
with  loose  webs  like  those  of  an  ostrich;  on 
each  side  of  the  head  are  three  long  feathers, 
webless  except  at  the  end,  where  they  are 
spread  into  an  oval  form. — Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace, 
in  his  "Malay  Archipelago,"  describes  and 
figures  18  species  which  are  called  paradise 
birds.  Of  these  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  magnificent  bird  of  paradise  (diphyllodes 
speciosa),  the  generic  name  being  derived  from 
the  double  mantle  which  covers  the  back.  It 
is  of  a  general  rufous  color  above,  and  of  bril- 
liant green  below,  with  a  tuft  of  beautiful  yel- 
low feathers  on  the  hind  neck,  marked  at  the 
end  by  a  black  spot.  A  more  rare  and  beauti- 


i 


Long-tailed  Paradise  Bird  (Epima- 
cbus  magnus). 

ful  species  (D.  Wihonii)  has 
been  described  by  Mr.  Cassin 
from  the  Philadelphia  acad- 
emy museum.  The  standard- 
wing  (semioptera  Wallacei, 
Gray),  discovered  by  Mr.  Wal- 
lace, is  characterized  by  a  pair 
of  long  white  feathers,  arising 
from  the  short  ones  at  the 
bend  of  the  wings.  These 
feathers,  like  all  the  others  in 
this  remarkable  family,  are 
erectile.  —  The  long -billed 
birds  of  paradise,  more  near- 
ly allied  to  the  hoopoes,  con- 
stitute the  family  of  epima- 
chidce.  The  most  beautiful 
is  the  12-wired  paradise  bird 
(seleucides  alba,  Less.) ;  it  is 
a  native  of  Papua,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  splendid  green 
band  across  the  breast,  by  the 
silky  softness  of  the  white 
feathers,  and  by  12  wiry  ap- 
pendages prolonged  from  the 
plumes  on  the  sides.  The  long-tailed  paradise 
bird  (epimachui  magnus)  has  the  tail  more  than 
2  feet  long,  glossed  with  most  beautiful  colors, 


1 


652 


BIRDS 


and  broad  plumes  springing  from  the  sides  of 
the  hreast.  Several  other  birds,  of  exquisite 
plumage,  intermediate  between  the  above 
families,  are  described  by  Mr.  Wallace. — No 
description  can  give  any  idea  of  the  graceful 
forms  and  brilliant  hues  of  the  paradise  birds ; 
our  own  beautiful  humming  birds  come  nearest 
to  them  in  fairy-like  structure  of  their  plumage, 
and  in  the  gorgeous,  metallic,  and  ever-chang- 
ing lustre  of  their  colors. 

BIKDS  (aves),  a  class  of  vertebrate  biped 
animals,  exclusively  oviparous,  and  with  very 
few  exceptions  covered  with  a  feathered  coat, 
adapted  more  or  less  perfectly  for  flight.  They 
have  frames  penetrated  through  all  their  parts 
by  air  cells,  which  facilitate  motion  by  impart- 
ing lightness.  By  means  of  nests,  which  serve 
as  substitutes  for  internal  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion, they  develop  their  young  after  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  ova.  The  last  two  peculiarities 
distinguish  birds  from  all  other  animals.  The 
families  which  have  not  the  power  of  flight 
are  few  both  in  regard  to  the  number  and 
varieties  of  species,  and  to  the  individuals  com- 
posing them.  They  are  all  formed  either  for 
motion  on  the  land  or  in  the  water  exclusively. 
In  all  these  instances  the  feathery  coverings  are 
incompletely  developed,  possessing  a  proximate 
resemblance  to  the  hairy  covering  of  certain 
land  and  water  animals.  The  ostrich  and  the 
penguin  may  be  named  as  typical  of  these  two 
distinct  forms  of  exception,  both  in  regard  to 
their  inability  to  raise  themselves  into  the  air 
and  their  exceptional  hair-like  plumage. — In 
the  internal  organization  of  the  entire  class  of 
birds  there  are  other  and  more  noticeable  an- 
atomic peculiarities.  Their  skulls  are  without 
the  sutures  that  are  found  in  mammalia,  form- 
ing consolidated  bones.  These  are  joined  to 
the  neck  or  spinal  column  by  a  joint,  so  con- 
structed as  to  give  freedom  of  motion  in  hori- 
zontal and  lateral  directions,  without  danger 
of  dislocation  or  injury.  In  the  place  of  teeth 
they  have  upper  and  lower  jaws,  forming 
unitedly  the  bill,  and  composed  of  a  hard  horny 
substance.  In  several  families  of  birds,  as  the 
parrots,  the  upper  part  of  the  bill  is  articulated 
with  the  skull.  More  commonly  the  skull  and 
upper  jaw  are  united  by  means  of  an  elastic  bony 
plate,  by  the  interposition  of  which  the  brain 
is  protected  from  injuries  to  which  it  would 
otherwise  be  exposed.  The  upper  extremities 
of  birds,  homologous  with  the  arms  or  fore 
legs  of  other  animals,  differ  essentially  in  never 
being  used  as  prehensile  organs,  or  for  motion 
in  contact  with  the  earth,  as  in  walking  or 
running.  Their  use  is  almost  exclusively  for 
flight,  and  they  serve  as  the  basis  of  the 
wings.  The  cervical  vertebrae  of  birds  are 
more  numerous  than  those  of  mammals.  In 
the  latter  their  number  is  uniformly  Y,  while 
in  birds  there  are  never  fewer  than  10,  and 
in  some  instances  there  are  as  many  as  23. 
The  dorsal  vertebra  are  more  fixed  and  limited 
in  their  motion  than  the  cervical,  and  are  usu- 
ally 10  in  number,  rarely  11,  and  in  some  in- 


stances only  7  or  8.  The  pelvis  in  birds  is  a 
simple  elongated  plate,  open  below,  terminated 
by  the  rump,  which  supports  the  tail  feathers. 


PARTS   OF  A  BIRD. — 1.  Skeleton.    2.  Nictitating  Membrane. 
8.  Brain.     4.  Sternum  or  Breast  Bone. 

The  breast  bone  or  sternum  is  perhaps  the 
most  noticeable  feature  in  the  bony  skeleton 
of  birds.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  osseous  framework,  as  it  forms  the 
base  for  the  insertion  of  the  most  powerful  of 
the  muscles  of  flight.  Its  prolongation  or  crest 
determines  with  infallible  accuracy  the  degree 
of  power  of  flight  of  its  possessor,  and  is  en- 
tirely wanting  in  those  destitute  of  the  power 
of  raising  themselves  in  the  air.  The  merry- 
thought (fercula)  should  be  here  mentioned  as 
another  peculiarity  in  birds  of  flight,  and  want- 
ing only  in  those  not  possessed  of  that  power. 
The  bony  framework  of  the  lower  extremities 
comprises  a  thigh  bone,  two  leg  bones,  a  meta- 
tarsal  or  ankle  bone,  and  the  bones  of  the  toes. 
The  last  vary  in  number,  arid  terminate  in 
nails,  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  the  an- 
imal economy,  according  to  the  habits  of  the 
family  possessing  them.  The  variations  in  the 
mechanism  of  the  lower  extremities  are  often 
very  curious  and  striking.  The  birds  which 
roost,  and  more  especially  those  which  are  in 
the  habit  of  standing  long  at  a  time  upon  one 
leg,  are  enabled,  by  the  remarkable  arrange- 
ment of  the  bones  and  the  muscles  attached  to 
them,  to  do  either  with  very  little  effort  or  fa- 
tigue. As  might  be  expected,  in  birds  of  vig- 
orous flight  we  find  the  pectoral  muscles  pre- 
senting the  greatest  development.  These  often 
exceed  all  the  other  muscles  in  weight  and 
bulk.  The  great  pectoral  and  the  middle  pec- 
toral are  antagonistic  forces,  alternately  de- 
pressing and  elevating  the  wings,  while  the 
small  pectorals,  or  third  pair,  aid  in  varying  the 
manner  and  character  of  the  flight.  The  mus- 
cles of  the  lower  extremities  vary  greatly  with 
the  habits  of  the  bird,  and  especially  according 


BIRDS 


653 


as  they  are  climbers,  waders,  swimmers,  perch- 
ers,  &c.  Besides  their  muscular  integuments, 
all  birds  have  horny  beaks  and  nails,  a  fleshy 
cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  scaly  coverings 
to  the  lower  extremities,  wherever  they  are 
bare.  Their  peculiar  covering,  found  more  or 
less  perfectly  in  the  whole  class,  and  in  no  oth- 
er kind  of  animals,  is  their  plumage.  In  cer- 
tain families,  as  that  of  the  ostrich,  the  plu- 
mage makes  a  remarkably  close  approach  to  the 
hairy  coverings  of  land  mammals.  In  other 
families,  such  as  the  divers,  the  alcadee,  the 
guillemots,  &c.,  the  plumage  more  nearly  ap- 
proaches the  furry  coats  of  the  otter  and  the 
seal.  The  plumage  of  all  birds  of  this  order 
is  close,  oily,  and  often  glossy,  and  the  skin  is 
moreover  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  down. 
In  the  young  of  birds  the  proximate  resem- 
blance of  their  plumage  to  the  hairy  covering 
of  mammals  is  even  more  marked.  The  bills 
of  birds  enable  the  raptorial  families  to  tear 
their  prey  into  fragments ;  they  supply  to  the 


1.  Digestive  Apparatus:  c,  Crop;  g.  Gizzard,     t.  Trachea. 
6, 6.  Bronchial  Tubes.    /,  /.  Lungs.    2.  Bones  of  the  Wing. 

fly-catcher,  the  swallow,  and  the  whip-poor- 
will  exquisitely  contrived  insect  traps ;  they 
give  to  the  woodcock,  the  snipe,  and  other 
waders,  the  power  of  determining  what  is  suit- 
able for  food,  with  no  other  aid  than  the  most 
delicately  sensitive  nervous  membranes  of  their 
long  probe-like  jaws. — In  birds,  the  alimentary 
canal  comprises  an  oesophagus,  a  crop,  a  mem- 
branous stomach,  a  gizzard,  an  intestinal  canal, 
and  a  cloaca,  in  which  the  urinary  ducts  also 
terminate.  The  gizzard  is  a  powerful  organ 
in  promoting  digestion,  especially  with  galli- 
naceous and  other  graminivorous  birds. — That 
peculiarity  of  structure,  however,  which  most 
fully  distinguishes  this  from  every  other  class 
of  animals,  is  the  immediate  and  constant  con- 
nection of  the  lungs  with  numerous  air  cells 
<hat  permeate  the  entire  frame,  extending  even 
throughout  the  bony  portions.  These  mem- 
branous air  cells  occupy  a  very  considerable 


portion  both  of  the  chest  and  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  have  the  most  direct  and  uninter- 
rupted communication  with  the  lungs.  The 
long  cylindrical  bones  are  so  many  air  tubes. 
Even  the  flat  bones  are  occupied  by  a  cellular 
bony  network,  filled  witli  air.  The  large  bills 
in  certain  genera,  even  the  very  quill  feathers 
when  fully  developed,  receive  more  or  less  air 
from  the  lungs,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  birds. 
By  these  means  the  erectile  crests  of  a  number 
of  species  are  alternately  depressed  or  elevated. 
The  design  of  these  chains  of  air  cells,  pene- 
trating into  every  portion  of  the  structure  of 
birds,  is  obvious.  Lightness  of  the  body  for 
motion  in  the  air  or  water,  or  on  the  land,  is 
indispensable.  Hence  we  find  in  birds  of  the 
highest  and  most  rapid  flight  the  largest  supply 
of  air  cells.  This  pneumatic  apparatus  is  also 
supposed  to  assist  materially  in  the  oxidation 
of  the  venous  blood,  and  the  air  contained  in 
the  cells  is  presumed  to  operate  upon  the  blood 
vessels  and  lymphatics  in  contact  with  them. 
The  volume  of  air  which  birds  are  thus  enabled 
to  introduce  into  their  bodies,  and  the  ease  and 
power  with  which  they  can  at  will  expel  it, 
taken  in  connection  with  their  peculiar  organs 
of  voice,  explain  how  some  of  the  smallest 
members  of  the  class,  as  the  common  canary 
bird  or  the  black-poll  warbler  of  North  Ameri- 
ca, are  enabled  to  give  utterance  to  such  pow- 
erful notes,  and  to  continue  them  so  long  with- 
out any  apparent  effort.  The  construction  of 
the  larynx  in  this  class  is  very  peculiar,  bear- 
ing a  remarkable  resemblance  to  certain  wind 
instruments.  This  organ  is  made  up  of  two- 
parts,  the  true  rima  glottiilis,  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  windpipe,  and  the  bronchial  larynx, 
which  is  furnished  with  a  peculiarly  tense  mem- 
brane, performing  the  same  duty  as  the  reed 
in  the  clarinet.  The  song  of  birds  is  the  ex- 
pression of  amorous  desire.  It  is  confined  to 
the  males,  and  in  a  state  of  nature  is  heard 
only  during  the  breeding  season.  Many  birds 
have  no  power  of  song.  The  call  of  birds, 
however,  is  common  to  both  sexes  and  all 
species,  and  is  their  universal  language.  Many 
birds,  which  are  mute  in  the  countries  to 
which  they  migrate  in  the  winter  months,  and 
have  the  reputation  of  being  entirely  voice- 
less, are  clamorous  when  they  breed,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  European  woodcock  (scolopax 
rusticola),  and  the  jacksnipe,  or  judcock  (scolo- 
pax gallinula).  Some  birds  are  known  by 
their  clang  of  tongues  in  their  migrations, 
clamoring  in  order  to  regulate  their  squadrons, 
as  wild  geese,  cranes,  and  many  of  the  waders, 
which  rise  voiceless  when  they  are  alarmed  by 
the  sportsman,  and  feed  in  the  daytime  silent. 
Others  are,  so  far  as  we  know,  silent  at  all 
times,  except  when  they  spring  upon  the  wing, 
in  any  sudden  alarm.  Some  again,  as  the  pas- 
senger pigeons,  make  their  migrations  in  silence, 
take  wing  in  silence  when  alarmed,  yet  when 
alone  in  the  woods  make  the  solitudes  sono- 
rous; others,  like  rooks,  are  habitually  noisy, 
especially  in  the  breeding  season,  yet  rise  in 


654 


BIRDS 


flocks  without  sound  or  signal.     In  some  spe- 
cies which  do  not  sing,  there  is  an  amatory  call 
which  answers  the  purpose  of  song,  peculiar  to 
the  male  bird  during  the  season  of  the  female's 
incubation,  as  the  clear  double  whistle  of  the 
American   quail,  the   cry  of  the  cuckoo,  the 
cooing  of  the  dove,  the  harsh  craik  of  the  land- 
rail, and  the  kek-kek-kek  of  the  male  of  the 
English  snipe,  as  it  is  falsely  called  in  the  United 
States  (scolopax  Wilsonii),  which  is  either  dis- 
continued, or  changed  into  something  different, 
when  the  season  and  the  desire  for  reproducing 
their  species  have  passed  away.     As  a  general 
rule,  aquatic  fowl  are  more  noisy  than  land 
birds,  sea  fowl  than  fresh-water  birds,  noctur- 
nal than  diurnal  birds,  domesticated  fowls  than 
those  in  a  state  of  nature,  birds  which  congre- 
gate than  those  of  solitary  habits,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  common  poultry,  migratory 
birds,  which  pass  much  of  their  time  on  the 
wing,  than  those  which  dwell  on  the  ground. 
Nevertheless,  while  some  sea  birds  which  con- 
gregate are  deafening  in  their  clangor,  they  fly 
totally  independent  one  of  the  other,  not  regu- 
lating their  movements  by  signals  of  any  kind ; 
others,  as  many  varieties  of  the  tringa,  scolo- 
pacidce,  and  charadriada,  while  they  utter  no 
sounds,  yet  wheel  as  regularly  and  orderly,  in 
obedience  to  some  concerted  signal,  as  a  well 
disciplined    regiment  of  horse.      And   again, 
while  some  migratory  birds  are  vociferous  in 
the  extreme,  others  are  totally  silent,  and  some 
non-migratory  species,  such  as  jackdaws  and 
rooks,  exceed  all  others  in  fondness  for  their 
own  voices. — The  large  proportionate  develop- 
ment of  the  brain  and  of  the  nervous  system  of 
birds  is  another  distinguishing  feature  of  their 
organization.     In  many  cases  they  exhibit  an 
apparent  superiority  to  the  corresponding  or- 
gans in  mammalia  of  the  same  relative  size  and 
weight.     Thus,  for  instance,  while  in  man  the 
size  of  the  brain  in  proportion  to  that  of  the 
whole  body  varies  from  J^  to  fa  part,  that  of 
the  common   canary   bird  is  -fa.     There  are, 
however,  great  variations  in  this  respect  in 
different  families  and  even  in  different  genera 
of  the  same  families.     Thus,  while  the  brain 
of  the  goose  is  3-^  of  the  entire  body,  that  of 
the  eagle  is  j^-j,  and  that  of  the  common  Euro- 
pean sparrow  is  -fa.     It  differs  chiefly  from  the 
same  organ  in  mammalia  in  the  presence  of 
certain  tubercles  corresponding  to  the  corpora 
striata  of  other  animals,  and  the  absence  of 
several  parts  found  in  the  brains  of  the  latter. 
— The  senses  of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing  are 
supposed  to  be  most  acute  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  families  of  the  class,  much  more  so 
than  that  of  taste,  which  is  found  well  de- 
veloped in  only  a  few  families,  and  still  more 
than  that  of  touch,  which  is  presumed  to  be 
totally  wanting.     The  organs  of  sight  are  of 
great  proportionate  magnitude,  and  occupy  a 
large  proportion  of  the  cerebral  developments. 
They  are  constructed  with  a  wonderful  con- 
trivance not  inaptly  compared  with  so  many 
peculiar  kinds  of  "self-adjusting  telescopes." 


They  are  also  all  provided  with  a  very  curious 
apparatus  called    the    nictitating    membrane. 
This  is  a  fold  of  the  tunica  conjunctiva,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  capable  of  being  drawn  out  to 
cover  the  eye  like  a  curtain,  and  to  be  with- 
drawn at  will,  enabling  the  possessor  to  meet 
the  brightest  rays  of  the  sun  undazzled  by  its 
brilliance,  and  protecting  the  organ  from  in- 
juries.     With   only   a  few   exceptions,   birds 
have  no  external  organs  of  hearing  correspond- 
ing to  an  ear.     We  find  instead  the  aperture 
called  meatus  auditorius.     The  internal  mem- 
branes of  this  organ  are  connected  with  each 
other  by  means  of  the  air  cells  of  the  skull,  and 
have  but  a  single  auditory  bone.     Among  dif- 
ferent authors  there  is  much  diversity  of  opin- 
ion in  regard  to  the  development  of  the  sense 
of  smell  in  birds.     The  experiments  of  Audu- 
bon  and  Bachman  would  seem  to  prove  that, 
even  in  those  families  in  which  this  sense  is 
presumed  to  reach  its  highest  point  of  perfec- 
tion, the  members  are  directed  by  sight  rather 
than  by  smell  to  their  prey.     Still  it  is  quite 
certain  that  they  possess  certain  nervous  de- 
velopments corresponding  to  olfactory  organs, 
which,  if  not  designed  for  smell,  possess  no 
very  apparent  purpose.     The  sense  of  taste  has 
a  limited  degree  of  development  in  a  few  fami- 
lies, such,  for  instance,  as  the  divers,  the  wa- 
ders in  part,  and  the  several  families  of  hum- 
ming birds,  honey-suckers,  and  a  few  others. 
As  a  general  rule  it  is  very  imperfect,  or  even 
wholly  wanting.     (For  the  character  of  the 
earliest  birds,  see  AKCH^OPTERYX,  and  FOSSIL 
FOOTPRINTS.) — The  various  contrivances   and 
instinctive  expedients,  by  means  of  which  the 
entire  class  of  aves  develop  the  germs  of  their 
mature  or  perfect  ova,  are  remarkable  as  well 
as  distinguishing  features  in  the  economy  of 
their  propagation.     They  are  peculiar  to  the 
class,  and  are  without  any  known  exceptions. 
They  are  shared  with  them  by  no  other  class 
of  animals,  with  only  occasional  but  remote 
approximations,    apparent    exceptions    rather 
than  real.     Every  individual  of  the  entire  class 
deposits  the  matured   egg   without  any   dis- 
tinguishable development  of  the  young  bird. 
Lightness  and  buoyancy  of  body,  whether  for 
flight  in  the  air  or  for  freedom  of  motion  on 
land  or  in  water,  are  essential  prerequisites  in 
the  animal  economy  of  all  the  various  families 
of  the  class.     So,  to  nearly  the  same  extent, 
is  also  their  abundant  reproduction.     The  vast 
numbers  of  their  enemies,  and  the  many  cas- 
ualties to  which  they  are  exposed,  render  a 
large  and  constant  propagation  necessary  for 
their  preservation.     It  is   quite   evident  that 
any  habit  at  all  corresponding  with  the  gesta- 
tion of  viviparous  animals  would  be  inconsis- 
tent with   both   of  these    requirements.      It 
would  destroy  lightness  of  body,  prevent  free- 
dom of  motion,  expose  to  innumerable  dangers 
from  enemies,  hinder  from  procuring  food,  and 
make  fecundity   an   impossibility.     Thus  the 
common  quail  or  partridge  (ortyx  Virginiana) 
of  the  Atlantic  states  has  been  known  to  have 


BIEDS 


655 


36  eggs  in  a  single  nest.  Before  maturity  the 
product  of  this  nest  exceeds  in  weight  their 
parent  at  least  20  fold.  To  provide  for  these, 
or  but  one  of  them,  by  internal  organs  of  de- 
velopment, would  be  impossible.  The  nests 
correspond  in  their  uses  to  the  uterine  organs 
of  reproduction  of  mammalia,  and  yet  more  to 
the  marsupial  pouches  of  certain  Australian 
quadrupeds.  They  serve  as  external  organs 
indispensable  to  the  development  of  the  im- 
mature young,  from  the  first  appearance  of 
the  germ  in  the  egg  to  a  maturity  more  or 
less  advanced,  and  varying  greatly  with  the 
family ;  from  the  ostrich  that  comes  into 
the  world  able  to  shift  for  itself  from  the 
very  shell,  to  the  blind  and  naked  offspring  of 
other  families  that  are  utterly  helpless  when 
first  hatched.  For  this  development  of  the 
young  birds  there  are  two  essentials — the 
external  receptacle  which,  though  not  always 
with  exactness,  we  call  nests,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  a  certain  nearly  fixed  or  uniform  amount 
of  caloric.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  latter  is  gen- 
erated by  contact  with  the  bodies  of  the  parent 
birds.  In  some  it  is  aided  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  In  a  few  instances  it  is  effected  by  heat 
derived  from  vegetable  decomposition,  or  from 
the  sun's  rays,  without  any  parental  interven- 
tion after  the  deposition  of  the  egg. — Attempts 
have  been  made,  with  partial  success,  to  clas- 
sify the  various  architectural  contrivances,  or 
their  substitutes,  to  be  found  connected  with 
the  nesting  and  incubation  of  birds.  According 
to  the  system  of  Prof.  James  Ronnie  of  King's 
college,  London,  the  entire  class  are  ranged  in 
12  groups:  miners,  ground  builders,  masons, 
carpenters,  platform  builders,  basket  makers, 
weavers,  tailors,  felt  makers,  cementers,  dome 
builders,  and  parasites.  The  objections  to  this 
arrangement  are,  that  it  is  imperfect  in  itself, 
and  that  it  corresponds  to  none  of  the  usual 
systems  of  ornithological  classification.  The 
large  number  of  species  which,  without  being 
miners  or  carpenters,  invariably  occupy  for 
their  nests  corresponding  sites,  namely,  holes 
in  the  earth  or  hollow  trees,  have  no  appro- 
priate place.  Some  of  these  have  been  improp- 
erly classed  as  parasites.  Nor  is  there  a  well 
denned  place  for  the  large  variety  of  species 
belonging  to  every  order  which  resort  to  the 
bare  ground,  making  no  perceptible  nest,  or 
for  that  remarkable  family  of  Australian  birds, 
the  mound  builders,  which  combine  something 
both  of  the  miner  and  the  ground  builder.  It 
seldom  if  ever  conforms,  in  a  single  family 
even,  with  any  known  classification.  Thus,  the 
hawks  are  platform  builders,  ground  builders, 
occupants  of  hollow  trees,  &c. ;  the  swallows 
are  miners,  cementers,  dome  builders,  masons, 
&c. — The  mining  birds  compose  a  very  large 
group,  belonging  to  nearly  every  order,  and 
having  no  other  common  peculiarity.  They 
may  be  divided  into  two  well  marked  subdi- 
visions :  the  true  miners,  which  excavate  holes 
for  themselves,  in  which  they  construct  their 
nests ;  and  those  which,  without  mining,  occupy 
94  VOL.  ii. — 42 


sites  precisely  similar.  Of  these  a  portion  are 
supposed  to  be  parasitic,  availing  themselves  of 
the  labors  of  others.  Among  the  true  miners 
may  be  named  the  common  bank  swallow, 
found  nearly  throughout  the  habitable  globe, 
the  bee-eaters  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the 
whole  genus  known  as  storm  petrels  or  mother 
Carey's  chickens ;  as  also  the  several  genera 
of  puffins,  kingfishers,  penguins,  &c.  Among 
miners  only  by  occupancy  may  be  named  the 
wood  wren  and  the  winter  wren  of  North 
America,  the  black  guillemot,  and  the  burrow- 
ing owls  of  North  and  South  America.  The  last 
are  parasitic  miners,  occupying  invariably  holes 
dug  by  other  annuals. — The  ground  builders 
include  by  far  the  largest  group  of  birds  of 
every  order,  and  nearly  of  every  family,  and 
cannot  be  defined  with  exactness.  In  it  must 
be  classed  many  which  build  no  nest;  others 
that  do  or  do  not  construct  nests,  according  to 
circumstances ;  those  which  build  on  the  ground 
usually,  but  frequently  elsewhere ;  some  that 
are  usually  ground  builders,  but  at  times  true 
miners,  like  the  skylark  of  Europe,  &c.  The 
nighthawks  and  whip-poor-wills  of  America 
make  no  nest,  the  former  depositing  their  eggs 
upon  the  bare  earth,  always  selecting  a  site 
corresponding  in  color  to  their  eggs,  the  latter 
selecting  dried  leaves  as  better  suited  to  the 
same  purpose  of  concealment.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  the  shore  birds,  waders,  gulls,  &c., 
make  use  of  the  bare  sand,  with  only  a  slight 
excavation  for  a  nest.  Others  of  the  same 
species  are  more  painstaking,  and  construct 
well  formed  nests.  The  herring  gulls  usually 
build  a  slight  nest  on  the  ground,  but,  after 
having  been  repeatedly  robbed  by  eggers,  the 
same  birds  are  known  to  construct  large  arid 
elaborate  nests  in  trees  or  on  precipitous 
cliffs.  The  mound  builders  of  Australia  (see 
BRUSH  TCEKEY)  combine  in  part  the  habits  of 
the  miners  with  those  of  the  ground  builders, 
in  a  manner  peculiar  to  that  remarkable  family. 
Among  the  true  ground  builders  may  be  cited 
nearly  all  the  vultures,  the  entire  sub-family 
of  circida  or  hen-harriers,  the  zonotrichice  or 
song  sparrows  of  America,  nearly  all  the 
waders,  ducks,  geese,  swans,  gulls,  terns,  &c., 
with  more  or  fewer  representatives  in  every 
order. — The  birds  classed  as  masons  are  com- 
paratively few  in  number  of  species.  They  are 
so  called  because  they  construct  their  nests,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  with  walls,  coverings,  barri- 
cades, &c.,  of  mud  or  clay.  Of  this  class  the 
cliff  swallow  of  North  America  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  examples.  The  house  swal- 
lows both  of  Europe  and  America,  the  thrush 
and  blackbird  of  Europe,  the  robin  and  the 
pewit  flycatcher  of  North  America,  are  among 
the  most  familiar  examples.  The  baker  bird 
of  South  America,  the  most  skilful  and  remark- 
able  of  this  class,  constructs  a  nest  in  the  most 
exposed  situations,  but  at  a  considerable  height, 
hemispherical,  or  in  the  form  of  a  baker's  oven. 
The  opening  of  this  nest  is  lateral,  and  is  twice 
as  high  as  it  is  wide,  and  the  interior  is  divided 


656 


BIRDS 


into  two  chambers  by  a  partition  beginning  at 
the  entrance. — The  true  carpenters  are  also  a 
comparatively  small  group,  consisting  of  those 
which  excavate  by  their  own  labor  holes  for 
their  nests  in  trees.  The  large  and  widely  dis- 
tributed family  of  woodpeckers  are  the  most 
familiar  examples  of  the  carpenter  bird.  With 
them  are  also  classed  the  toucans  of  South  Ame- 
rica, the  tomtits,  the  wrynecks,  and  the  nut- 
hatches. Among  the  more  common  examples 
of  the  birds  which,  without  being  true  carpen- 
ters, resort  to  similar  places  for  their  nests, 
may  be  mentioned  the  sparrowhawk,  the  blue- 
bird, the  purple  martin,  the  white-bellied 
swallow,  and  the  house  wren  of  North  Amer- 
ica, several  species  of  owls,  and  many  other. 
— The  platform  builders  are  a  small  but  distinct 
class,  embracing  most  of  the  hawk  tribe,  the 
wood  pigeons,  the  cuckoos  of  America,  &c. 
All  the  eagles  are  true  platform  builders,  and 
many  of  them  construct  elaborate  and  remark- 
able nests.  The  nest  of  the  white-headed  eagle 
is  a  massive  structure,  sometimes  forming  an 
exact  cube  five  feet  square.  The  martial  eagle 
of  southern  Africa  also  constructs  a  large  plat- 
form, said  to  be  able  to  support  the  largest 
man.  These  nests  are  perfectly  flat,  with  no 
other  security  against  the  eggs  (always  few  in 
number)  rolling  off  than  the  constant  presence 
of  one  of  the  parents.  The  common  passenger 
pigeon,  the  turtle  dove,  and  the  yellow-billed 
cuckoo  of  North  America  are  the  most  famil- 
iar examples  of  this  class;  as  also  in  Europe 
are  the  wood  pigeons,  the  ringdoves,  the  her- 
ons, and  the  storks. — Another  larger  class, 
whose  architectural  accomplishments  are  even 
more  remarkable,  are  the  basket-makers.  Many 
of  these  exhibit  an  elaboration  and  an  ingenuity 
beyond  the  power  of  human  skill  to  imitate.  The 
vireos  of  North  America  weave  a  cup-shaped 
basket  nest,  pendent  from  some  convenient  twig, 
the  leaves  of  which  conceal  them  from  enemies. 
The  European  bullfinch,  the  American  mock- 
ing bird,  the  red-winged  blackbird,  the  yellow- 
headed  troopials  of  North  America,  the  ravens, 
crows,  and  magpies,  and  the  cyanotis  omnicolor 
of  Chili,  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  more 
familiar  or  remarkable  of  this  interesting  group. 
The  last-named  bird  attaches  a  nest  of  singular 
beauty  and  elaborateness  to  the  stems  of  the 
large  reeds  of  that  country,  constructed  to  re- 
semble so  closely  the  ripened  seed  vessels  of 
the  plant  as  to  deceive  even  the  most  wary. 
The  locust-eating  thrush  of  southern  Africa 
builds  a  large  basket  fabric,  containing  many 
cells  or  separate  nests,  from  6  to  20  in  number, 
the  joint  products  of  and  occupied  by  as  many 
pairs.  The  pensile  grossbeak  swings  its  basket 
nest  from  a  pendent  twig  over  a  running 
stream,  and  makes  its  entrance  from  the  bot- 
tom. The  sociable  grossbeaks  unite  in  the 
construction  of  a  large,  basket-like  cluster  of 
nests,  sometimes  containing  200  or  300  in  a 
single  structure.  The  weavers  are  closely  al- 
lied to  the  preceding  class,  differing  chiefly  in 
their  more  pensile  nests,  and  in  the  superior 


nicety  of  their  structure.  The  weaver  oriole 
of  Senegal  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
this  class.  The  Baltimore  oriole  of  America, 
the  Indian  sparrow  of  southern  Asia,  the 
crested  fly-catcher  of  southern  Africa,  and  the 
yellowhammer  of  Europe,  are  among  the  more 
familiar  and  distinguishing  instances  of  the 
weavers.  Hardly  distinguishable  from  the  two 
preceding  groups  are  the  few  species  classed 
as  tailors.  The  orchard  oriole  of  America  is 
hardly  entitled  to  be  so  classed,  though  usually 
quoted  as  a  true  tailor.  The  best  known  in- 
stance is  that  of  the  syhia  sutoria  of  the  east- 
ern continent,  which  sews  a  dead  leaf  to  a 
living  one,  and  between  them  constructs  its 
tiny  nest.  The  blue  yellow-back  warbler  of 
America  is  another  remarkable  tailor,  though 
its  wonderful  skill  is  as  yet  little  known  or  ap- 
preciated.— The  felt  makers  form  quite  a  large 
and  well  marked  group  of  artificers  among 
birds.  These  arrange  the  materials  of  their 
nests,  though  more  loosely,  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  in  which  are  put  together  the  fibres  of 
felt.  These  materials  are,  to  all  appearances, 
corded  together.  How  this  is  done  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  explained.  The  chaffinch  of  Eu- 
rope, the  goldfinch  of  America,  the  canary 
bird,  and  the  whole  family  of  humming  birds, 
may  be  given  as  exemplifications  of  this  pecu- 
liar and  interesting  group. — The  cementers 
compose  a  very  small  but  well  distinguished 
class,  all  the  members  of  which,  so  far  as  is  at 
present  known,  belong  to  the  family  of  swal- 
lows. These  birds  secrete,  from  glands  on 
each  side  of  the  head,  a  strongly  adhesive 
glue,  which  is  dissolved  in  their  saliva,  and 
with  this  unite  the  materials  of  their  nests,  and 
fasten  them  to  their  proposed  sites.  The  chim- 
ney swallow  of  North  America  is  the  most 
familiar  example  of  this  group,  while  the  escu- 
lent swallow  of  the  East  is  the  most  remark- 
able.— The  dome  builders  might  without  in- 
convenience be  merged  in  the  several  groups 
of  weavers  and  basket-makers.  They  consist 
of  a  large  number  of  species  belonging  to  a 
great  variety  of  families,  which  construct  cov- 
ered nests,  entered  by  holes  in  the  side.  These 
nests  are  more  common  in  tropical  than  in 
cold  countries.  The  marsh  wrens,  several  of 
the  sylticolas  (as  the  Maryland  yellow-throat), 
the  golden-crowned  thrush  or  oven  bird,  the 
meadow  lark,  and  the  quail,  of  North  America, 
are  among  the  most  familiar  representatives 
of  this  group  on  this  continent.  In  Europe  it 
embraces  the  common  wren,  the  chifl'-chaff, 
the  hay-bird,  the  wood  wren,  the  sparrow,  the 
magpie,  and  the  bottle-tit,  among  its  best 
known  members. — The  last  group  is  one  which 
it  is  not  easy  to  classify.  The  true  parasites, 
those  which,  like  the  cuckoo  of  Europe,  the' 
cow  blackbirds  of  North  America,  and  its  con- 
gener of  South  America,  never  rear  their  own 
young,  but  intrude  their  offspring  upon  stran- 
gers, always  laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of 
other  species,  are  a  small  but  well  marked 
class.  The  larger  number  which  resort  to  the 


BIRD'S   NEST 


BIRKENIIEAD 


657 


chosen  sites  of  other  birds,  but  build  their  own 
nests  and  rear  their  own  young,  are  less  clearly 
defined,  because  they  are  not  uniformly  para- 
sitic in  their  habits.  Of  this  latter  class,  the 
house  sparrow  of  Europe  as  often  makes  its 
own  nest  as  it  seizes  upon  that  of  another 
species.  Nearly  or  quite  all  of  this  class, 
usually  marked  as  parasites,  are  so  only  occa- 
sionally, and  by  force  of  circumstances.  The 
true  members  of  the  group  are  not  many,  and, 
so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  are  confined  to 
the  two  genera  cuculus,  or  true  cuckoos,  and 
molothrus,  or  cow  birds. — According  to  Mr.  A. 
R.  Wallace,  birds'  nests  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes:  those  which  are  exposed  or  im- 
perfectly concealed,  and  those  which  are  cov- 
ered, or  so  placed  that  the  sitting  bird  is  ef- 
fectually hidden.  Birds  may  also  be  divided 
into  two  groups,  according  to  the  difference  of 
coloration  in  the  sexes :  in  some  species  varied 
and  brilliant  colors  occur  in  both  sexes;  in 
others,  a  more  numerous  class,  the  male  is 
brighter  than  the  female.  With  but  few  ex- 
ceptions, Mr.  Wallace  finds  that  birds  of  con- 
spicuous color  build  concealed  nests,  while  in 
species  where  the  female  is  dull  the  nest  is 
fully  exposed.  Among  American  birds  in 
which  the  females  are  bright  and  conspicuous, 
and  which  accordingly  conceal  their  nests,  or 
make  them  of  a  color  to  deceive,  or  of  a  form 
or  depth  to  hide  the  sitting  bird,  are:  the 
kingfisher,  woodpecker,  Carolina  parrot,  Bal- 
timore oriole,  humming  birds,  magpie,  many 
bright  warblers,  sparrows,  and  finches,  meadow 
lark,  Zenaida  dove,  wild  turkey,  quail,  Canada, 
pennated,  and  willow  grouse,  and  summer 
duck.  Among  our  birds  in  which  both  sexes 
are  dull,  and  a  concealed  nest  unnecessary,  are 
the  thrushes  and  orioles,  and  the  passenger 
pigeon.  Among  those  in  which  the  male  is 
bright  and  the  female  dull  are  the  yellow- 
breasted  warbler,  goldfinch,  grossbeaks,  scarlet 
tanager,  redstart,  bobolink,  red-winged  black- 
bird, kingbird,  many  flycatchers,  and  the  ruffed 
grouse.  Another  interesting  coincidence  is 
that  in  the  concealed  or  concealing  nests,  the 
eggs,  as  a  general  rule,  are  white,  as  with  the 
owls,  swallows,  kingfishers,  woodpeckers,  hum- 
ming birds,  quails,  and  doves.— See  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,"  for  1867,  and  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory," vol.  xi.,  pp.  319-321,  1867.  (For  the 
systematic  classification  of  birds,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  science,  see  ORNITHOLOGY.) 

BIRD'S  NEST,  Edible,  the  nest  of  the  sea  swal- 
low of  the  Malay  archipelago,  called  lawit  in 
Java  and  salanyane  in  the  Philippines  (hirundo 
esculenta).  The  bird  is  uniformly  dark-colored, 
inclining  to  green  on  the  back  and  blue  on  the 
breast,  has  a  short,  strong  bill,  broad  at  the 
base,  and  is  a  little  smaller  than  our  swallow  • 
martin.  It  gathers  from  the  coral  rocks  of  the 
sea  a  glutinous  weed  or  marine  fucus,  which  it 
swallows  and  afterward  disgorges,  and  then 
applies  this  vomit  with  its  plastic  bill  to  the 


sides  of  deep  caverns,  both  inland  and  on  the 
seacoast,  to  form  its  nest.  When  complete  the 
nest  is  a  hollow  hemisphere,  of  the  dimensions 
of  an  ordinary  coffee  cup.  When  fresh  made 
it  is  of  waxy  whiteness,  and  is  then  esteemed 
most  valuable ;  of  second  quality,  when  the 
bird  has  laid  her  eggs ;  and  of  third,  when  the 
young  are  fledged  and  flown.  The  lavvit  fre- 
quents mostly  the  deep,  surf-beaten  caves  of 
thelB.  coast  of  Java,  principally  those  of  Karang 
Bollong  (hollow  reefs),  in  the  province  of  Bag- 
len.  These  caves  open  at  the  base  of  a  per- 
pendicular face  of  rock,  nearly  500  ft.  high, 
the  mouths  being  from  18  to  25  ft.  in  breadth 
and  30  ft.  in  height ;  within  they  continue  to 
expand,  until  they  attain  the  dimensions  of 
from  100  to  120  ft.  in  width  and  450  ft.  in 
height,  and  for  many  hundred  feet  within  the 
waves  break  with  terrific  fury.  The  collectors 
of  the  nests  are  lowered  over  fearful  chasms, 
and  move  along  a  slippery  foothold,  at  the  risk 
of  instant  destruction.  The  collections  take 
place  in  April,  August,  and  December.  These 
nests  are  also  obtained  in  other  parts  of  Java, 
and  the  islands  eastward,  on  the  coasts  of 
Borneo,  and  in  the  limestone  caves  of  the 
Philippines.  The  whole  product  of  Java  and 
Netherlands  India,  which  is  a  government  mo- 
nopoly, is  40,000  or  50,000  pounds  annually, 
worth  from  $5  to  $35  a  pound ;  some  of  the 
finer  sorts  sell  in  Chinese  markets  for  twice 
their  weight  in  silver.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  edible  nest  is  a  whimsical  culinary  fancy 
of  the  Chinese  alone ;  they  use  it  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  their  most  refined  soups.  Alone  it 
has  an  insipid  glutinous  taste.  The  Chinese 
attribute  to  it  peculiar  strengthening  qualities; 
but  this  sensual  people  chiefly  prize  it  for  its 
alleged  properties  as  an  aphrodisiac. 

BIRK.ENFELD,  an  outlying  principality  be- 
longing to  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  Ger- 
many, surrounded  by  the  Rhenish  Prussian 
districts  of  Treves  and  Coblentz;  area,  194  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  in  1871,  36,128,  of  whom  7,300  were 
Roman  Catholics.  The  soil  is  poor,  though 
well  cultivated  wherever  practicable.  The  sur- 
face is  covered  with  forests  and  mountains. 
The  principality  possesses  iron  mines,  and 
produces  agates,  chalcedony,  &c.,  which  are 
wrought  for  exportation.  It  has  a  market  town 
of  the  same  name,  23  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Treves ;  pop. 
2,249.  The  principality  was  from  early  times 
a  separate  state  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
palatines  of  Deux-Ponts.  In  1802  it  came  into 
possession  of  France,  and  in  1815  of  Prussia, 
which  in  1817  ceded  it  to  Oldenburg. 

BIRKENHEAD,  a  market  town  and  port  of 
Cheshire,  England,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Mer- 
sey, opposite  Liverpool,  with  which  it  has  con- 
stant communication  by  several  steam  ferries ; 
pop.  in  1871,  65,980.  A  railway  16  m.  long 
connects  it  with  Chester,  whence  other  roads 
diverge  to  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Al- 
though a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  hav- 
ing been  founded  at  least  as  early  as  the  12th 
century,  it  dates  its  present  prosperity  from  a 


658 


BIRKENIIEAD 


BIRMINGHAM 


very  recent  period.  Originally  a  poor  fishing 
village,  numbering  in  1818  scarcely  60  inhabi- 
tants, it  grew  with  a  rapidity  seldom  witnessed 
in  the  old  world,  and  its  population  has  nearly 
trebled  since  1851.  This  increase  is  mainly 
owing  to  its  docks.  In  1824  largo  ship-build- 
ing docks  were  erected  on  Wallasey  pool,  on 
the  N.  W.  side  of  the  town,  and  in  1844  a 
series  of  splendid  works,  embracing  a  sea  wall 
from  Woodsjde  to  Seacomb,  docks  at  Bridge- 
end,  a  tidal  basin,  and  a  great  float  with  a 
minimum  depth  of  22  ft.,  were  commenced. 
The  first  dock  was  opened  in  1847.  The  prin- 
cipal works  now  include  two  gigantic  wet 
docks  or  floats  on  Wallasey  pool,  embracing 
with  subsidiary  basins  a  water  area  of  165  acres, 
with  10  or  11  m.  of  quays,  and  three  graving 
docks  with  a  length  of  1,928  ft.  Other  im- 
mense works  have  been  planned ;  but  the 
original  undertakers  of  the  Birkenhead  docks 
were  heavy  losers  by  the  speculation,  and  the 
unfinished  structures  were  bought  and  con- 
tinued by  the  corporation  of  Liverpool.  Ware- 
houses on  a  large  scale  have  been  erected  in 
connection  with  the  docks.  The  town  is  well 
laid  out,  well  lighted,  paved,  and  drained,  and 
well  supplied  with  water.  The  streets  are 
wide  and  regular,  the  main  thoroughfares,  five 
in  number,  running  nearly  east  and  west,  and 
the  shorter  streets  crossing  them  at  right 
angles.  On  Conway  street,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal avenues,  is  a  public  park,  with  an  area  of 
180  acres.  A  market  430  ft.  long  by  131  ft. 
wide,  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  town.  There 
are  numerous  churches  and  chapels,  a  the- 
ological college  (St.  Aidan's,  established  in 
1846),  a  court  house,  gas  and  water  works, 
an  infirmary,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and  many 
free  schools  in  connection  with  the  different 
churches  and  chapels.  There  is  no  custom 
house,  the  entries  being  made  at  Liver- 
pool. Manufactures  are  carried  on  with  ac- 
tivity, and  embrace  pottery,  varnish,  boilers, 
guns,  &c.  There  are  also  extensive  iron 
founderies.  Birkenhead  returns  one  member 
to  the  house  of  commons. — A  priory  was 
founded  here  by  Harris  de  Massey  in  1150,  and 
richly  endowed.  It  was  occupied  by  the  royal- 
ists in  1644,  and  taken  from  them  by  the  parlia- 
mentary troops.  In  1843  it  was  demolished, 
and  nothing  now  remains  bnt  a  portion  of  the 
gable  and  one  Gothic  window,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  refectory. 

BIRKENHEAD,  Sir  John,  an  English  satirical 
and  political  writer,  born  at  Northwich,  Che- 
shire, 1615,  died  in  Westminster,  Dec.  4,  1679. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  appointed 
secretary  to  Archbishop  Land.  In  1642  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  the  "Mercurius 
Aulicus  "  or  court  journal,  through  which  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  the  court  communicated 
with  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  He  satirized 
the  Presbyterians  in  "The  Assembly  Man" 
(1662-'3),  and  wrote  also  "Two  Centuries  of 
St.  Paul's  Churchyard"  (1649),  "The  Four- 
legged  Quaker,"  &c.  He  was  persecuted  dur- 


ing the  commonwealth.    At  the  restoration  he 
was  knighted  and  received  several  offices. 

BIKKKT-EL-KEROON  (Arab.,  lake  of  the  horn), 
a  lake  in  Fayoom,  central  Egypt,  so  named 
from  its  shape,  or  perhaps  from  the  shape  of 
the  projecting  spouts  of  a  castle  which  stands 
on  its  banks;  length  about  30  m.,  greatest 
breadth  6m.  Its  shores  are  bluft',  except  on 
the  S.  side,  where  they  are  low  and  sandy. 
The  lake  communicates  with  the  Nile  and  with 
the  canal  which  popular  tradition  ascribes  to 
Joseph.  In  antiquity  it  was  connected  by  ca- 
nals with  the  artificial  lake  Mceris,  with  which 
it  has  often  been  erroneously  identified.  (See 
MOZRIS.)  It  abounds  with  fish,  and  is  farmed 
out  to  fishermen. 

BIRMINGHAM,  a  manufacturing  and  market 
town,  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Warwickshire,  England,  17  in.  N.  W.  of  War- 
wick and  100  m.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  in 
1851,  232,841;  1861,  296,076;  1871,343,696. 
It  is  situated  in  the  N.  W.  portion  of  the  coun- 
ty, and  stands  on  undulating  ground  sloping 
down  to  the  river  Rea.  The  railway  lines  cen- 
tring here  are  the  London  and  Northwestern, 
the  Great  Western,  the  Midland,  the  Birming- 
ham and  Oxford,  the  Birmingham,  Dudley,  and 
Wolverhampton,  and  the  Birmingham,  Wol- 
verhampton,  and  Shrewsbury.  Several  canals, 
radiating  from  Birmingham,  communicate  with 
other  towns  and  with  the  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
The  town  is  divided  into  13  wards,  and  its  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  a  mayor,  record- 
er, 15  aldermen,  and  48  common-councilmen. 
There  are  three  public  parks,  viz. :  Adderley 
park,  triangular  in  shape  and' prettily  laid  out, 
which  was  opened  in  1856;  Calthorpe  park, 
near  the  Rea,  opened  in  1857 ;  and  Aston  Peo- 
ple's park,  dedicated  in  1858,  which  contains 
43  acres  and  is  covered  with  fine  trees.  The 
older  portion  of  the  town  is  on  low  ground,  and 
exhibits  some  good  specimens  of  ancient  do- 
mestic architecture,  while  the  modern  portion, 
on  high  ground,  contains  many  fine  and  cost- 
ly buildings,  principally  of  brick,  and  spacious 
streets.  The  town  hall,  of  brick,  faced  with 
Anglesea  marble,  160  ft.  long,  100  ft.  wide, 
and  83  ft.  high,  is  built  on  the  model  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome ;  and  the 
public  hall,  145  ft.  long.  65  ft.  wide,  and  65  ft. 
high,  contains  one  of  the  most  powerful  organs 
in  England,  with  4,000  pipes  and  78  stops. 
The  free  grammar  school  was  founded  by  Ed- 
ward VI.  Its  present  building,  a  beautiful 
structure,  erected  in  1834  at  a  cost  of  £50,000, 
is  174  ft.  in  front,  125  ft.  deep,  and  60  ft.  high. 
The  school  contains  a  classical  and  a  commer- 
cial department,  and  has  an  income  of  £12,000 
a  year.  There  are  about  470  pupils  in  the  main 
establishment,  and  1,000  in  the  four  branches 
that  have  been  established  for  the  children  of 
artisans,  &c.  The  parish  church  of  St.  Martin, 
a  very  ancient  edifice,  with  a  massive  tower 
and  handsome  spire  210  ft.  high,  recently  re- 
built, contains  some  curious  monuments  of  the 
De  Berminghams,  the  ancient  lords  of  the  place. 


BIRMINGHAM 


659 


St.  Philip's  church,  erected  in  1715,  but  lately 
repaired,  is  a  fine  structure  in  the  Italian  style, 
with  a  tower  surmounted  by  a  dome  and  cupo- 
la. There  may  also  be  mentioned  St.  George's 
church,  in  the  decorated  English  style ;  St. 
Thomas's,  a  Doric  structure ;  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic cathedral,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £60,000; 
the  London  and  Northwestern  railway  station ; 
Queen's  college,  which  confers  degrees  in  arts, 
law,  and  medicine ;  the  Midland  institute,  a 
philosophical  institution ;  the  exchange  build- 
ings, the  masonic  and  odd  fellows'  halls,  &c. 
Besides  the  free  grammar  school  and  Queen's 
college,  the  most  noteworthy  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  blue-coat  school,  giving  ele- 
mentary instruction  to  140  boys  and  60  girls ; 
the  Protestant  dissenters'  charity  school,  edu- 
cating 40  girls ;  St.  Philip's  industrial  free 
school,  admitting  220  children ;  Springhill  col- 


lege, a  theological  institution  of  the  Indepen- 
dents ;  Sydenham  medical  college ;  and  the 
government  school  of  design.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Birmingham  are  the  Roman  Catholic  semi- 
nary of  Oscott,  and  a  diocesan  training  institu- 
tion at  Saltley.  There  is  a  public  subscription 
library  in  the  town,  containing  30,000  or  40,000 
volumes,  a  society  of  arts,  an  odd  fellows' liter- 
ary institute,  free  libraries  erected  by  the  cor- 
poration, and  two  reformatory  institutions. 
Of  the  charitable  institutions,  the  most  impor- 
tant are  the  general  hospital,  Queen's  hospital, 
the  deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  the  institution  for 
the  blind,  and  various  dispensaries  and  infirma- 
ries. There  are  34  churches  belonging  to  the 
establishment,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and 
three  or  four  chapels,  and  numerous  places  of 
worship  for  dissenters.  There  are  two  thea- 
tres, three  music  halls,  an  art  gallery,  and  three 


Birmingham,  England. 


cemeteries.  Birmingham  has  a  branch  of  the 
bank  of  England  and  six  other  banks,  on  the 
joint  stock  principle.  The  savings  bank,  which 
was  one  of  the  largest  in  England,  has  been 
merged  in  the  post  office  system. — The  town 
owes  its  rapid  growth  and  great  prosperity  to 
the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manufactures. 
Situated  near  the  centre  of  England,  on  the 
border  of  a  great  coal  and  iron  district,  with 
an  admirable  canal  and  railway  system,  it  has 
enjoyed  unrivalled  advantages.  Birmingham 
has  been  known  for  centuries  for  its  iron  and 
steel  manufactures,  but  it  has  attained  its  pres- 
ent preeminence  within  this  century.  While 
there  are  many  extensive  establishments,  em- 
ploying a  large  capital,  yet  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  manufacturing  is  carried  on  by  men 
of  small  means,  who  generally  employ  their 
workmen  by  the  piece.  The  latter  frequently 


work  at  home,  and  when  they  require  the  aid 
of  machinery  hire  one  or  more  rooms,  furnished 
with  steam  power,  in  buildings  which  are  kept 
for  that  purpose.  In  1 865  the  number  of  steam 
engines  in  the  town  was  724,  with  9,910  horse 
power,  consuming  600  tons  of  coal  daily.  There 
were  1,013  smelting  and  casting  furnaces  at 
work,  and  20,000  families  were  engaged  in  man- 
ufactories. The  value  of  hardware  and  cutlery 
exported  in  1864  was  over  £4,000,000.  At 
the  same  time  the  exports  of  firearms,  glass, 
leather,  machinery,  iron  and  steel  wire,  plate, 
copper,  brass,  zinc,  tin,  and  coal  amounted  to 
over  £37,000,000.  Of  firearms  5,000,000  were 
furnished  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  dur- 
ing two  years  of  the  American  civil  war  1,027,- 
336  were  exported  to  the  United  States.  Be- 
sides glass  manufacturing,  glass  painting  or 
staining  is  an  important  branch  of  industry. 


660 


BIRMINGHAM 


The  quantity  of  gold  ware  assayed  and  marked 
at  the  assay  office  averages  30,000  ounces  an- 
nually; of  silverware,  100,000.  Large  quan- 
tities are  also  manufactured  and  sold  without 
being  marked.  Large  numbers  of  gold  rings 
are  produced,  nearly  30,000  wedding  rings  hav- 
ing in  some  years  been  assayed  and  marked  at 
the  assay  office.  About  300,000  ounces  of  sil- 
ver-plating are  consumed  yearly.  The  manu- 
facture of  steel  pens  is  very  important.  The 
establishment  of  the  late  Mr.  Gillott  employs 
600  workmen  and  manufactures  1,000,000  gross 
annually.  The  whole  number  of  steel  pens 
made  yearly  in  Birmingham  is  estimated  at 
900,000,000,  consuming  500  tons  of  steel.  Pins 
and  buttons  are  also  made  in  vast  quantities, 
and  several  hundred  tons  of  mother-of-pearl 
are  annually  consumed  in  the  latter  manufac- 
ture. The  manufacture  of  swords  and  bayo- 
nets is  also  extensively  carried  on.  At  Smeth- 
wick  in  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham  steam  en- 
gines are  largely  made.  Many  hands  are  em- 
ployed in  japanning  and  electro-plating.  An 
important  branch  is  the  manufacture  of  fancy 
seals,  brooches,  clasps,  and  other  trinkets,  of 
what  is  known  as  Birmingham  gold,  as  well  as 
of  polished  steel.  There  may  be  mentioned  in 
addition,  among  the  industries  of  Birmingham, 
wire-drawing,  scale  making,  railway  carriage 
building,  brass  founding,  iron  casting,  works  in 
bronze,  and  manufactures  of  lamps,  metallic 
bedsteads,  gas  fittings,  leather  and  wood  cases, 
nails,  articles  of  papier  mache,  tools,  percussion 
caps,  and  sewing  machines.  The  machinery 
employed  in  the  various  manufactures  is  re- 
markable for  the  combination  of  power  with 
delicacy  and  precision  of  movement.  There 
are  two  annual  fairs,  each  lasting  three  days, 
one  in  the  spring,  the  other  in  autumn. — Bir- 
mingham is  first  mentioned  in  Doomsday  Book, 
under  the  name  of  Bermingeham.  It  remained 
an  obscure  village  for  centuries.  The  first 
great  impetus  was  given  to  its  growth  toward 
the  close  of  the  last  century  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  steam  engine  and  the  demand  for 
muskets  created  by  the  American  revolution 
and  the  French  wars.  A  still  greater  accession 
of  strength  and  prosperity  has  been  received  in 
the  last  40  years  from  the  railway  system. 
Birmingham  was  constituted  a  borough  by  the 
reform  act  of  1832,  with  the  privilege  of  send- 
ing two  members  to  parliament ;  an  additional 
member  was  given  by  the  act  of  1867.  The 
municipal  charter  was  granted  in  1838. 

BIRMINGHAM,  a  manufacturing  village  of 
Connecticut,  in  Derby  township,  New  Haven 
county,  on  an  eminence  at  the  junction  of  the 
Housatonic  and  Naugatuck  rivers,  11  m.  "W. 
of  New  Haven;  pop.  in  1870,  2,103.  It  is 
neatly  laid  out,  and  contains  a  number  of 
churches  and  schools,  most  of  which  face  a 
handsome  public  square  in  the  centre  of  the 
village.  The  first  considerable  pin  factory  in 
the  United  States,  established  in  New  York  in 
1836,  was  transferred  to  this  place  in  1838. 
There  are  rolling  mills  for  copper,  iron,  and 


BIRNEY 

steel,  factories  of  carriage  springs  and  axles, 
bolts,  augers,  well  chains,  tacks,  and  other  ar- 
ticles, and  lumber  and  coal  yards.  A  bridge 
across  the  Naugatuck  connects  Birmingham 
with  Derby,  which  is  a  station  on  the  Nau- 
gatuck railroad,  and  has  steamboat  communi- 
cation with  New  York. 

KH!  Ill  \(.ll\  II.  a  borough  of  Allegheny  county, 
Penn.,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Monongahela, 
about  2  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Al- 
legheny; pop.  in  1870,  8,603.  It  is  a  suburb 
of  Pittsburgh,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
steam  ferry  and  a  suspension  bridge  1,500  feet 
long.  It  has  important  manufactories  of  iron 
and  glass,  and  several  breweries.  East  Bir- 
mingham, with  9,488  inhabitants,  adjoins  it  on 
the  east. 

JtlKYOI,  a  bill  of  Perthshire,  in  the  western 
highlands  of  Scotland,  near  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Tay,  14  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Perth,  1,324  ft.  high. 
It  was  anciently  included  in  a  royal  forest,  and 
is  mentioned  as  Birnam  wood  in  Shakespeare's 
"  Macbeth."  It  is  now  destitute  of  trees. 

BIRKEE,  Old,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Borneo,  in  central  Africa,  70  m.  W.  of  Kuka, 
on  the  Komadngu  Wauhe;  pop.  about  10,000. 
It  is  said  to  have  formerly  had  200,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  ruins  of  the  stone  walls  by  which 
it  was  enclosed  are  still  visible. 

BIB1VEY,  James  G.,  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,  1792,  died  at 
Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  25,  1857.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in  1812, 
studied  law,  and  removed  early  to  Alabama, 
where  he  practised  law  at  Huntsville,  held  the 
office  of  district  attorney,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  legislature.  In  1833  he  interested  him- 
self in  the  organization  of  a  branch  of  the 
colonization  society  for  the  state  of  Alabama. 
Soon  afterward,  returning  to  Kentucky,  and 
becoming  a  professor  in  the  university  at  Dan- 
ville, he  organized  a  colonization  society  there 
also,  of  which  he  became  president.  In  1834 
he  espoused  the  cause  of  immediate  emancipa- 
tion in  a  public  letter,  at  the  same  time  eman- 
cipating all  his  own  slaves,  about  20  in  num- 
ber. He  subsequently  removed  to  Cincinnati, 
where  he  began  to  issue  "The  Philanthropist," 
an  anti-slavery  newspaper,  which  met  with 
much  opposition.  Its  office  was  repeatedly 
sacked  and  its  presses  destroyed  by  mobs. 
About  the  year  1836  he  went  to  New  York,  as 
secretary  of  the  American  anti-slavery  society, 
and  for  many  years  devoted  himself  to  the  fur- 
therance of  the  object  of  that  society,  by  let- 
ters, articles  in  the  press,  and  public  addresses. 
He  took  an  important  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  "liberty  party,"  by  which  dur- 
ing his  absence  in  England  he  was  nomina- 
ted in  1840  for  the  presidency.  Ho  was 
again  nominated  by  the  same  party  in  1844. 
Previous  to  this,  in  1842,  Mr.  Birney  had  be- 
come a  resident  of  Michigan,  where  be  was 
disabled,  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  not  long 
afterward,  from  taking  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tics.— His  son,  DAVID  BELL,  born  at  Huntsville, 


BIRON 


BIRON 


661 


Ala.,  May  29,  1825,  practised  law  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  during  the  civil  war  distinguished 
himself  as  a  brigadier  and  major  general  of 
volunteers  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  par- 
ticularly at  Yorktown,  Williamsburg,  and  the 
battles  before  Richmond,  nnd  at  the  second  bat- 
tle of  Bull  Run.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct. 
18,  1864. — Another  son,  WILLIAM,  entered  the 
army  as  captain  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
rose  to  the  rank  of  major  general  of  volunteers, 
and  now  (1873)  lives  in  Florida. — A  third  son, 
the  youngest,  FITZ  HUGII,  died  in  the  service 
with  the  rank  of  colonel. 

BIKO.V  I.  Arniand  de  Gontant,  baron,  after- 
ward duke  de,  a  French  general,  born  about 
1524,  killed  July  26,  1592.  He  was  educated 
among  the  pages  of  Margaret,  queen  of  Navarre, 
served  in  Piedmont  under  Marshal  Brissac, 
distinguished  himself  during  the  religious  wars 
in  the  Catholic  army,  fighting  at  the  battles 
of  Dreux,  St.  Denis,  and  Moncontour,  and  was 
created  grand  master  of  artillery  in  1569.  He 
was  suspected  of  a  secret  inclination  to  Protes- 
tantism, and  owed  his  safety  on  the  eve  of  St. 
Bartholomew  to  his  precaution  in  shutting 
himself  up  in  the  arsenal.  He  negotiated  with 
the  Huguenots  the  peace  of  St.  Germain,  re- 
ceived the  baton  of  marshal  of  France  in  1577, 
held  various  commands  in  Guienne  and  the 
Low  Countries,  was  one  of  the  first  to  recog- 
nize Henry  IV.,  contributed  to  the  victories  of 
Arques  and  Ivry,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Epernay.  lie  was  the  godfather  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  II.  Charles  de  Gontant,  duke  de, 
son  of  the  preceding,  a  French  general,  called 
the  "lightning"  of  France,  born  in  1562,  be- 
headed July  31,  1602.  His  valor  was  dis- 
tinguished at  the  battles  of  Arques  and  Ivry, 
at  the  sieges  of  Paris  and  Rouen,  of  Amiens 
and  La  Fere,  and  in  the  encounter  at  Aumale. 
He  was  made  admiral  of  France  in  1592,  mar- 
shal in  1594,  governor  of  Burgundy  in  1595, 
duke  and  peer  in  1598,  and  was  ambassador  to 
the  court  of  Elizabeth  of  England  and  to  the 
Swiss  cantons.  Notwithstanding  the  favors 
bestowed  upon  him  by  Henry  IV.,  excited  by 
mercenary  motives,  he  plotted  with  Savoy  and 
Spain  for  the  dismemberment  of  France.  His 
intrigues  were  discovered  by  the  king,  who 
pardoned  him  once,  and  even  after  he  renewed 
his  treason  Henry  was  disposed  to  indulgence, 
provided  he  would  confess  and  repent  of  his 
crime.  Biron,  however,  denying  everything, 
was  committed  to  the  Bastile,  and  speedily  con- 
demned and  executed.  HI.  Arniand  l,ouis  de 
Gontant,  duke  de,  born  in  Paris,  April  15,  1747, 
executed  there,  Dec.  31,  1793.  He  is  better 
known  as  the  duke  de  Lauzun,  which  was  his 
title  till  1788,  when  he  succeeded  his  uncle  as 
duke  de  Biron.  In  1778  he  published  a  pamphlet 
on  the  state  of  defence  of  England  and  its  foreign 
possessions,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  an 
expedition  against  the  British  colonies  of  Sen- 
egal and  Gambia,  Africa,  which  he  reduced 
early  in  1779.  Having  squandered  his  fortune, 
he  joined  Lafayette  in  1780  hi  America,  and  in 


July,  1781,  commanded  an  unsuccessful  expe- 
dition designed  to  capture  New  York  from  the 
British.  He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  York- 
town,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis.  In  1789  he  was  chosen  by  the 
nobility  deputy  to  the  states  general,  and  after- 
ward accompanied  Talleyrand  in  his  mission 
to  England.  In  July,  1792,  he  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and 
in  May,  1793,  of  the  army  of  the  coast  at  La 
Rochelle.  He  captured  Saumur,  and  defeated 
the  Vendeans ;  but  being  accused  of  incivism 
for  having  twice  offered  his  resignation,  and 
for  his  leniency  toward  the  Vendeans,  he  was 
brought  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal  of 
Fouquier-Tinville,  and  condemned  to  death  on 
the  charge  of  having  conspired  against  the  re- 
public. 

BIRON  (originally  BIKEU  or  BUHKEN),  Ernest 
John,  duke  of  Courland,  born  in  1687,  died 
Oct.  28,  1772.  The  grandson  of  a  groom, 
he  entered  as  equerry  the  household  of  Anna 
Ivanovna,  niece  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  be- 
came her  favorite  and  lover  during  her  reign 
in  Courland  and  residence  in  Mitau.  After 
Anna  became  empress,  she  took  him  with 
her  to  St.  Petersburg  and  made  him  grand 
chamberlain.  He  now  adopted  the  coat  of 
arms  and  the  name  of  the  celebrated  French 
ducal  family  of  Biron.  As  the  favorite  of  the 
empress,  he  ruled  absolutely  over  Russia ;  and 
hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  were  put  to  death 
by  his  command.  The  nobility  of  Courland, 
who  a  few  years  before  had  refused  to  ad- 
mit his  name  in  the  rolls  of  their  caste,  fright- 
ened by  his  ferocity,  elected  him  as  their  sov- 
ereign duke.  Named  by  Anna  regent  of  the 
empire  and  tutor  of  her  nephew  and  succes- 
sor Ivan  during  his  minority,  the  ambitious 
adventurer  was  suspected  of  a  design  to  push 
aside  his  pupil,  and  to  seize  the  imperial  crown 
for  his  own  eldest  son,  marrying  him  to  the 
grand  duchess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great.  His  reign  as  regent  lasted  but  a  few 
weeks.  As  early  as  1740,  Field  Marshal  Mun- 
nich,  once  his  accomplice,  secretly  conspired 
against  him,  and  on  the  night  of  Nov.  20  gave 
orders  to  seize  him  in  his  bed  and  to  put  him 
in  irons.  He  was  shut  up  first  in  the  fortress 
of  Schlusselburg ;  then  after  his  condemnation 
to  death  in  1741,  and  the  commutation  of  this 
penalty  into  exile  for  life,  he  was  sent  to  Pelim 
in  Siberia,  and  confined  in  a  prison  specially 
prepared  for  him  by  the  orders  of  Miinnich. 
The  princess  Anna  Carlovna,  mother  of  the  in- 
fant sovereign,  was  proclaimed  by  Miinnich  re- 
gent of  the  empire,  but  was  in  her  turn  over- 
thrown in  1741  by  Elizabeth,  who  sent  Miinnich 
to  Siberia,  to  replace  Biron,  whom  she  recalled 
from  his  prison  and  exile.  Biron  was  ordered 
to  reside  in  the  city  of  Yaroslav.  When  Peter 
III.  succeeded  Elizabeth  in  1762,  he  recalled 
Biron  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  Catharine  II.  sub- 
sequently restored  to  him  his  forfeited  duchy  of 
Courland.  On  Jan.  20,  1763,  Biron  entered 
his  capital  of  Mitau,  and  his  rule  was  just  and 


662 


BIRR 


BISCIIOFF 


mild  until  his  death. — lie  left  two  sons,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  PETER,  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
dom of  Oourland.  Driven  thence  in  1795,  he 
went  to  Prussia,  where  he  acquired  by  pur- 
chase several  ducal  estates,  among  others  that 
of  Sagan.  He  died  on  one  of  his  estates  in 
1800,  leaving  four  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
known  in  the  political  world  first  as  duchess  of 
Dino,  and  afterward  as  duchess  of  Sagan. 

BIRR.     See  PARSONSTOWN. 

BIRS  NIMRID.    See  BABEL. 

BIRSTALL,  a  parish  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
in  the  West  Riding,  7  m.  S.  W.  of  Leeds ;  pop. 
in  1871,  43,605.  It  contains  a  large  number 
of  woollen  and  worsted  mills,  besides  cotton 
and  silk  manufactories,  and  mines  of  coal  and 
iron.  A  branch  of  the  London  and  Northwest- 
ern railroad  passes  through  the  parish. 

BIRTH.     See  OBSTETRICS. 

BISACCIA,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Principato  Ulteriore,  30  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Avel- 
lino;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  is  built  on  a  hill, 
has  several  churches  and  a  hospital,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop.  Ancient  remains  discovered 
here  seem  to  identify  Bisaccia  as  the  site  of 
Romulea,  captured  by  the  Romans  in  the  third 
Samnite  war. 

Bis \rqi  I V),  or  Bnsaechino,  a  town  of  Sicily, 
27  m.  S.  of  Palermo ;  pop.  about  8,500.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  oil,  and  flax,  and 
manufactures  of  linen. 

BISCAY,  one  of  the  Basque  provinces  of  Spain, 
also  called  Bilbao,  bounded  N.  by  the  bay  of 
Biscay,  E.  by  Guipuzcoa,  S.  by  Alava  and  Bur- 
gos, and  W.  by  Santander  ;  area,  848  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  183,098.  It  occupies  the  north- 
ern slopes  of  the  E.  portion  of  the  Cantabrian 
mountains.  The  surface  is  mostly  rugged  and 
wooded,  and  the  climate  healthy  ;  the  soil,  not 
naturally  fertile,  is  by  cultivation  made  produc- 
tive. Fruit,  Indian  corn,  and  vegetables  are 
raised  abundantly,  and  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
country  is  principally  divided  into  small  farms, 
in  the  Hands  of  the  owners,  who  are  frequently 
the  descendants  of  ancient  families.  The  houses 
are  mostly  of  stone,  and  many  of  the  old  cas- 
tles and  towers  have  been  converted  into  farm 
houses.  The  iron  of  Biscay  is  of  the  first  ex- 
cellence. The  great  mine  of  Somorrostro  pro- 
duces about  6,000  tons  annually.  The  chief 
occupation  of  the  Biscayans,  besides  agricul- 
ture, is  fishing  and  the  coasting  trade.  The 
chief  towns  are  Bilbao,  the  capital,  Somorros- 
tro, Bermeo,  and  Orozco. 

BISCAY,  Bay  of,  an  extensive  bay  of  the  At- 
lantic, N.  of  Spain  and  W.  of  France,  the  open- 
ing of  which  extends  from  Cape  Ortegal  to 
the  island  of  Ushant.  It  is  about  350  m.  long, 
and  300  in  width,  being  nearly  semicircular. 
It  is  exceedingly  stormy  and  tempestuous ;  the 
whole  force  of  the  westerly  winds  is  felt,  while 
the  recoil  of  the  waves  from  the  coast  causes  a 
very  heavy  sea.  A  current  sweeps  round  the 
inside  of  the  bay,  known  as  Rennell's  current, 
which  runs  sometimes  26  m.  per  day.  The 
Spanish  coast  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  bay 


is  bold  and  rocky.  The  French  coast  is  low 
and  sandy  as  far  as  the  Loire,  north  of  which 
it  is  of  moderate  height.  The  principal  French 
harbors  of  the  bay  of  Biscay  are  Bayonne,  Bor- 
deaux, La  Rochelle,  Nantes,  Vannes,  Lorient, 
and  Brest;  the  principal  on  the  Spanish  coast 
are  San  Sebastian,  Santander,  and  Gijon.  The 
rivers  of  the  north  of  Spain,  which  from  the 
contiguity  of  the  mountain  chain  to  the  coast 
are  of  little  size  or  importance,  find  their  out- 
let in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  which  receives  from 
France  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  some  small- 
er streams. 

BISCAY,  New.     See  DUBANOO. 

BISCEGLIE,  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  town 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  and  21  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Bari;  pop.  in  1872,  21,371.  It  is 
built  on  a  promontory,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  a  cathedral,  two  monasteries,  a  hos- 
pital, and  a  college.  The  harbor  admits  only 
small  vessels.  It  is  famous  for  its  currants. 

BISCHOF,  Karl  Gustav,  a  German  chemist  and 
geologist,  born  at  Word,  a  suburb  of  Nurem- 
berg, Jan.  18,  1792,  died  in  Bonn,  Nov.  30, 
1870.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  devoting  him- 
self at  first  to  mathematics  and  astronomy,  but 
soon  turned  his  whole  attention  to  chemistry 
and  the  physical  sciences.  In  1822  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Bonn,  and  remained 
such  for  almost  half  a  century.  His  principal 
works  are:  LelirbucTi  der  Cliemie  (1816);  Lehr- 
~buch  der  StocJiiometrie  (1819);  Entwickelung 
der  Pflanzensubstanz  (1819) ;  Lehrbuch  der  rei- 
nen  Chemie  (1824) ;  Die  vulkanischen  Mineral- 
quellen  Devtschlands  und  Frankreichs  (1826); 
Die  WiirmeleJire  des  Innern  vnsers  Erdkdrpers 
(1837);  "Physical,  Chemical,  and  Geological 
Researches  on  the  Internal  Heat  of  the  Globe," 
written  in  English  (London,  1841).  His  great 
work,  however,  is  the  Lehrbveh  der  cnemiscJien 
und  physikalischen  Geologic  (2  vols.,  1847-'54, 
enlarged  and  revised  in  1863;  English  transla- 
tion by  Paul  and  Drummond,  1854-'9).  His 
essay  Dei  moyens  de  soustraire  I1  exploitation 
des  mines  de  houille  aux  dangers  d'1  explosions 
(1840)  gained  the  prize  among  14  competitors, 
offered  by  the  academy  at  Brussels. 

BISCHOFF.  I.  Christoph  llciiirii-h  Ernst,  a  Ger- 
man physician,  born  in  Hanover,  Sept.  14, 
1781,  died  in  Bonn,  March  5,  1861.  He  was 
physician  of  the  general  staff  of  the  army  in 
the  campaigns  of  1813-'15,  and  from  1819  to 
1861  he  was  professor  of  medical  science  at 
the  university  of  Bonn.  A  second  edition  of 
his  principal  work,  Die  Lehre  von  den  cfiemi- 
scfien  JTeilmitteln,  was  published  in  Bonn  in 
1838-'40  (4  vols.).  II.  Theodor  Ludwig  Wil- 
helm,  a  German  anatomist  and  physiologist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hanover,  Oct. 
28,  1807.  He  studied  in  Dusseldorf,  Bonn, 
and  Heidelberg,  received  his  doctor's  diploma 
from  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1832,  and  be- 
came assistant  in  the  midwifery  department 
of  that  of  Berlin.  He  continued  his  studies  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  under  Ehrenberg  and 
Johann  Muller,  in  1836  became  professor  of 


BISCHOFSWERDA 


BISHOP 


663 


comparative  and  pathological  anatomy  at  Bonn, 
in  1843  of  physiology,  and  in  1844  of  anatomy 
at  Giessen,  where  he  founded  a  physiological 
institute  and  an  anatomical  museum ;  and  since 
1855  he  has  been  professor  at  the  university 
of  Munich.  In  the  trial  of  Count  Gorlitz  in 
1850  he  demonstrated  the  impossibility  of 
spontaneous  combustion.  His  most  important 
contribution  to  embryology  is  Der  Beweis 
der  von  der  Begattung  unabhangigen  periodi- 
schen  Reifung  und  Losluiung  der  Eier  der 
S&ugethiere  und  der  Menschen  (Giessen,  1844). 
His  other  works  include  Entwicleelungsge- 
schichte  des  Kanineheneies  (1843),  which  re- 
ceived an  academical  prize,  des  Hundeeies 
(1844),  des  Meersehweinchens  (1852),  and  des 
Eehes  (1854).  His  intercourse  with  Liebig  led 
to  his  publication  of  Der  Harnstoff  ah  Mass 
des  Stoffwechsels  (1853) ;  and  in  conjunction 
with  his  then  assistant,  Dr.  Voit,  Die  Gesetze 
der  Erniilirung  des  Fleisehfressers  (1859). 
Among  his  most  recent  works  are  Die  Oross- 
hirnwindungen  des  Henschen  mil  Berileksich- 
tigung  ihrer  Entwickelung  bei  dem  Fotus  und 
ihrer  Anordnung  bei  den  Affen  (1866;  new 
ed.,  1868),  and  Ueber  die  Versehiedenheit  in 
der  Schadelbildung  des  Gorilla,  Chimpanse, 
und  Orang-Utang  (1867). 

BISCHOFSWERDA,  a  city  of  Saxony,  on  the 
river  Wesenitz,  19  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Dresden; 
pop.  in  1867,  4, 102,  chiefly  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  cloths  and  the  preparation  of 
granite  building  stones.  On  a  neighboring 
summit  is  the  castle*  of  St.  John,  which  was 
finished  in  1856.  Bischofswerda  was  raised 
to  a  city  by  Benno,  bishop  of  Meissen,  in  1076. 
It  has  suft'ered  several  conflagrations,  one  of 
which  was  by  the  Hussites  in  1429,  and  an- 
other in  an  engagement  between  the  French 
and  Russians  in  1813. 

BISCHH  EILER,  or  BisthwlUer,  a  town  of  Al- 
sace, Germany,  situated  on  the  Moder,  14  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Strasbnrg;  pop.  in  1871,  9,231.  It 
was  formerly  fortified,  but  was  dismantled  in 
1706.  Near  Bischweiler  is  situated  the  rich 
iron  mine  of  Mittelhardt.  Woollen,  linen,  oil, 
soap,  and  earthenware  are  manufactured. 

BISHOP  (Sax.  biscop,  from  Gr.  eiriaxoiros,  a 
superintendent),  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  An- 
glican churches,  the  title  given  to  those  who 
are  of  the  highest  order  of  the  priesthood,  to 
the  successors  of  the  12  apostles,  in  distinction 
from  the  priests,  who  are  the  successors  of 
the  70  disciples.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
and  Moravian  churches,  and  in  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark, 
it  is  the  title  given  to  the  highest  officers  in 
the  ministry,  who  are  not,  however,  regard- 
ed as  a  distinct  order.  The  name  was  bor- 
rowed by  the  first  Christians  from  the  lan- 
guages of  Greece  and  Rome,  in  which  it  desig- 
nated a  civil  magistrate.  Thus,  Cicero  was  at 
one  time  episcopus  orce  Campania.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  words  bishop  and  presbyter,  or 
priest,  are  sometimes  interchanged,  as  in  Acts 
xx.  17,  28;  and  St.  John,  in  his  last  two  epis- 


tles, adopts  the  title  of  priest.  Yet,  as  main- 
tained by  Roman  Catholic  writers,  it  does  not 
follow  because  the  names  priest  and  bishop 
were  then  applied  indiiferently,  that  there  ex- 
isted no  distinction  between  the  episcopate 
and  the  priesthood.  "  There  might  have  been 
confusion  in  the  names,"  says  St.  Thomas, 
"  but  not  in  the  character."  Bishops  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  are  regarded  as  offi- 
cers appointed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  govern 
the  church.  The  authority  which  they  exer- 
cise belongs  to  their  character,  and  comes 
from  God  himself,  while  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
priests  emanates  only  from  a  bishop,  and  can 
be  exercised  only  under  his  direction.  At 
first  the  bishops  were  elected  by  the  clergy 
and  people  of  the  diocese,  but  on  account  of 
the  tumults  inseparable  from  popular  assem- 
blies, various  councils,  from  that  of  Laodicea  in 
the  4th  century  to  that  of  the  Lateran  in  1215, 
restrained  and  suppressed  the  electoral  rights 
of  the  laity.  Charlemagne  and  other  of  the 
northern  kings  appointed  the  bishops  of  their 
own  kingdoms  by  their  own  authority.  The 
pope,  unwilling  that  bishops  should  be  depen- 
dent upon  princes,  brought  it  about  that  the 
canons  hi  cathedral  churches  should  have  the 
election  of  their  bishops,  which  elections  were 
usually  confirmed  at  Rome.  At  present  the 
mode  of  choosing  bishops  varies  in  different 
countries.  They  are  elected  in  some  countries 
by  cathedral  canons ;  in  others  they  are  nom- 
inated by  the  crown  or  governments.  In 
all  cases  the  names  designated  are  sent  to 
Rome  for  confirmation,  and  the  person  chosen 
is  appointed  to  his  see  by  letters  apostolic.  Ac- 
cording to  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
the  candidate  for  this  order  must  be  of  legiti- 
mate birth,  30  years  old,  well  reputed  for  learn- 
ing and  morality,  usually  a  native  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  his  bishopric  lies,  and  acceptable 
to  the  political  government  thereof.  Within 
three  months  from  his  confirmation  he  receives 
the  rite  of  consecration,  which  is  performed  in 
the  cathedral  of  the  new  bishop,  according  to 
the  directions  of  the  pontifical,  by  three  bish- 
ops appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  candidate 
takes  the  ancient  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  pope 
and  the  oath  of  civil  allegiance,  subscribes  to 
the  confession  of  faith,  receives  the  insignia  of 
his  office,  is  anointed  and  solemnly  enthroned, 
and  concludes  the  ceremony  with  pronouncing 
the  benediction.  His  insignia  are  a  mitre,  the 
symbol  of  power ;  a  crosier,  in  allusion  to  his 
shepherd's  duties ;  a  finger  ring  (annulus  pasto- 
ralis),  a  sign  of  his  marriage  with  the  church ; 
a  cross  on  the  breast,  distinctive  gloves  and  san- 
dals, and  an  official  robe.  The  functions  of  the 
bishop  embrace  all  the  rites  and  offices  of  the 
Christian  religion.  He  administers  five  sacra- 
ments in  common  with  priests,  and  two  others, 
those  of  confirmation  and  ordination,  are 
his  peculiar  prerogatives.  He  examines  and 
approves  or  condemns  the  works  published 
in  his  diocese  concerning  religion,  and  takes 
part  in  the  general  councils  convoked  by 


664: 


BISHOP 


the  pope  for  deciding  questions  of  faith.  The 
guardian  of  discipline,  lie  makes  statutes 
and  ordinances  which  he  judges  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  it,  dispenses  with  canons 
according  to  the  canons  themselves,  judges 
the  ofi'ences  of  ecclesiastics,  and  has  power  of 
suspension,  excommunication,  and  absolution. 
There  are  Catholic  bishops  who  have  no  dio- 
ceses, and  who  perform  duties  within  limits  as- 
signed by  the  holy  see  as  vicars  apostolic.  They 
bear  the  title  of  bishops  inpartibus  infidelium, 
because  they  are  assigned  to  sees  which  are  in 
the  possession  of  infidels,  and  are  specially  dele- 
gated to  ecclesiastical  duties  elsewhere.  These 
are  considered  successors  of  the  bishops  ex- 
pelled by  Mohammedan  conquests  from  their 
dioceses  in  the  East,  and  are  appointed  by 
the  pope  as  an  expression  of  a  perpetual  hope 
and  a  protest  with  respect  to  those  conquered 
gees. — The  Protestant  movement  introduced 
new  conceptions  of  the  church,  and  changed 
the  form  of  church  government.  In  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  Protestantism  there  was  sub- 
stituted for  bishops  either  the  presbytery  or 
ecclesiastical  autonomy,  or  the  office  of  bishop 
was  retained  with  diminished  powers.  Only 
in  England  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
of  the  United  States  has  episcopacy  been  de- 
fended by  Protestants  as  a  divine  institution. 
Other  Protestants  affirm  its  post-apostolic  and 
therefore  human  origin.  The  functions  of  the 
Anglican  bishops  are  confirmation,  ordination 
of  deacons  and  priests,  consecration  of  other 
bishops,  dedication  or  consecration  of  religious 
edifices  and  grounds,  administration  of  the  ef- 
fects of  deceased  persons  till  some  one  has 
proved  a  right  of  executorship,  institution  or 
collation  to  vacant  churches  in  their  diocese, 
superintendence  of  the  conduct  of  the  priests 
in  the  same,  and  power  of  suspension,  depri- 
vation, deposition,  degradation,  and  excommu- 
nication. Formerly  they  had  also  the  right  of 
adjudication  in  questions  respecting  matrimony 
and  divorce;  but  in  1857  this  episcopal  juris- 
diction was  abolished,  and  a  matrimonial  court, 
consisting  of  three  civil  judges,  was  established. 
They  are  peers  of  the  realm  and  members  of 
the  house  of  lords.  Some  years  ago  the  rev- 
enue of  the  different  sees  was  reduced  more 
nearly  to  an  equality,  the  income  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  being  fixed  at  £15,000, 
that  of  the  archbishop  of  York  at  £10,000,  those 
of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester  at  £8,000 
each,  and  the  others  at  from  £5,500  to  £4,500. 
The  Anglican  bishops  are  nominated  by  the 
crown,  and  then  formally  elected  by  the  chap- 
ters. The  ecclesiastical  powers  of  bishops  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  America 
resemble  those  of  the  Anglican  bishops,  but  they 
have  no  political  functions.  They  are  elected 
by  the  clerical  and  lay  deputies  of  the  vacant 
diocese  assembled  in  convention,  and  before 
consecration  are  required  to  produce  certifi- 
cates before  the  house  of  bishops  and  the  house 
of  clerical  and  lay  deputies  in  general  conven- 
tion. The  rights  of  this  office  are  so  restricted 


in  Germany  that  even  Roman  Catholic  rulers 
have  sometimes  been  made  bishops  in  the  Lu- 
theran church.  In  Prussia  and  Nassau  this 
title  is  ordinarily  given  to  the  general  superin- 
tendents of  the  Evangelical  church.  Attempts 
have  been  made  without  success  to  give  this 
church  an  episcopal  organization. — The  bishops 
of  the  Greek  church  are  appointed  by  the 
archbishops,  and  must  be  selected  from  the 
monks,  and  are  therefore  always  unmarried. 
They  have  much  less  authority  than  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops. — The  bishopric  is  the  district 
or  diocese  over  which  a  bishop  has  spiritual 
jurisdiction.  Of  the  Anglican  church,  there 
are  in  England  (1873)  2  archbishops  and  26 
bishops;  in  Ireland,  2  archbishops  and  10  bish- 
ops; in  the  colonies,  45  bishops;  there  are,  be- 
sides these,  in  union  with  the  church  of  Eng- 
land 6  missionary  bishops,  and  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem.  In  the  Episcopal  church  of  Scot- 
land there  are  8  bishops.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  England  has  1  archbishop  and  14 
bishops;  in  Ireland,  4  archbishops  and  25 
bishops.  In  the  United  States  there  are  36 
bishoprics  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
and  37  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  There 
are  10  bishops  in  the  northern  division  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  6  in  the 
southern.  In  1871  there  were  in  the  whole 
world  660  bishops  of  the  Latin  and  G3  of  Greek 
and  oriental  rites.  (See  AECHBISHOP.) 

BISHOP.  I.  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  an  English 
composer,  born  in  London  in  1780,  died  April 
30,  1855.  In  1806  he  composed  the  music  of 
a  ballet  entitled  "  Tamerlane  and  Bajazet," 
which  was  performed  at  the  Italian  opera 
house,  and  in  1808  that  of  "  Caractacus,"  a 
pantomime  ballet,  at  Drury  Lane.  At  this 
theatre  in  the  following  year  was  successfully 
produced  his  first  opera,  "The  Circassian 
Bride,"  but  on  the  following  evening  (Feb.  24, 
1809)  the  theatre  was  burned  to  the  ground, 
and  with  it  the  score  of  the  opera.  Between 
that  time  and  1826  his  dramatic  engagements 
of  all  sorts  were  numerous,  including  (to  use 
his  own  words)  "operas,  burlettas,  melo- 
dramas, incidental  music  to  Shakespeare's 
plays,  patchings  and  adaptations  of  foreign 
operas,  with  glees,  ballads,  canzonets,  and  can- 
tatas." During  this  time  he  was  director  of 
music  at  Co  vent  Garden  theatre,  and  among 
over  50  operas  which  he  wrote,  the  most  suc- 
cessful were  "  Guy  Mannering,"  "  The  Maniac," 
"The  Miller  and  his  Men,"  "Maid  Marion," 
"The Slave,"  "  Clari,"  and  "The Englishman  in 
India."  In  1826  his  "  Aladdin  "  was  produced 
at  Drury  Lane,  but  was  not  successful.  He 
adapted  Rossini's  "  Barber  of  Seville,"  Mozart's 
"Marriage  of  Figaro,"  and  some  other  operas, 
to  the  English  stage.  He  was  director  of  the 
concerts  of  ancient  music  for  several  years, 
also  one  of  the  first  directors  of  the  philhar- 
monic concerts,  and  composed  some  sacred 
pieces  which  were  performed  at  different  mu- 
sical festivals.  He  succeeded  Sir  John  Steven- 
son as  arranger  of  the  music  of  Moore's  "  Irish 


BISHOP  STORTFORD 


BISMARCK-SCHONHAT7SEN      665 


Melodies."1  In  1842  ho  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Victoria.  Ho  had  in  1841  been  elected  pro- 
fessor of  music  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
but  he  resigned  in  1843,  about  which  time  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music  from 
Oxford,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Crotch  in 
1848  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  music  in  that 
university,  which  appointment  he  held  till  his 
death.  Toward  the  close  of  his  life  he  ar- 
ranged for  the  "Illustrated  London  News"  a 
largo  number  of  old  English  airs,  to  which  Dr. 
Charles  Mackny  wrote  the  words.  His  style 
was  devoid  of  affectation,  free,  flowing,  and 
harmonious.  II.  Anna  Riviere,  an  English  vo- 
calist, wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in 
1814.  She  was  married  in  1831,  and  her 
career  as  a  vocalist  began  in  1837.  Her  first 
success  was  gained  as  a  singer  of  classical  and 
oratorio  music.  Later  she  turned  her  atten- 
tion to  the  opera.  Her  professional  career  has 
been  followed  in  every  quarter  of  the  world, 
and  her  presence  is  as  familiar  in  the  concert 
rooms  of  Australia  as  in  those  of  England  and 
America.  In  1858  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Schultz  of  New  York,  where  she  resides. 

BISHOP  STORTFORD,  a  town  of  Hertford- 
shire, England,  32  m.  by  rail  N.  E.  of  London ; 
pop.  about  0,000.  It  derives  the  first  part  of 
its  name  from  having  been  since  the  Saxon  era 
the  property  of  the  bishops  of  London,  and  the 
second  from  its  situation  on  the  river  Stort.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  two  lines  of  streets,  and  con- 
tains a  fine  parish  church,  restored  in  1820,  a 
capacious  market  house  with  a  corn  exchange, 
and  various  educational  institutions.  A  canal 
connects  it  with  London  through  the  river  Lea, 
and  it  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  malt. 

IMSMUU  k-St  IlitMIUsKV  Otto  Ednard  Leo- 
pold, prince,  a  German  statesman,  born  at  the 
manor  of  Schonhausen,  in  the  district  of  Mag- 
deburg, April  1,  1815.  His  father,  Karl  Wil- 
helm  Ferdinand  von  Bismarck,  was  captain  in 
the  royal  body  guard  of  Prussia,  and  died  in 
1845.  His  mother,  who  died  in  1839,  was  a 
daughter  of  Cabinet  Councillor  Menken.  The 
Bismarck  family  has  been  known  for  upward 
of  five  centuries,  during  which  period  several 
members  of  it  were  prominent  chiefly  as  military 
men  under  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
kings  of  Prussia.  Otto  von  Bismarck  was  one 
of  six  children,  the  two  eldest  and  the  youngest 
of  whom  died  in  infancy.  In  1832  he  studied 
jurisprudence  and  political  science  at  Got- 
tingen.  Toward  the  end  of  1833  he  entered 
the  university  of  Berlin,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  June,  1835.  In  1836-'7  he  was 
referendary  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Potsdam. 
He  served  his  years  of  military  duty  partly  in 
the  latter  city  (1837)  and  partly  in  Greifs- 
wald  (1838),  where  he  familiarized  himself 
with  the  science  of  husbandry.  In  1847  he 
attended  the  first  united  diet  at  Berlin  in  his 
capacity  of  district  delegate  of  the  nobility  at 
the  diet  of  the  province  of  Saxony,  and  became 
known  as  an  able  and  vehement  opponent  of 
liberal  reforms.  In  1848,  after  the  first  storm 


of  the  revolution,  he  participated  in  the  gath- 
ering of  the  rural  nobility  in  Berlin,  known 
under  the  nickname  of  the  Junker  parliament, 
and  wrote  in  favor  of  the  feudal  party  in  the 
newly  established  Kreuzzeitung.  In  1849-'50, 
as  a  member  of  the  second  chamber  of  the 
Prussian  diet,  he  urged  increased  powers  for  the 
monarchy,  and  the  consolidation  of  the  German 
nationality  by  the  joint  action  of  Prussia  and 
Austria.  He  combated  the  schemes  of  union 
discussed  at  the  Frankfort  and  Erfurt  parlia- 
ments, though  he  was  himself  a  member  of  the 
latter,  as  destructive  of  the  true  basis  of  Prus- 
sian power ;  and  in  his  reactionary  zeal  even 
applauded  Manteuffel's  surrender  to  Austria  at 
Olmutz.  After  having  been  secretary  of  lega- 
tion, he  was  appointed  in  August,  1851,  Prus- 
sian ambassador  to  the  Germanic  diet  at  Frank- 
fort. Here  he  soon  manifested  a  decided  turn 
in  his  international  views,  and  the  pretensions 
of  Austria  were  repelled  by  him  with  so  much 
bitterness  that  on  the  eve  of  the  Franco-Italian 
war  of  1859  it  was  judged  prudent  to  transfer 
him  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  strengthened 
the  friendly  relations  between  Russia  and  Prus- 
sia, and  remained  till  the  spring  of  1862.  He 
then  became  Prussian  ambassador  in  Paris  for  a 
few  months,  and  in  September  of  the  same 
year  succeeded  Prince  Hohenzollern  as  prime 
minister,  first  provisionally,  and  on  Oct.  8  be- 
came the  virtual  head  of  the  administration 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  During  the 
long  and  exciting  conflict  between  the  diet 
and  the  government  on  the  subject  of  the  in- 
crease and  reform  of  the  army,  the  new  pre- 
mier took  strong  ground  in  favor  of  strength- 
ening the  military  force,  and  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative in  general.  Despite  the  unfriendly 
attitude  of  Austria,  he  was  unceasing  in  his 
efforts  to  effect  a  joint  action  with  that 
power  in  the  interest  of  German  unity,  and 
succeeded  in  procuring  her  cooperation  in  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  war  (1864),  notwithstand- 
ing the  unwillingness  of  the  Germanic  diet.  He 
concluded  a  new  commercial  treaty  with  Aus- 
tria in  1865.  The  Gastein  convention,  Aug.  14, 
1865,  put  an  end  for  a  time  to  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  complications.  Bismarck  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  count,  Sept.  20,  and  in- 
vested with  ministerial  authority  over  the  newly 
conquered  territories.  The  relations  with  Aus- 
tria, however,  continuing  unsatisfactory,  Bis- 
marck concluded  an  alliance  with  Italy,  and  war 
was  declared  against  Austria  and  her  allies  at 
the  Frankfort  diet  (June,  1866).  A  few  weeks' 
campaign  sufficed  to  crush  them,  and  the  treaty 
of  Prague  (Aug.  23)  extinguished  Austria  as  a 
German  power,  dissolved  the  old  German  diet, 
secured  Schleswig-Holstein  to  Prussia,  and 
placed  Prussia  at  the  head  of  a  North  Ger- 
man confederation.  The  statesman  formerly 
so  unpopular  and  even  hated,  on  whose  life 
shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  a  young  fanatic,  was  now 
idolized  by  the  Prussian  people.  The  victories 
achieved  by  Bismarck's  diplomacy  for  the 


666 


BISMUTH 


country,  and  the  renown  won  by  the  army,  put 
an  end  to  the  long  parliamentary  conflict,  and 
a  national  endowment  was  conferred  upon  him 
by  the  chambers.  The  annexation  of  Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau,  Frankfort,  and  ^Schles- 
wig-Holstein  to  Prussia,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  North  German  confederation,  with  the 
adhesion  of  Saxony  and  other  states,  were  con- 
sidered chiefly  due  to  his  ability.  He  averted 
war  with  France  on  the  Luxemburg  question 
by  the  treaty  of  London  (1867) ;  but  the  new 
diplomatic  success  achieved  here  by  Prussia,  in 
addition  to  the  prestige  gained  by  her  previous- 
ly, increased  the  jealousy  of  France,  especially 
as  Napoleon's  attempt  at  a  coalition  with  Aus- 
tria was  baffled  by  Bismarck's  secret  treaties 
with  the  South  German  states,  and  by  his  un- 
derstanding with  Italy.  The  accession  of  a 
Hohenzollern  prince  to  the  Roumanian  throne 
being  followed  in  1870  by  a  project  of  raising 
another  prince  of  that  house  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  Napoleon  seized  this  incident  as  a  pre- 
text for  a  declaration  of  war,  which  under  Bis- 
marck's influence  was  met  both  by  the  North 
German  confederation  and  the  South  German 
states,  with  Prussia  at  their  head,  with  such  an 
unprecedented  spirit  that  France  was  utterly 
prostrated  in  the  war,  while  King  William, 
victorious  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  was 
proclaimed  emperor  of  Germany  at  Versailles, 
Jan.  18,  1871 ;  and  he  soon  afterward  pro- 
moted Count  Bismarck,  as  the  originator  of  the 
brilliant  triumphs  of  Germany,  to  the  rank 
of  prince  with  the  title  of  chancellor  'of  the 
German  empire.  Throughout  the  war  Bis- 
marck was  by  the  side  of  the  emperor,  display- 
ing at  every  step  new  talents  for  executive  and 
diplomatic  affairs.  In  internal  affairs  his  policy 
had  in  the  meanwhile  gradually  assumed  a 
more  and  more  liberal  complexion.  In  1872 
he  took  strong  ground  against  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility,  caused  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  Prussia,  and  insisted  upon  the  sub- 
jection of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  the 
civil  government.  (See  PRUSSIA,  and  GER- 
MANY.)— Among  the  many  recent  works  rela- 
ting to  Prince  Bismarck  are  Ludwig  Bamber- 
ger's  M.  de  Bixmarclc  (Paris,  1868;  German 
translation,  Berlin,  1868) ;  Dr.  Konstantin  Ross- 
ler's  Graf  Bismarck  und  die  deutsche  Nation 
(Berlin,  1871);  and  Hesekiel's  "Life  of  Bis- 
marck, Private  and  Political,"  translated  into 
English  by  Kenneth  R.  H.  Mackenzie  (1870). 

BISMUTH,  a  metal  which  shines  with  such 
brilliant  colors  that  the  name  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  the  German  Wiesenmatte,  or 
meadow  lawn.  The  original  word  was  con- 
tracted to  Wissmat,  and  finally  to  Wismuth, 
which  is  its  present  German  form.  The  an- 
cients make  no  mention  of  bismuth.  It  is  not 
more  than  100  years  since  a  number  of  the 
most  learned  scientific  men  of  Europe  stoutly 
maintained  that  it  could  be  made  artificially, 
and  was  not  therefore  a  simple  body.  After 
the  properties  of  the  metal  became  well  under- 
stood search  was  made  everywhere  for  it,  and 


it  was  found  native  in  a  number  of  localities — 
the  principal  mines  being  in  Saxony,  where  it 
is  associated  with  nickel  and  cobalt  to  the  ex- 
tent of  7  per  cent.  Specimens  of  it  have  been 
found  in  Monroe  county,  N.  Y. ;  in  South  Caro- 
lina; in  Haddam,  Conn. ;  in  Virginia;  and  in 
several  places  in  South  America,  especially  on 
the  Andes  in  Bolivia  at  a  height  of  15,000  feet. 
At  the  mines  in  Saxony  the  impure  ore  is  eli- 
quated  or  subjected  to  a  sweating  process,  and 
the  drops  of  the  metal,  as  they  ooze  out,  run 
down  the  pipes  into  iron  kettles.  In  this  way 
the  crude  ingots  are  prepared  for  commerce. — 
Pure  bismuth  is  a  reddish-white  metal,  closely 
resembling  antimony.  It  is  so  brittle  that  it 
can  be  pulverized  in  a  mortar,  and  yet  at  cer- 
tain temperatures  it  is  more  or  less  tenacious, 
and  can  be  drawn  into  thin  wires.  By  fusing 
large  quantities  of  it,  say  100  Ibs.,  in  a  kettle 
well  covered,  and  then  as  soon  as  a  thick  crust 
has  formed  piercing  two  holes,  pouring  out  the 
still  liquid  contents,  and  sawing  off  the  upper 
crust,  there  will  be  disclosed  magnificent  crys- 
tals with  cubical  facets,  and  in  clusters,  resem- 
bling a  ruined  city.  These  crystals  have  all 
the  iridescence  and  play  of  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow. The  specific  gravity  of  the  metal  is  9'83, 
and  it  melts  at  264  0.  (507°  F.).  This  point  of 
fusion  is  used  to  adjust  high-ranged  thermome- 
ters. An  alloy  of  antimony  and  bismuth,  ar- 
ranged in  a  great  number  of  small  prisms,  af- 
fords the  most  sensitive  thermometer  that  has 
been  constructed.  We  can  measure  the  -j^VsT 
of  a  degree  by  this  delicate  instrument,  and  by 
it  even  the  moon  can  be  shown  to  afford  some 
heat.  The  principle  upon  which  it  is  based  is 
the  action  of  heat  to  produce  an  electric  cur- 
rent which  moves  a  carefully  adjusted  mag- 
netic needle.  The  passage  of  the  hand  before 
the  instrument,  or  the  faintest  breath,  or  any 
radiating  surface  turned  toward  it,  immediate- 
ly excites  the  electric  current,  and  causes  the 
needle  to  move  around  the  graduated  arc; 
and  in  this  way  the  slightest  change  in  tem- 
perature can  be  measured.  Some  celebrated 
experiments  were  performed  with  it  by  the 
Italian  philosopher  Melloni,  and  also  by  Dr. 
John  W.  Draper  of  New  York,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deciding  many  nice  points  in  refer- 
ence to  the  transmission,  radiation,  and  re- 
fraction of  heat.  Melted  bismuth  expands  on 
cooling,  following  the  same  law  as  iron  and 
water  on  its  conversion  into  ice.  Bismuth 
imparts  brittleness  to  other  metals,  render- 
ing even  gold  and  silver  less  malleable,  and 
forming,  it  is  said,  a  crystalline  alloy  with  iron. 
The  alchemists  looked  upon  it  as  a  bastard 
metal,  and  sometimes  called  it  lead  ashes,  plum- 
bum cinereum,  on  account  of  its  close  resem- 
blance to  antimony.  They  also  spoke  of  it  as 
antimoniitm  femininium,  or  the  female  anti- 
mony. Its  frequent  occurrence  in  beautiful 
dendritic  groups  also  suggested  to  the  early 
miners  that  it  could  be  cultivated  the  same  as 
any  tree  or  vegetable. — Bismuth  has  the  prop- 
erty of  imparting  fusibility  to  other  metals ; 


BISMUTH 


BISON 


667 


hence  one  of  its  chief  uses  is  to  prepare  alloys 
that  will  melt  at  very  low  temperatures.  A 
mixture  of  two  parts  of  bismuth,  one  of  lead, 
and  one  of  tin,  will  melt  at  200°  F. ;  and  spoons 
are  often  cast  of  this  alloy,  to  be  used  as  toys, 
melting  away  instantly  in  any  hot  liquid.  One 
part  of  bismuth,  two  of  tin,  and  one  of  lead 
form  a  soft  solder  for  pewterers.  It  is  also 
employed  as  a  bath  for  tempering  steel,  and 
as  a  cake  mould  for  toilet  soap.  Another  al- 
loy, composed  of  5  parts  of  bismuth,  3  of  lead, 
and  2  of  tin,  melts  at  199°  F.,  and  is  known  as 
stereotype  metal.  An  amalgam  of  20  parts  of 
bismutli  and  80  parts  of  mercury  is  extensively 
used  for  silvering  the  interior  of  glass  globes, 
and  for  similar  ornamental  purposes.  Dr.  Wood 
of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  discovered  an  alloy  still 
more  fusible  than  any  of  those  above  mention- 
ed. It  is  composed  of  8  parts  of  bismuth,  4  of 
lead,  2  of  tin,  and  2  of  cadmium,  and  is  said  to 
melt  at  158°  F.  One  of  the  earliest  compounds 
of  bismuth  that  received  any  attention,  the 
preparation  of  which  was  for  a  long  time  kept 
a  profound  secret,  is  the  subnitrate,  now  known 
under  the  name  of  pearl-white.  This  salt  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  enamels  on  porcelain,  and  also 
in  gilding.  It  has  great  solvent  properties  with 
other  oxides,  especially  with  silica  and  borax ; 
and  as  it  imparts  no  color,  it  is  valuable  in  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  and  of  optical  glass. 
The  nitrate,  mixed  with  a  solution  of  tin  and 
tartar,  has  long  been  employed  as  a  mordant 
for  dyeing  lilac  and  violet  in  calico  printing. 
Pearl-white  is  principally  used  as  a  cosmetic  to 
give  a  brilliant  tint  to  faded  complexions.  Sul- 
phur converts  the  salts  of  bismuth  into  the 
black  sulphide  of  bismuth,  so  that  the  smallest 
trace  of  sulphur  in  the  illuminating  gas  may 
gradually  turn  the  pearl-white  to  a  dark  hue. 
If  we  write  with  a  pen  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
the  nitrate  of  bismuth,  after  it  is  dry  nothing 
can  be  seen ;  but  on  plunging  the  paper  into 
water  the  writing  will  become  distinctly  visi- 
ble.— Mr.  Farmer  of  Boston  has  invented  an 
ingenious  thermo-electric  battery,  composed  of 
a  row  of  bars  of  an  alloy  of  antimony  and  bis- 
muth, which  only  require  to  be  heated  to  ex- 
cite a  powerful  galvanic  current.  The  sim- 
plicity of  the  arrangement,  the  avoidance  of 
acid  fumes,  the  constant  readiness  for  use,  and 
the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  set  in  action, 
commend  this  form  of  apparatus  to  the  atten- 
tion of  physicists.  It  is  evident  that  if  by  sim- 
ply heating  one  end  of  a  metallic  bar  a  suffi- 
ciently powerful  current  can  be  excited  to  pro- 
duce all  the  effects  of  an  ordinary  galvanic  bat- 
tery, this  would  afford  the  most  convenient  and 
economical  arrangement  for  the  telegraph,  for 
electro-plating,  and  in  fact  for  all  the  purposes 
to  which  the  old  form  of  battery  is  now  ap- 
plied.— The  spectrum  of  bismuth  presents  a 
multitude  of  brilliant  rays  in  the  green,  a  faint 
and  one  strong  ray  in  the  red,  and  a  feeble  one 
in  the  orange. — According  to  Wagner,  the  pro- 
duction of  bismuth  in  Saxony  in  1871  was 
32,000  Ibs.— The  subnitrate  of  bismuth  is  used 


medicinally  in  painful  affections  of  the  stomach, 
such  as  cancer,  cardialgia,  chronic  ulcer,  and 
chronic  inflammation.  Its  action  seems  to  be 
a  local  one,  little  or  none  of  the  drug  being 
absorbed.  It  may  be  considered  either  as  as- 
tringent or  more  probably  as  simply  protecting 
irritable  surfaces  mechanically.  It  has  also 
been  used  with  advantage  in  chronic  diar- 
rheas. It  has  been  applied  externally  in 
eczema  and  allied  conditions  of  the  skin  and 
mucous  membranes.  The  carbonate  may  be 
employed  in  the  same  way  as  the  subnitrate, 
and  in  the  same  doses.  From  5  to  15  grains 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  Some  prac- 
titioners have  given  two  or  three  drams  at  once, 
but  such  doses  are  not  to  be  recommended. 

BISON,  a  name  given  to  three  species  of  the  ox 
family.  1 .  The  European  or  Eur- Asiatic  species, 
bos  itrus,  known  as  the  bonassug,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  ancient  urug  or  aurochs.  (See  AUEOOHS.) 
2.  The  Indian  bison  (B.  gaunis)  is  but  partially 
known  and  imperfectly  described.  It  has  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  bisons,  the  short 
horns,  huge  head,  unshapely  forehead,  and  the 
vast  masses  of  shaggy  wool  covering  those 
parts.  It  frequents  the  Ghauts  and  the  wild- 
est forest  ranges  of  the  Himalaya.  3.  The  bison, 
commonly  and  erroneously  called  buffalo,  of 
North  America  (B.  Americanus),  is  distinguish- 
ed by  its  singular  hump  over  the  shoulders ;  this 
hump  is  of  an  oblong  form,  diminishing  in  height 


Bison  Americanus. 

as  it  recedes,  so  as  to  give  considerable  obliquity 
to  the  line  of  the  back.  The  eye  is  black  and 
brilliant ;  the  horns  are  black,  and  very  thick 
near  the  head,  whence  they  curve  upward  and 
outward,  tapering  rapidly  toward  the  point. 
The  outline  of  the  face  is  convexly  curved,  and 
the  upper  lip  on  each  side,  being  papillous 
within,  dilates  and  extends  downward,  giving 
a  very  oblique  appearance  to  the  lateral  gap 
of  the  mouth,  in  this  particular  resembling  the 
ancient  architectural  bass  reliefs  representing 
the  heads  of  oxen.  The  physiogomy  of  the  bi- 
son is  menacing  and  ferocious;  but  this  appear- 
ance is  a  mere  outward  show,  since  of  all  the 


668 


BISSAGOS 


BISTRITZ 


species  the  bison  is  the  most  pacific.  Even  in  his 
breeding  season  the  bison  will  not  attack  man. 
In  summer,  from  the  shoulders  backward,  it  is 
covered  with  a  very  short  fine  hair.  The  tail  is 
short,  and  tufted  at  the  end.  The  color  of  the 
hair  is  uniformly  dun,  but  the  long  hair  on  the 
anterior  parts  of  the  body  is  to  a  certain  extent 
tinged  with  yellowish  or  rust  color.  The  shaggy 
masses  of  hair  which  cover  the  head,  shoulders, 
and  neck  of  the  male,  with  his  great  beard,  are 
of  a  darker  shade  of  the  same  hue.  The  sexual 
season  of  the  bison  commences  in  July,  toward 
the  latter  end  of  the  month,  and  lasts  till  the 
beginning  of  September ;  after  which  time  the 
cows  leave  the  company  of  the  bulls  and  range 
in  different  herds.  They  calve  in  April,  and 
the  calves  never  leave  the  mother  until  they 
are  a  year  old,  while  they  often  follow  her 
until  they  are  three  years  old.  From  July  to 
the  end  of  December  the  cows  are  very  fat 
and  in  prime  condition ;  the  bulls  are  always 
poor,  and  their  flesh  is  lean  and  hard ;  during 
the  breeding  season  it  is  rank  and  disagreeable. 
At  this  time  of  the  year  the  roaring  of  the  bulls 
on  the  prairies  is  like  hoarse  thunder,  and  they 
fight  furious  battles  among  themselves.  When 
migrating,  they  travel  in  vast  solid  columns  of 
thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  which  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  turn  or  arrest  in  their  pro- 
gress, since  the  rearward  masses  drive  the 
leaders  on,  whether  they  will  or  no.  The  flesh 
of  the  bison,  the  cow  especially,  is  like  coarse- 
grained beef,  but  is  juicy,  tender,  and  sapid  in 
the  highest  degree.  The  favorite  portion  is 
the  hump,  which,  when  cooked  in  the  Indian 
fashion,  by  sewing  it  up  in  the  hide,  singed  and 
denuded  of  hair,  and  baking  it  in  an  earth 
oven,  wherein  a  fire  has  been  previously  kin- 
dled, and  over  which  a  second  fire  is  kept 
burning  during  the  process,  is  considered  the 
most  exquisite  of  dainties ;  the  tongue  and  the 
marrow  bones  are  also  greatly  prized.  Nu- 
merous tribes  of  Indians  are  almost  entirely 
dependent  on  the  bison  for  their  food,  clothing, 
dwellings,  and  even  fuel ;  the  dressed  hides 
with  the  hair  on  form  their  robes — denuded  of 
it,  the  covers  of  their  tents;  and  the  dried 
ordure — known  on  the  prairies  as  bois  de  vache 
— on  the  vast  treeless  plains  of  the  west,  fur- 
nishes the  sole  material  for  their  fires.  The 
dressed  hides  are  a  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce, and  for  these  as  well  as  for  other 
causes  the  slaughter  of  these  animals  is  pro- 
digious. Their  original  range  appears  to  have 
been  the  whole  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, west  of  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson 
river,  with  the  exception  of  some  intervals  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  south  of  the  Ottawa 
and  Columbia  rivers,  northward  of  which  its 
place  is  supplied  by  the  musk  ox,  as  is  that  of 
the  elk  and  moose  by  the  reindeer.  For  many 
years  they  have  ceased  to  exist  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Mississippi. 

BISSAGOS,  a  group  of  islands  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  western  Africa, 
between  lat.  10°  and  12°  N.  and  Ion.  15°  and 


17°  W.  Only  16  of  them  are  of  any  magnitude. 
Bissao,  the  most  important,  contains  a  Portu- 
guese settlement,  and  was  the  centre  of  the 
Portuguese  slave  trade ;  pop.  8,000, 

BISSELL,  William  H.,  governor  of  Illinois,  born 
near  Oooperstown,  N.  Y.,  April  25,  1811,  died 
in  Springfield,  111.,  March  18,  1800.  He  took 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  Jefferson  medical 
college,  Philadelphia,  in  1835,  practised  medi- 
cine two  years  at  Painted  Post,  N.  Y.,  removed 
to  Monroe  county,  10.,  in  1837,  was  elected  to 
the  state  legislature  in  1840,  and  there  earned 
distinction  as  a  forcible  and  ready  debater. 
He  subsequently  studied  and  practised  law,  and 
was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of  St.  Clair 
county  in  1844.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war 
in  1846  as  colonel  of  the  2d  Illinois  volunteers, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Buena  Vista.  On 
his  return  home  in  1849  he  was  elected  with- 
out opposition  a  representative  in  congress,  in 
which  capacity  he  served  till  1855,  resisting 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise,  though 
he  had  previously  acted  with  the  democratic 
party,  and  gaining  much  reputation  in  the 
North  by  his  defiant  bearing  in  a  controversy 
with  Jefferson  Davis  respecting  the  compara- 
tive bravery  of  northern  and  southern  soldiers. 
Davis  challenged  him,  and  he  accepted  the 
challenge,  selecting  muskets  as  the  weapons  to 
be  used,  at  so  short  a  distance  as  to  make  the 
duel  probably  fatal  to  both  parties.  Finally 
the  quarrel  was  compromised  and  the  chal- 
lenge withdrawn.  In  1856  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Illinois  by  the  republicans,  and  died 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term. 

lilssKT,  Robert,  an  English  writer,  born  in 
1759,  died  May  14,  1805.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  known 
as  a  eontinuator  of  the  histories  of  Hume  and 
Smollett,  which  he  brought  down  to  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  George  III.  He  published  an  es- 
say on  democracy  and  a  life  of  Edmund  Burke 
(1786),  a  romance  called  "Douglas,"  and  an 
edition  of  the  "  Spectator,"  with  lives  of  the 
various  contributors  and  valuable  notes. 

BISTRE,  a  reddish  brown  water  color,  gen- 
erally obtained  from  the  soot  that  collects  in 
chimney  flues.  This  is  pulverized  and  washed 
to  remove  the  saline  ingredients.  The  finest 
sediment  is  then  dissolved  in  vinegar,  to  which 
gum  water  is  afterward  added.  It  was  formerly 
much  used  for  making  painters'  crayons,  and 
also  for  a  paint  in  water-color  designs.  Sepia, 
however,  is  now  preferred  to  it. 

BISTRITZ  (Hun.  Besztercze),  a  free  royal 
town  of  N.  E.  Transylvania,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name,  capital  of  the  Saxon  circle  of  Bis- 
tritz  or  Nosnerland;  pop.  in  1870,  7,212.  It 
has  three  gates  of  entrance,  and  two  suburbs 
chiefly  tenanted  by  Wallachs.  Among  the  pub- 
lic buildings  are  a  handsome  city  hall  and  a 
Gothic  Protestant  church,  the  steeple  of  which 
is  250  ft.  high.  Wine,  potash,  and  cattle  sell- 
ing are  the  chief  sources  of  wealth.  Near  it 
are  the  remains  of  a  castle  once  the  residence 
of  the  Hunyadys. 


BITHOOR 


BITSCH 


669 


BITHOOR,  or  Bittoor,  a  town  of  Hindostan, 
province  of  Allahabad,  on  the  Ganges,  21  m. 
N.  W.  of  Cawnpore;  pop.  about  9,000.  As  a 
religious  city  it  enjoys  high  repute,  and  every 
year  in  November  and  December  is  the  scene 
of  a  festival.  Besides  a  number  of  Hindoo  tem- 
ples, it  has  magnificent  ghauts,  or  flights  of 
steps,  on  the  brink  of  the  sacred  river,  where 
the  priests  and  worshippers  of  Brahma  perform 
their  prescribed  ablutions.  One  of  these  ghauts 
is  held  to  have  been  honored  by  the  presence 
of  Brahma  himself,  who  there  sacrificed  a 
horse  after  creating  the  universe.  A  pin  fixed 
in  one  of  the  steps,  and  believed  to  have  drop- 


Ghaat  on  the  Ganges. 

ped  from  the  god's  slipper  on  that  occasion,  is 
an  object  of  deep  veneration.  For  a  long  period 
this  town  was  the  residence  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Mahrattas,  the  last  of  whom  died  without  issue 
in  1851.  His  estate  then  reverted  to  the  East 
India  company,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  claim 
of  an  adopted  son,  Dhundoo  Punt,  who  was, 
however,  permitted  to  occupy  the  town,  and 
is  known  by  his  title  of  the  Nena  Sahib.  He 
became  the  leader  of  the  sepoy  mutineers  in 
1857-'8.  In  July,  1857,  Gen.  Havelock  drove 
the  Nena  from  the  town  and  dismantled  it ;  it 
was  subsequently  reoccupied  by  the  mutineers, 
and  after  a  well  fought  battle  again  taken  by 
llavelock,  Aug.  10. 

BITHYNIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, bounded  N.  by  the  Euxine,  E.  by  Paphla- 
gonia,  S.  by  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  and  W.  by 
the  Propontis  and  Mysia,  and  comprising  the 
N.  E.  portions  of  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Kho- 
davendigiar.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Bi- 
thyni  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Strymon 
in  Thrace,  having  been  expelled  thence  by  a 
more  powerful  horde ;  and  Thucydides  and 
Xenophon  corroborate  this  statement  by  call- 
ing their  descendants  Bithynian  Thracians. 
The  Bithynians  maintained  their  independence 
till  they  were  subdued  by  Croesus,  king  of 


I  Lydia.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Lydian  mon- 
!  archy  they  passed  under  the  power  of  the  Per- 
i  sians,  and  their  country  became  a  part  of  the 
satrapy  of  Phrygia.  In  later  times,  however,  it 
was  itself  constituted  into  a  satrapy,  and  even 
a  native  dynasty  sprang  up  in  it.  After  tha 
defeat  of  the  Persians  on  the  Granicus,  Bithy- 
nia  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Macedonians. 
On  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Bas, 
the  son  of  Botiras,  a  native  chief,  vanquished 
Calantus,  the  Macedonian  governor,  and  took 
possession  of  Bithynia  for  himself  and  his  pos- 
terity. Nicomedes,  the  fourth  in  descent  from 
Botiras,  was  the  first  of  this  dynasty  who  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king.  The  kingdom  of 
Bithynia  endured  for  over  two  centuries.  Its 
last  king  was  Nicomedes  III.,  who,  having  no 
children,  bequeathed  his  dominions  to  the  Ro- 
mans, 74  B.  0.  The  Romans  annexed  Bithy- 
nia first  to  the  province  of  Asia,  and  then  to 
that  of  Pontus.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  it 
was  separated  from  the  latter,  and,  together 
with  the  western  part  of  Paphlagonia,  consti- 
tuted a  proconsular  province.  The  inland 
districts  of  Bithynia  were  mountainous  and 
woody,  embracing  the  Bithynian  Olympus ;  but 
the  country  near  the  coast  consisted  for  the 
most  part  of  fertile  plains,  which  were  studded 
with  villages.  Its  chief  river  was  the  Sanga- 
rius  (now  Sakaria),  which  traversed  it  from 
south  to  north.  Among  its  towns  were  Nico- 
media  and  Prusa  (Brusa),  successively  capitals, 
Heraclea,  Chalcedon,  and  Nicsea. 

BITON  AND  CLEOBIS,  in  Greek  legend,  sons 
of  Cydippe,  priestess  of  Juno  at  Argos.  On 
one  occasion,  the  oxen  which  dragged  the 
chariot  of  the  priestess  not  being  at  hand,  they 
drew  their  mother  to  the  temple,  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles.  Cydippe  prayed  to  Juno  to 
grant  to  them  in  reward  what  was  best  for 
mortals.  That  night  the  brothers  slept  in  the 
temple,  and  never  awoke.  This  was  the  great- 
est boon  the  goddess  could  grant. 

BITONTO  (anc.  Butuntum),  a  town  of  S. 
Italy,  in  the  province  and  10m.  W.  of  Ban ;  pop. 
in  1872,  24,978.  It  is  handsomely  built,  and  has 
a  fine  cathedral  and  a  large  orphan  asylum.  A 
victory  was  gained  here  by  the  Spaniards  over 
the  Austrians,  May  25,  1734,  which  gave  the 
former  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
The  ancient  Butuntum  is  only  known  from  coins. 
BITSCH  (Fr.  Sitehe),  a  town  and  fortress  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
French  department  of  Moselle,  35  m.  N.  W. 
of  Strasburg ;  pop.  in  1866,  2,740.  The  fort  is 
on  an  isolated  rock,  defending  one  of  the  main 
roads  through  the  Vosges,  with  bomb-proof 
casemates  hewn  from  the  solid  rock,  and  is  well 
supplied  with  water.  Before  the  late  Franco- 
German  war  it  contained  90  guns.  It  was  in 
vested  by  the  German  forces  in  August,  1870, 
and  in  September  suffered  a  severe  bombard- 
ment. It  however  held  out  until  the  prelim- 
inaries of  peace  were  signed,  when  together 
with  the  territory  in  which  it  is  situated  it 
was  ceded  to  the  Germans.  The  town  contains 


670 


BITTERFELD 


Bitsch. 

manufactories  of  paper  and  porcelain,  and  in 
the  vicinity  are  extensive  glass  works. 

BITTERFELD,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  in 
the  district  of  Merseburg,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Mulde  with  the  Lober,  17  m.  by  railway  N.  of 
Leipsic;  pop.  hi  1871,  5,043.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated,  and  contains  waterworks.  Railway 
communication  with  all  parts  of  the  continent 
has  produced  within  the  last  few  years  great  in- 
dustrial activity.  There  are  coal  mines  and  sev- 
eral iron  founderies,  breweries,  and  distilleries, 
and  cloth,  pottery,  machinery,  and  other  articles 
are  manufactured  here.  The  town  was  founded 
in  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  by  Flemings.' 

BITTERN,  a  fen  fowl,  of  the  order  grallatorea 
or  waders,  family  ardeidte,  which  also  includes 
the  herons,  old  genus  ardea  (Linn.).  There  are 
in  Europe  several  species  of  this  bird,  which 


English  Bittern  (Botanrus  stellaris). 

resembles  the  heron.  The  most  common,  the 
English  bittern  (botaurug  stellaris,  Steph.),  is 
famous  for  the  peculiar  nocturnal  booming 


BITTERN 

sound  which  it  emits 
in  the  deep  watery  mo- 
rasses of  which  it  is 
an  inhabitant,  to  which 
sound  it  owes  several 
of  its  names,  as  the  bog- 
bumper,  mire  -  drum, 
&c.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  three 
species :  A.  minor  or 
liotanrus  lentiginosus 
(Steph.),  corresponding 
to  the  European  bit- 
tern, 26^  inches  long, 
and  of  a  brownish  yel- 
low color;  the  green 
bittern  or  green  heron 
(A.  [lutorides]  vires- 
cens),  15  inches  long, 
very  common  in  inland 
streams  and  mill  ponds, 
a  beautiful  bird,  but 
commonly  known  by  a 
vulgar  and  indelicate  nickname  ;  and  the  least 
bittern  (ardetta  exilic),  an  extremely  small 
and  beautifully  marked  bird.  All  the  bit- 
terns are  handsome  birds,  with  long  necks, 
which  they  hold  proudly  erect;  fine,  pendulous, 
but  erectile  crests ;  a  long  fringe  of  feathers 
on  the  neck,  mottled  with  yellow,  brown,  and 
black,  like  tortoise  shell ;  and  all  their  upper 


Green  Bittern  or  Green  Heron  (Butorides  vtrescens). 

parts  variegated  with  black,  brown,  rust  color, 
yellow,  and  white,  like  those  of  the  wood- 
cock. Their  long  legs  are  bare  far  above 
the  knee,  to  enable  them  to  wade  into  deep 
water,  in  pursuit  of  their  fishy  and  reptile 
prey.  They  have  clear,  penetrating  eyes,  with 
a  fearless  look,  which  well  expresses  their 
bold  and  self-reliant  character.  If  wounded 
or  broken-winged,  they  will  fight  bravely  with 
their  sharp-pointed  bills,  striking  at  the  eyes 
either  of  men  or  dogs,  to  the  latter  of  which 
they  are  formidable  antagonists.  Their  voice 


BITTER   PRINCIPLES 


BITUMEN 


671 


is  a  harsh  qua-ak;  their  flight  slow  and  heavy, 
with  their  long  legs  outstretched  behind. 
Their  habits  are  nocturnal ;  their  haunts 


Least  Bittern  (Ardetta  exilis). 

fresh-water  pools,  stagnant  rivers,  and  mo- 
rasses; they  build,  like  the  heron,  in  trees, 
ordinarily  raising  two  young  ones.  Their  food 
is  small  fish,  lizards,  frogs,  and  frog  spawn,  of 
which  they  are  voracious  consumers.  They 
are  good  eating  in  September,  when  the  first 
frosts  are  commencing,  and  are  eaten  roasted, 
with  currant  jelly  and  stuffing,  like  the  hare, 
which  they  somewhat  resemble. 

BITTER  PRINCIPLES,  substances  extracted 
from  plants  by  digestion  in  water,  alcohol,  or 
ether,  and  which  possess  in  concentrated  form 
that  which  gives  the  bitter  taste  to  plants. 
Excepting  this,  these  extracts  do  not  appear  to 
possess  other  characteristic  properties  in  com- 
mon; their  nature,  however,  is  not  very  well 
understood.  Many  alkaloids,  especially  quinia 
and  strychnia,  possess  an  intense  bitterness, 
but  are  not  classified  with  the  substances  just 
described,  because  they  possess  other  much 
more  important  properties.  Some  bitter  prin- 
ciples are  crystallizable,  as  colombine,  quas- 
sine,  gentiopierine,  taraxacine,  aloine,  and 
phloridzine,  a  substance  obtained  from  the 
bark  of  the  apple,  pear,  and  cherry ;  while  the 
bitters  of  hops,  pinkroot,  and  wild  cherry  have 
not  yet  been  obtained  in  crystals,  and  that  of 
the  last  mentioned  drug  not  even  isolated. 
Some  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  bitters  are 
soluble  in  water ;  some  only  in  alcohol  or  ether. 
They  are  generally  neutral  in  their  properties, 
uniting  neither  with  acids  nor  bases. — Bitters 
are  used  -in  medicine  as  tonics,  and  also  as 
aperients;  and  in  the  manufacture  of  malt 
liquors  they  are  employed  to  impart  to  them 
their  bitter  flavor.  In  the  healthy  condition 
bitters  do  not  assist  or  accelerate  digestion,  but 
rather  the  contrary,  as  has  been  shown  by 
direct  experiment.  When  the  digestion  is  en- 
feebled, however,  they  seem  to  impart  vigor  to 
this  process  by  stimulating  the  flow  of  gastric 
juice  and  by  retarding  the  progress  of  ab- 
normal fermentations,  which  have  a  tendency 
95  VOL.  n. — 43 


to  take  the  place  of  and  interrupt  the  healthy 
process.  The  sensation  produced  by  the  irrita- 
tion of  bitters  in  the  stomach  should  not  be 
mistaken  for  true  hunger. 

B1TTOOR.      See  BITHOOE. 

BITUMEN,  a  generic  name  for  a  variety  of 
substances  found  in  the  earth,  or  exuding  from 
it  upon  the  surface,  in  the  form  of  springs. 
The  liquid  varieties  become  inspissated  by  ex- 
posure, and  eventually  harden  into  the  solid 
form,  which  is  asphaltum.  The  bitumens  burn 
with  a  flame  and  thick  black  smoke,  giving  out 
the  peculiar  odor  called  bituminous.  Some  of 
the  impure  fluid  bitumens,  and  the  solid  vari- 
ety when  melted,  closely  resemble  coal  tar. 
They  are  distinguished  from  bituminous  coal 
in  giving  no  ammonia,  or  mere  traces  of  it,  by 
distillation,  and  in  developing  negative  elec- 
tricity by  friction  without  being  insulated; 
also,  when  ignited  upon  a  grate,  the  bitumens 
melt  and  run  through  at  the  temperature  of 
about  220°  F.,  but  the  coals  burn  to  ashes.  In 
melting,  volatile  fluids  escape  from  them  with 
no  swelling  up  other  than  that  due  to  ebulli- 
tion. This  property  of  dividing  by  heat  into 
Uuids  and  solid  residues  having  a  porous  form, 
assimilates  the  bitumens  to  ordinary  turpen- 
tine and  tar,  and  renders  them  unsuitable  for 
producing  gas  economically.  In  boiling  water 
the  bitumens  soften,  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the 
vessel,  and  give  off  naphtha;  coal  undergoes 
no  change.  The  bitumens,  again,  dissolve  per- 
fectly in  spirits  of  turpentine,  benzole,  rosin 
oil,  linseed  oil,  and  sulphuric  ether ;  while  coal, 
after  long  digestion  in  the  oils,  only  colors  the 
liquid  brown,  and  to  the  sulphuric  ether  im- 
parts a  naphtha-like  fluid  and  a  resinous  body. 
The  bitumens  decompose  nitric  acid,  coal  does 
not;  they  combine  with  sulphuric  acid,  coal  is 
not  affected  by  it.  Dropped  upon  melted  tin 
with  a  temperature  of  442°  F.,  the  bitumens 
decompose  and  give  off  copious  fumes ;  coal  is 
unaltered.  Most  of  these  points  of  difference 
were  given  in  evidence  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes 
and  Dr.  0.  T.  Jackson  of  Boston,  in  an  impor- 
tant suit  tried  in  New  Brunswick,  to  test  the 
title  to  the  Albert  coal-mining  property,  this 
turning  on  the  point  whether  the  product  was 
coal  or  asphaltum.  Dr.  Dre  notices  that  the 
fluid  bitumens  differ  from  coal  tar  in  not  pro- 
ducing the  six  substances  extracted  from  the 
latter  by  Mr.  Mansfield,  and  named  by  him 
alliole,  benzole,  toluole,  camphole,  mortuole, 
and  nitro-benzole. — The  varieties  of  bitumen 
commonly  described  are :  the  liquid  oil,  naph- 
tha, or,  in  its  more  impure  form,  petroleum ; 
the  viscid  pitchy  bitumen,  which  passes  into 
the  black  resinous  asphaltum ;  and  the  elastic 
bitumen,  or  elaterite  of  the  mineralogists.  The 
last  is  also  called  mineral  caoutchouc,  from  its 
property  of  rubbing  out  pencil  marks.  It  was 
first  found  in  the  deserted  lead  mine  of  Odin, 
in  Derbyshire,  England,  by  Dr.  Lister,  in  1673, 
and  was  called  by  him  a  subterranean  fungus. 
It  occurs  in  soft  flexible  masses  of  blackish 
brown  colors  and  resinous  lustre,  and  consists 


672 


BITUMEN 


of  abont  85  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  the  re- 
mainder hydrogen  with  probably  some  oxygen. 
Compact  bitumen,  or  asphaltum,  has  been 
noticed  under  ASPHALTUM  ;  but  further  con- 
sideration will  be  given  to  it  in  this  article 
in  treating  of  the  uses  of  the  bitumens.  Gra- 
hamite,  found  in  West  Virginia,  and  albertite, 
in  Nova  Scotia,  are  supposed  to  be  inspissated 
and  oxygenated  petroleums.  Ohapapote  is  an 
asphaltum  found  in  abundance  near  Havana, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  island  of  Cuba.  It  appears 
to  be  a  consolidated  petroleum,  a  liquid  variety 
of  which  is  often  seen  near  it  oozing  through 
the  fissures  of  the  limestone  rocks.  The  solid 
product  is  of  jet-black  color,  and  gives  a  brown 
powder  and  a  strong  but  not  unpleasant  odor. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  given  by  Dr.  Hayes  at 
from  1-165  to  1'170.  It  melts  in  boiling  water 
into  a  thick  liquor,  and  forms  a  scum  upon  the 
surface.  Alone,  it  melts  at  214°  F.  into  a  uni- 
form fluid,  which  may  be  poured  from  one 
vessel  to  another ;  calcined  in  close  vessels,  it 
swells  and  leaves  a  very  light  coke ;  dissolved 
in  spirits  of  turpentine,  it  makes  a  coarse  var- 
nish. Brown-colored  and  viscid  oils  are  ex- 
tracted from  it.  Petroleum  and  naphtha  are 
fluid  substances,  called  also  rock  oil,  which 
flow  up  through  fissures  in  the  rocks,  and  col- 
lect in  low  places,  and  are  found  floating  upon 
the  surface  of  the  waters  of  lakes.  When  in- 
durated and  oxidized  by  exposure,  they  are 
asphaltum.  The  purer  form,  called  naphtha, 
is  very  common  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
and  in  numerous  places  is  turned  to  good  ac- 
count as  a  fuel,  and  also  for  illumination.  (See 
NAPHTHA,  and  PETROLEUM.)  These  different 
varieties  of  bitumen  are  found  only  in  the  sec- 
ondary and  tertiary  formations.  If  they  occur 
at  all  in  the  primary  rocks,  it  is  merely  in 
veins  and  fissures,  which  probably  have  been 
filled  long  after  their  formation.  They  are 
very  generally  met  with  in  connection  with 
salt  springs,  or  mines  of  rock  salt.  Near  vol- 
canoes, petroleum  is  often  seen  issuing  with 
the  waters  of  springs,  or  floating  upon  the  sea, 
furnished  from  springs  at  its  bottom.  The 
ancient  Babylonians  obtained  the  imperishable 
cement  for  their  structures  from  the  fountains 
of  Is,  which  is  the  modern  Hit,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.  These  still  continue 
to  pour  out  inexhaustible  supplies,  mingled 
with  the  strongly  saline  and  sulphurous  waters. 
Common  salt  is  also  prepared  here  from  the 
brine  springs.  The  water  of  the  springs  has  a 
temperature  of  about  160°  F.  As  it  flows 
slowly  along  a  conduit,  the  oily  bitumen  gathers 
on  the  surface,  and  is  skimmed  off  and  laid  in 
pits  exposed  to  the  air,  in  which  it  speedily 
hardens  into  flakes  of  about  an  inch  thick, 
which  are  sold  at  Hit  for  about  five  cents  the 
cwt.  It  is  much  used  for  covering  the  houses 
and  boats  of  the  region.  The  rock  formation 
is  an  argillaceous  limestone,  over  which  is 
found  in  some  places  a  coarsely  granular  gyp- 
sum. These  fountains  are  celebrated  as  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  Alexander  the  Great, 


Trajan,  and  Julian.  The  bituminous  products 
of  the  Dead  sea  in  Palestine  are  collected  on  the 
E.  and  W.  sides  of  the  lake,  and  are  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  a  bed  of  bitumen  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  pieces  resemble  pitch,  and,  though 
one  seventh  heavier  than  pure  water,  float 
upon  the  saline  water  of  the  Dead  sea,  the 
specific  gravity  of  which  is  1-23.  They  melt  in 
boiling  water,  and  when  distilled  yield  a  vola- 
tile oil,  some  water,  and  traces  of  ammonia. 
The  residue  consists  of  charcoal,  amounting  to 
one  eighth  of  the  weight  of  the  asphaltum,  its 
ashes  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  traces  of  lime  and  manganese.  It  is  from 
this  locality  that  the  name  Jews'  pitch  has  been 
given  to  asphaltum.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad, 
in  the  West  Indies,  there  is  a  famous  lake  of 
asphaltum  and  petroleum  called  Tar  lake,  or  by 
the  French  Le  Brai,  from  its  material  answer- 
ing the  purposes  of  pitch,  and  possessing  this 
additional  advantage,  that  it  keeps  off  the  tere- 
do or  borer,  which  in  warm  climates  is  so  de- 
structive to  the  timber  of  ships.  The  lake  is 
near  the  sea,  about  3  m.  in  circumference.  It 
appears  at  a  distance  like  water,  but  near  by 
like  a  lake  of  glass.  In  approaching,  a  strong 
sulphurous  smell  is  perceived  at  the  distance 
of  8  or  10  miles.  When  the  weather  is  hot 
and  dry,  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  so  soft  and 
sticky  one  cannot  walk  upon  it.  A  foot  below 
the  surface  it  becomes  softer,  and  contains  an 
oily  substance  in  little  cells.  Specimens  of  this 
bitumen,  which  were  regarded  as  pure,  and 
taken  to  Europe,  were  examined  by  Mr.  Hatch- 
ett,  who  found  them  to  consist  of  a  porous  and 
argillaceous  stone  thoroughly  impregnated  with 
bitumen.  It  does  not  burn  readily,  but  becomes 
plastic  by  a  slight  increase  of  temperature. 
Bitumen  is  also  found  disseminated  through 
calcareous  and  sandstone  rocks,  and  saturating 
slates  and  shales.  Nearly  all  the  varieties  of  it 
are  liable  to  have  many  impurities  mixed  with 
them,  and  all  contain  volatile  oils  and  water. — 
The  bitumens  are  purified  by  first  boiling  them 
with  water.  The  sand  and  other  mineral  sub- 
stances fall  to  the  bottom,  and  the  bitumen 
floating  or  sticking  to  the  sides  of  the  boiler  is 
skimmed  off  and  put  into  another  boiler,  by 
which  more  water  is  separated.  It  is  then 
boiled  by  itself  for  some  time,  and  is  entirely 
freed  from  water  and  oils  and  the  solid  impuri- 
ties, which  subside  to  the  bottom.  It  is  thus 
obtained  in  the  form  of  a  thick  fatty  pitch, 
ready  to  be  barrelled  for  the  market  or  applied 
to  its  uses. — The  results  of  the  ultimate  analy- 
sis of  the  pure  natural  bitumens,  whether  liquid 
or  solid,  vary  but  little  from  88  per  cent,  of 
carbon  and  12  of  hydrogen.  A  solid  bitumen 
of  Coxitambo,  near  Cuenca  in  Ecuador,  gave 
88'7  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  9'7  of  hydrogen, 
with  1-6  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is 
usually  present  to  the  extent  of  a  trace,  and  in 
the  solid  asphaltum  it  has  been  found  to  the 
extent  of  12  per  cent.,  and  oxygen  also  in  vhe 
same  variety  about  8  per  cent.  By  treating 
asphaltum  with  different  solvents,  three  dis- 


BITUMEN 


BJORLING 


673 


tinct  bodies  may  be   separated.     Water  dis- 
solves nothing.     Anhydrous  alcohol  dissolves  a 
yellow  resin  equal  to  ^  of  the  weight  of  the 
asphaltum ;  this  is  soluble  also  in  ether.     The 
residue,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  treated  with  ether, 
yields  a  dark  brown  resin,  which  is  separated 
by  evaporating  the  ether.     It  amounts  to  -f'y  the  j 
weight  of  the  asphaltum.     It  dissolves  easily  j 
in  volatile  oils,  and  in  oil  of  petroleum.     The  ; 
latter  also,  as  well  as  turpentine  oil,  takes  up  ! 
tho  residue  which  the  ether  leaves. — The  fol- 
lowing formulas,  exhibiting  the  composition  of 
petroleum  and  asphalt,  are  given  by  Dr.  Mus- 
pratt,  as  setting  forth  in  a  striking  manner  the 
derivation  of  the  latter  by  oxidation  of  the 
former : 

Naphtha,  or  petroleum C90H,,,or  C10HS., 

Asphalt,  or  bitumen C40H3aO, 

— Great  expectations  have  been  entertained  of 
the  important  uses  to  which  the  natural  bitu-  j 
mens  might  be  applied ;  they  have  proved  to  be  j 
admirably  adapted  for  the  construction  of  walks, 
terraces,  roofs,  and  every  kind  of  hydraulic  j 
work.  The  material  most  successfully  employ- 
ed in  France  for  producing  the  bituminous 
mastic  is  liquid  bitumen  mixed  with  a  bitu- 
minous limestone,  which  is  ground  to  powder, 
sifted  and  stirred  into  the  boiling  asphaltum, 
four  parts  of  the  stone  to  one  of  the  bitumen. 
Dry,  common  limestone,  or  broken  bricks,  will 
answer  as  well.  The  mixture,  when  of  homo- 
geneous consistency,  is  poured  out  upon  a  table 
covered  with  sheets  of  paper,  and  upon  which 
a  square  frame  is  placed  for  receiving  the  sheets 
of  mastic.  It  is  spread  smoothly  by  a  heated 
iron  roller,  sprinkled  with  sand,  and  left  to 
cool.  When  laid,  they  are  united  by  soldering 
with  a  hot  iron.  Goal  tar  is  often  substituted 
for  the  natural  bitumen,  but  it  is  considered 
far  inferior  to  it  in  durability  and  strength. 
The  bituminous  limestone  is  found  at  Val  de 
Travers,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  in  the 
Jura  limestone  formation,  corresponding  to  the 
English  oolite.  It  consists  of  80  per  cent,  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  20  per  cent,  of  bitumen. 
It  is  tough,  difficult  to  break  with  a  hammer, 
and  is  excavated  by  blasting.  Slightly  heated, 
it  exhales  a  fragrant  odor,  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  factitious  compounds.  The  carbo- 
nate of  lime  is  so  protected  by  the  bitumen 
that  it  does  not  effervesce  with  muriatic  acid. 
In  any  artificial  mixture  it  would  be  impossi- 
ble to  produce  so  intimate  a  combination  of 
these  substances  as  is  found  in  this  natural 
asphalt  rock.  Silicious  matters,  as  sand  and 
smooth  pebbles,  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  the 
preparation  of  durable  mastic  as  calcareous  sub- 
stances, because  they  have  little  attraction  for 
the  bitumen,  and  the  mixture  is  liable  to  crack 
and  crumble.  Bitumen  is  applied  also  in  the 
form  of  an  external  coating  of  mastic  to  give 
strength  and  protection  to  thin  sheet-iron  pipes 
and  glass  tubes  used  for  conveying  water,  also 
for  roofing.  To  some  extent  asphaltum  may 
be  used  as  a  fuel,  especially  for  heating  meters 


in  gas  works,  when  blown  into  the  grate  in 
the  form  of  powder.  It  appears  to  have  been 
a  principal  ingredient  in  the  destructive  Greek 
fire.  (See  GREEK  FIBE.)  Bricks  of  poor  qual- 
ity saturated  with  it  are  rendered  strong  and 
impervious  to  water.  It  answers  most  of  the 
purposes  for  which  coal  tar  is  used.  It  makes 
the  strongest  cement  for  laying  brick  and  stone 
work.  The  ancient  Egyptians  used  some  form 
of  it  for  embalming  bodies.  The  hardness  of 
the  mummies  is  probably  owing  to  the  combi- 
nation of  bitumen  with  the  animal  substances. 
In  France  a  process  has  been  patented  for 
spreading  fluid  bitumen  upon  canvas  sheets  or 
netting  and  passing  it  between  metallic  rolls, 
thus  coating  the  cloth  on  one  or  both  sides,  and 
to  any  desired  thickness.  The  use  of  the  ma- 
terial is  for  lining  buildings. — -The  origin  of  the 
bitumens  has  been  regarded  as  very  doubtful. 
The  c.omposition  would  seem  to  refer  them  to 
vegetable  matters,  though  they  possess  very 
marked  differences  from  the  coals. 

BITUMINOUS  SHALE,  a  soft  variety  of  argil- 
laceous slate,  found  usually  associated  with 
coal.  It  contains  a  variable  proportion  of 
bitumen,  sometimes  so  much  of  it  that  it 
will  burn.  In  Mansfeld,  Germany,  the  bitu- 
minous schist  found  immediately  over  the 
new  red  sandstone  contains  also  a  small  quan- 
tity of  copper  pyrites,  and  though  it  yields 
only  1$  per  cent,  of  metal,  it  is  made  to  pay 
a  profit  by  the  ore  furnishing  its  own  fuel  for 
reduction.  Shale  is  sometimes  distilled  for 
paraffine  and  illuminating  oil. 

BITZItJS,  Albert,  a  Swiss  author,  better  known 
under  the  pseudonyme  of  Jeremias  Gotthelf, 
born  at  Morat,  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  Oct. 
4,  1797,  died  at  Lutzelfliih,  in  the  Emmen  val- 
ley of  the  canton  of  Bern,  Oct.  22,  1854.  In 
early  life  he  officiated  as  pastor  in  Bern,  and 
for  some  time  took  part  in  politics;  but  from 
1837  till  his  death  he  devoted  himself  ex- 
clusively to  literature.  His  writings  consist 
chiefly  of  tales  descriptive  of  the  home  life  of 
Switzerland.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
in  24  vols.  was  published  at  Berlin,  1855-'8. 
He  also  published  several  popular  almanacs. 

BIZERTA,  or  Benzerta  (anc.  Hippo  Zarytus), 
a  fortified  seaport  town  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Tunis,  the  northernmost  town  of  Africa,  on 
a  gulf  which  communicates  with  a  lake  in 
the  interior ;  pop.  about  8,000.  The  harbor 
was  formerly  commodious,  but  is  now  choked 
up  with  sand,  and  receives  only  small  ves- 
sels. The  adjoining  lake  abounds  in  fish,  the 
roes  of  which,  dried  and  formed  into  a  sub- 
stance called  botargo,  are  an  article  of  Medi- 
terranean commerce. 

BJORLING,  Carl  Olaf,  a  Swedish  prelate  and 
author,  born  at  Westeras,'  Oct.  17,  1804.  He 
is  a  graduate  of  Upsal,  and  became  a  teacher 
of  mathematics  and  afterward  of  history.  He 
was  ordained  in  1844,  was  promoted  to  the 
deanery  of  Westeras  in  1852,  and  in  1866  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  that  diocese.  The 
principal  of  his  various  learned  works  (in  La- 


674 


BJORNEBORG 


BLACK 


tin)  is  Dogmata  Beligionu  Christiana  ad  For- 
mulam  Doctrinas,  &c.  (2  parts,  1847-'69 ;  2d 
edition  of  the  first  part,  1866). 

BJOR.N'EBORG,  a  seaport  town  of  Finland, 
in  the  province  of  Abo-Bjorneborg,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Kurao,  72  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Abo ; 
pop.  7,270.  The  old  town  was  wholly  burned 
down  in  1801 ;  the  new  town  is  well  and  reg- 
ularly built.  It  exports  pitch,  tar,  pine,  oil,  and 
wooden  ware. 

BJOK.VSO.V,  Bjornstjfrne,  a  Norwegian  author, 
born  at  Kvikne,  Osterdalen,  Dec.  8,  1832.  He 
is  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  studied  at  the  uni-  ; 
versity  of  Christiania  in  1852,  and  early  con-  ] 
nected  himself  with  the  press,  his  contribu- 
tions attracting  much  attention.  For  two  years 
he  was  manager  of  a  theatre  at  Bergen,  and 
next  he  edited  a  political  journal  in  Ohristia- 
nia,  encountering  much  opposition,  which  drove 
him  from  Norway,  and  he  resided  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  mainly  in  Copenhagen,  returning 
to  Christiania  in  1862.  He  has  acquired  a 
wide  reputation  by  his  novels  and  tales,  de- 
scriptive of  Norwegian  popular  life,  and  by  his 
dramas  and  poetry.  Many  of  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  English,  German,  and  other 
languages.  Among  those  best  known  by  trans- 
lations in  the  United  States  and  in  England 
are  "Arne"  (London,  1866);  "The  Fisher 
Maiden,"  translated  from  the  author's  German 
edition  by  M.  E.  Niles  (New  York,  1869 ;  trans- 
lated in  England  under  the  title  of  "The  Fish- 
ing Girl,"  London,  1870,  from  the  Norwegian 
edition);  "The  Newly  Married  Couple,"  and 
"  Loye  and  Life  in  Norway  "  (London,  1870). 

BJORNSTJERNA,  Magnus  Fredrik  Ferdinand; 
count,  a  Swedish  statesman  and  author,  born 
in  Dresden,  Oct.  10,  1779,  died  in  Stockholm, 
Oct.  6,  1847.  He  went  to  Sweden  in  1793, 
entered  the  army,  served  in  the  war  in  Fin- 
land, and  in  Germany  at  the  battles  of  Dessau 
and  Leipsic,  negotiated  the  capitulation  of  Lu- 
beck  with  Gen.  Lallemand,  and,  after  taking 
an  active  part  in  the  military  operations  in  Hoi- 
stein  and  Norway,  concluded  the  convention 
which  established  the  union  of  Sweden  and 
Norway.  In  October,  1812,  he  negotiated  at 
London  the  sale  of  Guadeloupe.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  the  theogony,  philosophy,  and  cos- 
mogony of  the  Hindoos,  and  another  on  the 
British  rule  in  India. 

BLACAS,  Pierre  Lonis  Jean  Caslmir,  duke  de,  a 
French   statesman,   born   at  Aulps,   Jan.    12, 
1771,  died  at  Gorz,  Nov.  17,  1839.    At  the  j 
commencement  of  the  revolution  he  emigrated,  | 
but  returned  to  France  with  Louis  XVIIL,  i 
entered  his  cabinet,  and  became  one  of  the  in-  j 
timate  advisers  of  the  Bourbons.    Sent  to  Rome 
as  ambassador,  Blacas  negotiated  the  concordat 
of  1817.     He  was '  afterward   ambassador  at 
Naples.     On  the  fall  of  the  Bourbons  in  1830 
Blacas  returned  to  exile  and  offered  Charles  X. 
his  fortune,  which  the  dethroned  king  would 
not  accept. 

BLACK,  Adam,  a  Scottish  publisher,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1784.  In  conjunction  with  his 


brother  Charles  he  established  a  publishing 
firm  in  Edinburgh,  well  known  in  connection 
with  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works,  the  "  Edinburgh 
Review,"  and  the  '•  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
to  the  8th  edition  of  which  Mr.  Black  contrib- 
uted several  articles.  He  avowed  liberal  opin- 
ions at  a  time  when  they  were  unfashionable, 
and  joined  warmly  in  the  movement  to  secure 
parliamentary  and  municipal  reform.  lie  was 
elected  twice  to  the  office  of  lord  provost  of 
Edinburgh,  which  he  occupied  from  1843  to 
1848.  Daring  a  visit  to  England,  while  hold- 
ing that  position,  he  declined  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  In  February,  1856,  on  the  final 
retirement  of  Mr.  Macaulay  from  the  represen- 
tation of  Edinburgh,  Mr.  Black  was  unani- 
mously chosen  to  succeed  him,  and  held  the 
seat  till  1865.  He  advocated  parliamentary 
reform  and  the  ballot. 

BLACK,  Jeremiah  s.,  an  American  lawyer, 
born  in  the  Glades,  Somerset  co.,  Penn.,  Jan. 
10,  1810.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830, 
appointed  president  judge  of  the  judicial  dis- 
trict in  which  he  resided  in  April,  1842,  elected 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state  in  1851, 
and  chosen  chief  justice.  He  was  ree'lected  in 
1854.  On  March  5,  1857,  he  was  appointed 
by  President  Buchanan  attorney  general  of  the 
United  States,  which  oflBce  he  held  till  De- 
cember, 1860,  when  he  became  secretary  of 
state,  and  continued  in  that  position  during 
the  remainder  of  President  Buchanan's  term. 
Since  retiring  from  office  he  has  been  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

BLACK,  Joseph,  a  Scottish  chemist,  born  in 
Bordeaux,  France,  in  1728,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
Nov.  26,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  Belfast, 
Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh,  studied  medicine, 
was  a  pupil  and  assistant  of  Dr.  Cullen,  and 
became  distinguished  by  his  experiments  upon 
lime.  It  was  supposed  that  quicklime  held  in 
absorption  something  of  an  igneous  character ; 
but  Black  discovered  that  the  causticity  of  the 
calcareous  earths  is  not  derived  from  any  com- 
bination, but  is  their  peculiar  property,  and 
that  they  lose  this  property  when  they  com- 
bine with  a  certain  portion  of  air,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  fixed  air,  but  which  is  now 
known  as  carbonic  acid  gas.  Dr.  Black  was 
invited  in  1756  to  succeed  Dr.  Cullen  at  Glas- 
gow, and  there  made  his  most  important  dis- 
covery. Ice,  he  observed,  being  converted 
into  water,  absorbs  a  large  amount  of  heat,  the 
existence  of  which  is  no  longer  indicated  by 
the  thermometer.  Water  being  converted 
into  vapor  absorbs  another  large  amount  of 
heat,  which  is  in  like  manner  lost  to  the  senses 
or  the  thermometer.  Dr.  Black,  observing 
these  phenomena,  said  that  the  heat  is  con- 
cealed (latet)  in  the  water  and  vapor,  and  in- 
troduced the  name  and  the  theory  of  latent 
heat.  This  discovery  suggested  to  Watt,  who 
was  a  pupil  of  Black,  his  improvements  in  the 
steam  engine.  In  1766  Dr.  Black  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chemical  chair  of  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  where  his  lectures  were  very  sue- 


BLAOKALL 


BLACKBIRD 


675 


cessful.  His  only  publications  were  three  dis- 
sertations, giving  an  account  of  his  experiments 
on  magnesia,  quicklime,  and  other  alkaline 
substances ;  his  observations  on  the  more  ready 
freezing  of  water  that  has  been  boiled ;  and  his 
analysis  of  some  boiling  springs  in  Iceland. 

BLACKALL,  Offspring,  an  English  prelate,  born 
in  London  in  1654,  died  in  Exeter  in  1716. 
For  two  years  after  the  coronation  of  William 
III.  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
but  finally  yielded.  In  1699  he  engaged  in  a 
controversy  with  Toland,  who  had  denied  in 
his  "  Life  of  Milton "  that  Charles  I.  was  the 
author  of  the  "Icon  Basilike,"  and  expressed 
doubts  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Scriptures. 
Blackall  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Exeter  in 
1707.  His  works,  in  2  vols.  folio,  were  pub- 
lished in  1723. 

BLACKBERRY.     See  BRAMBLE. 

BLACKBIRD,  a  N".  E.  county  of  Nebraska, 
separated  from  Iowa  on  the  E.  by  the  Mis- 
souri river,  and  watered  by  Blackbird,  Middle, 
and  Omaha  creeks;  pop.  in  1870,  31. 

BLACKBIRD.  I.  A  European  species  of  the 
thrush  family  (turdus  merula,  Linn.),  called 


Blackbird  (Turdua  merula). 

also  merle  in  France  and  some  parts  of  England. 
The  plumage  is  full,  soft,  and  glossy;  the 
length  in  the  male  is  10J  inches,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  wings  16  inches;  the  length  in  the  fe- 
male is  10  inches,  and  the  extent  of  wings  15 
inches.  In  the  adult  male  the  bill  is  five 
sixths  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  bright  orange 
color,  as  are  the  mouth,  tongue,  and  mar- 
gins of  the  lids,  the  iris  hazel,  the  feet  and 
claws  dusky  brown,  the  heel  and  soles  yellow ; 
the  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  deep  black, 
sometimes  slightly  tinged  with  brown;  the 
primaries  are  lighter,  and  obscurely  edged 
with  brown ;  the  central  part  of  the  hidden 
portion  of  each  feather  is  light  gray.  In  the 
female,  the  bill  is  dark  brown;  the  general 
color  of  the  plumage  is  deep  brown  above, 
lighter  beneath;  the  throat  and  fore  neck  pale 
brown,  streaked  with  darker  triangular  spots. 
The  young  are  dusky  brown  above,  with  dull 


yellowish  streaks ;  pale  yellowish  brown,  spot- 
ted with  dusky,  beneath.  Albino  specimens  are 
occasionally  seen.  The  blackbird  is  an  admira- 
ble singer,  its  notes,  though  simple,  being  loud, 
rich,  and  mellow,  most  frequently  heard  in  the 
morning  and  evening.  It  prefers  cultivated  dis- 
tricts, in  winter  frequenting  the  neighbprhood 
of  houses,  and  keeping  in  the  shelter  of  the  gar- 
den hedges.  Its  food  consists  of  snails,  seeds 
of  grasses  and  grain,  insects,  larv»,  worms, 
berries  of  various  kinds,  and  also  fruits.  It  is 
a  very  shy  and  active  bird,  hopping  on  the 
ground  with  tail  raised  and  wings  loose;  its 
flight  along  the  hedges  is  fitful  and  wavering, 
but  in  an  open  field  very  steady  and  sustained. 
It  is  not  gregarious,  more  than  three  or  four 
being  seldom  seen  together.  The  blackbird 
pairs  in  early  spring,  making  a  nest  externally 
of  grass  stalks,  twigs,  fibrous  roots,  and  moss- 
es, the  inside  being  lined  with  mud  and  af- 
terward with  dry  grass;  the  nest  is  usually 
placed  in  a  hedge,  bramble  thicket,  or  bushy 
pine.  The  eggs  are  from  four  to  six  in  number, 
of  a  pale  bluish  green,  spotted  with  pale  um- 
ber. The  female  sits  13  days,  the  male  singing 
till  the  young  are  hatched;  two  broods  are 
commonly  reared,  one  in  May,  the  second  in 
July.  The  flesh  is  excellent  for  food.  The 
blackbird  is  often  kept  in  cages,  where  its 
song  is  as  joyous  as  in  its  native  haunts ;  it  is 
a  troublesome  species  in  an  aviary,  as  it  pur- 
sues and  harasses  other  birds ;  in  confinement 
it  will  eat  crumbs  and  raw  or  cooked  flesh. 
II.  A  bird  more  commonly  called  in  New  Eng- 
land red-winged  blackbird,  and  belonging  to 
the  family  of  sturnidce  (agelaius  phasnicetts, 
Linn.).  The  bill  is  straight,  strong,  conical, 
and  black ;  the  hind  toe  and  claw  the  strong- 
er. The  plumage  of  the  adult  male  is  glossy 
black,  except  the  smaller  wing  coverts,  the  first 
row  of  which  are  cream-colored,  the  rest  scar- 
let ;  the  length  is  9  inches,  extent  of  wings  14 
inches.  The  female  is  nearly  2  inches  less; 


Red-winged  Blackbird  (Agelaius  phicnlceus). 

the  upper  part  black,  the  feathers  with  a  pale 
brown  margin,  underneath  streaked  with  black 
and  dull  white ;  a  band  of  pale  brown  over  the 


676 


BLACKBURN 


BLACKCOCK 


eye,  and  some  of  the  smaller  wing  coverts 
slightly  tinged  with  red.  According  to  Nut- 
tall,  this  bird  is  found  during  the  summer  over 
the  whole  of  North  America  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  Mexico.  It  arrives  in  New  York  and  New 
England  about  the  1st  of  April,  preferring 
swamps,  meadows,  and  low  situations ;  at  this 
season  it  lives  on  insects  and  grubs,  afterward 
on  the  young  and  tender  corn.  It  begins  to 
build  its  nest  early  in  May,  on  an  alder  bush 
or  tuft  of  grass  in  some  marsh  or  meadow ;  the 
eggs,  from  three  to  six,  are  white,  tinged  with 
blue,  with  faint  purple  marks.  These  birds 
congregate  in  such  numbers  in  a  very  small 
space,  that  great  havoc  may  be  made  at  a  sin- 
gle discharge  of  a  gun.  The  flight  is  usually 
even ;  on  the  wing  the  brilliant  scarlet  of  the 
coverts  contrasts  finely  with  the  black  of  the 
general' plumage.  Some  of  its  notes  are  agree- 
able to  the  ear.  In  August,  when  the  young 
are  ready  to  associate  in  flocks,  they  do  consid- 
erable mischief  to  the  Indian  corn;  they  are 
then  killed  in  abundance,  and  are  very  good 
eating.  Such  is  their  confidence  in  man,  in 
spite  of  his  persecutions,  that  when  fired  upon 
they  only  remove  from  one  part  of  a  field  to 
another.  III.  The  name  blackbird  is  given  in 
the  northwestern  states  and  Canada  to  the 
rusty  grakle  (scolecophagw  ferrugineu»,  Wils.), 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  country  to  the  purple 
grakle  (quiscalus  veraicolor,  Vieill.) ;  both  be- 
long to  the  family  aturnidce,  or  starlings. 

BLACKBURN,  a  town,  parish,  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  22  m. 
N.  N.  W.  of  Manchester ;  pop.  in  1871,  76,387. 
It  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  barren  district,  con- 
taining a  number  of  valuable  coal  mines,  to 
which,  as  well  as  to  its  proximity  to  the  Lon- 
don and  Liverpool  canal,  the  importance  of 
Blackburn  as  a  commercial  place  is  mainly  to 
be  ascribed.  Cotton  goods,  especially  of  the 
coarser  kinds,  are  manufactured  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  the  town  and  vicinity.  Blackburn  is 
irregularly  built,  but  contains  some  fine  edi- 
fices. In  addition  to  a  number  of  chapels, 
schools,  public  halls,  &c.,  it  has  a  magnificent 
church,  rebuilt  in  1819  at  a  cost  of  £26,000. 

BLACKCAP.  I.  A  bird  of  the  family  lusci- 
nidce,  or  warblers  (syhia  atricapilla,  Briss.), 
a  native  of  Europe,  migrating  to  the  north  in 
early  spring.  The  male  has  the  upper  parts 
light  yellowish  gray ;  the  head  black ;  cheeks, 
neck,  and  lower  parts  ash-gray,  paler  behind 
and  tinged  with  yellow ;  wings  and  tail  gray- 
ish brown;  length  to  end  of  tail  about  6 
inches,  extent  of  wings  9  inches.  The  female 
is  a  trifle  larger,  but  is  colored  like  the  male, 
except  that  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  light 
reddish  brown.  It  frequents  woods  and  thick 
hedges,  gardens  and  orchards.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  nightingale,  it  is  considered  the 
finest  songster  in  Great  Britain ;  its  notes  are 
full,  deep,  and  mellow,  and  its  trill  is  exceed- 
ingly fine;  it  will  imitate  very  exactly  the 
notes  of  the  nightingale,  thrush,  and  blackbird. 
Its  song  is  continued  from  early  in  April  to  the 


end  of  June,  the  period  of  pairing  and  incuba- 
tion. This  bird  is  shy,  going  by  short  flights 
from  one  thick  bush  to  another;  it  feeds  on 


Blackcap  (Sylvia  atricapilla). 

insects,  larvae,  and  berries.  The  nest,  which 
is  placed  in  the  fork  of  some  shrub,  is  made  of 
dried  stalks  of  grass,  bits  of  wool,  moss,  fibrous 
roots,  and  hairs;  the  eggs  are  four  or  five  in 
number,  about  two  thirds  of  an  inch  long, 
and  very  nearly  as  broad,  grayish  white,  faintly 
stained  and  freckled  with  purplish  gray  and 
blackish  brown.  Both  sexes  sit  upon  the  eggs. 
II.  An  American  species  of  titmouse,  belong- 
ing also  to  the  luscinidce  (panus  atricapillus, 
Wils.).  It  is  5£  inches  long  and  8  in  extent  of 
wings.  The  bill  is  brownish  black ;  whole  up- 
per part  of  the  head  and  hind  neck,  and  a  large 
patch  on  the  fore  neck  and  throat,  pure  black ; 
between  these  a  white  band,  from  the  bill 
down  the  sides  of  the  neck,  growing  broader 
behind  and  encroaching  on  the  back,  which, 
with  the  wing  coverts,  is  ash-gray  tinged  with 
brown;  lower  parts  brownish  white;  quills 
brown,  and,  with  the  secondaries,  edged  with 
white,  leaving  a  conspicuous  white  bar  on  the 
wings ;  tail  brown,  white-edged.  The  Carolina 
tit  (parus  Carolinensis,  Aud.)  is  almost  pre- 
cisely the  same,  being  only  an  inch  smaller. 
The  blackcap  is  better  known  in  New  England 
as  the  chickadee,  which  is  an  imitation  of  its 
note  as  it  explores  the  trees  in  search  of  the 
eggs  and  grubs  of  insects,  which  form  its  prin- 
cipal food.  It  destroys  immense  numbers  of 
canker-worms,  doing  in  this  way  eminent  ser- 
I  vice  to  man ;  in  the  winter  it  comes  near  the 
I  houses,  picking  up  seeds  and  crumbs  which  are 
i  thrown  out  of  doors.  It  is  an  exceedingly 
lively  bird,  running  over  trees  in  all  directions, 
and  thrusting  its  bill  into  every  crevice  where 
an  insect  might  creep.  The  severest  cold  does 
not  affect  its  vivacity  or  numbers.  The  eggs 
are  six  to  ten,  of  a  white  color,  with  brownish 
red  specks,  and  are  generally  laid  in  holes  ex- 
cavated  in  trees  by  means  of  their  bills. 

BLACKCOCK,  or  Black  Grouse  (tetrao  tetrix, 
Linn.),  a  highly  prized  game  bird,  of  the  family 
tetraonidce,  very  generally  spread  over  the 


BLACKCOCK 


BLACKFISH 


677 


northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Great  Britain, 
particularly  in  the  wild  and  wooded  districts 
of  Scotland.  The  male  weighs  sometimes  as 


Blackcock  (Tetrao  tetrix). 

much  as  four  pounds,  and  the  female  about 
two.  In  the  male,  the  length  to  the  end  of 
the  tail  is  about  23  inches,  and  the  extent  of 
wing  33  inches ;  bill  an  inch  long,  strong,  and 
brownish  black;  the  iris  brown;  over  the  eye 
a  bare  granulated  skin  of  a  scarlet  color ;  the 
whole  upper  plumage  of  a  steel-blue  color,  the 
scapulars  and  wings  tinged  with  brown ;  the 
primaries  brown,  with  brownish  white  shafts, 
the  secondaries  tipped  with  whitish,  forming  a 
bar  across  the  wings,  conspicuous  in  flight ;  the 
under  wing  coverts  white,  a  few  of  them  being 
visible  when  the  wing  is  closed;  the  breast 
and  sides  brownish  black,  the  abdominal 
feathers  tipped  with  white;  the  legs  and 
thighs  dark  brown,  with  grayish  white  specks, 
the  former  feathered  to  the  toes ;  the  lower  tail 
coverts  white,  the  upper  brownish  black;  the 
tail,  which  is  forked,  with  the  lateral  feathers 
curved  outward,  deep  black.  The  female  is 
about  18  inches  long  and  31  inches  in  extent 
of  wings ;  she  resembles  the  other  females  of 
the  family  in  her  less  brilliant  markings ;  the 
general  color  of  the  plumage  is  ferruginous, 
mottled  and  barred  with  black  above,  and  with 
dusky  and  brown  bars  on  a  paler  ground  be- 
low ;  the  tail  is  nearly  even  at  the  end,  straight, 
and  variegated  with  ferruginous  and  black ; 
the  white  about  the  secondaries  and  bend  of 
the  wing  is  much  as  in  the  male.  The  favorite 
abode  of  the  blackcock  is  in  the  highlands  and 
glens,  among  the  hills  clothed  with  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  birch,  hazel,  willow,  and  alder,  with 
an  undergrowth  of  deep  fern ;  here,  they  find 
abundant  food  and  shelter  from  the  winter's 
cold  and  summer's  sun.  Their  food  consists  of 
tender  twigs,  berries,  heaths,  and  occasionally 
the  seeds  from  the  stubble  fields.  Their  flight  is 
heavy,  straight,  of  moderate  velocity,  and  ca- 
pable of  being  protracted.  They  perch  readily 


on  trees,  but  the  ordinary  station  is  the  ground, 
on  which  they  repose  at  night.  The  black- 
cocks are  polygamous,  and  fight  desperately 
for  the  females  during  April;  having  driven 
off  all  rivals,  the  male  selects  some  eminence 
early  in  the  morning,  on  which  he  struts,  trail- 
ing his  wings,  swelling  out  his  plumage  and  • 
wattles  over  the  eyes  like  a  turkey  cock ;  the 
females  answer  to  his  call  and  soon  crowd 
around  him.  After  the  courting  season  the 
males  associate  together  peaceably.  The  eggs 
are  six  to  ten  in  number,  of  a  dirty  white 
color,  with  rusty  spots,  and  are  laid  in  a  very 
rude  nest  on  the  ground,  among  the  heaths; 
the  young  are  reared  entirely  by  the  female, 
which  they  resemble  in  color.  Their  flesh  is 
an  excellent  article  of  food.  Foxes  and  rapa- 
cious birds  kill  great  numbers  of  them. 

BLACK  DEATH.     See  PLAGUE. 

BLACKFEET,  or  Satsika,  the  most  westerly 
tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family  of  American 
Indians,  with  a  dialect  which  differs  greatly 
from  others  of  the  family.  They  were  origi- 
nally on  the  Saskatchewan ;  but  from  intestine 
dissensions  the  Satsika  or  Blackfeet  proper 
separated  from  the  Kena  or  Blood  Indians, 
and  retired  to  the  Missouri,  where  the  name 
Blackfeet  was  given  to  them  by  the  Crows. 
A  chief  named  Piegan  or  the  Pheasant  caused 
a  second  division,  making  three  bands  which 
continue  to  this  day.  They  extend  from  the 
waters  of  Hudson  bay  to  the  Missouri  and 
Yellowstone.  They  have  always  been  great 
warriors,  and,  having  early  obtained  horses, 
maintain  their  stock  by  robbery.  They  do 
not  bury  their  dead.  The  warrior  is  left  in 
his  cabin  in  full  array,  and  horses  are  killed  at 
the  door  for  his  use.  Their  worship  of  Natous 
or  the  sun  is  clearly  marked.  Those  in  the 
United  States  are  in  Montana,  and  were  esti- 
mated by  the  Indian  bureau  in  1870  at  7,500. 
Canadian  authorities  estimate  those  within  the 
British  lines  at  6,000;  but  as  they  are  con- 
stantly moving,  a  large  number  are  reckoned 
by  both.  They  have  been  constantly  at  war, 
carrying  their  predatory  incursions  into  Ore- 
gon, but  are  now  diminishing  through  intem- 
perance, and  becoming  less  formidable. 

BLACKFISH,  a  name  improperly  given  by  sea- 
men to  several  species  of  small  whales,  espe- 
cially to  the  round-headed  dolphin  (globioeph- 
alug,  Less.),  (see  DOLPHIN),  and  also  in  New 
England  to  a  marine  species  of  fish  of  the 
family  labridce,  the  tauiog  (tautoga  Americana, 
De  Kay).  The  latter  abounds  on  the  coast  of 
New  England,  on  both  sides  of  Long  Island, 
and  off  Sandy  Hook,  New  Jersey.  Originally 
they  were  not  found  north  of  Cape  Cod  ;  but 
between  1820  and  1830  a  number  of  them  were 
brought  alive  in  boats  to  Massachusetts  Bay, 
and  being  set  free  have  spread  all  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  continent.  Its  back  and 
sides  are  black ;  the  lips,  lower  jaw,  and  belly, 
in  the  males  particularly,  are  white.  The  tail 
is  entire,  somewhat  convex,  the  middle  rays 
being  somewhat  longer  than  the  external  ones. 


678 


BLACK  FLUX 


BLACK  FOREST 


The  body  is  covered  with  small,  hard  scales. 
They  vary  in  size  from  2  to  14  or  16  Ibs. 
They  are  caught  early  in  the  spring,  and  through 


Black  flsh  (Tautoga  Americana). 


the  summer,  from  off  the  rocky  ledges  of  the 
coast,  or  from  boats  anchored  over  the  reefs. 
The  fishing  for  them  is  a  favorite  sport  in  the 
warm  summer  weather,  and  the  fish,  though 
of  dry  flavor,  are  much  esteemed  when  baked. 

BLACK  FLUX,  a  mixture  of  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash and  carbon,  obtained  by  deflagrating  two 
or  three  parts  by  weight  of  cream  of  tartar 
(or  crude  argol)  and  one  part  of  nitre  in  a  red- 
hot  earthen  crucible.  If  equal  weights  of  these 
substances  be  taken,  the  nitric  acid  of  the  salt- 
petre will  oxidize  the  carbon,  and  the  result 
will  be  a  pure  carbonate  of  potash,  or  white 
flux.  When  black  flux  is  fused  with  the  ox- 
ides of  copper,  iron,  or  lead,  or  with  the  acid 
compounds  of  those  metals,  the  carbon  acts  as 
a  reducing  agent,  while  the  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash takes  up  the  impurities,  such  as  sulphur 
and  silica.  The  reduced  metal  collects  in  a 
button  in  the  fluid  slag,  and  on  cooling  can  be 
easily  separated  from  its  matrix.  Black  flux 
must  be  kept  in  closely  stoppered  bottles,  as 
it  rapidly  deteriorates  by  absorption  of  water 
from  the  air. 

BLACK  FLY,  a  small  dipterous  insect,  some- 
times called  gnat,  midge,  and  sand  fly,  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  simulium.  The  length  of  the 
common  species  (8.  rnolestum)  is  about  one 
tenth  of  an  inch;  the  color  is  black,  with 
transparent  wings;  the  legs  short,  with  a 
broad  whitish  band  around  them.  They  be- 
gin to  appear  in  northern  New  England  in 
May,  and  continue  about  six  weeks ;  after 
them,  however,  comes  another  species  (a.  noci- 
vum),  more  numerous  and  smaller.  These  in- 
sects are  a  perfect  pest  in  the  subarctic  regions, 
and  so  abundant  in  their  season  in  the  woods 
from  Labrador  to  Maine,  that  travellers  and 
anglers,  unless  of  the  most  determined  charac- 
ter, rarely  venture  far  from  the  seashore.  In 
bright  still  days  they  are  innumerable,  swarm- 
ing in  houses,  flying  in  one's  face,  crawling  un- 
der tightly  fitting  garments,  and  there  remain- 
ing, biting  even  in  the  night.  Human  beings 
a»d  even  dogs  pass  their  lives  at  this  season  in 
a  state  of  continual  torment,  much  worse  than 


amid  the  mosquitoes  of  the  south.  In  cloud) 
weather,  unlike  the  mosquito,  they  disappear. 
The  bite  is  severe  and  stinging,  each  showing  a 
point  of  blood,  and  followed  by  an  irritation 
and  swelling  which  last  several  days.  No 
veils  nor  gloves  protect  against  their  attack, 
as  their  small  size  enables  them  to  penetrate 
wherever  they  choose.  The  best  remedy 
seems  to  be  a  viscid  ointment,  into  which  tar 
enters,  and  which  arrests  and  destroys  them. 
The  smaller  midges  which  succeed  them, 
called  no-see-'em  by  the  Indians  from  their 
minuteness,  would  hardly  be  seen  were  not 
their  wings  whitish  mottled  with  black ;  they 
come  forth  in  myriads  toward  evening,  creep- 
ing under  clothes,  their  bites  feeling  for  the 
moment  as  if  caused  by  sparks  of  fire;  they 
do  not  draw  blood,  and  there  is  rarely  any 
swelling  produced ;  they  are  most  troublesome 
in  July  and  August,  and  nothing  seems  avail- 
able against  their  swarms,  unless  a  thick  smoke, 
quite  as  disagreeable,  be  considered  a  remedy. 
The  larva  and  pupa  are  both  aquatic,  and  the 
former  is  in  some  ponds  as  injurious  to  the 
raiser  of  young  trout  and  other  fish  as  the 
adult  insect  is  to  the  angler  for  the  adult  fish. 
The  larva,  according  to  Mr.  8.  Green,  spins 
webs  under  water  as  perfect  as  those  of  the 
spider,  with  equal  mechanical  ingenuity  and 
rapidity,  and  in  the  same  way,  by  fastening 
the  threads  at  different  points  and  going  back 
and  forth  till  the  web  is  finished ;  the  web  is 
strong  enough  to  destroy  the  fish  while  pro- 
vided with  the  umbilical  sac,  by  getting  wound 
round  the  fins,  head,  and  gills.  The  buffalo 
gnat  of  the  western  prairies,  a  much  larger 
species,  has  been  known  to  bite  horses  to 
death  ;  and  an  allied  fly  (rhagio),  according  to 
Westwood,  is  a  great  pest  to  man  and  beast  on 
the  confines  of  Hungary  and  Servia,  and,  it  is 
said,  will  destroy  cattle. 

BLACKFORD,  an  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  the  Salamonie  river ;  area,  180  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,272.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Fort 
Wayne,  Muncie,  and  Cincinnati,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  rail- 
road. The  surface  is  diversified  by  plains  and 
rolling  lands,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  82,763  bushels  of 
wheat,  75,346  of  Indian  corn,  14,567  of  oats, 
111,106  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  24,068  of  wool. 
There  were  2,646  horses,  1,720  milch  cows, 
1,685  other  cattle,  7,820  sheep,  and  5,863 
swine.  Capital,  Hartford. 

BLACK  FOREST  (Ger.  Schirarzwald ;  anc. 
Silva  Mareiana,  the  S.  W.  branch  of  the  Her- 
cynian  forest),  a  range  of  woody  mountains  in 
the  S.  W.  part  of  Germany,  traversing  Ba- 
den and  Wiirtemberg,  and  forming  the  eastern 
boundary  of  a  portion  of  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  the  corresponding  western  being  form- 
ed by  the  Vosges.  It  extends  about  90  m.  in 
length,  almost  parallel  with  the  course  of  the 
Rhine,  from  which  it  is  distant  in  many  places 
less  than  20  m.,  and  has  a  breadth  in  its  south- 
ern part  of  about  30  m.,  and  in  its  northern  part 


BLACK  GUM 


BLACK  HAWK 


679 


of  about  18.  The  Black  Forest  consists  of  ele- 
vated plains  or  table  land,  and  describes  itself 
upon  the  horizon  in  regular  undulating  lines. 
Its  greatest  elevation  is  near  and  to  the  east 
of  Freiburg,  in  the  region  where  the  Wiesen 
takes  its  rise,  and  where  is  the  famous  defile 
called  Holle,  a  narrow  valley  surrounded  by 
lofty  mountains,  and  celebrated  in  the  retreat 
of  Moreau  in  1796.  The  highest  summits  of 
the  range,  the  Feldberg,  the  Belchen,  and  the 
Kandel,  are  between  4,000  and  5,000  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  descent  of  the  Black 
Forest  toward  the  Rhine  is  very  abrupt,  caus- 
ing the  rivers  which  take  their  rise  on  this 
side,  the  Murg,  Kinzig,  and  Elz,  to  assume 
during  the  rains  the  character  of  torrents. 
The  eastern  slope  is  very  gentle,  and  gives 
rise  to  the  Neckar  and  the  Danube,  the  for- 
mer soon  changing  its  direction  to  the  north 
and  west,  and  joining  the  Rhine.  The  Black 
Forest  is  composed  mainly  of  granite,  though 
the  surface  is  in  some  places  covered  with 
sandstone,  and  gneiss  appears  around  its  base. 
On  some  of  the  heights  porphyry  is  found,  and 
there  are  many  mines  of  silver,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  cobalt.  Its  mineral  waters  too,  es- 
pecially those  of  Baden  and  Wildbad,  are  very 
famous.  The  summits  of  the  Black  Forest  are 
during  eight  months  of  the  year  covered  with 
snow  ;  they  are  generally  destitute  of  trees, 
and  except  during  the  greatest  heats  of  summer 
display  no  verdure.  Descending  from  the  top, 
the  first  trees  that  appear  are  the  pine,  the 
beech,  and  the  maple ;  these  are  succeeded  by 
the  dense  forests  of  fir  with  which  all  the  mid- 
dle and  lower  parts  of  the  mountains  are  cov- 
ered, and  which  furnish  masts  and  timber  for 
ships.  Near  the  foot  of  the  mountains  are 
many  picturesque  valleys,  of  which  that  of 
the  Murg,  situated  near  the  thermal  waters 
of  Baden,  is  particularly  distinguished  for  its 
natural  beauty.  Villages  and  hamlets  are  in- 
terspersed, and  the  inhabitants  are  mainly  en- 
gaged in  rearing  live  stock,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  toys.  The  most  famous  of  these  articles 
is  the  wooden  clock,  of  which  it  is  estimated 
that  180,000  are  annually  produced.  Agricul- 
ture is  there  of  little  importance,  the  soil  be- 
ing unfruitful  and  the  climate  severe,  yet  the  val- 
leys produce  excellent  fruit.  The  Black  Forest 
abounds  in  historical  remains  and  associations. 
BLACK  GUM,  the  arbitrary  name  of  a  tree 
without  gum,  a  species  of  nyssa,  or  tupelo  (Ad- 
anson),  which  is  the  only  genus  of  Endlicher's 
sub-order  nyssaee<K  of  his  order  santalacea. 
Linneeus  had  it  in  polygamia,  Aiwcia ;  Elliot 
placed  it  in  dioecia  pentandrift,  and  Darlington 
in  jtentandria  monogynia.  The  black  gum  is 
the  N.  multiftora,  and  is  known  in  New  Eng- 
land as  snag  tree  and  hornpipe,  in  New  York 
as  pepperidge,  and  as  the  gum  tree  in  the  mid- 
dle states.  It  thrives  in  low,  clayey  soil,  and 
in  dense  forests  grows  to  a  height  of  40  ft.  Its 
external  habits  are  various,  and  it  is  often  con- 
founded with  other  trees.  It  has  very  many 
branches,  which  are  often  crooked ;  a  dense 


pyramidal  head ;  leaves  one  to  five  inches 
long,  and  of  a  lustrous  green,  in  tufts  of  four 
or  more  at  the  ends  of  the  branches ;  green- 


Black  Gnm  Tree  (Nyssa  multiflora). 

ish  flowers  in  clusters,  ripening  to  blue-black ; 
mouse-colored  bark  in  longitudinal  furrows. 
The  wood  is  close  and  tough,  and  resists  split- 
ting, though  it  decays  sooner  in  the  weather 
than  that  of  the  elm.  It  is  used  for  water 


Black  Gum,  Leaves  and  Fruit. 

pipes  in  the  salt  works  at  Syracuse ;  it  is  also 
good  for  hatters'  blocks,  wheel  naves,  and  cog 
wheels.  The  tree  is  very  vigorous.  It  was 
introduced  into  Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree 
in  1739 ;  it  thrives  in  the  south  of  England, 
and  even  in  Hanover. 

BLACK  HAWK,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Sac  and 
Fox  tribe,  born  about  1768,  at  the  principal 
Sac  village  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Mississippi, 
near  the  mouth  of  Rock  river,  died  at  the 
village  of  his  tribe  on  the  Des  Moines  river,  in 


680 


BLACK  HAWK 


BLAOKIE 


Iowa,  Oct.  3,  1838.  About  1788  lie  succeeded 
his  father  as  chief  of  the  Sacs.  In  1804  some 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  sold  their 
lands,  extending  for  700  m.  along  the  Missis- 
sippi, for  an  annuity  of  $1,000.  Black  Hawk 
said  that  the  chiefs  were  drunk  when  they; 
signed  the  treaty.  During  the  war  of  1812  hel 
took  part  with  England.  The  treaty  of  cessio*>, 
was  ratified  in  1815,  and  sanctioned  hy  a  new 
treaty  in  1816,  which  was  signed  by  Black 
Hawk.  In  1823  the  greater  part  of  the  tribes 
removed  to  their  reservation  across  the  Missis- 
sippi; but  Black  Hawk  and  his  followers  re- 
mained behind.  In  1831,  the  land  occupied  hy 
their  villages  having  been  sold  to  settlers,  the 
crops  of  the  Indians  were  ploughed  up.  Black 
Hawk  threatened  to  retaliate,  and  the  militia 
of  Illinois  were  called  out.  He  then  retreated 
across  the  river,  and  engaged  not  to  reenter 
the  state  without  permission.  But  in  the 
spring  of  1832  he  recrossed  the  river;  a  band 
of  50  of  his  warriors  were  attacked  by  the 
militia  and  put  to  flight.  The  Indians  now 
scattered  into  squads,  and  began  an  indiscrimi- 
nate massacre  of  the  whites.  Gen.  Scott  was 
sent  against  them ;  but  cholera  broke  out  among 
the  troops  and  hindered  their  operations.  The 
Indians  were  finally  driven  to  the  Wisconsin 
river,  where  they  were  defeated  on  July  21  by 
Gen.  Dodge,  and  on  Aug.  2  by  Gen.  Atkinson. 
Black  Hawk  was  captured,  and  a  treaty  was 
made  by  which  the  land  of  the  tribes  was  sold, 
and  the  Indians,  numbering  about  3,000,  re- 
moved to  the  region  about  Fort  Des  Moines. 
Black  Hawk,  two  of  his  sons,  and  seven  of  his 
warriors,  were  for  a  time  detained  as  hostages, 
taken  through  the  principal  cities  of  the  eastern 
states,  and  then  confined  in  Fortress  Monroe 
till  June  5,  1833,  when  they  were  released  and 
rejoined  their  tribes. 

BLACK.  HAWK,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  inter- 
sected by  the  Cedar  and  Wapsipinicon  rivers ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,706.  The 
Dubuque  and  Sioux  City,  the  Burlington,  Ce- 
dar Kapids,  and  Minnesota,  and  the  Cedar 
Falls  and  Minnesota  railroads  traverse  the 
county.  The  surface  is  occupied  mainly  by 
prairies,  though  portions  of  it  are  well  wooded. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,306,824 
bushels  of  wheat,  902,128  of  Indian  corn,  570,- 
340  of  oats,  109,771  of  potatoes,  29,235  tons 
of  hay,  17,226  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  506,844  of\ 
butter.  There  were  7,456  horses,  6,407  milch 
cows,  8,004  other  cattle,  4,479  sheep,  and  13, > 
438  swine.  Capital,  Waterloo. 

BLACK  HILLS,  a  range  of  mountains  in  S.  W. 
Dakota  and  1ST.  E.  Wyoming,  lying  near  the 
parallel  of  44°  N.  latitude  and  between  Ion. 
103°  and  105°  W.,  about  100  m.  long  and  60  m. 
wide.  They  are  a  continuation  of  the  Big 
Horn  and  Snow  mountains,  which  branch  off 
from  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  base  of  these 
hills  is  about  2,500  or  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  the  highest  peak  is  6,700  ft.  About  one 
third  of  their  area  is  covered  with  vast  forests 
of  magnificent  pine  trees.  Their  geological 


formation  indicates  great  mineral  wealth.  Gold 
has  been  discovered,  and  it  has  been  conclu- 
sively proved  that  this  region  abounds  in  iron, 
coal,  lead,  salt,  and  petroleum,  besides  its  val- 
uable pine  and  cedar  timber,  limestone,  and 
good  stone  for  building  purposes. 

BLACK  HOLE,  a  small  close  dungeon  in  Fort 
William,  Calcutta,  in  which  on  the  capture  of 
Calcutta  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  June  20,  1756, 
the  British  garrison,  consisting  of  146  men, 
under  the  command  of  Mr.  Hoi  well,  were  locked 
up  for  the  night.  It  was  a  strongly  barred 
room,  18  ft.  square.  There  were  only  two  win- 
dows, both  opening  toward  the  west,  whence 
under  the  best  of  circumstances  but  little 
air  could  enter,  which  was  further  obstructed 
by  a  projecting  veranda  outside,  and  thick  iron 
bars  within.  At  the  same  time  conflagrations 
raging  in  different  parts  of  the  fort  gave  the 
atmosphere  an  unusual  oppressiveness.  In  a 
short  time  their  sufferings  from  thirst  and  the 
foul  and  stifling  air  became  terrible,  and  in  a 


Monument  in  front  of  the  Black  Hole. 

few  hours  several  had  died.  Only  23  survived 
till  morning,  when  they  were  released.  Among 
these  was  Mr.  Holwell,  who  published  a  nar- 
rative of  the  event  in  the  "Annual  Register " 
for  1758.  The  black  hole  is  now  used  as  a 
warehouse,  and  an  obelisk  50  ft.  high,  erected 
in  memory  of  the  victims,  stands  before  the  gate. 
y^~  BLACK  IK,  John  Stuart,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
\t  Glasgow  in  July,  1809.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
Banker,  studied  in  Scotland,  Germany,  and  It- 
aly, and  was  professor  of  Latin  literature  in  Ma- 
rischal  college,  Aberdeen,  from  1841  to  1852, 
when  he  became  professor  of  Greek  in_  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  which  position  he* still 
holds  (1873).  He  promoted  university  reform 
in  Scotland  and  the  abolition  of  the  test  act. 
He  is  a  popular  lecturer  and  an  active  con- 
tributor to  periodicals  and  cyclopasdias.  His 
writings  include  a  metrical  translation  of  Goe- 
the's "Faust "  (1834),  and  of  ^schylus  (1850) ; 
"  Poems,  chiefly  on  Greek  Mythology  "  (1857) ; 


BLACKING 


BLACKMOKE 


681 


"  Poems,  English  and  Latin  "  (1860) ;  "  Homer 
and  the  Iliad,"  with  a  translation  of  the  Iliad 
in  ballad  measure  (1866) ;  Mwta  Burschicosa 
(1869);  and  "War  Songs  of  the  Germans," 
with  historical  sketches  (1870).  He  has  also 
published  "Critical  Dissertations"  (3  vols.), 
and  "Notes  Philological  and  Archaeological" 
(4  vols.).  His  discourse  on  "  Democracy  "  (1867) 
has  passed  through  many  editions,  and  his  latest 
work  is  "Four  Phases  of  Morals"  (1872). 

BLACKING,  a  preparation  applied  to  leather, 
designed  either  to  preserve  or  to  polish  it. 
Ivory  black,  vinegar  or  sour  beer,  sugar  or  mo- 
lasses, and  a  little  sweet  oil  and  sulphuric  acid 
are  the  common  ingredients.  The  corrosive 
properties  of  the  acids  are  neutralized  by  the 
lime  in  the  ivory  black.  It  is  made  in  the 
form  of  a  paste,  and  also  liquid.  The  following 
recipe  (patented  in  England)  is  designed  to 
give  the  leather  .somewhat  of  a  waterproof 
quality:  Dissolve  18  oz.  of  caoutchouc  in  9  Ibs. 
of  hot  rape  oil ;  to  this  add  60  Ibs.  ivory  black 
and  45  Ibs.  molasses,  with  1  Ib.  finely  ground 
gum  arabic,  previously  dissolved  in  20  gallons 
of  vinegar,  of  strength  No.  24 ;  the  whole  to  be 
well  triturated  in  a  paint  mill  till  smooth. 
Then  add,  in  small  successive  quantities,  12 
Ibs.  sulphuric  acid,  stirring  strongly  for  half  an 
hour.  The  stirring  is  to  be  continued  for  half 
an  hour  a  day  during  a  fortnight,  when  3  Ibs. 
of  gum  arabic,  in  fine  powder,  are  to  be  added, 
and  the  half  hour's  daily  stirring  continued  an- 
other fortnight,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  For 
paste  blacking  the  same  ingredients  and  quan- 
tities are  used,  except  that  instead  of  20  gal- 
lons of  vinegar,  12  gallons  will  answer,  and  a 
week  of  stirring  only  is  required.  A  good 
blacking  is  also  made  more  simply  by  mixing  3 
oz.  of  ivory  black,  2  of  molasses,  a  table-spoon- 
ful of  sweet  oil,  1  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  1 
of  gum  arabic,  dissolved  in  water  and  a  pint 
of  vinegar. — An  excellent  blacking  for  harness 
is  prepared  by  melting  2  oz.  of  mutton  suet 
with  6  oz.  of  beeswax,  to  which  are  to  be 
added  6  oz.  of  sugar  candy,  2  oz.  of  soft  soap 
dissolved  in  water,  and  1  oz.  of  indigo  finely 
powdered,  and,  when  melted  and  well  mixed, 
a  gill  of  turpentine.  It  is  to  be  put  on  with  a 
sponge  and  polished  with  a  brush. — Blacking 
for  stoves  may  be  made  of  finely  powdered 
black  lead,  of  which  ^  Ib.  may  be  mixed  with 
the  whites  of  three  eggs  well  beaten.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  to  be  diluted  with  sour  beer  or 
porter  well  stirred,  and  heated  to  simmering 
for  about  half  an  hour. 

BLACK  JACK.     See  BLENDE. 

BLACK  LEAD.     See  GEAPHITE. 

BLACKLOCK,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  a  Scottish  clergy- 
man, born  at  Annan,  Nov.  10,  1721,  died  in 
Edinburgh,  July  7,  1791.  He  became  blind  at 
the  age  of  six  months.  His  father,  who  was  a 
mechanic,  used  to  read  to  him  from  the  best 
English  authors.  He  early  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  Latin,  and  at  12  produced  creditable 
verses.  Through  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Steven- 
son of  Edinburgh  he  was  enabled  to  pursue  a 


course  of  study  at  the  university,  and  became 
proficient  in  the  classical  and  modern  langua- 
ges and  music.  A  quarto  edition  of  his  poems 
was  published  in  1756,  in  London,  by  sub- 
scription. In  1759  he  was  licensed  as  a  minis- 
ter of  the  gospel.  He  married  in  1762,  and  was 
ordained  minister  of  Kirkcudbright ;  but  in 
1764  he  resigned,  and  retired  to  Edinburgh  on 
a  small  pension,  which  he  eked  out  by  instruct- 
ing a  few  young  men.  He  wrote  several  phi- 
losophical and  theological  works. 

BLACK  MAIL,  a  tribute  formerly  paid  by  the 
occupants  of  lands  in  the  northern  counties  of 
England  to  some  Scottish  chieftain  for  protec- 
tion against  the  depredations  of  border  rievers 
or  moss  troopers.  At  a  later  period,  after  civil 
order  had  been  established  in  the  border  coun- 
ties, and  agriculture  and  peaceful  habits  pre- 
vailed in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland,  the  custom 
of  paying  black  mail  to  the  highland  chiefs  by 
the  lowland  farmers  became  common,  and  con- 
tinued till  within  a  century.  The  origin  of  the 
term  in  this  sense  is  doubtful,  some  deriving 
it  from  the  signification  of  "rent  in  kind," 
which  mail  had  in  the  old  English  and  Scotch 
law;  others,  from  the  moral  blackness  of  the 
custom. — The  modern  sense  of  "hush  money, 
extorted  by  threats  of  exposure,"  evidently 
|  had  its  origin  in  the  compulsory  character  of 
the  old  tribute. 

BLACKMAN,  George  Curtis,  an  American  sur- 
geon, born  in  Connecticut,  died  at  Avondale, 
!  Ohio,  July  19,  1871.  He  took  his  medical 
i  degree  in  1841  at  the  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons,  New  York.  After  spending 
some  time  as  surgeon  of  a  packet  ship  between 
this  country  and  Great  Britain,  he  commenced 
practice  in  one  of  the  towns  upon  the  Hudson 
river.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
surgery  in  the  medical  college  of  Ohio  at  Cin- 
cinnati. He  was  a  bold  and  skilful  operator, 
and  there  were  hardly  any  great  operations  in 
surgery  which  he  did  not  perform,  and  many 
of  them  he  repeated  several  times.  He  trans- 
lated and  edited  Vidal's  "  Treatise  on  Venereal 
Disease,"  and  reedited  Mott's  translation  of 
Velpeau's  "  Surgery,"  with  notes  and  additions 
of  his  own.  He  was  surgeon  to  two  of  the 
Cincinnati  hospitals.  During  the  civil  war, 
from  1861  to  1865,  he  served  as  medical  officer, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Shiloh  and 
the  Wilderness. 

BLACKMORE,  Sir  Richard,  an  English  physi- 
cian, poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Corsham,  Wiltshire,  about  1650,  died  Oct.  8, 
1729.  After  spending  several  years  at  Oxford 
and  on  the  continent  he  settled  in  London,  and 
became  physician  to  William  III.  He  wrote 
several  medical  and  religious  treatises,  "The 
Accomplished  Preacher,"  a  new  version  of  the 
Psalms,  two  volumes  of  essays,  and  a  volume 
of  miscellaneous  poems ;  but  he  is  best  known 
by  his  heroic  poems,  "Prince  Arthur,"  "King 
Arthur,"  "King  Alfred,"  "Eliza,"  and  "The 
Redeemer,"  and  by  his  "Creation,"  a  philo- 
sophical poem.  These  poems  were  mercilessly 


682 


BLACK  MOUNTAINS 


BLACK  SEA 


attacked  by  the  wits,  and  especially  by  Pope 
in  the  "  Dunciad ;"  in  reply  he  wrote  the  "  Sa- 
tire upon  Wit."  His  name  has  come  to  be  a 
synonyme  for  dulness ;  but  his  "  Creation  "  has 
been  praised  by  Addison,  Johnson,  and  other 
high  authorities. 

BLACK.  MOUNTAINS,  the  culminating  group 
of  the  Appalachian  system  (see  APPALACHIAN 
MOUNTAINS),  named  from  the  dark  growth  of 
balsam  firs  and  other  evergreens  which  cover 
their  summits,  situated  in  Yancey  and  Bun- 
combe counties,  North  Carolina,  between  the 
main  central  ridges  on  the  west  and  a  portion 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  east.  Unlike  the 
other  ridges  of  the  Alleghanies,  they  lie  for  the 
most  part  transverse  to  the  general  trend  of 
the  range,  and  give  this  direction  to  the  great 
valleys  and  rivers  included  between  them. 
They  rise  from  a  district  of  great  elevation, 
the  height  of  the  valley  at  Asheville,  on  the 
French  Broad  River,  being  about  2,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  that  of  Toe  river  at 
Burnsville,  Yancey  county,  about  2,500  ft. 
From  this  plateau  the  drainage  is  toward  the 
Ohio  in  a  northerly  direction  by  the  branches 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  by  those  of  the  Hol- 
ston  and  the  French  Broad  toward  the  south- 
west, and  by  those  of  the  Yadkin  and  the  Ca- 
tawba  into  the  Pedee  and  Santee  toward  the 
southeast.  This  position  at  the  sources  of 
streams  flowing  in  such  diverse  directions  long 
since  pointed  out  this  district  as  probably  the 
most  elevated  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
The  botanists  Michaux,  father  and  son,  were 
led  to  the  same  opinion  by  their  observations 
upon  the  northern  character  of  the  forest 
growth  with  which  these  mountains  are  cov- 
ered. In  1835  the  first  attempts  to  determine 
the  elevation  of  the  greatest  heights  were 
made  by  Dr.  E.  Mitchell,  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill.  The 
principal  peak,  called  Clingman's  peak,  but 
known  in  North  Carolina  as  Mt.  Mitchell,  he  es- 
timated to  be  6,476  ft.  above  the  sea ;  and  in 
1844  he  visited  the  locality  again,  and  made 
the  height  6,672  ft.  In  1855  the  Hon.  T.  L. 
Clingman  of  North  Carolina  made  the  eleva- 
tion 6,941  ft.,  and  in  1856  Prof.  Guyot  deter- 
mined the  highest  point,  which  he  then  called 
the  Black  Dome,  to  be  6,760  ft.  high.  The 
following  are  the  elevations  and  names  of  the 
12  highest  points,  all  of  which  are  higher  than 
Mt.  Washington  in  New  Hampshire,  as  pub- 
lished hi  1857  from  the  investigations  of  Prof. 
Guyot  : 

BLACK  MOUNTAINS. 

1.  Clingman's  Peak 6,701 

2.  Guyot's  Peak,  or  Balsam  Cone 6.661 

8.  Sandoz  Knob 6  612 

4.  Hairy  Bear 6,597 

6.  Cat-Tail  Peak 6595 

6.  Gibbe's  Peak 6,586 

7.  Mitchell's  Peak 6,576 

8.  Sugar-Loaf,  or  Hallback  Peak.. .  6,401 

9.  Potato  Top '  6,889 

10.  Black  Knob ..6^877 

11.  Bowler's  Pyramid 6^845 

12.  Koan  Mountain 6,318 

The  summit  of  Mt.  Washington  is   6,285  ft. 


above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  1857  Dr.  Mitch- 
ell lost  his  life  in  a  third  excursion  to  these 
mountains,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  his 
claim  to  having  first  measured  the  elevation  of 
the  highest  summit,  the  honor  of  which  was 
also  claimed  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Clingman. 

BLACK  RIVER.  I.  A  river  of  New  York, 
which  rises  in  Herkimer  county,  pursues  a  N. 
W.  course  through  Oneida  and  Lewis  counties, 
and  as  far  as  Great  Bend,  in  Jefferson  county, 
and  thence  flows  W.  by  Watertown,  and  emp- 
ties through  Black  River  bay  into  Lake  On- 
tario. Near  Turin,  in  Lewis  county,  it  has  a 
fall  of  about  63  ft.  Below  the  fall  it  is  navi- 
gable to  Carthage,  a  distance  of  40  m.  From 
Carthage  to  Watertown  is  a  series  of  rapids, 
rendering  navigation  almost  impossible.  A 
canal  has  been  opened  from  the  upper  falls  to 
Rome  on  the  Erie  canal.  The  whole  length 
of  the  river  is  125  m.,  and  its  breadth  at  Water- 
town  (6  m.  from  its  mouth)  is  60  yards.  II.  See 
BIG  BLACK  RIVEE. 

BLACK  SEA  (ane.  Pontus  Euxinus,  the  hos- 
|  pitable  sea),  an  inland  sea  between  Asia  and 
i  Europe,  enclosed  N.  and  E.  by  Russia  and  S. 
i  and  W.  by  Turkey,  and  connected  N.  E.  with 
|  the  sea  of  Azov  through  the  strait  of  Yenikale, 
and  S.  W.  with  the  Mediterranean  through  the 
Bosporus,  the  sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Darda- 
nelles. It  lies  between  Ion.  27°  25'  and  41°  50' 
E.,  and  lat.  40°  50'  and  46°  45'  N.  Its  extreme 
length  is  700  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  its  extreme 
breadth  nearly  400  m.  on  the  31st  meridian.  It 
has  a  coast  line  of  more  than  2,000  m.,  and  a 
superficial  area  of  about  180,000  sq.  m.  It  re- 
ceives from  Europe  the  waters  of  the  Danube, 
Dniester,  Bog,  and  Dnieper,  and  through  the 
sea  of  Azov  those  of  the  Don,  and  from  Asia 
the  waters  of  the  Kizil  Irmak  (Halys)  and  Sa- 
karia,  besides  smaller  rivers,  and  drains  a  ter- 
ritory in  Europe  and  Asia  of  scarcely  less  than 
1,000,000  sq.  m.  There  are  geological  indica- 
tions that  the  Black  sea  was  at  one  time  much 
larger  than  it  is  now,  having  no  outlet  to  the 
Mediterranean,  flooding  a  considerable  part  of 
southern  Russia,  and  reaching  even  to  the  Cas- 
pian and  Aral  seas,  with  which  it  formed  one 
body.  Natural  features  probably  assisted  in 
suggesting  the  name  of  Black,  which  is  given 
it  in  all  modern  European  languages.  The 
ancient  name,  Euxine,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  euphemistic  modification  of  a  former 
appellation,  Pontus  Axenus,  meaning  inhos- 
pitable sea.  The  prevalent  wind  is  from  the 
N.  E. ;  it  comes  laden  with  moisture  from  a 
wide  swampy  territory,  and  frequently  veils 
the  sea  in  darkness  by  fogs  and  rain.  Owing, 
too,  to  the  confined  extent  of  the  water,  a 
strong  wind  quickly  lashes  it  into  a  tempest, 
and  gives  to  the  whole  sea  something  of  the 
appearance  of  a  whirlpool.  These  brief  but 
troublesome  tempests  are  especially  frequent 
during  the  winter.  The  difficulties  which  the 
atmosphere  offers  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Black  sea  are  compensated  by  the  character  of 
the  sea  itself.  Both  its  shores  and  its  interior 


BLACK  SEA 


BLACK  SILVER 


683 


parts  are  remarkably  free  from  rocks,  sand 
banks,  or  shallows,  and  ships  may  always  lie  to 
or  ride  at  anchor  with  very  little  danger.  There 
is  but  one  island  in  the  whole  sea,  Serpent  isle, 
30  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  once  a 
sacred  place,  with  a  temple,  but  unoccupied  for 
centuries,  till  of  late  years  it  was  made  a  sta- 
tion for  English  and  French  vessels.  There  is 
now  a  lighthouse  upon  it.  The  principal  pen- 
insulas are  on  the  north,  among  them  the  Cri- 
mea. The  depth  of  the  sea  increases  regularly 
according  to  the  distance  from  the  shore ;  and 
in  its  central  parts  no  bottom  is  reached  even 
by  a  line  of  160  fathoms.  There  is  no  observa- 
ble ebb  and  flow  of  its  waters,  but  its  large  ac- 
cessions from  the  rivers  occasion  strong  cur- 
rents, which  all  set,  with  more  or  less  direct- 
ness, toward  the  Bosporus.  When  these  cur- 


rents are  also  helped  by  the  winds,  the  waters 
are  sent  through  the  straits  with  such  violence 
that  vessels  are  sometimes  detained  for  months 
outside,  unable  to  enter  against  them.  An  Eng- 
lish surveying  ship  recently  confirmed  the  con- 
clusion of  Prof.  Carpenter  that  these  currents 
are  only  superficial,  and  discovered  at  the  depth 
of  20  fathoms  an  undercurrent  running  with 
prodigious  force  into  the  Black  Sea.  To  test 
the  strength  of  this  undercurrent,  a  special  ap- 
paratus was  constructed  and  attached  to  the 
ship's  boats,  when  the  boats  were  in  many 
places  driving  along  against  the  upper  current 
with  greater  velocity  than  that  of  the  steam 
launch  of  the  ship.  Its  climate  has  wide  ex- 
tremes, but  is  generally  colder  than  would  be 
inferred  from  its  latitude,  owing  to  the  prev- 
alence of  north  winds.  Its  fisheries  are  un- 


Opening  of  the  Black  Sea  from  the  Bosporus. 


important.  The  specific  gravity  of  its  water 
is  1-142.  It  contains  less  salt  than  the  ocean, 
and  freezes  easily.  Odessa  is  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  port  on  its  coast,  and  Var- 
na is  the  chief  Turkish  fortress ;  besides  which, 
the  principal  harbors  are  Sebastopol,  Sinope, 
and  Trebizond,  and  on  the  estuaries  of  the  Bog 
and  Dnieper,  respectively,  Nikolayev  and  Kher- 
son.— The  shores  of  the  Black  sea  are  known 
both  in  fable  and  history.  Colchis,  the  goal  of 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  was  on  its  east ;  the 
Cimmerian  region  was  upon  its  north  ;  and  on 
all  its  sides  the  Persian,  Byzantine,  Turkish, 
and  Russian  powers  have  acted  the  events  of 
their  history.  From  the  time  of  Constantine 
till  the  15th  century  it  was  the  centre  of  the 
transplanted  Roman  world ;  and  till  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  was  discovered  and  sailed  round, 
it  was  a  passageway  of  the  Genoese  and  other 
European  trade  with  the  Indies.  The  Turks 


for  a  time  excluded  the  ships  of  all  other  na- 
tions from  it,  and  at  one  time  Russia  sought 
to  make  it  a  closed  sea  under  its  own  mili- 
tary command ;  but  since  the  peace  of  Paris, 
which  terminated  the  Crimean  war,  it  has 
been  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations,  and 
the  equal  exclusion  of  all  ships  of  war  estab- 
lished by  the  neutrality  clause  of  that  treaty 
was  abrogated  at  the  close  of  1870. 

BLACK.  SILVER  (called  also  brittle  silver  or 
glance,  and  stephanite  from  the  Archduke 
Stephan,  mining  director  of  Austria),  an  ore 
composed  of  sulphur  16'2,  antimony  15'3,  sil- 
ver 68'5.  It  occurs  in  veins  with  other  silver 
ores  at  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  at  Andreasberg  in 
the  Hartz,  and  at  Zacatecas  in  Mexico.  It  is 
also  an  abundant  silver  ore  in  the  Comstock 
lode  in  Nevada,  and  occurs  in  Idaho  and  in  the 
Reese  river  and  Humboldt  mines.  Crystals  of 
it  have  been  found  altered  to  pure  silver. 


684: 


BLACK  SNAKE 


BLACKSTONE 


BLACK  SNAKE  (coluber  constrictor ;  C.  las- 
canion,  B.  and  G.),  a  very  common  snake,  gen- 
erally distributed  over  North  America.     The 
head  is  oval  and  long ;  the  snout  prolonged  and 
rather  pointed;  the  nostrils  are  lateral,  very 
large  near  the  snout,  and  open  outward  and  a 
little  backward ;  the  eyes  are  large  and  bright, 
the  pupil  black,  and  the  iris  very  dark  gray ;  the 
body  is  long  and  slender,  and  covered  with  large 
smooth   scales  above,  and  with  broad  plates 
below  ;  the  tail  is  also  long  and  slender,  and, 
according  to  Holbrook,  may  be  used  as  a  pre- 
hensile instrument;  according  to   Dr.  Storer, 
the  abdominal  plates  are  184,  and  the  caudal 
scales  85.     The  color  above  is  a  dark  bluish 
black;  below,  slate-colored;    chin  and  throat 
pure  white,  with  occasionally  a  few  black  spots ; 
the  margin  of  the  jaws  and  snout  yellow.     The 
usual  length  is  from  4  to  5  ft.,  of  which  the  head 
is  H  inch,  and  the  tail  about  1 6  inches ;  one  was 
killed  at  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  in 
1842, 7  ft.  long, 
which  had  en- 
folded and  se- 
verely crushed 
in  its  coil  a  rab- 
bit, and  which 
had  in  its  body 
15  quails'  eggs 
unbroken,  and 
some  of  them 
containing  the 
young  bird.    It 
is  very  active, 
being  from  its 
rapid    motions 
frequently  call- 
ed    "  the    ra- 
cer;" it  climbs 
trees  with  easy 
facility,  and  is 
often  found  en- 
twined around 
bushes       con- 
taining birds'  nests.     It  frequents  shady  and 
shrubby  places  near  ponds  and  streams,  though 
it  is  very  fond  of  basking  in  the  sun.     It  feeds 
on  mice,  moles,  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  eggs,  and 
young  birds ;  the  larger  specimens  prey  upon 
squirrels,  chickens,  and  even  young  rabbits;  it 
is  very  destructive  to  young  birds,  and  a  noted 
robber  of  nests.    Its  first  specific  name  indi- 
cates that  it  possesses  the  power  of  destroying 
its  prey  by  the  constriction  of  its  folds ;  this 
power  is  known  to  many  a  schoolboy,  around 
whose  leg  or  arm  it  has  coiled  when  the  hu- 
man robber  of  birds'  nests  has  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  serpent  thief  similarly  inclined. 
The  one  killed  at  Hingham  had  a  rabbit  in  its 
coil ;  but  it  doubtless  seizes  its  smaller  and  or- 
dinary prey  with  its  mouth  only.     It  is  very 
daring,  and  during  the  breeding   season   will 
often    attack  persons  passing  at  a  distance; 
its  bite  is  perfectly  harmless.     There  is  no  good 
evidence  that  it  has  any  power  of  fascination, 


Black  Snake. 


as  implied  in  the  second  specific  name  above 
given,  its  victims  being  taken  by  activity  and 
direct  assault. 

BLACKSTONE,  a  town  of  Worcester  county, 
Mass.,  36  m.  S.  W.  of  Boston  and  13  m.  N.  W. 
of  Providence,  bordering  on  Rhode  Island,  and 
intersected  by  Blackstone  river;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,421.  It  contains  a  bank  and  several  schools 
and  churches,  4  cotton  mills,  with  42,720  spin- 
dles, producing  10,000,000  yards  of  cloth  an- 
nually, and  5  woollen  mills,  with  45  sets  of  ma- 
chinery; annual  value  of  product,  $2,000,000. 
The  Boston,  Hartford,  and  Erie,  and  the  Provi- 
dence and  Worcester  railroads  pass  through  the  • 
town. 

BLACKSTONE,  William,  the  first  white  inhabi- 
tant of  Boston,  died  on  Blackstone  river,  a  few 
miles  north  of  Providence,  May  26,  1675.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  graduate  of  Emanuel 
college,  Cambridge,  and  to  have  been  a  clergy- 
man of  the  church  of  England.  He  settled 
upon  the  present  site  of  Boston  about  1623. 
In  April,  1633,  he  removed  to  Rhode  Island. 

BLACKSTONE,  Sir  William,  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  London,  July  10,  1723,  died  there,  Feb. 
14,  1780.  He  was  the  posthumous  son  of  a 
silk  mercer,  and  lost  his  mother  before  he  was 
12  years  old.  His  maternal  uncle  provided  for 
his  early  education,  and  in  his  7th  year  placed 
him  at  the  Charterhouse  school,  where  after 
the  death  of  his  mother  he  was  admitted  upon 
the  foundation.  Before  he  was  16  he  entered 
Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  and  in  1741  he  was 
entered  at  the  Middle  Temple,  bidding  adieu 
to  poetry  in  "The  Lawyer's  Farewell  to  his 
Muse."  In  1743  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
All  Souls'  college.  Having  been  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1745,  he  spent  the  succeeding  seven 
years  in  attendance  upon  the  courts  at  West- 
minster, but  failed  to  obtain  a  remunerative 
practice,  and  resolved  to  abandon  the  profes- 
sion. In  1749  he  had  been  appointed  recorder 
of  Wallingford,  in  Berkshire,  and  he  continued 
to  discharge  the  duties  of  that  office  for  20 
years.  He  was  also  steward  of  All  Souls' 
college,  and  for  six  years  assessor  of  the  vice 
chancellor's  court.  In  1753  he  opened  a  course 
of  lectures  at  Oxford  upon  the  English  consti- 
tution and  laws,  which  were  the  germ  of  his 
"  Commentaries."  For  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing a  permanent  course  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter, Mr.  Viner,  author  of  the  "  Abridgment  of 
the  Common  Law,"  founded  at  Oxford  a  pro- 
fessorship of  the  common  law,  and  Blackstone 
was  elected  the  first  incumbent  of  the  chair  in 
1758.  He  held  the  professorship  for  seven 
years,  winning  a  wide  reputation,  which  en- 
abled him  to  return  to  the  bar,  where  he  im- 
mediately obtained  a  lucrative  practice.  In 
1761  he  was  elected  to  parliament  from  Hin- 
don  in  Wiltshire,  and  the  following  year  he 
was  made  king's  counsel.  He  had  previously 
declined  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  the  Irish 
common  pleas,  and  in  1770  he  also  declined 
the  office  of  solicitor  general.  Subsequently  he 
was  successively  justice  of  the  king's  bench  and 


BLACKSTONE  RIVER 


BLACKWELL 


685 


the  common  pleas  until  his  death.  His  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  England  "  were  pub- 
lished in  4  vols.,  at  Oxford,  1765-'9.  Before 
the  publication  of  this  work  there  was  no 
modern  treatise  presenting  as  a  whole  the 
system  of  English  jurisprudence.  Blackstone 
was  compelled  to  collect  his  materials  from  an 
immense  mass  of  statutes,  reports,  digests, 
abridgments,  old  charters,  and  ancient  treatises. 
He  succeeded  in  weaving  out  of  this  incongru- 
ous mass  so  methodical  a  whole,  set  forth  in  so 
easy  and  perspicuous  a  style,  that  his  work 
continues,  both  in  England  and  America,  to  be 
the  first  text  book  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
student  of  law.  In  parliament  Blackstone  was 
a  uniform  supporter  of  the  government.  Sev- 
eral American  editions  of  the  "  Commentaries  " 
have  been  published,  the  most  noted  being 
those  by  Prof.  Tucker  of  Virginia,  Judge  Shars- 
wood  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Judge  Cooley  of 
Michigan.  Prof.  Tucker's  was  accompanied 
with  an  elaborate  exposition  of  his  views  of 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

BLACKSTONE  RIVEK,  a  stream  which  rises  in 
Paxton  and  Holden  townships,  Worcester  co., 
Mass.,  and  flows  S.  E.  into  the  state  of  Rhode 
Island,  where  it  is  called  the  Pawtucket.  It 
affords  abundant  water  power,  and  for  a  great 
part  of  its  course  flows  through  an  almost  con- 
tinuous village  of  manufacturing  establishments. 
The  scenery  of  the  narrow  valley  is  attractive. 
The  Blackstone  canal,  extending  through  it 
from  Worcester  to  Providence,  was  completed 
in  1829,  but  was  superseded  by  the  introduction 
of  railroads,  only  portions  of  it  being  now  in 
use  for  water  power  and  irrigation. 

BLACK.  VOMIT,  the  last  vomiting,  in  many 
cases  of  yellow  fever,  of  a  dark  mucous-looking 
fluid,  like  coffee  grounds.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
fatal  symptom.  The  disease  itself  is  sometimes 
called  by  this  name.  The  blood  is  blackened 
and  partially  coagulated  by  a  free  acid,  perhaps 
acetic  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which  form  in 
the  system. 

BLACKWALL,  a  suburb  of  London,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Lea  with  the  Thames,  4  m.  E.  S.  E. 
of  St.  Paul's.  It  has  founderies,  ship  yards, 
and  the  India  docks.  An  elevated  railway 
connects  it  with  the  city. 

BLACK  WALNUT.     See  WALNUT. 

BLACK  WARRIOR,  a  river  of  Alabama,  rises 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  state,  flows  S.  W.  and 
S.,  and  empties  into  the  Tombigbee  just  above 
Demopolis,  Marengo  co.  Its  course  is  through 
the  valuable  Warrior  coal  field;  iron  is  found 
along  its  banks.  In  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Walker 
county  it  receives  its  principal  tributary,  Mul- 
berry fork.  Above  this  point  it  is  also  known 
as  Locust  fork.  The  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  Tuscaloosa,  at  which  point  the 
water  during  floods  rises  to  a  height  of  50  feet. 
The  length  of  the  main  stream  is  nearly  150  m. 

BLACKWATER,  a  river  of  Ireland,  rising  in 
the  N.  E.  part  of  county  Kerry,  flows  E.  across 
county  Cork  and  the  8.  W.  part  of  county 
Waterford,  and  enters  the  sea  at  Youghnl 


harbor.  Its  course  of  100  miles  is  through  a 
carboniferous  limestone  basin,  amid  beautiful 
scenery.  It  abounds  in  salmon. 

BLACKWELL,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Aberdeen  about  the  beginning  of  the 
18Eh  century,  executed  in  Sweden,  Aug.  9, 
1748.  He  practised  medicine  in  London,  set 
up  a  printing  establishment,  and  becoming 
bankrupt  in  1734  was  supported  by  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  "Curious  Herbal,"  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1737-'9,  illustrated  by  his  wife.  He 
subsequently  published  a  work  upon  the  im- 
provement of  barren  and  sterile  lands  and  the 
drainage  of  marshes,  which  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  Swedish  government.  Having 
been  summoned  to  Sweden,  he  was  engaged  for 
some  time  in  putting  his  theories  into  practice, 
but  was  convicted  of  conspiring  against  the 
royal  family,  and  beheaded. 

BLACKWELL,  Elizabeth,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1821.  Her  father 
emigrated  with  his  family  in  1831,  and  settled 
in  New  York,  but  removed  in  1837  to  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  where  he  died  a  few  months  after- 
ward, leaving  a  widow  and  nine  children  al- 
most destitute.  Elizabeth,  then  17  years  old, 
opened  a  school,  which  she  conducted  success- 
fully for  several  years.  Having  resolved  to  be- 
come a  physician,  she  obtained  a  situation  as 
governess  in  the  family  of  Dr.  John  Dixon  of 
Asheville,  N.  0.,  where  she  remained  a  year, 
having  access  during  that  time  to  a  medical 
library,  and  receiving  from  Dr.  Dixon  some 
direction  as  to  her  reading.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  she  removed  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  still 
acting  as  a  teacher  of  music,  but  pursuing  her 
studies.  She  next  went  to  Philadelphia,  and 
passed  six  months  in  study  under  Dr.  Allen 
and  Dr.  Warrington  of  that  city.  During  that 
time  she  made  formal  application  to  the  med- 
ical schools  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Boston,  for  admission  as  a  student.  In  each  in- 
stance the  request  was  denied,  on  the  ground  of 
a  want  of  precedent  for  such  an  admission,  and 
of  the  impropriety  of  such  an  innovation  upon 
established  custom.  She  was  finally,  however, 
admitted  to  the  medical  school  at  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
where  she  took  her  degree  of  M.  D.  in  regular 
course  in  January,  1849.  During  her  connec- 
tion with  the  college,  when  not  in  attendance 
there  upon  lectures,  she  pursued  a  course  of 
clinical  study  in  Blockley  hospital,  Philadelphia. 
The  spring  after  her  graduation  she  went  to 
Paris,  and  remained  six  months  as  a  student 
in  the  Materuite  hospital,  devoting  herself  to 
the  study  and  practice  of  midwifery.  The  next 
autumn  she  was  admitted  as  a  physician  to 
walk  the  hospital  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  Lon- 
don. After  nearly  a  year  spent  there  she  re- 
turned  to  New  York,  where  she  has  since  prac- 
tised her  profession  with  success.  In  1852  she 
published  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Laws  of 
Life."  In  1854,  with  her  sister  Emily,  she 
opened  the  New  York  infirmary  for  women  and 
children,  and  in  1859  again  visited  London,  and 
delivered  a  course  of  medical  lectures. 


686 


BLACKWELL'S  ISLAND 


BLADDER 


BLACKWELL'S  ISLAND,  the  site  of  several 
of  the  charitable  and  penal  institutions  of  the 
city  of  New  York.  It  lies  in  the  East  river, 
opposite  the  city  from  50th  to  84th  street,  is 
If  m.  long  and  £  m.  wide,  and  is  included  in 
the  19th  ward.  (See  NEW  YORK.) 

BLA€KWOOD,  William,  a  Scottish  bookseller 
and  publisher,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  20, 
1776,  died  Sept.  16, 1834.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  bookseller,  and  conducted  business  succes- 
sively in  Glasgow  and  London  till  1804,  when 
he  established  himself  in  Edinburgh  as  a  dealer 
in  old  books.  In  1817  he  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  "  Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Magazine," 
of  which  he  was  the  conductor,  although  he 
availed  himself  of  the  advice  and  assistance  of 
Wilson,  Lockhart,  and  others.  The  magazine 
soon  acquired  popularity,  and  became  the  ac- 
knowledged organ  of  the  tory  party  in  Great 
Britain.  "  Blackwood  "  has  contained  contri- 
butions from  many  of  the  foremost  writers  of 
its  day;  and  several  novels  of  acknowledged 
merit  first  appeared  in  its  pages,  including 
"  The  Caxtons,"  "  My  Novel,"  and  "  What 
Will  he  Do  with  it  ? "  by  Bulwer.  The  "  Noctes 
Ambrosianse,"  mainly  written  by  Wilson,  ex- 
tending to  71  numbers,  was  begun  in  1822,  and 
continued  with  occasional  intermissions  till 
1835.  The  house  founded  by  William  Black- 
wood  is  one  of  the  leading  publishing  firms  in 
Great  Britain,  and  its  principal  place  of  busi- 
ness has  for  some  years  been  in  London. 

BLADDER,  a  musculo-membranous  bag,  cyst, 
or  pouch,  which  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
urine  secreted  in  the  kidneys.  It  is  called  ve- 
sica  urinwria,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  gall 
bladder,  a  small  cyst  connected  with  the  liver 
and  the  biliary  ducts  as  a  reservoir  for  bile. 
The  bladder  is  situated  in  the  pelvis,  immedi- 
ately behind  the  sympJiysis  pulis,  and  in  front 
of  the  rectum  or  terminal  portion  of  the  intes- 
tines in  the  male— in  front  of  the  uterus  and 
vagina  in  the  female.  Thus  placed  in  the  low- 
est portion  of  the  trunk  in  front,  it  communi- 
cates by  means  of  two  long  tubes  called  ure- 
ters with  the  two  kidneys,  placed  high  up  in 
the  back,  just  above  the  lumbar  region,  on  each 
side  of  the  vertebral  column.  It  communicates 
with  the  exterior  by  means  of  a  single  tube 
called  the  urethra,  through  which  the  urine  is 
voided.  In  infancy  it  is  of  a  pyriform  shape, 
and  situated  almost  entirely  in  the  abdomen  ; 
it  undergoes  a  change  of  form  in  the  adult,  and 
sinks  deeper  in  the  pelvic  cavity.  It  then  as- 
sumes the  shape  of  a  short  oval,  compressed  in 
its  anterior  and  posterior  walls  ;  its  lower  sur- 
face expands  on  the  rectum,  and  forms  what  is 
termed  by  anatomists  the  bas-fond  of  the  blad- 
der. In  the  female  its  transverse  diameter  is 
greater  than  it  is  in  the  male,  owing  to  the  po- 
sition of  the  uterus  and  vagina  between  the 
bladder  and  the  rectum.  It  increases  in  dimen- 
sions with  advancing  age,  and  is  larger  in  fe- 
males than  in  males,  probably  from  habitual 
distention,  arising  from  constraint.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  bladder  is  oblique,  being  inclined 


forward  and  upward.  It  is  retained  in  its  po- 
sition by  ligaments.  Anatomists  have  divided 
it  into  six  regions  or  surfaces,  for  the  facility 
of  description  and  surgical  operation;  these 
are  named  anterior,  posterior,  superior,  inferi- 
or, and  left  and  right  lateral.  The  anterior 
surface  lies  behind  the  symphysis  pubis,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  loose  connective  tissue. 
When  distended,  the  bladder  rises,  and  its  an- 
terior surface  comes  in  contact  with  the  recti 
muscles  of  the  abdomen.  The  posterior  surface 
is  covered  by  the  peritoneum,  which  is  reflect- 
ed upon  it  from  the  rectum  in  the  male,  and 
from  the  uterus  and  vagina  in  the  female.  The 
lateral  and  superior  regions  are  partially  cov- 
ered by  the  peritoneum.  The  inferior  region, 
or  bas-fond,  is  the  most  important  in  a  surgical 
point  of  view.  It  is  bounded  before  by  the 
prostate  gland,  and  behind  by  the  peritoneum. 
Attached  to  it  in  the  male  we  find  the  veawulce 
seminalet  and  the  vasa  deferentia,  which  con- 
verge to  the  prostate  gland,  leaving  a  triangular 
space,  where  the  bladder  is  only  separated  from 
the  rectum  by  a  quantity  of  fatty  connective 
tissue  surrounding  numerous  small  vessels, 
chiefly  veins.  In  the  female  this  region  rests 
on  the  vagina,  which  separates  it  from  the  rec- 
tum. The  anterior  and  inferior  regions  of  the 
bladder  being  left  uncovered  by  folds  of  the 
peritoneum,  the  surgeon  is  able  to  perform  op- 
erations on  those  parts  without  injuring  that 
membrane,  which  is  so  liable  to  dangerous  in- 
flammation from  wounds. — The  walls  of  the 
bladder  are  composed  of  three  layers  or  coats, 
united' by  connective  tissue:  an  internal  or 
mucous  membrane,  a  middle  or  muscular  coat, 
and  an  external  or  serous  coat,  formed  by  folds 
of  the  peritoneum.  The  muscular  coat  is  com- 
posed of  pale  fibres  interlacing  in  all  directions, 
and  enabling  the  bladder  to  contract  so  per- 
fectly as  to  expel  every  drop  of  its  contents. 
The  neck  of  the  bladder  differs  in  structure 
from  the  rest  of  the  organ,  being  composed  of  a 
somewhat  fibrous  whitish  substance,  and  form- 
ing a  connecting  medium  between  the  bladder 
and  the  urethra.  Its  posterior  part  rests  upon 
the  rectum  ;  its  anterior  is  surrounded  below 
and  at  the  sides  by  the  prostate  gland,  which 
is  peculiar  to  the  male.  This  gland  is  com- 
posed of  an  aggregation  of  mucous  follicles, 
forming  three  lobes,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  and  one  below,  communi- 
cating by  means  of  small  ducts  with  the  ure 
thra.  The  inner  coat  or  lining  of  the  bladder, 
being  a  portion  of  the  genito-urinary  mucous 
membrane,  not  only  lines  the  bladder,  but  is 
prolonged  upward  through  the  ureters  into  the 
kidneys,  and  downward  along  the  urethra.  It 
is  of  a  pale  rose  color,  with  a  smooth  surface 
when  the  bladder  is  distended,  and  corrugated 
when  empty.  This  membrane  secretes  a  viscid 
fluid  termed  mucus,  which  protects  it  from 
the  acrimony  of  the  urine  with  which  it  would 
otherwise  be  in  contact. — The  secretion  of 
the  urine  is  performed  by  the  kidneys,  which 
are  constantly  active,  without  any  apparent 


BLADDER 


BLAINVILLE 


687 


alternation  of  action  and  repose,  although 
within  a  given  period  they  do  more  work 
at  one  time  than  another.  The  urine  thus 
secreted  dribbles  incessantly  along  the  ure- 
ters, and  drops  into  the  bladder,  where  it  ac- 
cumulates until  the  walls  are  distended,  and  a 
general  uneasy  sensation  is  produced  which 
calls  for  an  evacuation  of  the  contents. — Con- 
genital malformations  of  the  bladder  are  not 
unfrequent.  Sometimes  it  is  altogether  want- 
ing ;  and  in  such  cases  the  ureters  empty  into 
the  rectum,  as  into  the  cloaca  of  birds,  or  at 
the  pubes,  or  directly  into  the  urethra.  A  still 
more  frequent  malformation  is  that  in  which, 
the  lower  portions  of  the  recti  muscles  being 
imperfect,  and  the  anterior  wall  of  the  bladder 
deficient,  the  posterior  wall  is  protruded  and 
forms  a  red  fungus-like  tumor  above  the  pubes. 
The  tumor  presents  two  orifices,  which  are  the 
mouths  of  the  ureters,  from  which  the  urine 
constantly  dribbles.  Blasius  describes  a  case 
in  which  the  bladder  was  double.  Molinetti, 
it  is  said,  found  in  a  female  subject  five  kid- 
neys, five  ureters,  and  five  bladders. — Inflam- 
mation may  affect  the  coats  of  the  bladder 
singly  or  together.  When  the  mucous  mem- 
brane is  inflamed,  there  is  a  sense  of  irritation 
and  a  constant  desire  to  discharge  the  contents. 
Ulcers,  gangrenous  spots,  and  indurations  of 
various  kinds  may  be  produced  by  inflamma- 
tion. The  secretion  of  the  mucous  membrane 
may  be  increased  or  altered,  constituting  what 
is  termed  catarrh  of  the  bladder.  The  mucous 
membrane  is  sometimes  found  in  a  varicose 
state.  In  other  cases  it  gives  origin  to  cysts 
of  different  kinds,  and  fungous  growths;  the 
latter  occur  mostly  in  old  people.  Various  ac- 
cidents and  diseases  may  prevent  the  bladder 
from  evacuating  its  contents,  in  which  case  it 
becomes  excessively  distended,  and  unless  re- 
lieved inflammation  ensues,  a  portion  mortifies, 
through  which  the  urine  escapes  into  the  ab- 
domen, and  speedy  death  is  the  result.  After 
three  days'  retention  the  bladder  usually  at- 
tains its  utmost  limits  of  distention,  and  if  not 
relieved  the  contents  are  evacuated  in  small 
quantities,  as  they  would  be  in  a  case  of  mere 
incontinence  of  urine ;  and  it  is  of  great  im- 
portance therefore  not  to  mistake  retention  for 
incontinence  where  there  is  this  point  of  simi- 
larity in  their  respective  symptoms.  When 
there  is  danger  in  delay,  and  a  catheter  cannot 
be  introduced,  the  bladder  may  be  punctured, 
either  through  the  perineum  or  the  rectum,  or 
.above  the  pubes,  as  it  is  not  covered  by  the 
peritoneum  in  these  regions. — Where  urinary 
calculi  exist  in  the  bladder,  they  are  removed 
by  surgical  operations.  When  small,  they  may 
be  extracted  through  the  urethra  by  a  pair  of 
forceps  invented  for  the  purpose ;  when  large, 
they  may  sometimes  be  reduced  into  small 
pieces,  minute  enough  to  pass  away  with  the 
urine ;  and  where  this  is  not  practicable,  they 
may  be  removed  by  cutting  into  the  bladder. — 
In  the  whole  class  of  birds  there  are  no  urinary 
bladders ;  the  ureters  descend  from  the  kidneys 
96  VOL.  II. — 44 


and  open  into  the  cloaca,  a  musculo-membra- 
nous  bag,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  rectum, 
the  uterus,  and  the  bladder  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals, and  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  solid  excre- 
ment, for  urine,  and  for  eggs.  In  these  ani- 
mals the  urine  dilutes  the  fceces  and  forms  the 
carbonate  of  lime  or  hard  substance  of  the  shell. 
The  urinary  bladder  exists  in  several  genera 
and  species  of  fishes. 

BL4DEJF,  a  S.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  South  river,  and  intersected 
by  the  Cape  Fear ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,831,  of  whom  6,102  were  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  generally  level,  and  diver- 
sified by  a  number  of  small  lakes.  Much  of 
the  land  is  occupied  by  extensive  pine  forests. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  86,986 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  68,123  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, 146  bales  of  cotton,  and  38,187  Ibs.  of 
rice.  There  were  478  horses,  2,380  milch  cows, 
4,700  other  cattle,  4,398  sheep,  and  11,526 
swine.  Capital,  Elizabethtown. 

BLADE.VSBIRG,  a  town  of  Prince  George's 
county,  Maryland,  on  the  east  branch  of  the 
Potomac,  about  6  m.  N.  E.  of  Washington ;  pop. 
in  1870,  410.  At  the  bridge  over  the  Potomac 
W.  of  Bladensburg,  the  battle  with  the  Eng- 
lish preceding  the  capture  of  Washington  by 
Cockburn  and  Ross  took  place,  Aug.  24,  1814. 

BLAGOVIESHTCHENSK,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia, capital  of  the  province  of  the  Amoor,  sit- 
uated on  the  Amoor  and  the  Dzega,  not  far 
from  the  Chinese  town  of  Aigoon;  pop.  3,107. 
It  was  founded  in  1858. 

BLAINE,  Ephralm,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  1741,  died  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  in  March,  1804. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a  colonel  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  was 
subsequently  made  commissary  general.  He 
was  with  Washington  in  many  of  the  most  try- 
ing scenes  of  the  revolution,  and  enjoyed  his 
entire  confidence.  During  the  "dark  winter" 
at  Valley  Forge  the  preservation  of  the  Amer- 
ican army  from  starvation  was  in  a  great  de- 
gree owing  to  the  exertions  of  Col.  Blaine. — 
His  great-grandson,  JAMES  GILLESPIE,  born  in 
Washington  co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830,  was  for 
some  time  a  teacher  at  the  south,  afterward  a 
journalist  at  Augusta  and  Portland,  Me.,  and  a 
member  of  the  Maine  legislature  (1857-'62), 
and  two  years  speaker  of  the  house.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1862,  has  been  reelected 
five  times  (1872),  and  in  1869  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives. 

BLAINVILLE,  Henri  Marie  Dnerotay  de,  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Arques,  near  Dieppe  in 
Normandy,  Sept.  12,  1777,  died  in  Paris,  May 
1,  1850.  In  1794  or  1795  he  entered  the  school 
of  design  at  Rouen,  and  in  1796  entered  as  a  pu- 
pil the  studio  of  Vincent,  the  historical  painter. 
He  soon  began  to  frequent  the  lectures  on 
natural  history  at  the  jardin  des  plantes  and 
at  the  college  de  France,  became  one  of  the 
most  diligent  disciples  of  Cuvier,  and  finally 
devoted  all  his  time  to  the  study  of  human 
anatomy,  obtaining  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in 


688 


BLAIR 


1808.  During  some  years,  in  concert  with  the 
German  naturalist  Oppel,  he  gave  great  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  reptiles  and  to  myology. 
He  also  became  an  assistant  to  Cuvier.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  zoology 
in  the  faculty  of  sciences  in  1812,  when  he 
produced  his  celebrated  thesis  on  the  ornitho- 
rhynchus.  In  1825  De  Blainville  was  elected 
successor  to  Lacdpede  as  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  sciences.  At  the  death  of  Lamarck, 
Dec.  18,  1829,  the  chair  of  natural  history  at 
the  jardin  des  plantes  was  divided  into  several 
professorships,  and  De  Blainville  was  appointed 
to  the  department  of  mollusca,  zoophytes,  and 
worms;  and  in  1832  he  succeeded  Cuvier  in 
the  chair  of  comparative  anatomy.  He  con- 
tinued the  work  of  Cuvier  on  the  fossils  of 
extinct  species ;  but  while  the  latter  had  only 
consulted  the  skeletons  of  living  species  as  a 
means  of  comparison  with  fossil  species,  De 
Blainville  attempted  to  treat  the  osteology  of 
all  types  of  organism,  living  as  well  as  extinct, 
under  the  title  of  Osteographie,  ou  description 
iconograpliique  compares  du  squelette  et  du  sys- 
teme  dentaire  des  cinq  classes  ffanimaiix  ter- 
tebres  recente  et  fossiles.  He  died,  however, 
before  the  completion  of  the  work.  In  his 
Prodrome  d'wne  nownelle  distribution  metlio- 
dique  du  regne  animal  (Paris,  1816),  he  pointed 
out  several  modifications  in  the  classification 
of  animals  which  have  since  been  generally 
accepted.  In  his  Dictionnaire  d'histoire  natu- 
relle  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  on 
worms,  which  marks  an  epoch  in  the  progress 
of  that  branch  of  science.  He  also  published 
a  work  entitled  Faune  francaise  (Paris,  1821, 
1830),  Manuel  demalacologie  et  de  conchyliolo- 
gie  (Strasburg,  1825-'7),  Cours  de  physiologic 
ffenerale  et  comparee,  professe  A  la  faculte  des 
sciences  de  Paris  (1833),  and  Histoire  des  sci- 
ences naturelles  au  moyen  Age  (Paris,  1845). 
In  the  classification  of  animals  De  Blainville 
was  of  opinion  that  the  external  form  should 
be  the  leading  characteristic  in  forming  groups 
and  families  of  allied  species;  while  other  nat- 
uralists maintain  that  the  internal  structure  is 
of  more  importance  in  pointing  out  affinities 
and  similarities. 

BLAIR,  a  S.  central  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
drained  by  Clover  creek,  the  Little  Jnniata, 
and  one  of  its  branches ;  area,  650  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  38,051.  The  surface  is  very  rugged, 
and  nearly  half  of  the  land  is  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. The  Allegheny  mountains  form 
the  western  boundary ;  Dunning's  and  Brush 
mountains  traverse  the  interior;  and  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  county  rises  Tussey's  moun- 
tain. Between  these  ridges  lie  fertile  and 
highly  cultivated  valleys.  Bituminous  coal  and 
iron  are  found.  The  Pennsylvania  Central 
railroad  and  branches  and  the  Pennsylvania 
canal  traverse  the  county.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  259,619  bushels  of  wheat, 
64,839  of  rye,  339,922  of  Indian  corn,  266,348 
of  oats,  20,677  tons  of  hay,  and  294,879  Ibs.  of 
butter.  There  were  4,322  horses,  4,242  milch 


cows,  6,006  other  cattle,  8,372  sheep,  and  6,781 
swine.     Capital,  Hollidaysburg. 

BLAIR.  I.  Francis  Preston,  an  American  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Abingdon,  Washington  county, 
Va.,  April  12,  1791.  He  was  educated  at 
Transylvania  university,  Kentucky,  and  studied 
law,  but  never  practised.  He  early  took  part 
in  politics,  and  in  1824  supported  Henry  Clay 
for  the  presidency,  but  dissented  from  his  views, 
especially  in  relation  to  the  United  States  bank. 
When  in  1829  the  nullification  movement  was 
developed  in  South  Carolina,  Mr.  Blair  publish- 
ed an  article  against  it  in  a  Kentucky  news- 
paper, which  attracted  the  attention  of  Gen. 
Jackson,  who  invited  the  writer  to  become  the 
editor  of  the  "  Globe,"  a  democratic  journal 
about  to  be  established  in  Washington.  The 
journal  was  commenced  in  November,  1830, 
and  became  the  organ  of  the  successive  demo- 
cratic administrations,  Mr.  Blair  retaining  the 
control  of  it  till  1845,  when  President  Polk 
thought  it  necessary  for  the  harmony  of  the 
party  that  the  organ  should  be  placed  in  other 
hands,  offering  Mr.  Blair  the  position  of  minis- 
ter to  Spain,  which  was  declined.  He  then 
retired  to  his  estate  of  Silver  Springs,  Mont- 
gomery county,  Md.  In  1848  he  withdrew 
from  the  regular  democratic  party,  and  sup- 
ported Mr.  Van  Buren  for  the  presidency. 
After  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  republican  party.  II.  Montgomery,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Ky., 
May  10,  1813.  He  was  educated  at  West 
Point,  graduating  in  1835,  and  served  in  the 
Seminole  war.  In  1836  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  army,  and  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  law  in  St.  Louis;  was  appointed 
United  States  district  attorney  for  Missouri  in 
1839;  and  from  1843  to  1849  was  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas.  In  1852  he  re- 
moved to  Maryland,  and  in  1855  was  appointed 
solicitor  of  the  United  States  in  the  court  of 
claims.  Previous  to  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
compromise  he  had  been  a  democrat ;  after- 
ward he  became  a  member  of  the  republican 
party,  and  was  in  consequence  removed  from 
his  office  by  President  Buchanan  in  1858.  In 
1857  he  acted  as  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in 
the  Dred  Scott  case.  In  1860  he  presided 
over  the  republican  convention  of  Maryland, 
and  in  1861  was  appointed  by  President  Lin- 
coln postmaster  general,  which  post  he  held 
till  1864.  Since  that  time  he  has  acted  with 
the  opponents  of  the  republican  party.  III. 
Frauds  Preston,  jr.,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Feb.  19,  1821.  He 
graduated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in 
1841,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  St. 
Louis.  In  1845,  his  health  having  become  im- 
paired, he  made  ajourney  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains in  company  with  a  party  of  trappers. 
Being  in  New  Mexico  when  hostilities  with 
Mexico  broke  out,  he  entered  the  army  as  a  pri- 
vate and  served  till  1847,  when  he  returned  to 
St.  Louis  and  resumed  his  profession.  In  1848 


BLAIR 


BLAKE 


689 


he  attached  himself  to  the  free-soil  branch  of  the 
democratic  party,  supporting  Mr.  Van  Buren 
for  the  presidency,  publicly  opposed  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  into  the  territories,  and  for  a 
time  was  editor  of  the  "Missouri  Democrat." 
In  1852,  and  again  in  1854,  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislature  of  Missouri.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  congress  as  a  republican, 
and  made  a  speech  in  favor  of  colonizing  the 
colored  population  of  the  United  States  in  Cen- 
tral America.  At  the  next  congressional  elec- 
tion his  democratic  opponent  was  returned,  and 
Mr.  Blair  contested  the  seat.  He  was  again 
elected  to  congress  in  1860  and  1862.  He  en- 
tered the  army  as  colonel  of  volunteers  in  1861, 
and  was  appointed  brigadier  general  Aug.  7 
and  major  general  Nov.  29,  1862,  resigning  his 
seat  in  congress  in  1863.  He  commanded  a 
division  during  the  Vicksbnrg  campaign,  and  in 
1864-'5  the  17th  corps  in  the  army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee in  Sherman's  campaigns  from  Chatta- 
nooga to  Atlanta,  in  the  march  to  the  sea,  and  in 
the  Carolinas.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  col- 
lector of  customs  at  St.  Louis,  and  commission- 
er of  the  Pacific  railroad.  Becoming  dissatis- 
fied with  the  policy  of  the  administration,  he 
returned  to  the  democratic  party,  and  in  1868 
was  its  candidate  for  the  office  of  vice  presi- 
dent. In  1870  he  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  from  Missouri  to  fill  a  vacancy,  his 
term  expiring  March  4,  1873. 

BLAIR,  Hugh,  a  Scottish  divine  and  author, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  April  7,  1718,  died  there, 
Dec.  27,  1800.  In  1759  he  delivered  a  cour.se 
of  lectures  on  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres,  which 
were  so  well  received  that  the  king  was  in- 
duced to  establish  a  professorship  of  rhetoric 
and  polite  literature  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  to  appoint  Dr.  Blair  its  first  profes- 
sor. In  1763  he  published  a  dissertation  on 
the  authenticity  of  Macpherson's  "  Ossian," 
and  in  1777  the  first  volume  of  his  sermons, 
subsequently  followed  by  four  others.  In 
1783  his  lectures  were  published  in  3  vols.  8vo. 

BLAIR,  James,  D.  D.,  an  American  clergyman 
and  teacher,  born  in  Scotland  in  1656,  died  in 
Virginia,  Aug.  8,  1743.  He  was  educated  in 
one  of  the  Scottish  universities,  took  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  church  in  Scotland,  removed  to 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  and  in  1685  was  sent  by  Dr.  Comp- 
ton,  bishop  of  London,  as  missionary  to  Vir- 
ginia. In  1689  he  was  appointed  ecclesiastical 
commissary,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  officer  in 
the  province.  Here  he  devoted  his  energies  to 
the  founding  of  a  college,  and  having  obtained 
the  approval  of  the  colonial  government  crossed 
the  ocean  to  ask  for  help  in  England  and  secure 
a  charter.  This  was  granted  in  1693,  and  Dr. 
Blair  was  made  first  president  of  William  and 
Mary  college.  Through  his  energy  the  new 
institution  survived  various  trials  and  discour- 
agements, especially  the  destruction  by  fire  of 
the  college  building  in  1705.  He  was  fur  some 
time  president  of  the  council  of  the  colony  and 
rector  of  Williamsburg.  In  1722  he  published 


"  Our  Saviour's  Divine  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
explained  and  recommended  in  divers  Sermons 
and  Discourses  "  (4  vols.  8vo).  These  discour- 
ses were  afterward  republished  with  a  com- 
mendatory preface  by  Dr.  Waterland  (1740). 

BLAIR,  John,  a  Scottish  chronologist  and 
geographer,  bom  in  Edinburgh,  died  June  24, 
1782.  He  early  removed  to  London,  and  in 
1754  published  his  "Chronological  History  of 
the  World,  from  the  Creation  to  A.  D.  1753." 
He  received  several  ecclesiastical  preferments, 
was  appointed  in  1757  chaplain  to  the  prin- 
cess dowager  of  Wales,  and  in  1763  was  select- 
ed to  accompany  the  duke  of  York  on  a  tour 
to  the  continent. 

BLAIR,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  horn  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1699,  died  Feb.  4,  1746.  He  was 
minister  of  Athelstaneford,  East  Lothian,  from 
1731  till  his  death.  His  poem  of  "  The  Grave," 
in  blank  verse,  which  appeared  after  his  death 
(London,  1 747),  was  highly  praised  by  Campbell. 

BLAIRSVILLE,  a  post  borough  of  Indiana 
county,  Penn.,  situated  on  the  Conemaugh  river 
and  Pennsylvania  canal,  36  m.  E.  of  Pittsburgh, 
and  about  3  m.  from  the  Central  railroad, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  branch ;  pop. 
in  1870,  1,054.  It  is  the  shipping  point  of 
nearly  all  the  grain,  pork,  lumber,  and  coal  ex- 
ported from  the  county.  There  is  a  handsome 
bridge  across  the  Conemaugh,  with  a  single 
arch  of  295  ft. 

BLAKE,  George  Smith,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1803,  died 
at  Longwood,  Mass.,  June  24,  1871.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1818,  be- 
came lieutenant  in  1827,  and  in  1846  obtained 
command  of  the  10-gun  brig  Perry,  which  was 
wrecked  in  a  hurricane  upon  the  coast  of  Flor- 
ida. In  1847  he  was  promoted  to  commander, 
in  which  grade  he  was  attached  for  some  time 
to  the  bureau  of  construction  and  equipment. 
He  also  served  as  fleet  captain  and  commander 
of  the  razee  Independence  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean for  three  years.  In  1855  he  was  pro- 
moted to  captain,  and  in  1857  was  ordered 
as  superintendent  of  the  United  States  naval 
academy,  which  position  he  held  during  the 
civil  war,  the  academy  being  removed  from 
Annapolis,  Md.,  to  Newport,  R.  I.  On  the 
reorganization  of  the  navy  in  July,  1862,  Capt. 
Blake  was  promoted  to  commodore;  and  in 
1866-'9  he  was  lighthouse  inspector. 

BLAKE,  John  Lanris,  D.  D.,  an  American  au- 
thor and  clergyman,  born  at  Northwood,  N. 
H.,  Dec.  21,  1788,  died  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  July 
6,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  Brown  univer- 
sity, graduating  in  1812,  and  in  1813  he  was 
licensed  by  the  Rhode  Island  association  of 
Congregational  ministers,  but  soon  after  joined 
the  Episcopal  church,  and  organized  the  parish 
of  St.  Paul's  at  Pawtncket.  In  1820  he  return- 
ed to  New  Hampshire,  and,  taking  temporary 
supervision  of  the  churches  in  Concord  and 
Hopkinton,  established  at  the  former  place  a 
young  ladies'  seminary,  which  in  1822  he  re- 
moved to  Boston.  He  continued  in  this  school 


690 


BLAKE 


till  1830,  having  charge  also  of  St.  Matthew's 
church  in  Boston  most  of  the  time.  Subse- 
quently, he  was  editor  for  a  time  of  the  "  Lite- 
rary Advertiser  "  and  the  "  Gospel  Advocate." 
In  1814  he  published  a  "Text  Book  of 
Geography  and  Chronology,"  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  In  1835  appeared 
his  "Biographical  Dictionary,"  of  which  a  sec- 
ond edition  was  published  in  1856  (1  vol.  large 
8vo).  He  was  the  writer  or  compiler  of  nearly 
50  different  works,  of  which  the  greater  part 
were  text  books  for  schools.  There  were  also 
two  or  three  volumes  on  rural  economy,  the 
"Family  Cyclopaedia,"  "Letters  on  Confirma- 
tion," a  volume  on  prayer,  sermons  and  ad- 
dresses, &c. 

BLAKE,  Robert,  an  English  admiral,  born  at 
Bridgewater,  Somersetshire,  in  August,  1599, 
died  off  Plymouth,  Aug.  17, 1657.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  Oxford.  Although  attached  to  the 
principles  of  the  Puritans  and  theoretically  a 
republican,  he  took  no  active  part  in  politics, 
but  in  1640  was  returned  to  parliament  for 
Bridgewater.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  lie  raised  forces  in  Somersetshire,  and  op- 
erated against  the  royalists  in  the  western  coun- 
ties. In  1643  he  commanded  a  fort  at  Bristol 
during  the  siege  of  that  city,  and  having  been 
appointed  governor  of  Tatmton,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  successful  defence  of  that  place 
in  1645  against  a  superior  force.  In  1649, 
after  the  execution  of  the  king,  the  navy  under 
Prince  Rupert,  which  had  continued  loyal,  had 
full  control  of  the  seas.  At  this  juncture 
Blake  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
squadron,  with  the  title  of  "general  of  the 
sea,"  and  blockaded  Prince  Rupert  in  the  har- 
bor of  Kinsale  for  several  months.  The  prince, 
having  broken  through  the  blockading  line 
with  a  loss  of  three  ships,  proceeded  to  the 
Tagus,  whither  he  was  soon  followed  by  Blake, 
who  by  seizing  a  large  number  of  richly  laden 
Portuguese  ships  compelled  the  king  of  Por- 
tugal, who  favored  Rupert,  to  expel  him.  The 
two  squadrons  met  off  Malaga  in  January,  1651, 
when  the  royal  fleet,  except  two  ships,  was  de- 
stroyed. Upon  returning  home  Blake  receiv- 
ed the  thanks  of  parliament  for  these  exploits, 
and  was  made  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 
He  subsequently  took  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 
the  Scilly  islands  from  the  royalists,  again 
received  the  thanks  of  parliament,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  council  of  state.  In 
March,  1652,  in  anticipation  of  a  war  with 
Holland,  Blake  was  appointed  sole  admiral, 
and  on  May  19,  1652,  fought  a  battle  in  Dover 
roads  with  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Admiral  Van 
Tromp,  which  was  terminated  only  by  night, 
when  the  Dutch  withdrew,  with  the  loss  of 
two  ships  and  30  guns.  He  again  met  the 
enemy  under  De  "Witt  on  Sept.  28,  and  cap- 
tured the  Dutch  flag  ship  and  three  others. 
Subsequently  Blake  divided  his  fleet  into  sev- 
eral squadrons,  retaining  himself  only  37  ships, 
and  was  attacked  near  the  Goodwin  Sands, 


Nov.  29,  by  Van  Tromp,  at  the  head  of  twice 
that  number.  The  battle,  during  which  Blake 
was  wounded,  was  stubbornly  contested,  and 
at  night  the  English,  having  destroyed  one 
of  the  enemy's  ships  and  disabled  two  oth- 
ers, and  lost  six  of  their  own,  retired  to  the 
Thames.  This  success  so  elated  Van  Tromp 
that  he  sailed  through  the  channel  with  brooms 
at  his  mast-heads.  The  English  immediately 
strengthened  their  fleet,  and  embarked  two 
regiments  of  infantry  as  marines;  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1653,  Blake  put  to  sea  with  over  70 
vessels.  On  the  18th  he  intercepted  Van 
Tromp,  with  76  ships  of  war,  convoying  a  fleet 
of  300  merchantmen,  off  Portland  island,  and 
immediately  attacked  him.  A  running  fight 
was  maintained  for  three  days,  when  the 
Dutch  found  refuge  in  the  shallow  water  of 
their  own  coast,  having  lost  11  ships  of  war, 
with  2,000  men  killed  and  1,500  prisoners, 
besides  50  of  their  merchantmen.  Blake  lost 
hut  one  ship;  his  slain  were  about  2,000. 
When  Cromwell  dissolved  the  long  parliament 
and  assumed  absolute  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, Blake  gave  his  support  to  the  protector, 
and  kept  his  men  firm  in  their  duty  to  the  de 
facto  government,  saying  to  his  officers,  "  It  is 
not  our  business  to  mind  state  affairs,  but  to 
keep  foreigners  from  fooling  us."  He  sat  in  the 
first  two  parliaments  summoned  by  Cromwell. 
On  June  3  and  4,  1653,  he  fought  again  with 
the  Dutch,  driving  them,  with  the  loss  of  20 
ships,  to  their  own  shore.  After  this  Blake 
was  obliged  by  ill  health  to  leave  the  sea,  and 
was  not  present  at  the  battle  (end  of  July) 
which  closed  the  war.  In  November,  1654,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  head  of 
a  strong  fleet,  to  exact  reparation  for  injuries 
done  to  British  commerce  during  the  civil  war. 
So  great  was  his  reputation  that  the  duke  of 
Tuscany  and  the  knights  of  Malta  at  once  made 
compensation,  and  Algiers  and  Tripoli  submit- 
ted to  his  terms.  Tunis,  which  resisted,  was 
compelled  to  conclude  a  peace,  Upon  the 
breaking  out  of  war  with  Spain  in  1656,  he 
was  sent  to  blockade  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  and  on 
April  20,  1657,  he  cut  out  from  under  the  guns 
of  Santa  Cruz,  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  a  fleet 
of  Spanish  galleons  laden  with  silver,  defended 
by  a  strong  naval  force.  This  was  perhaps  the 
greatest  of  his  achievements.  He  died  of  scur- 
vy while  entering  Plymouth  sound  on  his  re- 
turn. The  career  of  Blake  was  remarkable. 
Without  experience  in  war,  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  commander ;  without  training  at 
sea,  he  became  at  once  the  foremost  admiral  of 
his  time.  As  a  man  he  was  of  a  blunt  and 
fearless  temper,  and  distinguished  for  straight- 
forwardness and  honesty  of  character. 

BLAKE,  William,  an  English  artist  and  poet, 
born  in  London,  Nov.  28, 1757,  died  there,  Aug. 
12,  1827.  He  was  the  son  of  a  hosier,  and  at 
the  age  of  14  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver, 
and  when  21  began  to  make  engravings  for  the 
booksellers.  He  also  succeeded  now  and  then 
in  finding  a  purchaser  for  a  drawing.  He  had 


BLAKE 


BLAKELY 


691 


written  poems  from  childhood,  and  in  1781  pub- 
lished a  little  volume  of  70  pages,  which  was 
with  a  single  exception  the  only  book  of  his  ever 
printed  regularly  during  his  lifetime;  it  met 
with  no  success.  At  25  he  married  Catharine 
Boucher.  Though  she  could  not  read  nor  write 
at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  she  had  grace  and 
talent,  and  was  able  to  enter  into  the  tastes  and 
fancies  of  her  husband,  and  in  time  became  a 
skilful  artist.  Their  union,  whicli  lasted  45 
years,  though  childless,  was  one  of  unusual 
happiness.  In  1788,  having  conceived  the  idea 
of  printing  and  illustrating  his  own  poems,  he 
invented,  or  as  he  believed  was  spiritually 
taught,  the  way  to  do  this.  Upon  a  plate  of 
copper  the  words  and  designs  were  drawn  with 
varnish,  and  the  parts  not  thus  protected  were 
eaten  away  with  an  acid,  leaving  the  letters 
and  lines  in  relief,  as  in  a  stereotyped  page. 
Impressions  were  taken  from  this,  at  first  by 
rubbing,  afterward  by  a  common  printing  press. 
For  ink  he  used  the  common  colors  of  the 
shops,  which  he  ground  fine  and  mixed  with 
diluted  glue.  The  ink  was  applied  to  the  block 
by  means  of  a  brush,  as  has  always  been  done 
by  the  Chinese.  The  words  were  usually 
printed  in  red,  the  design  and  ornaments  in 
the  color  which  he  wished  to  form  the  tone  of 
the  picture,  blue,  green,  or  yellow,  usually  a 
mellow  brown.  The  pictures  were  sometimes 
sold  in  that  shape,  and  sometimes  tinted  like 
the  original  drawings.  His  wife  worked  off  the 
impressions,  aided  her  husband  in  tinting  them, 
and  bound  the  sets  in  thin  volumes.  A  part 
of  the  process,  which  was  kept  a  secret,  was, 
he  believed,  revealed  to  him  by  his  deceased 
brother,  the  remainder  by  Joseph  of  Nazareth. 
The  production  of  these  illustrated  poems  was 
for  40  years  Blake's  chief  source  of  income, 
although  he  painted  many  pictures  (those  now 
extant,  with  his  drawings,  numbering  not  less 
than  500)  and  executed  almost  innumerable  en- 
gravings. The  first  series  was  "  The  Songs  of 
Innocence,"  containing  27  pages  about  7  inches 
by  5.  The  price  of  a  tinted  set  was  20  guineas ; 
the  few  perfect  copies  now  extant  are  of  price- 
less value.  The  "  Inventions  for  the  Book  of 
Job,"  somewhat  larger,  executed  toward  the 
close  of  his  life,  are  as  a  whole  the  most  strik- 
ing and  characteristic  of  his  works.  Among 
others  are  the  "  Books  of  Prophecies,"  "  Gates 
of  Paradise,"  "  Urizen,"  and  "  Visions  of  the 
Daughters  of  Albion  and  America,"  the  words 
and  illustrations  being  alike  mystical  and  ob- 
scure, though  marked  with  great  vigor.  His 
income  was  always  small;  but  the  common 
assertion  that  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life  he 
lived  in  a  garret  and  upon  crusts  of  bread  is 
without  foundation.  He  spent  all  his  life,  ex- 
cepting four  years,  in  London,  where  he  al- 
ways had  comfortable  apartments  in  a  respect- 
able street ;  was  decently  dressed,  and  rather 
fond  of  the  delicacies  of  the  table,  which  his 
wife,  who  was  an  excellent  cook,  was  able  to 
produce  within  the  limits  of  their  means.  He 
was  never  in  debt ;  and  when  he  died,  although 


he  left  little  money,  his  pictures  and  illustrated 
poems,  sold  from  time  to  time,  brought  enough 
to  maintain  his  widow  in  comfort  during  the 
four  years  that  she  survived  him.  Though 
little  appreciated  during  his  life,  and  almost  for- 
gotten for  a  generation  after  his  death,  it  is 
now  agreed  that  in  force  and  originality  Eng- 
land has  not  produced  his  superior.  Some  of 
his  poems,  although  faulty  in  rhyme  and  rhythm, 
are  exceedingly  tender  and  graceful;  others 
are  so  weird  and  mystical  as  apparently  to  jus- 
tify the  belief  of  his  contemporaries  that  he  was 
half  mad.  He  had  visions  from  childhood  to 
old  age,  and  whatever  he  imagined  was  to  him 
as  real  as  though  it  actually  existed.  He  was 
thus  familiar  with  primeval  Egypt  and  As- 
syria, where  he  saw  statues  of  which  the  noblest 
specimens  of  Greek  art  were  only  feeble  copies. 
He  could  call  up  almost  at  will  the  shades  of 
the  dead,  and  from  them  draw  portraits  as  if 
they  were  before  him  in  the  flesh.  Many  of 
these  portraits  remain.  Some  are  strikingly 
characteristic  of  the  personages ;  others,  like 
"  The  Man  who  built  the  Pyramids  "  and  "  The 
Ghost  of  a  Flea,"  are  grotesque ;  and  others, 
like  "Nebuchadnezzar  Eating  Grass,"  are 
almost  terrible.  Yet  he  possessed,  rather  than 
was  possessed  by,  his  visions.  He  knew  that 
their  reality  was  different  from  that  of  the 
actual  world.  "  Where  did  you  see  that? "  some 
one  inquired  respecting  one  of  his  visions,  which 
he  had  been  describing  as  a  matter  of  fact. 
"Here,"  was  the  reply,  touching  his  forehead. 
He  wrote,  "  I  assert  for  myself  that  I  do  not  be- 
hold the  outward  creation,  and  that  it  is  hin- 
drance, not  action.  '  What ! '  it  will  be  question- 
ed, '  when  the  sun  rises,  do  you  not  see  a  round 
disk  of  fire  somewhat  like  a  guinea  ? '  Oh !  no, 
no !  I  see  an  innumerable  company  of  the  heav- 
enly host  crying,  'Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the 
Lord  God  Almighty.'  I  question  not  my  cor- 
poreal eye  any  more  than  I  would  question  a 
window  concerning  a  sight.  I  look  through 
it,  and  not  with  it."  Blake  retained  his  fac- 
ulties to  the  last.  Just  before  his  death  he  lay 
softly  singing.  His  wife  stopped  to  listen. 
Looking  upon  her,  now  a  faded  woman  of 
almost  70  years,  he  said  affectionately,  "My 
beloved,  they  are  not  mine ;  no,  they  are  not 
mine."  These  seem  to  have  been  his  last 
words.  The  popular  life  of  Blake  by  Allan 
Cunningham,  in  his  "British  Painters  and 
Sculptors,"  is  often  inaccurate.  The  life  by 
Alexander  Gilchrist  (2  vols.,  London,  1863) 
contains  nearly  all  of  his  poems,  and  exact  fac- 
similes of  many  of  his  works,  but  without  the 
coloring.  Flaxman  said  of  him,  "The  time 
will  come  when  the  finest  of  Blake's  designs 
will  be  as  much  sought  for  and  treasured  up  as 
those  of  Michel  Angelo." 

BLAKELY,  Johnston,  an  officer  of  the  United 
States  navy,  born  in  Ireland  in  October,  1781, 
lost  at  sea  in  1814.  His  parents  settled  in 
North  Carolina  while  he  was  very  young. 
He  was  educated  in  the  university  of  that 
state,  entered  the  navy  in  1800,  and  in  1813 


692 


BLAKEY 


commanded  as  lieutenant  the  brig  Enterprise, 
cruising  upon  the  eastern  coast.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  master 
commandant  and  appointed  to  the  new  sloop 
"Wasp,  in  which  he  sailed  from  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  on  a  cruise,  May  1.  1814.  On  June  28,  in 
lat.  48°  36'  N.,  Ion.  II6  15'  W.,  he  fell  in  with 
and  captured,  after  a  severe  engagement,  the 
British  sloop  Reindeer.  Tho  danger  of  recap- 
ture being  great,  Opt.  Blakely  destroyed  his 
prize  and  put  into  Lorient  with  his  prisoners. 
For  this  exploit  congress  voted  him  a  gold 
medal.  The  Wasp  sailed  from  Lorient  Aug. 
27  on  another  cruise,  and  made  several  cap- 
tures, one  a  vessel  laden  with  guns  and  military 
stores,  which  was  cut  out  of  a  convoy  in  charge 
of  a  line-of-battle  ship.  On  the  evening  of 
Sept.  1  he  captured  the  Avon,  and  subse- 
quently took  several  other  prizes  and  destroyed 
them.  On  Sept.  21  he  captured  the  brig  Ata- 
Innta  and  sent  her  to  Savannah  with  a  prize 
crew.  On  Oct.  9  the  Waip  was  spoken  by  a 
Swedish  brig,  but  was  never  heard  from  again. 
BLAKEY,  Robert,  an  English  metaphysician 
and  author,  born  at  Morpeth,  Northumberland, 
in  1795.  He  published  in  1829  "The  Free- 
dom of  the  Divine  and  Human  Wills,"  and  his 
reputation  was  increased  in  1833  by  his  "  His- 
tory of  Moral  Science,"  which  has  been  adopted 
as  a  text  book  in  several  American  colleges. 
In  1834  he  published  an  "Essay  on  Logic,"  and 
in  1835  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  and 
metaphysics  in  Queen's  college,  Belfast ;  but  the 
state  of  his  health  disabled  him  from  teaching. 
His  chief  work  is  a  "History  of  the  Philoso- 
phy of  Mind"  (4  vols.,  1848;  new  ed.,  1850). 
The  degree  of  Ph.  D.  was  conferred  on  him 
by  the  university  of  Jena.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "Lives  of  the  Primitive  Fathers" 
(1842),  "Temporal  Benefits  of  Christianity" 
(1849),  "  Historical  Sketch  of  Logic  "  (1851), 
and  "  History  of  Political  Literature  "  (3  vols., 
1855  et  seq.).  He  has  also  published  several 
volumes  on  angling  and  sporting  topics. 

BLA\0.  I.  Jean  Joseph  Louis,  a  French  politi- 
cal and  historical  writer,  born  in  Madrid,  where 
his  father  was  inspector  general  of  finance  tin- 
der Joseph  Bonaparte,  Oct.  28,  1813.  His 
mother  was  a  Corsican,  and  the  sister  of  the 
celebrated  Pozzo  di  Borgo.  He  was  educated 
for  the  diplomatic  service ;  but  his  father  lost 
his  fortune  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  in 
1832  the  son  became  tutor  to  a  private  family 
at  Arras.  Eemoving  to  Paris  in  1834,  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Bon  Sens,  a  periodical  of 
considerable  influence.  He  left  it  in  1838,  and 
established  La  Revue  du  Progres,  to  promote 
the  combination  of  the  democratic  associations, 
and  to  further  the  cause  of  political  reform. 
A  treatise  on  the  "Organization  of  Labor," 
first  published  in  this  journal,  appeared  sepa- 
rately in  1840,  and  gave  him  a  position  as  one 
of  the  ablest  writers  of  the  socialistic  school. 
He  maintained  that  industry  ought  to  be  con- 
ducted not  for  individual  profit,  but  for  the 
benefit  of  the  community,  each  person  con- 


BLAXC 

;ributing  to  the  common  stock  according  to  liis 
capabilities,  and  receiving  from  it  according  to 
lis  wants,  under  the  supervision  of  the  govern- 
ment.    This  work  was  followed  soon  after  by 
nis  Histoire  de  dix  am,  in  which  the  political 
incidents  of  the  period   from   1830  to   1840 
were  described  with  remarkable  animation  and 
sagacity,  and  the  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  and 
the  ministers  of  the  'bourgeoisie  was  criticised 
with  scathing  partisan  logic.     The  first  two 
volumes  of  his  equally  brilliant  Histoire  de  la 
revolution  franfaise  (completed  in  12  vols.  in 
1862)  appeared  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  in  bringing 
about  wbvjh  the  works  of  Louis  Blanc  were 
probably  more  influential  than  those  of  any 
democratic  writer  of  the  epoch.     He  became 
a  member  of  the  provisional  government,  and 
procured  the  adoption  of  a  decree  abolishing 
capital  punishment  for  political  offences.     He 
also  contended  for  the  creation  of  a  ministry 
of  progress,  and,  not  being  able  to  carry  that 
measure,  withdrew  from  the  government,  but 
at  the  request  of  Ms  colleagues  took  back  his 
resignation,  and  became  the  president  of  a  com- 
mission to  consider  the  labor  question,  which 
held  its  sittings  at  the  Luxembourg  palace,  but 
accomplished  nothing.      He  was  accused   of 
being  implicated  in  the  insurrectionary  move- 
ments of  May  and  June,  and  on  the  night  of 
Aug.  25  his  prosecution  was  authorized  by  the 
constituent  assembly,  of  which  he  had  been 
elected  a  member.     He  escaped  to  England, 
where  he  remained  in  voluntary  exile  until  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  III.    He  then  returned 
to  France,  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  national 
assembly  (1871),  and  acted  with  the  radical  par- 
ty, though  he  held  himself  aloof  from  the  com- 
mune.   Among  his  publications  written  in  exile 
are  Pages  d'histoire  de  la  revolution  de  Fewier 
(1850),   Revelations    historiques    (1859),    and 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  de  1848  (2  vols.,  1870), 
all  chiefly  devoted  to  the  defence  of  his  own 
course  in  the  February  revolution,  and  Lettres 
sur  VAngleterre  (2  vols.,  1866).     In  1849-'51 
he  also  edited  and  almost  entirely  wrote  the 
Nowveau  Monde,  a  monthly  journal  (Paris).    II. 
Augnste  Alexandra  Charles,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  at  Castres,  Nov.  17,  1815.     He  ob- 
tained distinction  as  an  engraver  and  art  critic, 
and  was  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  fine 
arts  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  from  1848 
to  1852.     In  1845  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  ISHistoire  des  peintres  francais  au  XIX. 
siecle,  which  has  never  been  finished.     With 
the  assistance  of  eminent  writers  he  has  con- 
tinued the  publication  of  Armengaud's  illus- 
trated Hi&toire  des  peintres  de  toutes  les  ecoles 
(1849-'69),  and  is  the  sole  author  of  its  biog- 
raphies of  French  and  Dutch  painters.     His 
other  works    include  Les  peintres   des  fetes 
galantes  (1853) ;  Le  tresor  de  la  euriotite  (2 
vols.,  1857-'8) ;  Vcewere  complet  de  Rembrandt 
(2  vols.,  1859-'63);   and  Grammaire  des  arts 
du  dessin  (1867).     He  became  editor-in-chief 
of  the  Gazette  des  Beam  Arts,  founded  in  1859 


BLANC 


BLANCHE  OF  BOURBON   693 


succeeded  Count  Walewski  in  1868  as  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  and  in  1869  de- 
livered lectures  in  Switzerland. 

BLANC,  Le,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Indre,  on  the  river  Creuse,  33  m.  S.  W.  of 
Chateauroux;  pop.  in  1866,  5,822.  It  contains 
some  cloth  manufactories  and  bleaching  works. 
It  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  having  a 
wall  flanked  by  towers  and  three  forts,  of 
which  only  vestiges  remain.  There  is  a  hand- 
some church  of  the  12th  century,  dedicated  to 
St.  Genitour. 

BLANC,  Mont     See  MONT  BLANO. 

BLANCHARD,  £  mile,  a  French  naturalist,  born 
in  Paris,  March  6,  1820.  He  studied  zoology, 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  entomology,  was 
early  connected  with  the  museum  of  natural 
history,  and  classified  its  entomological  collec- 
tion (2  vols.,  1850-'51).  Since  1862  he  has 
been  professor  and  curator  of  that  institution. 
He  succeeded  Isidore  Geoffrey-Saint- Hilaire  as 
a  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1861, 
and  has  contributed  many  valuable  papers  to 
its  annals.  His  principal  works  include  Be- 
cherches  sur  Vorganisation  des  vera  (Paris, 
1837) ;  Histoire  des  insectes,  traitant  de  leurs 
mesurs  etde  leurs  metamorphoses  en  general,  &c. 
(2  vols.,  1843-'5;  English  translation  by  Duncan, 
"Transformation  of  Insects,"  London,  1870); 
La  zoologie  agricole  (4to,  with  illustrations, 
1854:  et  seq.);  and  Organisation  du  regne  ani- 
mal (36  numbers,  4to,  1861-'4). 

BLANCHARD,  Francois,  a  French  aeronaut,  born 
at  Andelys  in  1738,  died  in  Paris,  March  7, 1809. 
In  his  youth  he  spent  his  time  in  trying  to  make 
flying  machines,  and  after  the  invention  of  the 
balloon  in  1783  became  greatly  interested  in 
that  contrivance.  He  constructed  a  balloon 
with  wings  and  a  rudder,  in  which  he  ascend- 
ed in  March,  1784.  On  Jan.  7,  1785,  he  cross- 
ed the  British  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais,  for 
which  Louis  XVI.  rewarded  him  with  a  gift  of 
12,000  francs  and  a  life  pension  of  1,200  francs. 
He  invented  a  parachute  to  break  the  fall  in 
case  of  accident,  and  first  used  it  in  London  in 
1785.  He  went  through  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  1796  made  a  visit  to  New  York, 
displaying  everywhere  his  aeronautic  skill.  In 
1798  he  ascended  from  Ronen  with  16  persons 
in  a  large  balloon,  and  descended  at  a  place  15 
miles  distant.  In  1808,  while  making  his  66th 
ascent,  at  the  Hague,  he  had  an  apoplectic 
stroke,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  in 
the  succeeding  year. — His  wife,  MAKIE  MADE- 
LEINE SOPHIE  AEMANT,  continued  to  make  a6- 
rial  voyages ;  but  in  June,  1819,  having  ascend- 
ed from  the  Tivoli  garden  in  Paris,  her  balloon, 
illuminated  with  fireworks,  took  fire  at  a  con- 
siderable height,  and  she  was  dashed  to  pieces. 

BLANCHARD,  Henri  Pierre  Leon  Pharamond,  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Guillotiere,  Feb.  27, 
1805.  He  studied  under  Chasselat  and  Gros, 
and  subsequently  made  extended  tours  in  Spain, 
northern  Africa,  Mexico,  Germany,  and  Rus- 
sia, the  fruits  of  which  have  appeared  in  a  se- 
ries of  pictures  illustrating  the  habits,  history, 


and  natural  features  of  those  countries.  He 
has  also  produced  numerous  designs  for  illus- 
trated periodicals,  and  is  the  author  of  an  illus- 
trated and  descriptive  account  of  a  journey 
from  Paris  to  Constantinople. 

BLANCHARD,  Laman,  an  English  writer,  born 
at  Great  Yarmouth,  May  15,  1803,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  15,  1845.  In  1831  he  became  act- 
ing editor  of  the  "  New  Monthly  Magazine," 
conducted  by  Bulwer,  and  from  that  time  for- 
ward was  a  most  prolific  contributor  to  the 
periodical  press.  The  insanity  of  his  wife  and 
the  failure  of  his  own  health  preyed  upon  his 
mind,  and  soon  after  his  wife's  death  he  com- 
mitted suicide.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  the 
many  literary  men  with  whom  he  associated. 
His  "  Essays  and  Sketches,"  collected  from  va- 
rious periodicals,  were  published  for  the  benefit 
of  his  orphans,  in  3  volumes,  with  a  biography 
by  Lord  Lytton. 

BLANCHARD,  Thomas,  an  American  mechanic 
and  inventor,  born  at  Sutton,  Worcester  co., 
Mass.,  June  24,  1788,  died  in  Boston,  April  16, 
1864.  While  engaged  with  his  brother  in 
making  tacks  by  hand,  he  conceived  the  idea 
of  inventing  a  machine  for  the  purpose.  He 
was  then  only  18  years  old,  and  it  was  six 
years  before  the  invention  was  perfected.  Fi- 
nally, so  effective  was  the  machine,  that  by 
placing  in  the  hopper  the  iron  to  be  worked, 
and  applying  the  motive  power,  500  tacks  were 
made  per  minute,  with  better  finish  than  had 
ever  been  attained  before.  Soon  after  com- 
pleting this  task  he  undertook  to  invent  a  ma- 
chine for  turning  gun  barrels  throughout  their 
entire  length  by  one  self-directing  operation, 
and  accomplished  it  with  entire  success.  It 
not  only  cuts  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  bar- 
rel, but  the  flattened  portion  as  well  without 
the  intervention  of  hand  work.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  invention  of  a  lathe  for  turning 
gun  stocks  and  other  irregular  forms,  which 
came  into  general  use  at  once.  Mr.  Blanchard 
was  also  interested  at  an  early  day  in  the  con- 
struction of  railroads  and  locomotives,  and  of 
steamboats  so  contrived  as  to  ascend  rapids  of 
considerable  force.  He  invented  a  steam  wagon 
before  any  railroad  had  ever  been  laid.  He  took 
out  upward  of  25  patents  during  his  lifetime, 
from  some  of  which  he  derived  considerable 
profit.  His  last  years  he  spent  in  Boston  in 
the  business  of  bending  heavy  timbers  to  any 
desired  form  by  a  process  of  his  own  invention. 

BLANCHE,  August,  a  Swedish  poet,  born  in 
1811,  died  in  Stockholm,  NOV.  30,  1868.  He 
began  life  as  a  lawyer,  and  about  1846  devo- 
ted himself  to  literature,  producing  comedies, 
dramas,  and  novels,  and  editing  the  lllmtrerad 
Tidning.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Swedish 
diet,  in  which  he  was  noted  for  eloquence  and 
zeal  for  reform.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  in  1868. 

BLANCHE  OF  BOURBON,  queen  of  Castile, 
born  in  France  about  1338,  died  in  Spain  in 
1361.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  at  the  age  of  15  was  betrothed 


691        BLANCHE  OF  CASTILE 


BLAND 


to  Pedro,  king  of  Castile,  afterward  called 
the  Cruel  The  king  consented  to  the  espousal 
from  political  considerations,  but  all  his  affec- 
tion was  bestowed  upon  Maria  de  Padilla.  His 
natural  brother  Don  Federico  having  been  sent 
to  meet  the  princess  at  Narbonne,  it  was  pre- 
tended that  the  two  were  engaged  in  an  in- 
trigue ;  and  though  the  king  married  Blanche 
the  next  day,  he  did  not  conceal  his  repug- 
nance, and  speedily  left  her  for  the  society  of 
his  mistress.  She  then  accepted  the  protection 
of  the  king's  brothers,  who  were  causing  some 
political  disturbance  in  Castile.  The  king  de- 
clared the  marriage  void  and  ordered  her  to  be 
kept  prisoner  at  the  Alcazar  of  Toledo.  She 
escaped  from  the  guards  in  the  city  of  Toledo, 
and  taking  refuge  in  the  cathedral,  aroused  the 
sympathy  of  the  people  by  her  cries,  her  per- 
sonal beauty,  and  her  helpless  condition.  They 
attempted  to  protect  her,  but  the  city  was 
taken  by  assault,  and  the  queen  was  sent  to 
the  castle  of  Medina  Sidonia,  where  she  died 
of  poison  administered  to  her  by  order  of  Pedro. 
To  avenge  her  wrongs  was  one  of  the  principal 
incentives  of  the  men  who  a  few  years  later 
engaged  in  the  war  against  Pedro,  and  her 
story  formed  the  subject  of  many  of  the  Spanish 
ballads  of  that  and  later  ages. 

BLANCHE  OF  CASTILE,  queen  of  France,  born 
about  1187,  died  Dec.  1,  1252.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile,  by 
Eleonora  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry  II. 
By  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  1200,  be- 
tween King  John  and  Philip  Augustus,  it  was 
agreed  that  Blanche  should  marry  Louis,  heir 
apparent  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  the  mar- 
riage took  place  in  the  beginning  of  the  fol- 
lowing year.  In  political  affairs  she  gave  evi- 
dence of  ability.  In  1216,  when  her  husband 
was  invited  to  accept  the  crown  of  England 
by  the  lords  confederated  against  John,  she 
insisted  upon  his  acceding  to  their  offer,  and 
sent  him  money  and  reinforcements.  The 
death  of  John,  however,  put  an  end  to  these 
attempts,  and  the  lords  returned  to  their  al- 
legiance under  his  son.  On  the  death  of  Philip 
Augustus  and  the  accession  of  her  husband  to 
the  throne  as  Louis  VIII.,  she  was  more  than 
ever  his  inspiring  genius.  She  accompanied 
him  in  his  second  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses,  and  on  his  death  assumed  the  regency 
during  the  minority  of  their  son  Louis  IX.  A 
formidable  league  had  been  formed  in  the 
north  of  France,  claiming  the  regency  for 
young  Philip  Hurepel,  a  son  of  Philip  Augustus 
by  Agnes  de  Meranie.  The  queen  opposed  it 
most  vigorously,  and  succeeded,  after  a  strug- 
gle of  nearly  four  years,  in  defeating  the  con- 
federates. Meanwhile  she  had  secured  to  the 
crown  the  rich  inheritance  of  the  counts  of 
Toulouse,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Paris  in  1229 ; 
she  then  forced  to  submission  the  duke  of 
Brittany,  and  helped  her  friend  the  count  of 
Champagne  in  taking  possession  of  the  king- 
dom of  Navarre.  She  superintended  the  oper- 
ations of  the  army  aad  government  in  person, 


and  exhibited  the  highest  degree  of  ability  and 
promptness.  In  1234  she  married  her  son, 
then  19  years  old,  to  Marguerite  of  Provence, 
who  was  but  12.  When,  in  1236,  she  resigned 
her  power  into  the  hands  of  Louis  IX.,  the 
kingdom  was  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and 
had  received  many  important  territorial  acces- 
sions. The  young  king  retained  her  near  him 
as  his  best  adviser,  but  engaged  in  his  crusade 
to  the  Holy  Land  in  opposition  to  her  wishes. 
After  his  departure  she  resumed  the  duties  of 
regent,  and  displayed  her  wonted  ability  among 
the  new  difficulties  which  she  had  to  en- 
counter. She  was  forced  continually  to  send 
money  and  forces  to  her  son  to  aid  in  his  ill- 
omened  enterprise;  and  when  he  and  his 
brothers  were  defeated  and  made  prisoners  in 
Egypt,  she  was  obliged  to  raise  a  large  ransom 
for  their  release.  This  necessitated  heavy  taxes, 
and  the  country  was  drained  of  its  resources. 
In  the  midst  of  these  difficulties  Blanche  had 
to  meet  the  revolt  of  the  pastoureaux,  which 
she  suppressed  with  a  firm  hand.  Notwith- 
standing her  embarrassments  and  her  devoted 
piety,  she  withstood  the  encroachments  of  the 
ecclesiastical  power  with  great  spirit,  and  suc- 
cessfully defended  the  prerogatives  of  the 
crown.  She  was  universally  mourned  at  her 
death,  and  has  always  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  rulers  of  France. 

BLANCO,  a  S.  central  county  of  Texas,  wa- 
tered by  the  Pedernales  and  San  Marcos  riv- 
ers; area,  727  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,187,  of 
whom  44  were  colored.  The  surface  is  chiefly 
prairie.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,391  bushels  of  wheat,  42,830  of  Indian  corn, 
2,215  of  sweet  potatoes,  233  bales  of  cotton, 
and  6,178  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  2,074 
horses,  1,367  milch  cows,  9,455  other  cattle, 
3,295  sheep,  and  4,194  swine.  Capital,  Blanco. 

BLAND,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia,  border- 
ing on  West  Virginia ;  area,  330  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,000,  of  whom  217  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  mountainous.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  16,518  bushels  of  wheat, 
42,057  of  Indian  corn,  28,392  of  oats,  and  1,883 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  952  horses,  1,105 
milch  cows,  1,851  other  cattle,  3,853  sheep, 
and  2,987  swine.  Capital,  Mechanicsburg. 

BLAND,  Theodorif,  an  American  patriot  and 
soldier,  born  in  Prince  George  county,  Va.,  in 
1742,  died  in  New  York,  June  1,  1790. 
Through  his  grandmother,  Jane  Rolfe,  he  was 
fourth  in  descent  from  Pocahontas.  He  was 
educated  for  a  physician  at  Edinburgh,  and 
practised  his  profession  in  Virginia  till  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revolutionary  war,  when 
he  enlisted  in  the  contest  and  bore  an  active 
part  throughout.  He  was  one  of  a  score  of 
gentlemen  who  removed  from  Lord  Dunmore's 
palace  the  arms  and  ammunition  which  that 
nobleman  had  abstracted  from  the  public  ar- 
senal ;  and  soon  afterward  he  published  a  series 
of  bitterly  indignant  letters  against  the  gov- 
ernor, under  the  signature  of  "  Cassius."  He 
was  made  captain  of  the  first  troop  of  Virginia 


BLANDRATA 


BLAXQUI 


695 


eavalry,  but  when  six  companies  were  enrolled 
became  lieutenant  colonel,  with  which  rank 
he  joined  the  main  army  in  1777.  With  the 
exception  of  a  single  term  in  the  senate  of  Vir- 
ginia, he  remained  in  military  service  to  the 
end  of  the  war,  enjoying  the  high  esteem  and 
confidence  of  Washington,  who  frequently  em- 
ployed him  in  responsible  affairs.  Upon  the 
termination  of  the  struggle  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  general  congress,  which  then 
sat  at  Philadelphia,  and  continued  a  member 
till  1783.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
convention  of  1788  to  ratify  the  federal  con- 
stitution, and  voted  against  that  instrument, 
but  was  chosen  as  the  first  representative  to 
congress  under  it.  He  left  valuable  memorials 
of  the  revolutionary  period,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1840  under  the  title  of  "The  Bland 
Papers." 

BLLXDRATA,  Giorgio,  an  Italian  Unitarian,  born 
in  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  Piedmont,  about 
1515,  died  in  Transylvania  about  1590.  He  at 
first  practised  medicine  in  Pavia,  but  having 
embraced  anti-Trinitarian  doctrines  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  Italy,  and  became  physician  to 
the  wife  of  King  Sigismund  Augustus  of  Po- 
land. Returning  to  Italy,  he  was  thrown  into 
prison,  but  escaped  and  took  refuge  at  Geneva. 
Finding  himself  nearly  as  obnoxious  to  the 
Calvinists  as  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  he  re- 
turned to  Poland.  There,  although  Calvin 
warned  the  people  against  him,  he  acquired 
great  influence.  Prince  Radziwill  sent  him  as 
plenipotentiary  to  the  synod  of  Pincz6w  in 
1561.  Two  years  after  this  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  become  physician  to  John  Sigis- 
mund, prince  of  Transylvania.  Here  he  made 
many  converts,  including  the  prince  and  court ; 
and  at  a  diet  held  in  1571  at  Maros-Vasarhely, 
Unitarianism  was  legally  recognized  as  one  of 
the  religions  of  the  land.  After  the  death  of 
John  Sigismund  he  was  physician  to  Stephen 
and  Christopher  Bathori,  the  rank  of  privy 
councillor  being  conferred  upon  him  after  Ste- 
phen's accession  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  in 
promoting  which  he  was  very  active.  Stephen 
was  not  favorable  to  his  doctrines,  and  it  is 
said  that  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  his  in- 
terests with  the  king  he  gave  them  up.  At  all 
events  he  succeeded  in  accumulating  a  large 
fortune,  and  his  nephew  strangled  him  in  bed 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  it.  His  collected 
works,  in  Latin,  were  published  by  Henke 
(Helmstadt,  1794). 

BLANGINI,  Giuseppe  Marco  Maria  Felice,  an  Ital- 
ian composer,  born  in  Turin,  Nov.  18, 1781,  died 
in  Paris  in  December,  1841.  He  displayed  re- 
markable musical  talent  as  a  child,  and  his  first 
compositions  date  from  his  14th  year.  He  went 
to  Paris  in  1799,  and  was  for  several  years  a 
successful  composer  of  operas  there.  His  fame, 
however,  rests  chiefly  on  his  smaller  pieces, 
which  were  received  with  much  favor,  espe- 
cially in  Germany,  where  he  officiated  for  some 
fane  as  chapelmaster  at  the  court  of  the  king 
of  Westphalia.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1814, 


and  received  the  honorary  title  of  superinten- 
dent and  composer  of  music  to  the  king.  His 
works  include  17  operas. 

BLANKEXBUKG.  I.  A  circle  in  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick,  Germany ;  area,  183  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  23,000.  The  southern  part,  bordering 
on  the  Hartz  mountains,  is  covered  with  for- 
ests, and  contains  valuable  iron  mines  and  mar- 
ble quarries ;  the  northern  part  is  fertile  and 
well  cultivated.  Until  the  12th  century  the 
district  was  known  as  the  Hartingau ;  and  it 
was  subject  to  the  counts  of  Blankenburg  till 
1599,  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Brunswick  on  the  death  of  the  last  of  the 
Blankenburg  house.  In  1690  it  was  ceded  to 
Ludwig  Rudolph  of  Wolfenbuttel,  and  in  1707 
it  was  made  a  principality.  After  being  an 
independent  government  till  1731,  it  again 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Brunswick,  and 
remained  subject  to  that  duchy.  II.  The  prin- 
cipal town  of  the  circle,  situated  among  the 
Hartz  mountains,  14  m.  E.  of  the  summit  of 
the  Brocken,  on  a  small  stream  of  the  same 
name,  and  near  the  foot  of  a  picturesque  moun- 
tain called  the  Blankenstein ;  pop.  in  1871, 
3,928.  Near  by  is  the  palace  of  Luisenburg, 
which  contains  270  apartments  and  a  large 
collection  of  paintings ;  and  at  the  distance  of 
1J  m.  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Regenstein 
or  Reinstein,  hewn  in  part  from  solid  rock. 
In  1625  the  town  was  besieged  by  Wallenstem. 
During  the  seven  years'  war  the  court  of 
Brunswick  had  its  residence  here,  the  place 
preserving  a  neutrality  which  was  respected 
by  all  parties.  Regenstein  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1757,  but  retaken  by  the  Prussians 
during  the  next  year.  Louis  XVIII.  resided 
at  Blankenburg  from  1796  to  1798,  as  the 
count  de  Lille. 

BLANKHOF,  Jan  Tennlsz,  called  JAN  MAAT,  a 
Dutch  painter  of  marine  pieces,  born  at  Alk- 
maar  in  1628,  died  in  1670.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Caesar  van  Everdingen,  and  also  studied  in 
Rome.  His  pictures  generally  represent  Italian 
ports  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
several  of  his  storm  scenes  possess  much  merit. 

BLAXJl  I.  I.  Jerome  Adolphe,  a  French  polit- 
ical economist,  born  in  Nice,  Nov.  20,  1798, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1854.  His  father,  Jean 
Dominique,  was  a  deputy  to  the  national  con- 
vention, one  of  the  73  members  sent  to  prison 
on  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  (June  2, 1793),  and 
afterward  a  member  of  the  council  of  500.  The 
son  was  originally  destined  to  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, but  having  become  acquainted  with  Jean 
Baptiste  Say  while  pursuing  his  studies  at  Paris, 
he  was  induced  to  devote  himself  to  political 
economy.  He  published  a  Resume  of  the  history 
of  commerce  and  industry  (1826),  and  this  was 
soon  followed  by  a  Precis  element/lire  cFecono- 
mie  politique,  and  several  minor  publications. 
In  1830  he  was  chosen  professor  in  the  special 
school  of  commerce,  where  his  lectures  on  the 
history  of  commerce  and  industrial  civilization 
attracted  unusual  attention.  When  Say  retired 
from  his  professorship  in  the  conservatoire  de* 


696 


BLARNEY 


arts  et  metiers,  Blanqui  succeeded  to  his  place. 
In  1837-'42  he  issued  his  most  important  work, 
L'Histoire  de  Veconomie  politique  en  Europe 
depute  les  ancient  jus/ju^d  nos  jours  (5  vols.  8vo). 
In  1846-'8  Blanqui  was  a  member  of  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies  from  Bordeaux.      At  the  in- 
dustrial congress  at  Brussels  in  1847,  his  dis- 
courses were  remarked  for  their  vivacity  and 
learning.     He  visited  various  countries  of  Eu- 
rope for  the  purpose  of  studying  their  condi- 
tion, and  embodied  the  results  in  his  books ; 
and  in  1851  he  furnished  a  complete  account 
of  the  financial  aspects  of  London  for  the  acad- 
emy of  moral  and  political  sciences,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.     II.  Lonis  Angnste,  a  social- 
istic revolutionist  and  conspirator,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Nice  in  1805.    In  1830, 
while  a  student  of  law,  he  took  up  arms  against 
Charles  X.,  and  received  the  decoration  of  July. 
Under  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  he 
kept  up  a  constant  warfare  through  the  press 
on  the  existing  state  of  things,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  active  propagators  of  the  doctrines 
which  led  to  the  revolution  of  1848.     In  1835 
he  was  arrested,  tried,  and  sentenced  to  one 
year's  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  200  francs. 
A  few  months  later,  being  suspected  of  com- 
plicity with  Fieschi,  he  was  sent  to  prison  for 
two  years  and  fined  3,000  francs,  but  was 
amnestied  before  the  expiration  of  his  term. 
As  soon  as  he  was  released,  he  renewed  his 
onslaught  upon  monarchical  government  and 
formed  an  organization  to  carry  his  ideas  into 
effect.     In  1839,  with  Barbe's  and  others,  he 
attempted  an  insurrection,  which  was  speedily 
checked,  and  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but 
the  sentence  was  commuted  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment.   He  was  released  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  immediately  organized  the 
revolutionary  "Central  Republican  Society." 
He  led  in  the  attempt  on  May  15  to  overthrow 
the  constituent  assembly,  and  was  a  few  days 
later  arrested  and  sentenced  to  ten  years'  im- 
prisonment.   He  was  released  in  1859,  but  was 
sentenced  again  to  four  years'  imprisonment  in 
January,  1862.     He  appeared  again  as  one  of 
the  active  spirits  in  the  violent  agitations  in 
favor  of  the  red  republic  which  culminated  in 
the  Paris  commune  in  1871,  and  was  still  in 
1872  a  prisoner  of  state. 

Itl.A R.\KY.  a  village  of  Munster,  Ireland,  4  m. 
N.  W.  of  Cork,  noted  for  its  castle,  built  by 
Cormick  McCarty  in  1449.  This  stands  on  the 
N.  side  of  a  precipitous  ridge  of  limestone  rock, 
rising  from  a  deep  valley,  and  part  of  its  base 
is  washed  by  a  small  river  called  the  Aw-Mar- 
tin.  Near  it  are  the  famous  groves  of  Blarney. 
Of  the  original  fortress  there  remains  only  a 
large,  square,  massive  tower,  with  a  parapet 
breast  high ;  on  the  summit  is  the  famous 
stone,  which  is  said  to  confer  on  the  person 
kissing  it  the  peculiar  property  of  saying  any- 
thing, by  way  of  coaxing,  compliment,  or  praise, 
most  agreeable  to  the  hearer.  From  the  virtue 
it  thus  communicates,  the  well  known  word 
blarney  is  derived.  The  actual  Blarney  stone 


BLASPHEMY 

is   not   the  one  commonly  saluted    as  such, 
but  is  said  to  form  part  of  the  wall  several 


Blarney  Castle,  Cork. 

feet  below  its  representative,  and  can  only  be 
kissed  by  a  person  held  over  the  parapet  by 
the  heels. 

BLASPHEMY  (Gr.  ^mjaifila),  in  law,  has  been 
judicially  described  (20  Pickering's  Reports, 
213)  as  "  speaking  evil  of  the  Deity,  with  an 
impious  purpose  to  derogate  from  the  divine 
majesty,  and  to  alienate  the  minds  of  others 
from  the  love  and  reverence  of  God.  It  is 
purposely  using  words  concerning  God  calcu- 
lated and  designed  to  impair  .and  destroy  the 
reverence,  respect,  and  confidence  due  to  him 
as  the  intelligent  creator,  governor,  and  judge 
of  the  world.  It  embraces  the  idea  of  detrac- 
tion when  used  toward  the  Supreme  Being, 
as  calumny  usually  carries  the  same  idea  when 
applied  to  an  individual.  It  is  a  wilful  and 
malicious  attempt  to  lessen  men's  reverence 
of  God,  by  denying  his  existence,  or  his  at- 
tributes as  an  intelligent  creator,  governor,  and 
judge  of  men,  and  to  prevent  their  having  con- 
fidence in  him  as  such."  The  punishment  by 
the  Jewish  law  was  death.  Wherever  Chris- 
tianity is  the  prevailing  religion  of  a  country, 
whether  established  by  law  or  not,  blasphemy 
is  so  far  noticed  by  the  law  that  contumelious 
reproaches  of  Jesus  Christ,  profane  and  mali- 
cious scoffing  at  the  Scriptures,  and  exposing 
any  part  thereof  to  contempt  or  ridicule,  are 
regarded  as  blasphemy  and  punished  accord- 
ingly. In  England  it  is  a  felony  at  the  com- 
mon law,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
In  the  early  legislation  of  the  American  colo- 
nies death  was  denounced  as  the  punishment 
for  this  offence,  but  fine  or  imprisonment,  or 
both,  are  now  substituted.  It  has  sometimes 
been  argued  that  the  punishment  of  blasphemy 
by  the  state  is  inconsistent  with  the  religious 
equality  and  freedom  which  are  a  part  of  the 
American  constitutional  law ;  but  this  doctrine 
has  not  obtained  in  the  courts,  which  have 


BLASTING 


697 


always  held  that  one  who  maliciously  makes 
use  of  language  calculated  to  have  an  evil  ef- 
fect in  sapping  the  foundations  of  society  and 
of  public  order,  may  properly  be  punished  as 
an  offender  against  the  state.  But  a  fair  dis- 
cussion in  a  decorous  manner  of  any  contro- 
verted point  or  doctrine  of  religious  belief 
stands  on  very  different  ground,  and  is  inno- 
cent; the  evil  motive  being  essential  to  this 
offence.  Profane  swearing  is  a  species  of 
blasphemy,  but  more  lightly  punished. 

BLASTING,  the  process  of  breaking  rocks  with 
explosive  compounds.  It  is  employed  for  break- 
ing stone  from  quarries  for  building  purposes, 
for  removing  rocks  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  from  the  beds  of  watercourses,  and 
from  mines,  and  for  the  demolition  of  fortifi- 
cations, docks,  and  other  works.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  the  process  will  vary  consider- 
ably according  to  the  object  to  be  accomplished, 
and  the  differences  in  the  material  to  be  acted 
upon  as  to  hardness,  position,  and  mode  of 
stratification.  Until  within  a  few  years  the 
only  explosive  compound  used  in  blasting  was 
gunpowder.  It  is  not  known  when  this  agent 
was  first  used  for  this  purpose,  but  as  the  Chi- 
nese were  acquainted  with  its  use  as  a  projec- 
tile force  in  very  early  times,  it  is  not  improba- 
ble that  they  also  used  it  in  mining  operations, 
which  were  carried  on  by  them  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  long  before  the  Christian  era.  In  Eu- 
rope the  Germans  were  probably  the  first  to  em- 
ploy it  in  mining. — In  making  preparations  for 
blasting,  the  first  step  is  to  examine  the  rock  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  size,  location, 
and  form  of  the  cavity  for  the  explosive  mate- 
rial, and  the  amount  of  the  latter  necessary  to 
overcome  the  resistance.  In  ordinary  blasting 
operations,  simple  drill  holes  are  usually  fired, 
and  may  be  so  placed  and  combined  in  groups 
as  to  effect  the  displacement  of  great  masses  of 
rock ;  but  in  large  operations  mines  are  ex- 
cavated for  the  introduction  of  the  explosive. 
In  either  case  one  of  the  principal  operations  is 
the  boring  or  drilling  of  the  rock.  Drills  of 
various  forms  are  employed — short  and  light 
for  working  by  hand,  larger  and  longer  when 
they  are  to  be  driven  with  a  sledge.  These 
drills  are  made  by  flattening  the  end  of  a  steel 
bar,  and  drawing  it  to  a  blunt,  outwardly 
curved  edge,  which  should  be  from  one  eighth 
to  one  fourth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  di- 
ameter of  the  shaft.  The  included  angle  at  the 
edge  should  be  from  70°  to  90°.  This  part  of 
the  drill  is  called  the  bit.  Other  drills,  called 
jumpers,  are  made  longer  and  of  a  different 
form,  and  are  intended  to  be  driven  by  the 
force  of  their  own  gravity.  The  jumper  is 
made  of  a  bar  of  steel  or  iron  from  5  to  8  ft. 
long,  with  a  bulbous  enlargement  rather  nearer 
one  end  than  the  other.  The  bit,  which  is  of 
steel,  has  usually  the  same  form  as  in  the  hand 
drill,,  but  sometimes  has  two  cutting  edges, 
formed  at  right  angles  with  each  other.  In 
using  the  jumper  from  two  to  four  men  are 
employed,  who  simply  raise  it  to  the  proper 


height  and  let  it  fall,  giving  it  at  the  same  time 
a  sufficient  rotary  motion  to  cause  it  to  cut  a 
chip  from  a  bench  left  by  the  preceding  stroke. 
The  hole  is  usually  commenced  with  one  end 
of  the  drill  and  finished  with  the  other.  Some 
drills  which  are  propelled  by  their  own  weight 
are  made  very  heavy  and  raised  by  steam 
power.  Other  drills,  the  most  notable  among 
which  are  the  Burleigh,  Ingersoll,  Wood,  Hotch- 
kiss,  and  Gardner  (see  BOEING),  are  mounted 
on  carriages  and  driven  by  steam  or  com- 
pressed air,  which  is  delivered  by  means  of 
pipes  and  stout  hose  capable  of  sustaining  a 
pressure  of  from  60  to  80  Ibs.  to  the  square 
inch.  By  the  use  of  air  in  place  of  steam,  the 
drill  can  be  worked  in  chambers  where  the 
heat  and  moisture  produced  by  the  discharge 
of  steam  would  be  unendurable.  Revolving 
tools  worked  on  the  principle  of  augers,  with 
bits  of  various  forms  to  suit  the  kind  of  work 
to  be  done,  may  be  advantageously  used  in 
soft  rock.  The  American  diamond  drill  is  a 
revolving  tool  which  is  driven  by  steam  or 
compressed  air.  The  bit  is  armed  with  black 
diamonds,  which  are  so  adjusted  as  to  cut  a 
free  passage  for  the  drill  rod.  It  is  much  used 
in  deep  boring  for  artesian  wells  and  for  pros- 
pecting coal  and  other  mines,  but  is  said  to  be 
also  well  adapted  to  boring  holes  for  blasting. 
— Natural  fissures  in  the  rock  are  often  taken 
advantage  of  to  introduce  powder,  which  is 
covered  with  dry  sand,  a  communication  being 
retained  by  means  of  a  fuse.  This  is  called  a 
sand  blast.  For  breaking  down  the  huge  blocks 
of  native  copper  in  the  mines  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, no  other  known  method  but  shaking 
them  by  the  sand  blast  would  be  effectual. 
Standing  upon  their  edges  in  the  veins,  and 
entirely  enclosed  in  solid  rock,  they  are  first 
uncovered  along  one  of  their  sides  by  exca- 
vating a  horizontal  drift  or  gallery.  Small 
cavities  are  then  made  behind  the  mass,  along 
its  upper  edge,  by  repeated  blasts  in  the  tangled 
rock  and  copper.  As  these  cavities  are  enlarged, 
more  powder  is  introduced,  till,  if  the  mass 
be  very  large,  several  hundred  pounds  are 
spread  in  the  crevice  behind  it,  and  fired  at 
once ;  and  thus  it  is  finally  thrown  over  into  the 
open  space  previously  excavated. — As  the  great 
labor  in  blasting  consists  in  drilling  the  holea, 
which  after  all  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of 
powder,  various  plans  have  been  devised  for 
enlarging  the  cavity  at  the  bottom.  In  calcare- 
ous rock  this  has  been  effected  by  the  use  of 
acids,  which  dissolve  the  stone.  For  other 
rocks  a  very  ingenious  process  was  invented  by 
Mr.  A.  Stiokney,  of  Concord,  N.  H.  After  the 
hole  (which  should  be  not  less  than  3  in.  in 
diameter)  is  bored  to  the  depth  of  5  or  6  ft., 
fragments  of  the  best  hard-wood  charcoal  are 
thrown  into  the  bottom  and  ignited.  A  blast 
is  then  blown  in  from  a  portable  bellows 
through  a  wrought-iron  tube,  to  which  is 
added  at  its  lower  extremity  a  tube  of  pla- 
tinum not  less  than  a  foot  in  length  and  half  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  lower  extremity  of  this 


698 


BLASTING 


is  closed,  but  its  sides  are  perforated  with  nu- 
merous small  holes.  As  the  blast  circulates 
through  these  the  charcoal  burns  vividly,  pro- 
ducing intense  heat  and  melting  away  the  sides 
of  the  cavity.  The  tubes  must  be  frequently 
withdrawn  to  hook  out  the  fragments  of  cinder 
which  accumulate;  and  as  the  size  of  the 
chamber  increases  more  charcoal  is  continually 
dropped  into  the  hole  by  the  side  of  the  tubes, 
the  hole  being  left  open  for  the  escape  of  the 
gases.  In  the  course  of  a  few  hours  the 
cavity  will  be  sufficiently  large  to  hold  20  or  80 
Ibs.  of  powder.  In  granitic  rocks  the  effect  of 
this  operation  is  very  remarkable ;  the  ingredi- 
ents melt  down  into  a  liquid  slag,  and  if  a  bucket 
of  cold  water  is  dashed  in  upon  the  highly 
heated  surface,  this  is  scaled  off  in  large  flakes 
by  the  sudden  chill,  and  by  the  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  the  high  steam  which  is  instantly  gen- 
erated. In  hard  silicious  rocks,  as  the  firm 
sandstones  of  the  Shawangunk  range,  the  rock 
crumbles  down  to  sand,  and  this  is  blown  out 
of  the  hole  as  the  process  goes  on,  covering  the 
surface  around.  In  calcareous  rocks  the  stone 
is  burned  to  quicklime,  and  a  large  cavity  is 
rapidly  produced.  The  heat  generated  in  this 
operation  is  so  great,  that  wrought-iron  pipes 
have  been  melted  down  by  coming  into  too 
close  a  contact  with  the  charcoal.  The  en- 
larged size  of  the  hole  at  the  bottom  is  par- 
ticularly favorable  for  the  explosive  force  of  the 
powder  to  be  exerted  to  the  best  advantage. 
Huge  masses  of  rock  are  lifted  up,  and  cracks 
of  great  extent  are  opened  to  a  depth  not 
reached  by  the  ordinary  method  of  blasting. 
These  cracks  afford  convenient  opportunities 
for  the  use  of  the  sand  blast,  and  thus  very 
large  quantities  of  rock  are  broken  up  with 
comparatively  small  expense  for  drilling. — Fir- 
ing a  number  of  charges  simultaneously  by  the 
galvanic  battery  is  sometimes  adopted  with 
great  advantage,  where  large  bodies  are  to  be 
moved.  The  effect  produced  by  the  same 
quantity  of  powder  is  much  greater  than  if  the 
charges  were  separately  exploded.  The  same 
mode  of  firing  is  also  conveniently  applied  to 
blasting  under  water.  This  method  has  been 
said  to  have  been  first  practised  in  England  in 
1839,  by  Gen.  Pasley  in  removing  the  wreck 
of  the  Royal  George,  and  by  Mr.  Alan  Steven- 
son in  submarine  rock  blasting.  But  in  vol. 
xxi.  of  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science,"  for 
1831,  is  a  letter  of  Dr.  Hare,  describing  the 
operations  of  Mr.  Moses  Shaw,  who  had  already 
applied  the  electrical  machine  to  this  purpose, 
and  then  by  advice  of  Dr.  Hare  was  making 
use  of  the  galvanic  battery ;  and  in  vol.  xxvi. 
of  the  same  journal  (1834)  the  apparatus  is 
fully  described,  with  drawings  which  show  that 
the  arrangement  was  essentially  the  same  with 
that  now  in  use.  In  1843  three  charges  of 
18,000  Ibs.  of  powder  were  fired  simultaneously 
by  this  means  at  Dover,  by  Mr.  William  Cubitt. 
A  chalk  cliff  400  feet  high  was  thrown  down 
with  little  report,  and  the  beach  was  covered 
with  400,000  cubic  yards  of  chalk  rock.  It  is 


estimated  that  the  saving  to  the  Southeastern 
railway  company  in  this  operation  over  the 
ordinary  process  was  not  less  than  £7,000. 
Very  successful  blasting  was  performed  at  the 
Holyhead  quarries  in  England  in  January,  1867, 
for  supplying  stone  for  the  breakwater  at  that 
place.  The  accompanying  diagram  (fig.  1) 
exhibits  the  ground  plan  of  the  galleries  and 
return  chambers.  These  latter  were  placed  3 
ft.  below  the  level  of  the  ground  line  of  the 
face  of  the  quarry,  because  it  had  been  found 
by  experience  that  if  they  were  placed  above 
the  level,  a  wall  of  rock  would  be  left  standing, 
expensive  to  remove.  The  method  of  estima- 
ting the  total  quantities  of  powder  for  loading 
the  four  chambers  was  as  follows:  The  cubical 
content  of  the  mass  to  be  dislodged  was  divided 


FIG.  1.— Original  Face  of  Eock,  210  ft.  long,  115  ft.  high. 

by  12,  the  minimum  number  of  cubic  feet  per 
ton,  and  the  quotient  by  5,  it  being  estimated 
in  this  case  that  one  pound  of  powder  was  re- 
quired to  dislodge  five  tons  of  rock.  The 
length  of  the  face  of  the  rock  being  210  ft.,  its 
height  115  ft.,  and  the  horizontal  depth  to  be 
removed  40  ft.,  the  proper  quantity  of  powder 
was  therefore,  in  round  numbers,  16,000  Ibs. 
The  quantities  applicable  to  charges  No.  1,  2, 
3,  and  4,  the  lines  of  least  resistance  being  re- 
spectively 26,  25,  20,  and  27  ft,  were  4,200, 
4,500,  2,300,  and  5,000  Ibs.  That  these  esti- 
mates were  very  nearly  correct  appears  from 
the  fact  that  the  force  of  the  powder  was  main- 
ly expended  in  displacing  and  breaking  up  the 
rock,  but  little  concussion  of  air  being  produced. 
The  report  of  Col.  Servante  of  the  royal  engi- 
neers, who  was  sent  to  witness  the  explo- 
sion, says:  "  The  mass  was  quietly  overthrown 
down  to  the  level  of  the  quarry  ground  line, 
with  very  littl«  noise,  and  scarcely  a  stone  was 
thrown  into  the  air."  The  quantity  of  rock 
detached  was  found  to  be  120,000  tons,  in 
blocks  of  from  3  to  40  tons,  averaging  7i  tons 
of  stone  to  one  pound  of  powder.  The  opera- 
tions were  conducted  by  Mr.  0.  G.  Reitheimer, 
the  engineer  employed  by  the  Messrs.  Rigby, 
the  proprietors  of  the  quarry.  The  galleries 
and  shaft  were  tamped  with  clay,  and  the 
tamping  was  extended  through  the  entrance 
gallery  to  the  surface  of  the  rock.  The  de- 
scription of  the  operations  performed  in  the 
demolition  of  the  Russian  docks  at  Sebastopol 
by  the  English  and  French  engineers,  which  is 
contained  in  vol.  vi.  of  the  "  Professional  Pa- 
pers of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Engineers"  of 
Great  Britain,  presents  interesting  examples 
of  blasting. — The  choice  of  the  explosive  com- 


BLASTING 


699 


pound  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
be  performed.  In  quarrying,  gunpowder  of 
slow  igniting  power  is  preferred,  because  it  is 
desired  to  avoid  pulverization ;  but  in  simply 
clearing  away  material,  a  more  instantaneous 
explosive  is  found  to  be  more  effectual.  Gun- 
cotton  was  used  in  Europe  to  some  extent  soon 
after  its  discovery,  but  has  never  been  employed 
in  any  important  work  in  this  country,  except 
as  an  experiment.  Nitro-glycerine,  or  some 
preparation  of  it,  as  giant  powder,  is  the  com- 
pound now  relied  upon  when  rapidity  and  an 
approach  to  accuracy  of  result  are  desired ;  and 
it  is  generally  preferred  when  the  disengaging 
of  surface  portions  of  rock  is  the  immediate 
object.  It  often  happens  in  some  situations, 
especially  in  excavating  chambers  under  water, 
where  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  keep 
the  water  bed  as  firm  and  intact  as  possible, 
that  a  seamy  structure  of  rock  requires  the  use 
of  an  explosive  which  will  expend  its  force  as 
much  as  possible  in  detaching  only  a  certain 
superficial  mass,  upon  the  same  principle  that 
a  small  hammer,  propelled  with  a  sharp  quick 
stroke,  is  better  adapted  to  drive  a  nail  in  an 
unstable  and  slight  body  than  a  heavy  one. 
When  gunpowder  is  used,  the  holes  are  usually 
drilled  deeper  than  for  mtro-glycerine,  and  when 
practicable  the  powder  is  poured  into  the  cavity 
instead  of  being  introduced  in  a  cartridge. 
Therefore  the  holes  are  drilled  in  a  downward 
direction,  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  the  course 
of  lamination  and  other  circumstances  will 
admit.  The  small  hand  drill  is  held  and  driven 
by  one  person,  and  after  each  stroke  it  is  turned 
sufficiently  to  allow  of  a  chip  being  cut  from  a 
section  of  the  bottom.  The  degree  to  which 
this  turning  is  done  at  each  stroke  is  a  matter 
of  consequence,  as  upon  it  depends  much  of  the 
rapidity  and  economy  of  the  operation.  When 
the  bottom  of  the  cavity  becomes  obstructed, 
instruments  called  scrapers  or  dippers  are  used 
to  clear  it  out.  Some  of  these  tools  are  merely 
wires  bent  at  right  angles  at  one  end,  which  is 
flattened  so  as  to  form  a  shelf  upon  which  the 
rubbish  may  bo  taken ;  but  the  flattened  end 
should  be  slightly  depressed  on  one  side,  so 
that  by  a  twisting  motion  the  shelf  or  pan 
may  he  made  to  pass  under.  A  worm  is  often 
formed  at  the  other  end  for  carrying  a  piece  of 
sponge  or  other  material  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cavity  to  absorb  water.  It  is  generally  advan- 
tageous to  pour  water  into  the  cavity  while 
drilling  for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  rock, 
and  keeping  the  bit  from  heating.  It  often 
happens  that  water  percolates  into  the  cavity, 
and  in  either  case  some  contrivance  is  required 
to  occasionally  remove  it.  When  the  hole  has 
reached  a  sufficient  depth  it  is  to  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  dried  with  the  scraper  and  a  piece 
of  sponge  or  cloth  attached  to  a  stick  or  to 
the  worm  at  one  end  of  the  scraper.  Then 
the  proper  charge  of  powder  is  poured  in  and 
covered  with  a  tamping,  which  may  consist 
of  dry  sand,  brick  dust,  or  moist  clay.  When 
dry  sand  is  used,  it  is  not  tamped  down,  but 


brick  dust  or  clay  is,  the  material  being  intro- 
duced in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  suc- 
cessively compacted  with  a  tamping  rod,  which 
is  simply  a  straight  bar  of  copper,  brass,  or 
wood.  The  end  of  a  fuse,  which  is  made  of 
gutta-percha  cylinder,  impervious  to  moisture, 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  gunpowder,  charcoal, 
and  nitre,  is  passed  into  the  hole  and  inserted 
in  the  body  of  the  charge  before  the  tamping 
material  is  introduced,  the  other  end  remaining 
outside  and  being  of  a  sufficient  length  to  burn 
the  desired  time  before  producing  the  explo- 
sion. When  a  fuse  is  not  employed,  a  priming 
needle  made  of  copper  is  passed  down  one  side 
of  the  hole,  with  the  point  extending  into  the 
powder.  It  has  a  tapering  form,  so  that  its 
withdrawal  will  not  disturb  the  tamping,  which 
in  this  case  must  be  more  or  less  damp.  When 
the  needle  is  withdrawn  the  canal  is  filled  with 
fine  powder,  and  its  ignition  effected  with  a 
slow  match.  When  the  cavity,  in  consequence 
of  percolation  from  surrounding  rock,  cannot  be 
dried,  the  powder  must  be  used  in  the  form  of 
a  cartridge,  the  case  of  which  is  made  of  tin  or 
pitched  paper.  When  nitro-glycerine  is  used, 
it  is  placed  in  cartridges  and  exploded  by 
means  of  some  kind  of  fulminate,  as  fulminate 
of  mercury  or  chlorate  of  potash,  or  both  to- 
gether. The  fulminate  may  be  ignited  either 
by  a  fuse  or  by  a  galvanic  battery.  The  use 
of  nitro-glycerine  in  its  raw  state  being  consid- 
ered very  dangerous,  preparations  of  it  have 
been  made,  which  with  careful  handling  are  no 
more  hazardous  than  gunpowder.  Of  these, 
giant  powder  or  dynamite,  which  is  composed 
of  75  per  cent,  of  nitro-glycerine  with  25  per 
cent,  of  a  certain  silicious  infusorial  earth,  holds 
the  first  rank.  When  an  explosive  compound 
is  fired,  the  great  and  almost  instantaneous 
expansion  of  liberated  gases,  which  in  the  case 
of  gunpowder  is  many  hundred  times  its  vol- 
ume, produces  an  equal  pressure  in  all  direc- 
tions. Those  surfaces  which  offer  the  least  re- 
sistance of  course  give  way  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tent; and  the  slower  the  explosion  and  conse- 
quent expansion,  the  more  will  these  surfaces 
be  displaced,  receiving  by  direct  action  and  re- 
action most  of  the  explosive  force,  while  the 
firmer  material  will  be  left  undisturbed.  When, 
however,  nitro-glycerine  is  used,  the  expansion 
of  gases  is  so  nearly  instantaneous,  that  the 
tampings,  even  when  they  are  quite  unstable, 
offer  an  amount  of  resistance  which  is  consid- 
erable. Even  when  it  is  fired  upon  the  surface 
of  a  rock  under  a  depth  of  only  a  few  feet  of 
water,  so  great  is  the  reaction  produced  by  the 
inertia  of  the  water  that  a  sufficient  force  is 
exerted  against  the  rock  to  rend  it  in  some  in- 
stances to  a  large  extent.  Under  similar  cir- 
cumstances even  gunpowder  will  explode  with 
considerable  effect.  Mr.  Maillefert  in  the  years 
1851  and  1852  succeeded,  by  the  use  of  gun- 
powder in  surface  blasting  under  water,  in  re- 
moving large  portions  of  several  of  the  obstruc- 
tions to  the  navigation  of  the  East  river  at 
Hell  Gate.  Kocks  known  as  Pot  rock,  the  Fry- 


700 


BLASTING 


ing  Pan,  and  Way's  reef,  were  very  consider- 
ably reduced  by  simply  exploding  large  cani- 
sters of  gunpowder,  by  means  of  a  galvanic  bat- 
tery, upon  their  surfaces.  From  Aug.  19,  1851, 
when  the  first  blast  was  fired,  to  March  25, 
1852,  28-4  charges,  containing  34,231  Ibs.  of 
powder,  were  exploded  upon  Pot  rock,  re- 
moving about  10  feet  of  its  depth,  as  careful 
soundings  have  since  shown,  although  it  was 
asserted  at  the  time  that  more  had  been  re- 
moved. On  Frying  Pan  and  Way's  reef  240 
charges,  containing  about  28,000  Ibs.,  were  ex- 
ploded, increasing  the  depth  of  water  consider- 
ably. Since  this  pioneer  work  of  Mr.  Maillefert 
nitro-glycerine  has  been  used  in  similar  opera- 
tions with  much  greater  and  more  satisfactory 
results.  In  fact,  this  compound,  or  some  prep- 
aration of  it,  is  now  employed  by  the  engineer 
as  though  it  were  a  kind  of  chisel  for  chipping 
away  projections  of  rock  wherever  they  pre- 
sent themselves.  Surface  blasting  has,  how- 
ever, been  abandoned,  except  for  the  removal  of 
superficial  or  unimportant  masses  of  rock.  It 
has  been  found  that  when  live  rock,  as  firm, 
undetached,  and  undisintegrated  rock  is  called, 
has  been  reached,  the  surface  blast,  even  when 
made  with  nitro-glycerine,  makes  so  little  com- 
parative impression,  that  it  is  more  expeditious 
and  economical  to  drill  and  introduce  the 
charge  into  the  body  of  the  rock.  When,  how- 
ever, it  forms  so  much  of  an  obstruction  as  to 
require  several  feet  in  depth  and  a  considera- 
ble horizontal  section  to  be  removed,  it  has 
been  found  preferable  to  make  large  excava- 
tions into  the  body  of  the  rock  from  beneath, 
proceeding  according  to  the  method  of  mining, 
and  to  remove  the  shell  by  the  simultaneous 
explosion  of  charges  introduced  into  it.  Prac- 
tical applications  of  this  method  will  be  noticed 
further  on. — When  it  is  designed  to  bore  a  tun- 
nel into  a  mountain,  a  heading,  as  it  is  called, 
is  commenced  at  the  floor  of  the  tunnel  and 
driven  in  the  direction  of  its  axis.  If  the  plane 
of  the  floor  is  not  beneath  the  plane  upon 
which  the  work  is  begun,  and  the  surface  of 
the  rock  is  sufficiently  perpendicular,  the  work 
may  be  commenced  by  bringing  a  carriage,  arm- 
ed with  one  or  more  Burleigh  or  other  drills, 
to  the  face  of  the  rock,  drilling  a  horizontal 
line  of  perforations  a  short  distance  above  the 
plane  of  the  floor  of  the  tunnel,  driving  the 


(See  fig.  2.)  If  necessary,  this  operation  is  to  be 
repeated  until  a  step,  facing  downward  and  of 
sufficient  depth,  is  formed  to  afford  the  most 
efficient  displacement  of  rock  by  subsequent 


Fio.  2.— Burleigh  Drill  at  Work. 

drills  in  an  obliquely  downward  direction,  at  an 
angle  of  about  45°,  charging  the  holes  with 
gunpowder  or  nitro-glycerine,  and  firing  them 
simultaneously  by  means  of  the  galvanic  battery. 


B 


Fio.  4. 


B' 


Section.  Ftonl  View. 

FIG.  3. — Mode  of  Forming  Steps  ("Stoping"). 

blasts.  Then  another  line  of  perforations  is 
drilled  in  the  step,  in  a  plane  parallel  with 
its  under  surface,  at  a  suitable  distance  above 
its  edge,  which  are  also  charged  with  the  ex- 
plosive and  fired.  (See  fig.  3.)  This  process 
is  to  be  repeated  until  the  arch  or  crown  of  the 
tunnel  is  reached,  and  then  a  new  bench  is  to 
be  formed.  This  work  can  be  advantageously 
performed  by  hand  drilling,  but  when  it  is  con- 
venient to  work  a  power  drill  its  employment 
will  generally  afford  the  greatest  progress. 
When  the  tunnel  is  of  sufficient  height  it  is 
usual  to  drive  the  head- 
ing (H,  fig.  4)  forward 
beneath  the  crown,  and 
to  follow  with  one  or 
more  benches  (B  and 
B').  The  work  is  al- 
ways driven  against 
the  perpendicular  faces 
of  the  headings  and  benches,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  tunnel ;  .but  the  lamina- 
tion of  the  rock  may  be  such  as  to  make  it 
preferable  to  drill  the  holes  in  the  upper  surface 
of  a  bench,  as  at  J,  and  throw  the  rock  hori- 
zontally from  the  face,  instead  of  commencing  at 
J'  and  throwing  it  downward.  Nitro-glycerine 
may  be  placed  in  the  drill  holes  in  cartridges, 
and  fired  without  tamping  or  with  water  tamp- 
ing, its  action  being  so  instantaneous  that  a  sep- 
aration is  readily  effected  in  the  lateral  direction, 
toward  the  under  surface  of  the  bench.  When 
the  floor  of  the  tunnel  lies  beneath  the  surface 
and  it  cannot  so  readily  be  reached  otherwise, 
or  where  counter  tunnelling  is  desirable,  a 
shaft  is  sunk  to  the  required  plane.  The  pro- 
cess of  excavating  a  shaft  is  conducted  upon 
principles  similar  to  those  which  govern  the 
driving  of  the  tunnel,  in  so  far  as  the  forming  of 
benches  and  the  detaching  of  the  rock  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  line  of  least  resistance  is  concern- 
ed, although  a  heading,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  could  not  be  driven  downward  in  advance 
of  the  rest  of  the  shaft  with  any  advantage.  The 
working  will  of  course  be  varied  according  to  the 
structure  and  composition  of  the  rock,  and  the 
position  of  its  strata.  It  may  happen  at  times 
that  considerable  portions  can  be  removed 
with  wedges  and  levers,  and  this  may  be  the 
case  in  the  tunnel  as  well  as  in  the  shaft,  but 
not  so  frequently.  In  sinking  a  shaft  a  bench 
is  formed,  and  successive  portions  are  de- 


BLASTING 


701 


tached,  either  by  blasting  or  other  means,  until 
the  whole  is  removed  and  a  new  bench  formed. 
The  progress  made  in  blasting  at  the  Hoosao 
tunnel  in  Massachusetts  during  the  month  of 
March,  1872,  in  the  east  end,  at  a  distance  of 
10,046  ft.  from  the  entrance,  was  120  ft.  of 
heading  24  ft.  wide  and  9  ft.  high.  This  head- 
ing was  attacked  by  12  Burleigh  drills,  mount- 
ed on  two  carriages  manned  by  eight  men  and 
a  foreman.  On  Dec.  12  of  the  same  year  the 
last  portion  of  rock  that  divided  the  exca- 
vations was  removed,  and  it  was  found  that 
the  axes  of  the  two  only  differed  by  the  re- 
markably small  error  of  fiVe  sixths  of  an  inch 
laterally,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  vertically. 
(See  TUNNEL.) — In  submarine  blasting  on  a  large 
scale,  by  the  modern  method,  a  coffer  dam  is 
erected  over  the  rock 
and  a  shaft  sunk  into 
it,  from  which  tun- 
nels are  excavated  in 
radiating  directions, 
and  these  connected 
by  concentric  galle- 
ries, while  columns 
Fia.  6.— Coffer  Dam.  of  roc^  &Te  Jeft  as 

supports  to  the  roof,  and  to  maintain  the  water 
bed  till  the  work  is  completed.  A  sufficient 
number  of  charges  of  an  explosive  compound  are 
then  introduced  into  the  columns  in  chambers, 
and  in  the  shell,  and  simultaneously  fired  by 
means  of  a  galvanic  battery.  When  the  work 
is  not  too  extensive  and  the  superincumbent 
pressure  of  rock  and  water  is  not  too  great, 
the  columns  of  rock  supporting  the  roof  may 
be  replaced  by  wooden  ones,  thus  allowing  of 
the  removal  of  a  larger  amount  of  material  be- 
fore the  final  explosion  takes  place.  This  is 
an  advantage,  since  its  removal  in  this  way  is 
less  expensive  than  by  rakes  and  grappling 
irons  after  it  is  broken  up  and  lying  beneath 
the  water.  In  such  excavations  many  precau- 
tions are  required  which  are  unnecessary  in 
boring  a  tunnel  through  a  mountain.  Mathe- 
matical calculations  and  estimates,  requiring 
extensive  engineering  knowledge  and  sound 
judgment,  must  be  made  hi  order  to  ascertain 
the  amount  of  resistance  required  in  the  arches 
and  in  the  columns  of  support,  composed  as 
they  are  of  rock  of  varying  composition,  tex- 
ture, and  degree  and  direction  of  stratification. 
If  a  breach  should  be  made  in  the  water  bed, 
the  works  would  be  flooded,  causing  serious 
delay  and  expense  in  making  repairs,  which 
must  be  done  by  sinking  rocks  and  cement 
into  the  breach  and  pumping  the  water  from 
the  caverns.  Moreover,  the  breach  might  be 
so  extensive  as  to  be  irreparable,  in  which 
case  the  remainder  of  the  rock  which  had  been 
tunnelled  would  have  to  be  removed  by  sur- 
face blasting.  It  frequently  happens  that  small 
fissures  are  opened,  which  under  the  great 
pressure  of  water  from  above  cause  serious 
annoyance,  and  all  the  ingenuity  and  knowl- 
edge that  can  be  brought  to  bear  are  required 
to  stop  the  leak.  To  avoid  disturbing  the  water 


bed,  it  is  also  safer  to  fire  the  blasts  of  nitro- 
glycerine singly  with  a  fuse,  and  not  in  num- 
bers simultaneously.  It  is  thus  perceived  that 
blasting  as  now  practised  is  an  important 
branch  of  the  science  of  civil  engineering. 
With  the  materials  and  appliances  at  hand,  in 
the  form  of  gunpowder,  nitro-glycerine,  per- 
fect safety  fuse,  the  ready  and  facile  command 
of  galvanic  electricity,  properly  constructed 
drills,  and  compressed  air  engines  to  propel 
them,  the  problems  presented  to  the  civil  en- 
gineer are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  offer  no 
obstacles  which  careful  and  correct  calculation 
cannot  overcome. — The  removal  of  Blossom 
rock  in  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  process  of  removing  submarine 
rocks  by  conducting  the  excavation  from  with- 
in. It  is  the  only  operation  of  the  kind  which 
has  been  completed,  although  another  and  more 
extensive  one,  previously  commenced,  is  now 
(1872)  in  progress  at  Hallett's  point  in  the  East 
river,  opposite  New  York.  The  top  of  Blos- 
som rock  was  about  5  ft.  below  the  surface 
of  the  water  at  mean  low  tide.  A  horizontal 
section  at  the  depth  of  24  ft.  measured  195  x 
105  ft.  The  quantity  of  rock  contained  with- 
in these  boundaries  was  about  5,000  cubic 
yards,  and  consisted  of  a  metamorphic  sand- 
stone of  irregular  stratification.  The  great  mass 
of  it  was  so  soft  as  not  to  require  blasting.  In 
October,  1868,  brevet  Brig.  Gen.  B.  S.  Alex- 
ander, lieutenant  colonel  of  engineers  U.  8.  A., 
communicated  a  plan  for  the  removal  of  this 
rock  to  Lieut.  Col.  R.  S.  Williamson,  major  of 
engineers,  who  had  been  placed  in  charge  of 
its  survey.  Gen.  Alexander's  plan  is  briefly  ex- 
plained in  the  following  extract  from  his  com- 
munication :  "  I  propose  to  enclose  a  small 
surface  of  the  rock  by  a  water-tight  coffer 
dam ;  in  this  space  to  sink  a  rectangular  shaft 
about  4  by  9  ft.,  which  is  the  size  I  have  seen 
in  coal  mines;  from  the  bottom  of  this  shaft 
to  run  tunnels  and  make  powder  chambers  in 
such  positions  that  when  exploded  the  whole 
rock  down  to  the  level  of  24  ft.  below  the  level 
of  the  water  will  be  lifted  in  the  air  and  shiv- 
ered to  pieces."  In  November  following,  Mr. 
A.  W.  von  Schmidt,  a  civil  engineer  of  San 
Francisco,  sent  in  a  plan  for  the  removal  of 
the  rock,  and  offered  to  perform  the  work 
for  $75,000,  which  plan  and  offer  were  in 
due  time  accepted.  His  plan  was  similar  to 
Gen.  Alexander's,  except  that  instead  of  the 
ordinary  coffer  dam  he  proposed  to  sink  an 
iron  cylinder  6  ft.  in  diameter,  carrying  an  in- 
dia-rubber flap  at  its  lower  end,  pump  out  the 
water,  bore  into  the  rock,  and  slide  another 
cylinder  inside  of  the  first  down  into  the  ex- 
cavation and  secure  it  by  cement.  It  was, 
however,  found  difficult  to  place  the  iron  cyl- 
inder in  position  without  first  resorting  to  the 
ordinary  cribwork  coffer  dam.  The  sinking  of 
the  shaft  was  commenced  Dec.  7,  1869.  Only 
one  man  could  work  at  a  time,  but  in  the  space 
of  four  weeks  a  depth  of  30  ft.  below  low 
water  was  reached.  Drifts  were  then  run  into 


702 


BLASTING 


the  longer  and  shorter  axes  of  the  rock,  and 
steam  was  used  in  hoisting.  The  rubbish  was 
dumped  upon  one  side  of  the  rock,  from  which 
most  of  it  was  washed  by  the  tide.  During 
the  month  of  January,  1870,  eight  men  found 
room  to  work.  Most  of  the  rock  was  removed 
by  picks  and  sledges,  only  10  Ibs.  of  explosive 
(giant  powder)  being  used  in  the  whole  opera- 
tion. In  February  16  men  found  space  to 
work,  and  by  the  20th  of  April  the  dimensions 
of  the  cavity  were  140  by  60  ft.,  with  a  maxi- 
mum height  of  12  ft.  Columns  of  rock  were 
at  first  left  for  support,  but  they  were  from 
time  to  time  replaced  with  upright  timbers 
from  8  to  10  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  four,  which  were  left  standing  near 
the  shaft.  Preparations  were  now  made  to 


FIG.  6.— Vertical  Section  of  Cofler  Dam  and  Eicavntton  at 
Blossom  Bock. 

blow  up  the  shell.  The  following  diagram, 
copied  from  the  official  report,  will  explain  the 
method  of  conducting  the  explosion.  Powder 


Fio.  7.— Horizontal  Section,  showing  Charges. 

was  used  as  the  explosive,  nitrate  of  soda 
taking  the  place  of  nitrate  of  potash  in  its 
composition.  The  quantity  used  was  43,000 
Ibs.  The  vessels  for  containing  it  were  38  ale 
casks  of  60  gallons  each,  and  seven  old  tanks 
made  of  boiler  iron,  holding  about  300  Ibs.  of 
powder  each.  The  explosion  was  effected  by 
a  galvanic  battery  stationed  in  a  boat  about 
800  ft.  from  the  rock.  A  column  of  water 
about  200  feet  in  diameter  was  thrown  into  the 
air  to  a  height  of  200  to  300  ft.,  and  pieces  of 
rock  and  timber  were  thrown  high  above  the 
water  column.  The  rock  was  found  to  be  ef- 
fectually demolished,  although  if  the  excava- 
tions had  been  carried  to  a  greater  depth  much 
after  labor  in  clearing  away  rubbish  and  pro- 
jecting points  would  have  been  saved.  The 
contract  was  fully  carried  out  by  Mr.  Von 
Schmidt,  under  the  immediate  inspection  of 
Lieut.  W.  H.  Heuer  of  the  corps  of  engineers. — 
At  New  York,  the  operations  of  Mr.  Maillefert 
in  surface  blasting  had  greatly  improved  the 


navigation  of  the  East  river;  but  no  compre- 
hensive plan  was  projected  till  the  summer 
of  1866,  when  brevet  Major  Gen.  John  New- 
ton was  assigned  by  the  war  department  to 
the  duty  of  examining  the  obstructions,  and 
making  estimates  of  the  work  necessary  to  be 
done.  He  submitted  three  plans,  each  of  which 
included  the  removal  of  the  rock  at  Ballet's 
point.  Some  work  was  done  on  some  of  the 
smaller  rocks  by  Mr.  S.  F.  Shelbourne,  who  tried 
experiments  with  a  rotating  diamond  drill,  and 
afterward  constructed  a  percussion  drill  of 
larger  size,  which  was  destroyed  by  a  collision 
before  it  was  brought  to  the  test  of  drilling. 
In  the  spring  of  1869  congress  appropriated 
$175,000  for  improvements  at  Hell  Gate,  and 
Gen.  Newton  proceeded  to  complete  the  plans 
for  the  performance  of  the  work.  The  re- 
moval of  the  submarine  rock  at  Hallett's  point 
was  the  first  work  decided  upon.  This  rock, 
projecting  some  300  ft.  into  the  stream,  and 
throwing  the  tide  from  Long  Island  sound 
against  an  opposing  rock  called  the  Gridiron, 
makes  the  navigation  at  that  place  very  dim- 
cult.  The  plan  of  operation  was  to  sink  a  shaft 
upon  Hallett's  point,  and  from  it  excavate  tun- 
nels in  the  rock  in  a  radiating  direction  under 
the  river  and  connect  them  with  concentric 
galleries ;  then,  after  removing  from  the  inte- 
rior as  much  of  the  rock  as  possible  without 
danger  of  letting  in  the  water,  to  blow  up  the 
roof  and  supporting  columns.  The  work  was 
commenced  in  July,  1869.  A  coifer  dam  in 
the  form  of  an  irregular  pentagon,  whose  great- 
est diameter  was  140  ft.,  was  erected  on  the 
shore,  and  a  shaft  105  by  95  ft.. in  diameter  was 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  32  ft.  below  mean  low  water. 
Diverging  tunnels  were  then  commenced,  and 


FIG.  8. — Ground  Plan  of  Tunnels  and  Galleries  at  Hallett's 
Point 

after  they  were  sufficiently  advanced  concen- 
tric galleries  were  excavated,  and  as  the  work 
proceeded  their  number  increased,  until  at  the 
present  time  (November,  1872)  there  are  19 
tunnels,  some  of  which  are  nearly  completed, 
extending  from  190  to  240  ft.  beyond  the  shaft, 
and  connected  by  seven  concentric  galleries, 
from  which  28,000  cubic  yards  of  rock  have 
been  removed.  The  rock  is  a  tough  horn- 
blende gneiss,  and  lies  in  strata  of  various  de- 
grees of  inclination,  presenting  interesting  prob- 


BLAYE 


BLEACHING 


703 


lews.  The  work  has  been  in  satisfactory  pro- 
gress since  the  summer  of  1869,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  interval,  when  the  available  funds 
were  exhausted ;  but  the  appropriations  have 
never  been  nearly  equal  to  what  could  have 
been  economically  expended.  The  Burleigh 
drill  has  been  in  constant  use,  but  hand  drills 
are  also  worked  with  great  advantage,  as  in  the 
progress  of  the  work  it  is  found  expedient  to  use 
many  small  blasts  of  giant  powder.  When  the 
excavation  is  completed  it  is  designed  to  intro- 
duce an  explosive  compound  into  the  columns 
and  various  parts  of  the  roof,  and  produce  a 
simultaneous  explosion  with  a  galvanic  current. 
Topographical  surveys  are  continually  made 
during  the  progress  of  the  work  to  determine 
the  direction  and  extent  of  the  excavation,  the 
usual  methods  of  triangulation  and  levelling  be- 
ing employed.  There  have  been  21,000  sound- 
ings and  8,000  borings  of  the  bed  of  the  river, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  depth  of  live 
rock.  No  accident  has  happened  with  the  use 
of  nitro-glycerine,  owing  to  the  care  with  which 
it  is  prepared,  and  the  prudence  with  which  it 
is  handled.  With  regard  to  the  preparations 
of  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite  or  giant  powder 
is  considered  by  those  who  use  it  to  be  a  safer 
explosive  than  gunpowder.  Dualline,  which  is 
a  somewhat  similar  preparation,  has  also  been 
used  with  satisfactory  results.  The  danger  in 
using  nitro-glycerine  arises  principally  from  the 
collection  of  vapors  liable  to  take  place  when 
it  is  confined. 

BLAYE  (anc.  Blama),  a  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Gironde,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Gironde,  20  m.  N. 
by  W.  of  Bordeaux  ;  pop.  in  1866,  4,761.  The 
upper  part  of  the  town,  with  the  citadel,  lies 
on  a  steep  rock ;  hi  the  citadel,  which  was  built 
by  Vanban,  the  duchess  of  Berry  was  im- 
prisoned in  1832.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  is  Fort  M6doc,  and  on  an  islet  between 
them  is  a  fortified  tower  called  the  Pat6  de 
Blaye.  The  town  has  been  a  military  station 
since  the  times  of  the  Romans.  It  has  a  school 
of  hydrography  and  an  active  coast  trade. 

BLEACHING,  the  process  of  removing  colors 
from  fabrics  and  raw  materials  and  leaving 
them  white.  The  principal  substances  to  which 
bleaching  is  applied  are  wool  and  silk,  in  the 
animal,  and  cotton,  flax,  and  straw,  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  The  coloring  matter  in 
these  bodies  is  not  essential  to  their  texture, 
and  fortunately  can  be  removed  by  chemical 
agents  without  injury  to  the  structure  of  the 
rest  of  the  material.  Steeping  cloths  in  lyes 
extracted  from  the  ashes  of  plants,  and  after- 
ward repeatedly  washing  and  exposing  them 
to  the  action  of  sunlight,  was  practised  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians ;  but  nothing  more  than  this 
is  known  of  their  process.  There  was  scarcely 
any  progress  in  the  art  for  thousands  of  years, 
or  until  the  18th  century,  when  somo  improve- 
ments were  made  in  Holland.  The  Dutch  pro- 
cess consisted  in  pouring  the  alkaline  solution 
over  the  goods  in  a  boiling  condition,  and 
97  VOL.  ii. — 45 


steeping  them  in  it  for  about  a  week,  and, 
after  washing,  again  steeping  them  for  another 
week  in  buttermilk.  After  this  they  were 
thoroughly  washed  and  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air  and  sunlight  for  several  months. 
These  apparently  simple  processes  obtained 
for  the  Dutch  a  high  reputation  for  bleach- 
ing, and  gave  them  almost  a  monopoly  of 
the  business  for  very  many  years.  For  a  long 
period  the  brown  linens  manufactured  in  Scot- 
land were  regularly  sent  to  Holland  to  be 
bleached.  A  whole  summer  was  required  for 
the  operation ;  and  if  the  cloths  were  sent  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  they  were  not  returned 
for  12  months.  It  was  this  practice  which 
caused  the  name  of  hollands  to  be  given  to 
these  linens.  The  Scotch  introduced  the 
business  of  bleaching  for  themselves  about  the 
year  1749;  but  it  was  long  believed  that  the 
peculiar  properties  of  the  water  about  the 
bleaching  grounds  of  Haarlem  gave  to  this 
neighborhood  advantages  which  no  other  re- 
gion could  possess. — The  precise  chemical  ac- 
tion that  takes  place  in  the  process  of  bleach- 
ing is  not  known  with  certainty,  but  it  is 
probably  due  to  the  action  of  oxygen  when  it 
is  in  a  nascent  state,  or  in  that  peculiar  and 
active  one  called  ozone.  The  investigations  of 
Schonbein  have  proved  that  atmospheric  oxy- 
gen, under  the  influence  of  sunlight  and  moist- 
ure, passes  into  an  active  state,  thus  explaining 
the  rationale  of  the  old  bleaching  process. 
Bleaching  by  chlorine  involves  the  abstraction 
of  hydrogen  from  the  coloring  matter,  and  the 
momentary  freeing  of  a  portion  of  oxygen, 
which  enters  into  a  new  combination  by  which 
it  is  thought  the  bleaching  is  effected.  The 
action  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  is  usually  a 
deoxidizing  agent,  does,  however,  according 
to  Schonbein's  investigations,  on  exposure  to 
the  air  and  light,  bring  a  portion  of  atmos- 
pheric oxygen  into  an  active  condition.  Chem- 
ists, therefore,  attribute  the  action  of  all 
bleaching  agents  to  the  power  they  possess  of 
causing  oxygen  to  pass  into  its  active  state. 
The  art  of  bleaching  was  conducted  by  alter- 
nate steeping  in  alkaline  liquors  called  buck- 
ings, followed  by  thorough  washing  and  boil- 
ing and  long  continued  exposure  upon  grass, 
with  frequent  sprinklings  of  water,  which  pro- 
cess was  called  crofting;  and  this  was  followed 
by  the  souring  process,  or  keeping  the  articles 
soaked  for  weeks  in  sour  milk,  to  be  afterward 
washed  and  crofted  several  times.  By  sub- 
stituting dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  sour  milk  to 
dissolve  out  the  alkaline  matters,  as  suggested 
by  Dr.  Hope,  the  time  required  for  this  part  of 
the  process  was  reduced  to  a  few  hours  in  place 
of  a  few  months.  But  the  other  operations 
still  involved  long  time,  particularly  the  croft- 
ing; and  frequent  losses  moreover  were  in- 
curred by  the  exposure  of  the  goods  in  large 
establishments  upon  the  great  extent  of  grass 
lands  they  required.  Of  cotton  goods  one 
twentieth  to  one  tenth  of  the  weight  is  lost 
by  bleaching ;  but  linens  often  lose  as  much  as 


704 


BLEACHING 


one  third,  by  which  their  strength  also  is  con- 
siderably impaired :  the  finer  linens  lose  only 
from  12  to  25  per  cent.  In  Silesia  and  Bohe- 
mia, where  the  chlorine  process  is  not  adopted, 
the  linens  are  exposed  to  a  fermenting  process, 
then  washed,  and  steeped  in  alkaline  liquors, 
with  alternate  exposures  upon  grass,  which 
processes  are  repeated  a  great  number  of  times 
for  60  to  70  days ;  but  to  render  them  properly 
white,  they  are  afterward  passed  through  a 
bath  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  then 
treated  again  with  the  potash  lye  several  times 
and  alternately  exposed  on  the  grass,  and 
finally  thoroughly  cleansed  by  washing  in  a 
revolving  cylinder  called  a  dash-wheel.  This 
machine  is  also  employed  in  the  English  and 
Scotch  processes  for  washing  the  goods  with- 
out subjecting  them  to  unnecessary  wear.  The 
frequent  repetition  of  the  different  processes  is 
rendered  necessary  by  the  complete  diffusion 
of  the  coloring  matters  through  the  flax  fibres, 
and  their  close  union  with  them  ;  each  opera- 
tion decomposing  aud  removing  in  succession 
small  portions  only. — The  discovery  of  chlorine 
gas  by  Scheele  in  1774  led  to  the  great  im- 
provement in  bleaching  of  applying  this  gas  to 
the  removal  of  the  colors.  The  use  of  it  was 
originally  suggested  by  the  French  chemist 
Berthollet  in  1785,  and  explained  the  next 
year  by  him  to  Watt  of  Glasgow,  who  was  then 
in  Paris.  By  Watt  the  process  was  soon  intro- 
duced into  Britain,  the  gas  being  used  in  solu- 
tion in  water.  Its  preparation  was  found  to  be 
highly  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen, 
and  the  fibre  of  the  cloth  was  weakened  by  the 
action  of  the  chlorine.  Berthollet  improved  the 
process  by  diluting  the  aqueous  solution  with 
water,  and  also  by  saturating  with  potash  a  por- 
tion of  the  acid.  This  was  the  first  step  toward 
the  preparation  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  which 
was  originally  prepared  after  long  continued  ex- 
perimenting by  Tennant  of  Glasgow  in  1798. 
Its  first  employment  was  in  the  form  of  a  satu- 
rated liquid  solution  ;  but  in  1799  he  patented 
the  use  of  the  dry  chloride  of  lime.  (See 
BLEACHING  POWDEK.)  Bleaching  by  chlorine, 
as  now  practised,  varies  somewhat  as  applied 
to  the  ditferent  i'abrics;  but  a  succession  of 
different  processes  is  still  adopted,  as  in  the  old 
methods.  Thus,  in  bleaching  cotton,  there  are 
the  preparatory  operations  of  singeing  off  the 
loose  fibres  by  passing  the  cloth  over  heated 
cylinders ;  then  soaking  some  hours  in  water, 
followed  by  the  dash-wheel  ;  then  boiling  in 
lime  water,  which  acts  upon  the  grease,  and 
prepares  it  for  easy  removal  by  the  next  opera- 
tion of  boiling  in  water.  This  is  followed  by 
the  souring  process,  which  dissolves  out  the 
adhering  lime,  and  a  succeeding  washing  pre- 
pares the  cloth  for  bleaching.  This  consists  in 
steeping  the  cloth  in  a  dilute  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  lime,  which  is  called  the  chemicking 
process.  The  liquor  consists,  for  every  pound 
of  cloth,  of  about  half  a  pound  of  chloride  of 
lime  and  three  gallons  of  water.  Souring  and 
washing  succeed  this,  and  these  processes  are 


repeated,  it  may  be,  several  times ;  altogether 
they  amount,  including  calendering,  to  about 
25  in  number.  Though  still  very  complicated, 
the  time  of  the  operation  is  greatly  reduced 
from  that  of  the  old  method.  In  two  days  is 
now  accomplished  what  formerly  required  a 
whole  summer,  and  the  cost  of  the  process 
amounts  to  only  about  20  cents  per  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  of  24  yards.  Bleaching  linens  with 
chlorine,  though  somewhat  more  expeditious 
than  the  process  already  referred  to  in  Bohemia 
and  Silesia,  is  still  a  tedious  operation,  and  prob- 
ably is  susceptible  of  great  improvements.  It 
involves  from  8  to  20  different  processes  of  steep- 
ing, boiling,  washing,  souring,  &c.,  with  ex- 
posure upon  the  grass  for  from  30  to  60  days. 
Without  this  exposure  a  longer  time  is  required 
for  the  bleaching  action  of  the  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  Rags  are  bleached  for  the  paper- 
makers,  after  being  thoroughly  washed  in  the 
engine  and  reduced  to  what  is  called  half-stuff1, 
by  soaking  them  from  6  to  12  hours  in  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  lime;  from  2  to  4  Ibs.  of  the 
dry  chloride  being  used  for  every  cwt.  of 
rags.  When  the  rags  are  strongly  dyed,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  add  some  sulphuric  acid  (half 
the  weight  of  the  bleaching  powder),  and  cause 
the  mixture,  with  the  rags  placed  in  it,  to  re- 
volve for  some  time  in  a  tight  cylindrical  vessel, 
till  the  chlorine  evolved  has  removed  the  colors. 
This  process  is  followed  by  thorough  washing. 
— Wool  requires  a  thorough  preparation  called 
scouring,  to  free  it  from  the  soapy  and  waxy 
matters  exhaled  from  the  skin  of  the  sheep. 
Weak  ammoniacal  lye  is  found  efficient  for 
this  purpose,  and  this  is  obtained  by  boiling 
putrefied  urine  with  four  to  eight  times  its 
quantity  of  soft  water.  The  wool  is  steeped 
and  well  washed  in  a  warm  bath  of  this  liquor, 
until  all  the  impurities  are  converted  into  soapy 
matters  and  removed  by  rinsing  in  clean  water. 
Caustic  soda  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  am- 
moniacal liquors.  Chlorine  cannot  be  employed 
to  bleach  animal  fibre,  because  the  nitrogen 
they  contain  causes  them  to  become  yellow, 
and  sulphurous  acid  is  the  agent  which  is  gen- 
erally used  instead.  Bleaching  by  sulphurous 
acid  depends  upon  the  production  of  colorless 
sulphites,  the  decomposition  of  which,  how- 
ever, by  alkalies  or  by  prolonged  exposure,  will 
allow  the  color  to  reappear  unless  they  are  re- 
moved. This  is  accomplished  by  thoroughly 
washing  the  goods  after  the  application  of  the 
acid.  Woollen  materials  are  generally  bleached 
by  hanging  them  in  a  moistened  state  in  close 
chambers  and  passing  the  vapor  of  burning  sul- 
phur over  them;  sometimes,  however,  a  solu- 
tion of  the  acid  in  water  is  used.  After  sul- 
phuring they  are  washed  and  exposed  to  the 
air.  The  process  may  be  briefly  described  as 
follows:  1.  They  are  immersed  three  times  in 
a  bath  composed  of  24  Ibs.  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  6  Ibs.  of  soap,  and  130  gallons  of  water, 
at  a  temperature  of  105°  F.  The  bath  is  re- 
newed after  each  immersion  by  the  addition  of 
three  fourths  of  a  pound  of  soap.  The  goods 


BLEACHING 


705 


are  immersed  by  passing  them  over  a  roller, 
and  this  bath  answers  for  about  2,000  yards 
of  material.  2.  They  are  then  washed  twice 
in  clean  water  at  105°  F.  3.  Passed  three 
times  through  a  soda  solution  of  the  strength 
of  the  first  solution,  adding  half  a  pound  of 
carbonate  of  soda  after  each  passage.  4.  Ex- 
posed for  12  hours  to  the  vapor  of  burning  sul- 
phur, using  of  this  about  24  Ibs.  to  2,000  yards. 
5.  Passed  three  times  through  a  bath  contain- 
ing 30  Ibs.  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  130  gallons  of 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  124°,  adding  three 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  soda  after  each  immer- 
sion. 6.  The  cloth  is  again  subjected  to  the 
sulphur  vapor,  as  in  the  previous  operation.  7. 
A  repetition  of  the  fifth  process.  8.  Washed 
twice  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  105°  F. 

9.  Subjected  to  sulphur  vapors  for  12  hours. 

10.  Washed  in  tepid,  and  then  in  cold  water. 

11.  Tinged  blue  by  passing  through  a  bath  con- 
taining indigo  and  carmine. — For  the  bleaching 
of  silk  sulphurous  acid  is  also  used,  but  pre- 
vious to  its  application  the  raw  silk  must,  as  in 
the  case  of  wool,  be  freed  of  matter  which  would 
interfere  with  the  process.     Silk  contains,  ac- 
cording to  its  quality,  from  25  to  35  per  cent, 
of  extraneous  matter,  which  was  formerly  con- 
sidered to  be  a  kind  of  gum,  and  is  still  called 
by  that    name.      The    investigations    by  M. 
Hoard,  however,  have  shown  this  substance  to 
consist  of  albumen,  wax,  fat,  resin,  and  coloring 
matter,  and  to  have  the  properties  of  a  varnish. 
After  numerous  experiments  it  has  been  found 
that  nothing  removes  this  varnish  so  well  as  a 
hot  soap  bath  kept  somewhat  below  the  boiling 
point.     From  30  to  40  Ibs.  of  very  fine  soap  are 
used  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  silk;  but  the  pro- 
portions vary  according  to  the  uses  that  are  to 
be  made  of  the  articles.     After  steeping,  the 
silks  are   well  washed,   put  into  linen   bags, 
and  boiled  for  an  hour  and  a  half  in  a  weaker 
solution  of  soap.     Different  shades  of  white  are 
given  to  the  silk,  without  further  bleaching,  by 
the  use  of  very  weak  dyes  of  litmus  or  indigo. 
A  pure  white  is  obtained   by  the  sulphuring 
process.     The  Chinese  are  said  not  to  use  soap 
in  cleaning  their  silks.     One  Michel  de  Grub- 
bens,  who  lived  in  Canton  a  long  time  and 
practised  the  Chinese  method,  published  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  academy  of  Stockholm  an  ac- 
count of  it,  according  to  which  they   use   a 
small  white  bean,  and  also  wheat  flour  and 
common  salt.     It  is  probable  that  the  fineness 
of  Chinese  silk  is  owing  much  to  the  superi- 
ority of  the  raw  material.     The  process  of 
bleaching  silk  proposed  by  Baume'  would  be 
an  important  improvement  if  it  were  not  too 
expensive.     It  consists  in  macerating  the  raw 
silk  in  32  parts  of  alcohol  and  1  part  of  muri- 
atic acid  for  about  48  hours,  when  the  silk  is 
quite  white. — Wheat  straw  is  grown  in  Tuscany 
without  reference   to  the  grain.      The  seeds 
are    sown   broadcast,   and   the    straw   is  cut 
when   the   grain    is   in  the  milk.     It  is  thin 
and   short,   but    of  fine  texture.     On    being 
cut,  it  is  dried  for  a  few  days  in  the  sun,  then 


stacked  in  bundles,  and  dried  in  the  mow  for  a 
month.  After  this,  it  is  partially  bleached  by 
exposure  upon  the  meadows  to  the  dews  and 
sun ;  and  the  process  is  completed  by  steaming 
and  sulphuring.  In  England,  a  boiling  solution 
of  caustic  soda  is  employed  to  dissolve  the  hard 
natural  varnish  upon  the  outside  of  the  straw  ; 
after  which  the  usual  bleaching  process,  with 
sulphurous  acid  or  chlorine,  is  applied.  This 
hard  coating,  it  is  said,  may  also  be  removed 
with  economy  by  several  steepings  in  dilute  al- 
kaline solutions,  alternating  with  others  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  and  the  vapor  of  -sulphurous  acid. 
— Chlorine  is  the  most  common  agent  employ- 
ed for  bleaching  a  variety  of  other  substances 
besides  those  already  named ;  as,  for  example, 
wax,  and  articles  of  paper,  as  maps,  prints, 
books,  &c.  But  frequently,  colors  imparted 
to  cloth  by  strong  dyes  require  for  their  re- 
moval different  chemical  reagents,  as  chromic 
acid,  or  the  combination  of  this  with  potassa. 
Protochloride  of  tin  is  also  employed  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  are  called  discharges, 
and  are  principally  made  use  of  in  calico  print 
works. — The  whitening  of  candles,  paraffine, 
sugar,  &c.,  will  be  described  in  treating  of 
those  articles.  Wax  was  formerly  bleached 
merely  by  exposing  it  to  sunlight  and  moist- 
ure ;  but  since  the  discovery  of  chlorine  that 
gas  has  been  the  agent  generally  used.  The  wax 
is  scraped  into  very  fine  shreds  and  put  into  a 
tub  of  water  having  a  tight  cover;  chlorine 
gas  is  then  introduced  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub, 
while  an  agitator  stirs  the  water.  The  bleach- 
ing is  effected  in  about  two  hours,  when  the 
wax  is  melted  into  cakes.  A  process  has  been 
introduced  in  France  of  bleaching  wax,  which 
is  also  applicable  to  oils,  by  melting  it  in  hot 
steam,  and  subjecting  it  to  its  action  in  passing 
through  a  kind  of  worm.  It  is  also  washed 
with  hot  water  alternately  with  the  steaming. 
— Hydrate  of  alumina,  prepared  by  decompos- 
ing alum  by  carbonate  of  soda,  has  recently 
been  substituted  for  animal  charcoal,  for  decol- 
oring liquids.  Experiments  made  by  M.  Ch. 
M6ric,  chemist  of  the  metallurgical  works  at 
Creuzot,  show  that  15  grammes  of  alumina 
may  replace  250  grammes  of  animal  charcoal, 
in  decoloring  a  quart  of  water  colored  by  10 
grammes  of  litmus ;  or  for  sirup  colored  by 
molasses,  7  grammes  of  alumina  were  equiva- 
lent to  125  of  animal  charcoal.  The  alumina 
is,  moreover,  restored  with  less  expense  than 
the  charcoal. — We  pass  to  the  consideration 
of  the  process  for  bleaching  cotton,  which  has 
long  been  extensively  known  as  the  "  American 
bleaching."  Before  the  year  1836  Dr.  Samuel 
L.  Dana,  acting  as  consulting  chemist  to  the 
Merrimack  manufacturing  company  of  Lowell, 
Mass.,  had  completed  an  investigation  on  the 
adhering  and  coloring  matters  of  the  cotton 
fibres,  which  led  him  to  devise  and  carry  into 
practice  the  application  of  chemical  agents  in 
such  order  as  to  insure  uniform  results  in 
bleaching.  The  resino-waxy  envelopes  of  the 
fibres,  as  well  as  the  accidental  starchy,  albu- 


706 


BLEACHING 


BLEACHING   POWDER 


minous,  and  oily  bodies  present  in  the  manu- 
factured goods,  are  by  this  method  resolved  in- 
to soluble  compounds  and  removed  ;  and  when 
in  1837  the  process  as  practised  became  known 
to  the  scientific  bleachers  and  printers  of  Miihl- 
hausen,  it  drew  forth  their  expressions  of  ad- 
miration for  its  completeness.  This  method  is 
founded  on  the  two  following  principles :  1. 
The  conversion  of  the  fatty  and  waxy  matters 
into  soaps ;  and  for  security  and  economy,  it  is 
preferable  that  these  soaps  should  have  alkali- 
no-earthy  bases ;  caustic  lime  becomes,  there- 
fore, a  most  effectual  agent.  2.  The  decompo- 
sition of  the  basic  soaps  formed,  so  as  to  con- 
vert them  into  soluble  soaps,  which  is  effected 
by  the  action  of  an  alkaline  carbonate.  These 
are  the  cardinal  principles  on  which  this  almost 
perfect  process  is  founded,  but  there  are  prac- 
tical points  of  interest.  After  the  principles 
were  published,  M.  Auguste  Scheurer  of  Muhl- 
hausen  suggested  the  passing  of  the  goods  from 
the  lime  into  diluted  acid.  This  step,  by  no 
means  essential,  increases  the  certainty  of  an 
easy  decomposition  of  the  lime  soap,  as  the 
acid  seizing  the  base  enters  into  combination 
with  it,  leaving  the  fatty  acid  free  to  combine 
with  the  base  of  the  alkaline  carbonate,  and 
form  soluble  soap.  In  describing  the  process 
as  almost  perfect,  a  point  was  in  view  which 
called  for  this  qualifying  phrase.  Dr.  Dana 
found  that  after  the  new  process  had  been  ap- 
plied, and  modified  applications  had  been  made, 
there  still  remained  adhering  to  the  fibre  a  sub- 
stance which  has  many  of  the  characters  of 
wax.  This  substance  he  studied  at  great 
length,  separating  it  from  bleached  cotton  by 
means  of  boiling  alcohol,  which  deposits  it  on 
cooling.  Its  few  affinities  do  not  allow  of  the 
application  of  any  special  agent  for  removing 
it  wholly ;  while  the  solution  of  rosin  in  alkali, 
combining  with  it,  dissolves  a  portion.  This 
body,  unlike  wax  in  its  relation  to  coloring 
matter,  becomes  tinted  in  ordinary  madder 
printing  at  the  points  where  it  is  desirable  that 
white  ground  only  should  appear,  and  no  modi- 
fication of  bleaching  methods  has  yet  met  or 
overcome  this  difficulty.  The  steps  of  the  pro- 
cess are  as  follows :  1.  Steep  the  cloth  in  wa- 
ter at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  for  24 
hours.  2.  Pass  through  a  bath  of  milky  caus- 
tic lime,  containing  60  Ibs.  for  2,500  Ibs.  of 
cloth.  3.  Boil  the  cloth  as  it  passes  from  the 
second  operation  six  hours,  counting  from  the 
moment  ebullition  actually  occurs,  under  a 
pressure  of  40  to  50  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  4. 
Wash  through  the  washing  machine.  5.  Pass 
through  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  till  it 
marks  2°  B.  6.  Wash  in  machine.  7.  Boil  six 
hours,  under  a  pressure  of  40  to  50  Ibs.  to  the 
square  inch,  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
containing  100  Ibs.  for  2,500  Ibs.  of  cloth,  and 
in  which  40  Ibs.  of  common  rosin  have  been 
previously  dissolved.  8.  Wash  in  machine. 

9.  Pass  in  washing  machine  through  a  clear 
solution  of   chloride  of  lime,  marking  1°  B. 

10.  Expose  the  cloth,  as  it  is  folded  from  the 


machine  into  pits  with  open  sides,  to  the  ac- 
tion  of  the  air  and  carbonic  acid,  still  satu- 
rated with  the  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 
11.  Pass  in  washing  machine  through  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  diluted  to  2°  B.  12  and  13.  Wash 
twice  in  machine.  The  boiling  is  done  in  Bar- 
low's kiers,  which  are  especially  adapted  to 
this  process,  which  has  come  to  be  regarded 
both  in  this  country  and  Europe  as  the  sim- 
plest and  best  in  use. 

ULEAUII.VG  POWDER.  By  the  action  of 
chlorine  gas  upon  hydrate  of  lime,  a  compound 
is  produced  which  is  known  by  the  common 
name  of  chloride  of  lime.  By  the  calico 
printers,  and  others  who  make  use  of  it  for  its 
bleaching  properties,  it  is  called  bleaching 
powder.  It  is  also  known  as  bypochlorite  of 
lime,  chlorinated  lime,  &c.  The  compound 
was  first  prepared  by  Mr.  Tennant  of  Glasgow, 
in  experimenting  upon  the  best  applications  of 
chlorine  to  bleaching  purposes.  He  first  made 
it  in  the  form  of  the  saturated  liquid  solution ; 
and  in  1799  he  took  out  a  patent  for  impregnat- 
ing dry  quickline  with  chlorine.  By  the  sug- 
gestion of  one  of  his  partners,  slacked  lime,  or 
the  hydrate,  was  substituted  for  the  quicklime, 
having  the  property  of  absorbing  large  quan- 
tities of  the  gas,  which  the  quicklime  has  not. 
In  preparing  it,  a  pure  quality  of  lime  is  re- 
quired, free  from  iron,  clay,  and  magnesia,  the 
presence  of  which  would  seriously  affect  the 
bleaching  process.  It  should  also  be  well  and 
freshly  burned,  and  freed  from  all  carbonic 
acid.  Enough  water  is  then  to  be  added  to  it  to 
cause  it  to  fall  into  a  fine  white  powder,  which 
is  the  hydrate  of  lime.  Chlorine  is  prepared 
by  several  different  processes.  One  of  these, 
still  common,  though  becoming  superseded  by 
other  methods  and  by  modifications,  consists 
in  decomposing  hydrochloric  acid  by  heating 
it  in  contact  with  coarsely  pulverized  black 
oxide  of  manganese.  This  substance  furnishes 
a  large  amount  of  oxygen  gas,  which  in  mutual 
decomposition  unites  with  the  hydrogen  of  the 
hydrochloric  acid  to  form  water,  setting  free 
the  chlorine,  an  atom  of  which  takes  the  place 
of  the  oxygen,  forming  chloride  of  manganese, 
and  another  atom  escapes.  These  changes  are 
represented  by  the  following  formula,  the  first 
part  of  the  equation  being  the  materials  em- 
ployed, and  the  second  the  products  obtained  : 
4HCl  +  Mn2Os  =2H2q  +  2MnCl  +  2Cl.  Another 
process  consists  in  mixing  the  manganese  ox- 
ide with  common  salt  and  adding  sulphuric 
acid.  The  changes  which  are  then  effected 
are  represented  as  follows:  2XaCl  +  2II2S- 
O,+  Mn20.,=  Na2SO,+  Mn2S04+  2H2O  + 2C1. 
It  is  important  that  the  manganese  ore  should 
be  of  the  purest  quality,  in  order  to  obtain 
from  it  the  largest  quantity  of  oxygen  gas. 
Black  oxide  of  manganese  when  pure  gives  up 
at  a  white  heat  33'1  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of 
oxygen,  and  passes  into  the  red  oxide.  Chlo- 
rine gas  is  thus  prepared  in  large  alembics  or 
stills,  which  are  made  of  cast  iron,  where  ex- 
posed to  strong  heat,  and  in  part  of  strong 


BLEACHING  POWDER 


BLEDOW 


707 


sheet  lead ;  or  sometimes  of  stones  closely  fitted 
and  cemented  to  each  other.  The  lower  por- 
tion is  sometimes  made  double  for  the  purpose 
of  introducing  steam  to  heat  the  mixture  in  the 
inner  vessel.  The  materials  introduced  are  in 
the  following  proportions,  rated  as  if  pure,  but 
varying  with  their  impurities:  binoxide  of 
manganese,  100  parts;  common  salt,  150  parts; 
and  sulphuric  acid,  of  specific  gravity  1'6,  about 
185  parts.  The  temperature  is  kept  at  about 
180°  F.,  and  the  materials  are  kept  in  agitation 
by  a  stirrer,  which  is  made  to  revolve  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  vessel.  As  the  gas  is  evolved, 
it  passes  by  a  lead  pipe  to  the  purifier,  and  into 
the  top  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  hydrate 
of  lime  is  deposited  in  trays,  which  are  placed 
upon  shelves.  Heat  is  generated  by  the  chem- 
ical combination ;  but  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  exceed  62°  F.,  the  supply  of  chlorine  being 
checked  to  keep  the  temperature  down.  For 
two  days  the  process  goes  on,  when  it  is  stopped, 
that  the  workmen  may  enter  with  half  a  set  of 
trays  of  fresh  hydrate  of  lime  to  replace  an 
equal  quantity  which  has  been  exposed  four 
days  to  the  action  of  the  gas,  and  to  stir  over 
that  which  has  been  in  two  days.  Half  a 
charge  is  thus  taken  out  every  two  days. 
When  well  made,  it  should  be  a  uniform  white 
powder,  without  lumps,  smelling  of  chlorine, 
dissolving  with  little  residue  in  20  parts  of 
water  with  alkaline  reaction,  and  attracting 
moisture  very  slowly  from  the  air.  When  pre- 
pared in  a  liquid  state,  the  gas  is  passed  into 
lime  water,  till  this  is  saturated  with  it.  The 
solution,  for  the  quantity  of  lime  it  contains,  is 
stronger  than  the  dry  powder,  but  it  is  not  so 
permanent  in  character,  the  chlorine  sooner 
escaping  from  it. — Mr.  Tennant  of  Glasgow 
employs  a  method  devised  by  Mr.  0.  T.  Dunlop 
for  liberating  chlorine  from  common  salt  with 
nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphuric  acid.  If  one 
equivalent  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  three  of  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  are  decomposed  by  sulphuric 
acid,  nitrous  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  chlo- 
rine are  generated.  The  acids  are  separated 
by  passing  all  three  of  the  gases  successively 
through  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  chlo- 
rine, not  being  absorbed  by  either  the  acid  or 
the  water,  may  be  passed  on  into  the  lime 
chamber.  The  process  of  Mr.  Weldon  consists 
in  neutralizing  the  residual  liquor  containing 
manganese  chloride,  which  is  produced  in  the 
ordinary  process,  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
manganese  oxide,  with  finely  divided  carbonate 
of  lime.  This  produces  a  neutral  mixed  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  manganese  and  chloride 
of  calcium,  holding  in  suspension  considerable 
sulphate  of  lime  and  small  quantities  of  oxide 
of  iron  and  alumina.  The  mixture  is  then 
pumped  into  settling  tanks,  where  these  sub- 
stances subside,  leaving  the  liquor  clear,  which 
is  then  run  off  into  a  vessel  called  the  oxidizer. 
Air  is  forced  through  it  and  milk  of  lime  added 
until  the  manganese  in  the  liquor  is  principally 
converted  into  peroxide.  This  process  is  now 
extensively  employed.  Deacon's  process,  de- 


signed to  obviate  the  use  of  manganese  oxide, 
is  founded  on  the  fact  that  if  a  mixture  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  and  oxygen  is  heated  in  the 
presence  of  certain  substances,  a  catalytic  force 
causes  the  decomposition  of  the  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  hydrogen  combining  with  the  oxygen, 
while  the  chlorine  is  set  free.  The  gases  are 
passed  through  a  reverberatory  furnace  heated 
to  700°  or  750°  F.  over  pieces  of  brick  which 
have  been  saturated  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  and  dried. — The  precise  chemical 
constitution  of  chloride  of  lime  has  always  been 
a  subject  of  controversy,  which  can  hardly  be 
held  as  settled  at  the  present  time.  Dr.  Ure 
considered  the  commercial  article  as  a  mixture, 
in  no  definite  proportions,  of  chlorine  and  hy- 
drate of  lime,  and  believed  that  the  more  defi- 
nite compound  prepared  with  dry  calcium  hy- 
drate contained  chlorine  in  direct  combination 
with  the  hydrate.  Fresenius  regards  it  as  a 
mixture  of  calcium  chloride,  CaCl,  and  calcium 
hypochlorite,  OaOCl  or  CaClO3 ;  and  this  is 
the  view  taken  by  Wagner  and  others.  These 
opinions,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  relate  to 
the  pure,  dry  article,  and  not  to  the  commercial 
one.  The  subject  has  lately  been  carefully  in- 
vestigated by  Kolb  (Jahresbericlit,  1867),  who 
finds  that  the  most  concentrated  preparation 
which  can  be  produced  by  saturating  dry  cal- 
cium hydrate  with  chlorine  contains  38'5  per 
cent,  of  chlorine,  45'8  of  lime,  and  24'7  of 
water,  in  which  the  water  and  the  whole  of 
the  lime  are  essential  constituents.  Commer- 
cial bleaching  powder  contains  more  water  as 
well  as  free  lime.  Dry  chloride  of  lime  is  de- 
composed by  water  with  separation  of  calcium 
hydrate  and  the  formation  of  a  solution  con- 
taining chloride  and  hypochlorite  of  calcium. 
Kolb,  reasoning  from  the  fact  that  dry  bleach- 
ing powder  and  the  solution  comport  them- 
selves differently  under  the  influence  of  free 
chlorine  and  heat,  thinks  that  the  first  does 
not  contain  a  ready-formed  hypochlorite,  but 
is  a  compound  which  may  be  represented  by 
the  formula  CasHsOnCU.  Dry  chloride  of  lime, 
moreover,  is  completely  decomposed  by  carbo- 
nic acid  with  evolution  of  chlorine,  while  only 
half  the  lime  is  precipitated  from  the  solution 
by  this  agent,  with  separation  of  hypochlorous 
acid,  which  does  not  act  upon  the  remaining 
chloride.  Solid  chloride  of  lime  in  moist  air 
behaves  in  the  same  way,  from  which  it  appears 
that  bleaching  powder,  on  exposure  without 
the  addition  of  an  acid,  yields  hypochlorous 
acid  and  not  free  chlorine.  For  the  determina- 
tion of  the  available  amount  of  chlorine  in  a 
given  quantity  of  bleaching  powder,  see  CHLO- 

BIMETBT. 

BLEDOW,  Lndwlg,  a  German  chess  player, 
born  July  27, 1795,  died  Aug.  6,  1846.  He  was 
a  teacher  of  mathematics,  and  founded  the  so- 
called  Berlin  chess  school  and  the  first  German 
journal  on  chess,  Berliner  Schachzeitung.  He 
published  two  small  collections  of  outlines  of 
games,  and  edited  the  work  of  the  Syrian  chess 
player  Stamma.  His  extensive  collection  of 


708 


BLEDSOE 


BLENDE 


works  relating  to  chess  was  purchased  by  the 
royal  library  of  Berlin. 

BLEDSOE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  drained 
by  the  Sequatchie  river;  area,  480  sq.  ra. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,870,  of  whom  709  were  colored.  It 
has  an  uneven  and  partly  mountainous  surface. 
Coal  is  found  in  several  places.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  22,034  bushels  of 
wheat,  201,667  of  Indian  corn,  and  21,550  of 
oats.  There  were  1,137  horses,  1,354  milch 
cows.  3,969  other  cattle,  5,555  sheep,  and  11,- 
048  swine.  Capital,  Pikeville. 

BLEDSOE,  Albert  Taylor,  an  American  author 
and  instructor,  born  in  Kentucky  about  1808. 
He  entered  the  military  academy  at  West 
Point  in  1825,  graduated  in  1830,  and  served 
on  the  frontiers  till  1832,  when  he  resigned. 
In  1833-'4  he  was  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Kenyon  college,  Ohio;  in  1835-'6,  in  Miami 
university.  In  1840-'48  he  practised  law  at 
Springfield,  111.  In  1848-'53  he  was  professor 
of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Mississippi,  and  in  1853-'61  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  Virginia.  He 
took  part  with  the  confederates  in  the  civil 
war.  He  is  author  of  "An  Examination  of 
Edwards  on  the  Will"  (1845);  "Theodicy,  or 
.  Vindication  of  the  Divine  Glory  "  (1856) ;  and 
"  Essay  on  Liberty  and  Slavery  "  (1856).  Af- 
ter the  war  he  went  to  England,  where  he 
remained  for  some  time.  Returning  to  Ame- 
rica, he  took  up  his  residence  in  Baltimore, 
and  is  editor  of  the  "  Southern  Review,"  pub- 
lished at  St.  Louis,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

BLEEE.  I.  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Ahrensbok,  Holstein,  July  4,  1793,  died 
in  Bonn,  Feb.  27,  1859.  He  studied  under 
De  Wette,  Schleiermacher,  and  Neander,  and 
after  being  connected  with  the  university  of 
Berlin,  was  for  30  years  (1829-'59)  professor 
of  theology  in  Bonn.  His  principal  work,  Der 
Brief  an  die  Hebriier,  is  a  translation  of  and 
commentary  on  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (3 
vols.,  Berlin,  1828-'40).  In  his  Beitrage  zur 
Evangeliencritik  (1846)  he  vindicated  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  against  the 
attack  of  the  new  Tubingen  school.  After  his 
death  appeared  other  works,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Tes- 
tament (edited  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Johann 
Friedrich  Bleek,  and  by  Camphausen,  Berlin, 
1860),  and  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament 
(edited  solely  by  the  former,  1862).  II.  Wll- 
helm  Helnrich  Immannel,  a  German  philologist, 
»on  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  March  8, 
1827.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  ac- 
companied Baikie's  expedition  to  the  Niger  in 
1854 ;  but  ill  health  compelling  his  return  after 
his  arrival  at  Fernando  Po,  he  accompanied 
Bishop  Colenso  to  Natal  in  1855,  and  the  next 
year  removed  to  Cape  Town,  where  Sir  George 
Grey  subsequently  appointed  him  director  of  the 
library  which  he  had  presented  to  the  colony. 
He  published  a  "  Vocabulary  of  the  Mozambique 
Languages"  (London,  1856);  a  "Catalogue  of 


Sir  George  Grey's  Library"  (185S-'fl);  "  Com- 
parative Grammar  of  South  African  Lan- 
guages" (2  vols.,  Cape  Town  and  London, 
1862-'9),  &c. ;  and  he  was  the  principal  author 
of  a  "Handbook  of  African,  Australian,  and 
Polynesian  Philology "  (3  vols.,  London  and 
Cape  Town,  1858-'63). 

BLEIBTREf,  Geprg,  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Xanten,  Rhenish  Prussia,  March  27,  1828. 
He  studied  at  Diisseldorf,  and  has  resided  in 
Berlin  since  1858.  His  "Battle  of  Waterloo " 
and  several  other  works  are  in  the  gallery  of 
the  prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.  The 
national  gallery  of  Berlin  commissioned  him 
to  paint  "The  Battle  of  Koniggratz." 

BLEMYES,  or  Blemmyes,  an  ancient  nomadic 
race  of  Africa,  who  appear  to  have  occupied 
different  regions  at  different  epochs.  In  Ptole- 
my's time  they  held  the  territory  between  the 
Astaboras  (Bahr-el-Azrek)  and  Astapns  (At- 
bara).  Older  authorities  speak  of  them  as  ex- 
tending beyond  the  desert  of  Libya.  In  the 
2d  century  A.  D.  they  had  become  very 
powerful  about  the  borders  of  Egypt,  then 
under  Roman  rule,  and  even  made  warlike 
and  predatory  expeditions  into  the  province. 
Diocletian  made  extensive  concessions  to  their 
powerful  chiefs,  and  gave  up  to  them  the  parts 
of  N  ubia  held  by  the  Romans.  They  continued 
their  hostile  expeditions,  however,  and  as  late 
as  the  7th  century  molested  the  inhabitants 
of  the  territory  about  them.  Several  ancient 
writers  represented  the  Blemyes  as  a  fabu- 
lous race,  and  many  stories  were  current  of 
their  savage  and  ferocious  appearance  and 
habits.  The  Bishareen,  Ababdeh,  and  other 
tribes  of  the  present  day  are  supposed  to  be 
their  descendants. 

BLENDE  (Ger.  blenden,  to  deceive),  a  com- 
mon ore  of  zinc,  so  named  because,  while  often 
resembling  galena,  it  yielded  no  lead,  and  thus 
deceived  the  miners.  Another  name  for  it  is 
sphalerite,  from  a<t>a).ep6f,  treacherous.  When 
pure  it  is  composed  of  sulphur  33,  zinc  67= 
100 ;  but  part  of  the  zinc  is  often  replaced  by 
iron,  and  occasionally  by  cadmium.  It  some- 
times occurs  in  brilliant  tetrahedral  crystals, 
also  fibrous,  radiated,  and  massive.  Its  lustre 
is  resinous  to  adamantine;  color  brown,  yel- 
low, black,  red,  green — white  or  yellow  when 
pure.  The  English  miners  call  it  blackjack. 
Blende  is  found  in  both  crystalline  and  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  usually  associated  with  galena, 
also  with  barite,  fluorite,  siderite,  and  ores  of 
silver.  It  abounds  with  the  lead  ore  of  Mis- 
souri, Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Illinois,  and  has 
been  found  in  many  other  localities  in  the 
United  States.  Derbyshire,  Cumberland,  and 
Cornwall  afford  different  varieties;,  also  Tran- 
sylvania, Hungary,  the  Hartz,  Sahla  in  Swe- 
den, and  many  Saxon  localities. — Owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  working  this  class  of  ore,  it 
was  formerly  allowed  to  accumulate  about  the 
mouths  of  mines,  and  was  not  economized  for 
zinc.  In  modern  times,  with  improved  metal- 
lurgical processes,  zinc  is  largely  made  from 


BLENHEIM 


BLENNERHASSETT 


709 


blende,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Calamine  is  preferred,  but  where  this  cannot 
be  had,  the  blende  is  no-  longer  thrown  away. 
By  oxidation  blende  sometimes  changes  to 
zinc  vitriol,  and  in  the  Ilartz  much  zinc  is  re- 
claimed in  this  way.  In  1863  Professors  Keich 
and  Richter  of  Freiberg  discovered  a  new 
metal  associated  with  zinc  in  blende,  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  indium,  from  the  blue 
lines  it  produced  on  the  spectrum. — The  word 
blende  is  used  to  designate  sulphur  ores  in 
general;  for  example,  copper  blende,  manga- 
nese blende,  and  silver  blende  are  the  sulphur 
compounds  of  those  metals. 

BLENHEIM,  or  IWndhfim,  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
on  the  Danube,  23  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Augsburg. 
It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  on  Aug.  13,  1704, 
between  the  English  and  Austrians,  under  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  and 
the  French  and  Bavarians,  commanded  by  Tal- 
lard,  Marsin,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  The 
Anglo-Austrian  army  numbered  about  52,000 
men,  while  that  of  the  French  and  Bavarians 
was  56,000  strong.  After  a  fierce  contest  the 
duke  of  Marlborongh  forced  Marshal  Tallard 
to  surrender  with  about  18,000  men,  while  Eu- 


Blenheim  House. 

gene  utterly  rented  the  Bavarians.  There  were 
upward  of  10,000  men  killed  and  wounded  on 
the  French  and  Bavarian  side,  while  hundreds 
were  drowned  in  the  Danube.  The  English 
lost  5, 000  killed  and  8,000  'wounded.  On  the 
European  continent  this  is  generally  called  the 
battle  of  Iloehstudt,  from  a  small  town  near  the 
scene.  The  battle  decided  the  campaign  ;  Ba- 
varia fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians,  and 
the  prestige  of  Louis  XIV.  was  gone.  In  re- 
Wara  for  this  victory  Queen  Anne  bestowed 
upon  Marlborough  a  tract  of  land  since  called 
Blenheim  park,  containing  2,940  acres,  near 
Woodstock,  Oxfordshire ;  and  upon  this  was 
erected,  with  a  parliamentary  grant  of  £500,000, 
a  magnificent  residence  called  Blenheim  house, 


after  a  design  by  Sir  John  Vanbrugh.  It  was 
completed  in  1715. — Another  notable  battle 
occurred  near  Blenheim  in  1800,  when  the 
French  defeated  the  Austrians. 

BLEMERHASSETT,  Barman,  a  victim  of  Aaron 
Burr's  conspiracy,  born  in  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  8,  1764  or  '65,  died  in  the  island  of 
Guernsey,  Feb.  1,  1831.  He  was  of  Irish  de- 
scent, and  was  educated  in  the  university  of 
Dublin  and  called  to  the  bar;  but  becoming 
discontented  with  the  condition  of  Ireland,  he 
sold  his  Irish  estates  for  more  than  $100,000 
and  sailed  for  New  York  in  1797.  After  spend- 
ing some  time  in  studying  the  country,  he 
purchased  an  island  of  170  acres  in  the  Ohio 
river,  two  miles  below  Parkersburg,  on  which 
he  built  a  fine  mansion  and  made  all  the  em- 
bellishments which  wealth  and  taste  could 
supply.  His  home  became  widely  known  for 
its  elegance  and  the  culture  which  distin- 
guished its  inmates.  Among  the  visitors  to 
this  beautiful  retreat  was  Aaron  Burr,  who 
went  there  in  1805  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  Blennerhassett.  By  his  skilful  address  he 
soon  enlisted  him  in  his  Mexican  schemes, 
in  the  belief  that  the  country  was  likely  to 
be  involved  in  war  with 
Spain,  and  a  fortune 
might  easily  be  made 
by  enterprise.  Burr 
was  to  be  emperor,  and 
Blennerhassett  a  duke 
and  ambassador  to 
England.  Blennerhas- 
sett invested  largely  in 
boats,  provisions,  arms, 
and  ammunition.  He 
left  his  home  and  fami- 
ly and  went  to  Ken- 
tucky, where  being 
warned  of  Burr's  real 
designs,  he  returned  to 
the  island  greatly  dis- 
heartened. However, 
through  Burr's  repeat- 
ed solicitations,  and 
the  persuasions  of  his 
wife,  who  had  now 
enlisted  in  the  under- 
taking with  her  whole 

soul,  he  persisted.  A  proclamation  against 
the  scheme  having  been  published  by  Presi- 
dent Jefferson,  Blennerhassett,  who  was  in 
hourly  expectation  of  being  arrested,  es- 
caped from  the  island  Dec.  10,  and,  man- 
aging to  elude  pursuit,  joined  Burr's  flotilla 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Cumberland  river.  He 
was  afterward  arrested  and  sent  to  Rich- 
mond for  trial  (1807);  but  the  case  against 
Burr  resulting  in  acquittal,  the  other  conspira- 
tors were  discharged.  Bankrupt  in  fortune 
and  broken  down  in  mind,  Blennerhassett  re- 
tired to  Natchez.  His  island  had  been  seized 
by  creditors,  everything  upon  it  which  could 
be  converted  into  money  had  been  sold  at  a 
ruinous  sacrifice,  and  the  beautiful  grounds 


BLENNY 


BLERE 


were  used  for  the  culture  of  hemp,  the  man- 
sion being  converted  into  a  storehouse  for  the 
crops.  In  1811  he  endeavored  to  recover 
from  Gov.  Alston,  Burr's  son-in-law,  $22,500, 
a  balance  of  some  $50,000,  for  which  he  al- 
leged Alston  was  responsible.  Unless  this 
was  paid  he  threatened  to  publish  a  book 
which  he  had  prepared  exposing  the  whole 
conspiracy.  He  afterward  bought  1,000  acres 
of  land  near  Port  Gibson,  Mississippi,  for  a 
cotton  plantation;  but  the  war  of  1812  pros- 
trated all  commercial  enterprises.  Becoming 
continually  poorer,  in  1819  he  removed  with  [ 
his  family  to  Montreal,  where  he  practised  law 
for  a  time.  He  sailed  for  Ireland  in  1822,  to 
prosecute  a  reversionary  claim  still  existing 
there.  In  this  he  failed;  nor  did  he  meet 
with  any  success  in  his  application  for  aid  to 
the  marquis  of  Anglesey,  whom  he  had  for- 
merly known.  He  endeavored  to  procure  em- 
ployment from  the  government  of  Portugal, 
and  from  the  South  American  republic  of  Co- 
lombia ;  projected  some  improvements  in  fire- 
arms ;  and  tried  to  obtain  a  situation  as  com- 
panion to  an  infirm  kinsman.  During  the  later 
years  of  his  life  he  was  supported  by  a  maiden 
sister,  who  had  a  small  estate,  which  she  left 
to  his  wife  and  children. — His  wife,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Governor  Agnew  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  was 
a  woman  of  much  talent.  About  1822  she 
published  a  volmue  of  poems,  "  The  Deserted 
Isle,"  and  in  1824  "The  Widow  of  the  Rock, 
and  other  Poems,"  which  contain  many  fine 
passages.  In  1842  she  returned  to  America, 
and  petitioned  congress  for  a  grant  of  money 
for  the  spoliation  of  her  former  home.  The 
petition  was  presented  by  Henry  Clay,  and  a 
committee  of  the  senate  reported  favorably 
upon  it ;  but  she  died  before  the  bill  was  acted 
upon,  and  was  buried  in  New  York  by  sisters 
of  charity. — Blennerhassett  had  three  sons,  the 
youngest  of  whom,  JOSEPH  LEWIS,  became  u 
lawyer  in  Missouri,  and  furnished  the  original 
documents  for  the  "Blennerhassett  Papers, 
with  a  Memoir,"  by  William  H.  Safibrd  (8vo, 
New  York,  1864). 

I!LKY>  Y,  a  name  given  to  several  spiny-rayed 
fishes  of  the  goby  family,  but  especially  to  the 
genus  lilennius  (Cuv.).  They  have  the  body 
covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  mucus, 
in  which  are  imbedded  small  soft  scales;  the 
ventral  fins  are  in  advance  of  the  pectorals, 
and  generally  have  only  two  rays;  head  blunt 
and  rounded ;  dorsal  fin  long,  generally  with 
the  edge  interrupted ;  teeth  slender,  in  a  single 
row.  The  species  are  small  in  the  true  blen- 
nies,  2|-  to  5  inches  long,  living  in  small  shoals ; 
active  and  tenacious  of  life,  they  crawl  out  of 
water  in  crevices  of  rocks,  hiding  among  the 
weeds  till  the  next  tide.  Several  species  are 
described  in  northern  Europe,  distinguished 
from  each  other  and  from  allied  genera  by  the 
number  of  the  fimbriated  appendages  about 
the  head.  One  called  the  butterfly  fish  or 
the  eyed  blenny  (B.  ocellaru)  has  a  dark 
brown  spot  on  the  dorsal  fin.  The  genus 


pholis,  called  in  England  the  shanny,  has  no 
appendages  on  the  head.  The  B.  ttrpentinw 
of  our  coast  attains  a  length  of  18  inches;  the 


Eyed  Blenny  (Blennius  ocelloris). 

American  shanny  resembles  the  European. 
The  gunnels  (gunneUug,  Flem.)  are  also  blen- 
nies,  with  an  elongated  body,  velvet-like  teeth, 
very  long  and  low  dorsal  fin,  and  ventrals  ex- 
ceedingly small ;  one  species,  called  the  butter 
fish,  attains  the  length  of  a  foot.  In  the  ge- 
nus zoarces  (Cuv.)  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal 
fins  are  united,  which,  with  the  elongated 
body,  have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  eel- 
pout.  The  ventrals  are  under  the  throat  and 
small.  This  genus  includes  the  viviparous 
blenny,  Z.  nitipants  of  Europe  and  Z.  anguil- 
laris  of  this  country.  The  young  are  brought 
forth  alive,  and  able  to  provide  for  themselves 
as  soon  as  excluded ;  they  appear  to  be  pro- 
duced of  a  size  proportionate  to  the  mother. 
From  the  green  hue  of  the  bones  when  boiled, 
a  common  English  name  for  it  is  "  green-bone." 
In  this  blenny  the  ovarian  bag  of  the  mature 
eggs  is  a  double  sac,  having  a  disk  of  consider- 
able size  at  the  upper  part,  where  the  sperma- 
tozoa may  come .  into  contact  with  the  yolk 
membrane.  The  American  species  attains  a 
length  of  3$  feet,  and  is  occasionally  caught 
by  cod-fishers,  who  call  it  ling  and  conger  eel ; 
it  is  of  a  light  salmon  color,  with  irregular 
olive  blotches.  The  blennies  feed  upon  mol- 
lusks  and  crustaceans,  and  the  flesh  of  the 
young  of  the  larger  species  is  very  good.  They 
use  their  ventral  fins  almost  as  legs  to  climb 
on  the  rocks;  the  small  size  of  the  branchial 
openings,  preventing  the  rapid  escape  of  water 
from  and  the  entrance  of  air  into  the  gill 
chamber,  enables  them  to  live  several  hours 
out  of  water.  They  are  said  to  have  no  air 
bladder  or  rudimentary  lung. 

lll.Kui:.  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cher, 
15  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Tours;  pop.  in  1866,  3,561. 
In  the  vicinity  stands  the  castle  of  Chenon- 
ceaux.  Originally  a  simple  manor  house,  it 
was  enlarged  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  to 
its  present  dimensions.  Henry  II.  purchased 
it  in  1535,  and  gave  it  to  Diana  of  Poitiers, 
who,  before  completing  the  magnificent  em- 
bellishments which  she  had  commenced,  was 


BLESSINGTON 


BLIGH 


711 


forced  to  yield  it  to  Catharine  de'  Medici.  The 
latter  adorned  the  castle  still  more  richly,  and 
surrounded  it  with  a  beautiful  park.  It  after- 


ward came  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of 
Conde\  and  after  many  vicissitudes  was  pur- 
chased in  1733  by  Gen.  Dupin,  whose  accom- 
plished wife  made  it  the  resort  of  some  of 
the  most  celebrated  men  of  the  18th  century. 
Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  Fontenelle,  Bolingbroke, 
Buffon,  and  others,  were  among  its  frequent 
visitors.  The  castle  is  still  in  excellent  pres- 
ervation. The  remains  of  a  Roman  aqueduct 
are  to  be  seen  near  the  city.  B16r6  is  the  entre- 
pot of  the  trade  along  the  Cher,  and  is  espe- 
cially noted  for  its  red  wines. 

BLESSINGTON,  Margaret,  countess  of,  an  Irish 
woman  of  letters,  born  near  Clonmel,  Sept.  1, 
1789,  died  in  Paris,  June  4,  1849.  She  was 
the  third  daughter  of  Mr.  Edmund  Power,  and 
when  only  15  years  old  married  Capt.  Farmer. 
The  marriage  was  an  unhappy  one,  and  within 
four  months  after  her  husband's  death  in  1817 
she  married  Charles  John  Gardiner,  earl  of 
Blessington.  With  him  she  saw  much  of  fash- 
ionable life,  and  travelled  extensively  on  the 
continent.  She  formed  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  Lord  Byron  at  Genoa ;  and  at  Paris, 
where  she  lived  for  some  time  with  her  hus- 
band, Count  d'Orsay  was  an  inmate  of  their 
house.  D'Orsay  had  married  and  afterward 
been  separated  from  a  daughter  of  the  earl  by 
a  former  wife.  Soon  after  the  earl's  death, 
which  took  place  at  Paris  in  1829,  Lady  Bles- 
sington went  to  reside  at  Gore  House,  Kensing- 
ton. Her  social  position  was  somewhat  com- 
promised by  her  intimacy  with  Count  d'Orsay, 
but  she  gathered  at  her  house  a  brilliant  circle 
of  the  notable  people  of  the  day.  Her  expen- 
sive manner  of  living  greatly  impaired  her 
fortune,  and  she  resorted  to  the  pen  mainly 
for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  her  means.  She 
first  appeared  as  an  author  in  1825,  with  some 


London  sketches  entitled  "The  Magic  Lan- 
tern," which  were  followed  by  "Travelling 
Sketches  in  Belgium."  Her  "  Conversations 
with  Lord  Byron," 
published  first  in  1832 
in  the  "New  Monthly 
Magazine,"  afterward 
appeared  in  book  form, 
and  excited  a  consider- 
able degree  of  inter- 
est. Subsequently  she 
published  "  Desultory 
Thoughts  and  Reflec- 
tions," and  several 
novels ;  among  them 
"Grace  Cassidv,  or  the 
Repealers,"  "The  Two 
Friends,"  "Meredith," 
"Strathern,"  "Marma- 
duke  Hubert,"  "The 
Governess,"  "The  Vic- 
tims of  Society,"  &c. 
The  last  named  is  con- 
sidered one  of  her  best 
works.  Besides  her 
novels,  she  wrote  illus- 
trated books  of  poetry, 

and  books  of  travel,  as  "  The  Idler  in  France  " 
and  "  The  Idler  in  Italy,"  and  at  the  same  time 
she  was  an  active  contributor  to  many  English 
magazines,  and  the  editor  of  fashionable  an- 
nuals. In  1849  Count  D'Orsay  went  to  Paris 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  some  preferment  from 
Louis  Napoleon,  then  president  of  the  French 
republic;  and  she  followed  him  thither,  but 
died  soon  after  reaching  that  capital. — See  Mad- 
den's  "  Literary  Life  and  Correspondence  of  the 
Countess  of  Blessington"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1855). 

BLUHKR,  Steen  Steensen,  a  Danish  author, 
born  at  Vium,  province  of  Viborg,  Oct.  11, 1782, 
died  at  Spentrup,  Jutland,  March  26,  1848 
He  was  a  graduate  of  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  a  clergyman  at  Thorning  and  at 
Spentrup.  He  translated  Ossian  (2  vols.,  1807 
-'9),  published  poems  (1814-'17),  and  wrote  for 
the  album  Sneeklokken  (1826)  and  the  monthly 
magazine  Nordlyaet  (1827-'9).  In  some  of  his 
best  ballads  he  employed  the  dialect  of  Jutland, 
and  he  described  the  popular  life  of  that 
country  in  some  of  his  novels.  His  select 
poetry  was  published  at  Copenhagen  in  2  vols., 
1835-'6,  and  a  third  complete  edition  of  his 
works  in  1861-'2,  in  8  vols. 

IJI.I II All.  or  Blida,  a  town  of  Algeria,  on  the 
borders  of  the  fertile  plain  of  Metidjiih,  25  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  Algiers;  pop.  in  1860,  9,975.  It  is 
a  station  on  the  first  railway  ever  built  in  Al- 
geria. It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1830, 
but  first  occupied  by  them  in  1838. 

BLIGH,  William,  an  English  navigator,  born 
in  1753,  died  in  London,  Dec.  7,  1817.  He  was 
a  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  accompanied  Cook  on 
his  voyages  in  the  Pacific,  and  when  he  re- 
turned was  appointed  commander  of  the  Boun- 
ty, commissioned  by  George  III.  to  import  the 
breadfruit  tree  and  other  vegetable  productions 


712 


BLIND 


of  the  South  Sea  islands  into  the  West  Indies. 
He  sailed  from  Spithead  for  Tahiti  Dec.  23, 
1787,  and  reached  his  destination  Oct.  26,  1788. 
lie  remained  until  the  4th  of  April  following, 
when  he  set  out  for  Jamaica  with  1,015  bread- 
fruit trees,  besides  a  variety  of  other  plants. 
On  the  morning  of  the  28th  of  April  a  large 
portion  of  the  crew  mutinied,  and  he  with  18 
others  was  set  afloat  in  the  ship's  launch,  with 
a  28-gallon  cask  of  water,  150  pounds  of  bread, 
32  pounds  of  pork,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
rum  and  wine,  and  only  a  quadrant  and  com- 
pass to  direct  their  course.  In  46  days  they 
reached  the  Dutch  island  of  Timor,  having  run 
a  distance  of  3,618  nautical  miles,  and  scarcely 
having  an  opportunity  to  rest  on  shore  or  add 
to  their  supplies,  without  the  loss  of  a  single 
man.  Bligh  proceeded  to  England  at  the  first 
opportunity,  arriving  March  14,  1790,  and 
published  a  narrative  of  the  mutiny,  which  ex- 
cited a  good  deal  of  sympathy,  though  it  was 
afterward  believed  that  the  outbreak  was 
caused  by  his  harsh  treatment  of  his  men. 
Fourteen  of  the  mutineers  who  had  remained 
in  Tahiti  were  arrested  in  1791  by  the  officers 
of  the  Pandora ;  four  were  lost  by  shipwreck 
on  the  passage  to  England,  and  the  remaining 
ten  tried  and  three  executed,  the  rest  being  ac- 
quitted or  pardoned.  Another  portion  of  the 
crew  took  possession  of  the  Bounty  and  settled 
on  Pitcairn  island.  (See  ADAMS,  JOHN,  and 
PITOAIRN  ISLAND.)  Lieut.  Bligh  was  sent  out 
again  on  a  similar  mission  in  1791,  brought  a 
large  number  of  breadfruit  trees  from  Tahiti  to 
the  West  Indies,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  Euro- 
pean vegetables  in  Tasmania.  In  1806  he  was 
made  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  but  his 
tyrannical  conduct  provoked  the  subordinate 
civil  and  military  officers  to  arrest  him  and 
send  him  to  England. 

BLIND,  Th«,  persons  who  have  not  the  sense 
of  sight.  In  common  use  the  term  also  in- 
cludes persons  who  possess  some  power  of 
vision,  but  not  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  dis- 
tinguish the  forms  of  objects.  The  causes  of 
blindness  are  both  ante-natal  and  post-natal. 
It  is  contended  by  some  that  psychological  in- 
fluences may  induce  blindness  in  the  offspring, 
as  when  the  mother  has  received  a  powerful 
nervous  impression  from  witnessing  some  hor- 
rible spectacle,  or  an  extremely  disgusting  case 
of  sore  eyes  or  malformation,  and  cases  have 
been  adduced  which  are  supposed  to  establish 
the  theory ;  but  the  probability  is  that  there  is 
not  sufficient  proof  to  warrant  its  reception. 
The  ante-natal  causes  which  are  acknowledged 
to  produce  blindness  are  the  intermarriage  of 
near  relatives,  scrofula,  and  syphilis ;  but  con- 
genital cases  of  blindness  are  not  found  to  be 
so  frequent  as  those  of  deafness.  In  inter- 
marriage, and  where  the  parents  are  imperfect- 
ly developed,  there  is  liability  to  want  of  de- 
velopment of  the  nerves  of  special  sense ;  but 
in  most  cases  ante-natal  as  well  as  post-natal 
blindness  is  caused  by  imperfection  or  disease 
of  the  optical  apparatus  which  is  accessory  to 


the  nerves  of  special  sense;  or  in  other  words, 
the  defect  generally  exists  in  some  part  of  tho 
globe  of  the  eye.  Hereditary  blindness  is  not 
frequent.  Of  700  blind  persons  in  the  insti- 
tutions at  Philadelphia  whose  parentage  is 
known,  according  to  Mr.  Chapin,  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  Pennsylvania  institution  for  the 
blind,  only  12  had  either  parent  blind.  An  in- 
vestigation which  he  made  at  the  hospice  dea 
Quime  Vinrjts,  Paris,  revealed  tho  remarkable 
fact  that  of  the  several  hundred  children  born 
there  of  parents  one  or  both  of  whom  were 
blind,  there  was  not  one  blind  at  birth.  After 
birth  the  principal  causes  of  blindness  are:  1, 
special  diseases,  such  as  purulent  ophthalmia, 
inflammation  of  the  cornea  and  of  the  iris, 
cataract  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  and 
amaurosis  or  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve ;  2, 
general  diseases,  whose  sequela;  attack  different 
parts  of  the  eye,  as  smallpox,  scarlatina,  mea- 
sles, typhus  fever  and  other  inflammatory  fe- 
vers, and  scrofula;  3,  injuries  from  blows  or 
wounds,  and  from  malpractice,  the  latter  being 
one  of  the  most  fruitful  causes.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  causes  of  the  malady  in  nearly 
all  the  cases  received  in  the  Liverpool  asylum 
for  the  blind  from  its  foundation  in  17S)1  to 
January,  1859 : 


CAUSES. 

Totally. 

r«rtiallf. 

Whole 
Number. 

202 

49 

251 

278 

43 

826 

66 

98 

149 

99 

47 

146 

'8 

64 

140 

28 

15 

40 

6 

14 

20 

14 

5 

19 

8 

6 

18 

8 

3 

G 

S 

1 

9 

5 

8 

8 

28 

27 

55 

An  examination  of  500  cases  from  the  Perkins 
institution  for  the  blind  at  Boston  gives  the 
following  percentage  of  causes:  congenital, 
37'75;  disease  after  birth,  47'09;  accidents, 
15'16.  The  extraordinary  exemption  from 
blindness  in  the  United  States  as  compared 
with  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  may  be  in  a 
great  measure  attributed  to  the  far  less  preva- 
lence of  smallpox  in  this  country.  Dr.  Cromp- 
ton  of  Manchester  estimated  that  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  more  than  4,000  were  blind 
from  smallpox,  out  of  a  blind  population  of 
28,450  in  1841.  In  the  Glasgow  asylum  nearly 
one  fifth  were  blind  from  smallpox.  In  the 
Pennsylvania  institution,  of  476  received  up  to 
1863,  'only  21,  or  -fa  of  the  whole,  lost  their 
sight  by  that  disease.  In  the  Ohio  institution, 
of  118  up  to  a  certain  date,  only  one  was  blind 
from  this  cause.  Proceeding  from  temperate 
latitudes  toward  the  equator,  the  proportion 
of  blind  to  the  entire  population  increases,  but 
this  is  more  noticeable  in  the  eastern  than  in 
the  western  hemisphere.  The  glittering  sand 
which  reflects  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun, 


BLIND 


713 


and  also  the  fine  particles  of  dust  that  are  blown 
into  the  eyes,  are  causes  which  are  very  fruit- 
ful in  producing  ophthalmia  in  northern  Africa. 
Again,  as  we  approach  the  polar  regions,  where 
snow  and  icehergs  reflect  the  sun's  rays,  the 
proportion  of  the  blind  increases.  The  follow- 
ing tahle,  taken  from  the  work  of  a  blind 
author,  W.  Hanks  Levy  ("  Blindness  and  the 
Blind,"  London,  1872),  of  blind  persons  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  shows  the  proportion  as  to 
sex,  and  the  tendency  of  increase  of  years  to 
produce  loss  of  sight : 


AGES. 

Milei. 

Female*. 

619 

510 

896 

675 

"       20    "    80  

936 

632 

"       80    "    40 

1057 

678 

"       40    "    60  

1.823 

836 

"       60    "    60                      

1,291 

1,054 

"       60    "    70          

1.611 

1,601 

"       70    "    80                      

1,674 

1,860 

"       80    "    90  

770 

1,064 

"       90    "  100      ..              

63 

183 

(Jpward  of  100  

2 

4 

Total... 

10,247 

11.103 

This  table  exhibits  a  great  preponderance  in 
the  proportion  of  the  female  over  the  male 
blind  who  are  more  than  60  years  of  age,  and 
a  preponderance  of  the  males  below  that  age. 
A  comparison  of  the  proportion  of  male  to 
female  blind  in  the  United  States  does  not 
show  precisely  the  same  results,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table  prepared  from  the 
census  of  1870: 


AGES. 

Mile. 

Female. 

18 

20 

126 

115 

5    "     10 

867 

299 

10   "    20           

1,218 

1,195 

20    "    80 

1078 

681 

80    "    40           

1,109 

648 

40    "    51)           .     . 

1292 

683 

50    "    60           

1.256 

746 

60   "    70           .... 

1,880 

988 

70   u    80 

1148 

1097 

80    "    90                    

534 

618 

90    "  100            

93 

181 

Upward  of  101)                     .        

16 

25 

Total.  .  .  . 

9.610 

7.826 

It  is  thus  seen  that  about  half  of  the  blind  in 
the  United  States  are  over  48  years  of  age.  In 
all  countries  the  number  of  males  among  the 
blind  exceeds  that  of  females,  the  excess  being 
mostly  caused  by  accidents,  to  which  the  for- 
mer are  more  exposed.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  caution  is  required  in  forming  conclusions 
from  these  tables.  They  have  their  value,  but 
other  facts  must  be  weighed  with  them.  One 
practical  conclusion  is  gathered  from  the  last 
table  by  Mr.  Chapin  of  Philadelphia,  which  is 
that  "if  the  adult  blind  were  provided  with 
instruction  and  employment  in  handicrafts  in 
separate  institutions,  it  would  be  practicable  to 
receive  and  educate  all  the  younger  blind  in  the 
country  over  10  years  of  age." — Observation 
would  indicate  that  the  blind  as  a  class  have 


less  vitality  than  those  who  have  their  sight, 
and  statistics  confirm  this  opinion.  This  want 
of  vitality  is  doubtless  one  cause  of  blindness; 
but  again,  much  of  their  want  of  vitality  is  in 
consequence  of  their  being  blind,  which  causes 
them  to  lead  more  sedentary  lives  than  they 
otherwise  would.  As  Dr.  Howe  remarks, 
"  There  are  many  who  are  not  born  blind,  who 
are  born  to  become  blind."  From  statistics 
embraced  in  a  report  of  the  Boston  institution, 
gathered  from  seven  American  state  institu- 
tions, the  director  makes  the  following  note: 
"Of  the  number  of  persons  admitted  to  the 
above-mentioned  institutions  between  the  ages 
of  10  and  14,  the  number  that  was  surviving  in 
1859  was  8'6  per  cent,  less,  according  to  the 
Massachusetts  life  table,  than  the  number  that 
should  then  be  surviving.  Of  the  number  ad- 
mitted during  the  three  years  of  1838-'40,  from 
which  the  average  time  elapsing  to  the  middle 
of  1859  was  20  years,  the  number  that  survived 
in  1859  was  12'3  per  cent,  less  than  the  num- 
ber that  should  have  survived." — The  number 
of  blind  in  the  world  cannot  be  stated  with  any 
great  degree  of  exactness.  In  the  United  States 
and  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  how- 
ever, the  number  is  known  from  census  returns. 
In  other  countries  the  number  has  been  esti- 
mated by  various  travellers  and  writers,  and 
from  a  comparison  of  data  it  is  believed  that  a 
pretty  near  approximation  has  been  reached. 
The  table  on  the  next  page,  compiled  from  the 
United  States  census  of  1870,  contains  a  con- 
siderably larger  number  than  was  shown  by 
that  of  1860,  giving  reason  to  believe  that  the 
latter  census  was  imperfect.  The  following  is 
a  table  of  the  blind  in  Europe,  the  number  in 
Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Turkey  in  Europe  being  estimated;  but 
the  attention  given  to  the  subject  in  most  of 
these  countries  makes  it  probable  that  the  es- 
timates are  pretty  nearly  correct : 


COUNTRIES. 


England  and  Wales.., 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Russia  in  Europe 

Sweden 

Norway 

Denmark 

Germany 

Austria 

Switzerland 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Spain 

Portugal 

Greece  and  Ionian  Isle: 
Turkey  In  Europe 


Total. 


Population. 


No.  of  blind.    Proportion 


20.070.000 
8,060,000 
6.8011,000 

64,000,0(10 
8.610,000 
1,490.000 
1,800,000 

48.000,000 

88.000.000 
2.510.000 
8.809,000 
4.580,000 

88.0110,000 

16.000.000 
8,600,000 
1,500,000 

18,000,000 

25S.iill9.WKt 


19.852 
2,820 
6,S79 

70,000 
2,586 
8,759 
1.200 

26500 

88.0110 
1,790 
1,990 
8.675 

40,500 

20,000 
4,500 
1.900 

16,250 

255,651 


1  to  1,087 


1,086 

843 

900 

1.419 

540 

1,528 

1,620 

1.000 

1,400 

1.668 


800 
800 
800 
800 


The  above  computation  gives  as  the  average 
proportion  of  the  blind  to  the  whole  of  the 
population  of  Europe,  1  in  1,094.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  in  China  alone,  with  a  population 
of  about  400,000,000,  there  are  at  least  1,000,- 
000  blind  persons,  and  that  there  are  in  India 
more  than  350,000.  These  estimates  are  made 


714 


BLIND 


TABLE    OF   THE   BLIND    OF   ALL   CLASSES 


THE   UNITED   STATES    AND   TERRITORIES. 


STATES. 

Aggregate  of  all 
classes. 

BOEN   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

FOREIGN  BOBX. 

Total  population. 

White. 

W.-i.-k. 

Mulatto. 

Indian. 

ToUl. 

fj 

I! 

4 

s 

A 

51 

ii 

•<  «s 

| 

£ 

i 

1 

1 

g 

i 

h 

« 

£ 

Alabama 

611 
888 
179 
252 
63 
83 
740 
1,042 
991 
465 

123 

978 
447 
824 
427 
761 
418 
108 
474 
904 
22 
4 
206 
817 
2,213 
635 
1,866 
85 
1,767 
121 
441 
876 
404 
1S9 
895 
163 
409 

187 
130 
67 
114 
10 
20 
213 
440 
450 
2i  H) 
43 
886 
91 
184 
140 
239 
167 
85 
118 
877 
9 
1 
104 
119 
814 
269 
687 
18 
715 
50 
68 
842 
184 
107 
254 
73 
123 

153 
187 
41 
94 
22 
12 
193 
882 
409 
166 
46 
856 
44 
112 
125 
242 
111 
26 
190 
296 
9 
2 
79 
102 
6D5 
2C9 
463 
9 
677 
83 
91 
808 
94 
64 
212 
69 
79 

6,067 

187 
82 

'"4 
9 

17 
155 
8 
18 
1 
12 
S3 
126 

96 
28 
2 
2 
16 
27 
145 
4 

2 
9 
79 
89 

'I 
"'4 

"°s 

2 
1 
6 

1 

en 

165 
Til 
122 
19 
40 
870 
444 
464 
201 
64 
489 
281 
1^5 
187 
298 
177 
85 
249 
422 
9 
1 
104 
181 
886 
427 
613 
19 
789 
68 
222 
483 
202 
107 
487 
81 
128 

259 
164 
44 
96 
39 
40 
854 
836 
418 
168 
56 
452 
156 
112 
181 
249 
118 
26 
21- 
857 
9 
2 
82 
116 
628 
404 
489 
9 
698 
42 
212 
427 
152 
64 
488 
72 
79 

596 
829 
114 
218 
68 
80 
724 
780 
886 
869 
120 
941 
887 
297 
863 
647 
295 
61 
466 
779 
18 
8 
186 
247 
1,464 
£31 
1,102 
28 
1,837 
95 
484 
860 
854 
161 
875 
153 
207 

i 
i 

60 
16 
7 
5 
6 
155 
78 
67 
6 
26 
81 
22 
82 
134 
85 
24 
6 
81 
8 
1 
14 
47 
459 
o 

159 
4 
2S8 
18 
10 
11 
27 
16 
18 
14 
121 

8 
8 
15 
18 
8 
8 
10 
11)7 
»•> 
29 
8 
11 
29 
5 
27 
80 
88 
18 
•2 
44 
1 

15 
4 
65 
H 

10 
8 
16 
262 
105 
96 
8 
87 
60 
27 
59 
214 
1-23 
42 
8 
125 
4 
1 
20 
70 
749 
4 
264 
7 
430 
26 
17 
16 
60 
28 
20 
16 
202 

3,241 

996,992 
434,471 
560,247 
587.454 
125.015 
187,748 
1,184,109 
2.589,891 
1.INUK7 
1,194020 
864.899 
1,821,011 
726.915 
6211.915 
7SO.S94 
1.457,851 
1,184,059 
439.706 
627.922 
1,721,295 
122,988 
42.491 
818.800 
906.096 
4,3x>.759 
1,011.861 
2,665,26» 
90,928 
8.521.951 
217.853 
705,606 
1,253,520 
818.579 
880,551 
1.225,168 
442.014 
1,054,670 

"s 

1 

California  

1 

1 
11 

... 

... 

Florida 

Illinois 

2 

Iowa  

2 

19 

'? 

1 
17 
23 

2 

... 

Maine  . 

42 
7 

48 
8 
2 

1 
8 

S 

Massachusetts  

7 

4 

119 
41 

118 
54 

11 

4 

8 
7 

2 

New  Hampshire.. 
New  Jersey  

8 

6 

28 
290 
2 
105 
8 
147 
18 
7 
6 
28 
12 
2 
1 
81 

12 
22 
146 
20 
1 
17 
8 
128 
77 
68 

12 
22 
118 
17 

2 

"i 

8 

North  Carolina... 
Ohio  

12 
6 

14 
4 

... 

Oregon  

Pennsylvania  
Khode  Island  
South  Carolina...  . 

19 
2 
112 
109 
62 

7 

'"e 

14 
9 

2 
1 

10 
6 

*•  t 

Texas  

1 

... 

Virginia         

"S 

192 
18 

8 
8 

84 

... 

West  Virginia  .... 

Total  States.... 

TEKRITORIBS. 

11 

20,041 

7,478 

1,465 

1,897 

157 

181 

14 

9,114 

7,656 

16,770 

2,085 

1,206 

88,116,641 

1 

1 

1 

2 
1 
5 
1 

9,683 
89.864 
14,181 
181,700 
14,999 
20.595 
91,874 
86,786 
28,955 
9,118 

Colorado.  ..   . 

26 
6 
78 
4 

16 
2 
10 

8 
2 
6 
2 

16 
2 
41 

1 

8 
2 
82 
2 

24 
4 
73 
8 

2 
1 
2 

1 

Dakota  

Dtet  of  Columbia.. 
Idaho  

28 

21 

8 

6 

... 

8 

New  Mexico  

Utah. 

159 
29 
6 
2 

99 

8 

2 

68 
? 

8 

99 
5 
8 

2 

65 
4 

1 

i&4          5 

9j        12 

t!   1 

'"a 

6 

20 
1 

"Washington.  

Total  Territories 
Aggregate  

809 

133         75 

28 

21 

1 

« 

187 

2 

169 

104 

278 

25 

11 

86 

442,730 

20,320    7,616    6,142 

1,488 

1,418 

165 

14 

18 

9,283 

7,760 

1,743 

2,060 

1,217 

8,277 

88,858,871 

from  the  statements  of  travellers  in  regard  to 
the  proportion  of  the  blind  seen  by  them.  Mr. 
Levy,  after  much  thought  and  inquiry,  thinks 
the  following  numbers  for  Asia  not  too  great, 
and  he  is  probably  correct : 


COUNTRIES. 

Population. 

No.  of  blind. 

Proportion. 

Turkey  in  Asia    .. 

17  000  1*00 

23000 

1  to  600 

Arabia  

10,000  000 

25000 

1       400 

Russia  in  Asia  

10  OUO  000 

12  500 

1      800 

Tartar?  

4000000 

6  600 

1       600 

Afghanistan  

6000000 

8300 

1       600 

Persia  

In.  MI  MI.  Hi  ill 

16500 

600 

India  

1770000'M) 

600 

China  .... 

410  000  000 

Japan  

12  1  000 

Butch  East  Indies.... 
81am  and  Anam  
Philippine  Islands  

16854.000 

12.000.000 
6,000,000 

65,000 
15.000 
12,500 

300 
1      400 
1      400 

Total  

726854,000 

1  6S8400 

This  computation  makes  the  proportion  of  the 
blind  to  the  whole  population  in  Asia  1  in 
500.  It  is  computed  that  Africa,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  75,000,000,  has  about  1  blind  to  every 
300  of  the  whole  number,  or  a  total  number 
of  250,000  blind.  The  number  of  blind  in  other 
countries  is  estimated  as  follows : 


COUNTRIES. 

Population. 

No.  of  blind. 

Proportion. 

British  North  America 

2.663,000 
7  200  000 

1,568 
4>00 

1  to  1,692 
1  "  1  500 

West  Indies  
Central  and  S.  America 
Australia  and  Polynesia 

8.855,000 
20.000.000 
8,000,000 

6.253 
25.HOO 
8,750 

1  "  616 
1  "  800 
1  "  800 

Total... 

86.71S.OOO 

41.376 

It  appear*,  therefore,  that  the  total  number  of 
persons  now  living  who  are  without  sight  is 


BLIND 


715 


over  two  and  a  quarter  millions.  From  the 
accounts  of  travellers  it  would  seem  that  in 
Japan  the  blind  receive  more  respect  than  in 
other  Asiatic  countries.  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock, 
in  his  "Capital  of  the  Tycoon,"  says:  "There  are 
two  sects  of  blind,  founded  by  two  great  celeb- 
rities in  Japanese  history — one  by  the  third 
son  of  a  mikado  who  wept  himself  blind  for  the 
death  of  a  mistress,  and  the  other  by  a  defeated 
general  in  the  civil  wars,  who  tore  his  eyes  out 
that  he  might  not  be  provoked  to  take  the  life 
of  a  generous  victor,  Youtomo,  the  founder  of 
a  dynasty.  Into  these  two  sects,  half  secular, 
half  religious,  persons  of  all  ranks  enter.  They 
are  generally  but  not  exclusively  musicians,  and 
earn  their  subsistence  by  playing  on  musical 
instruments." — Care  and  Education  of  the 
Blind.  Although  in  all  ages  individuals  among 
the  blind  have  obtained  some  education,  the 
ancients  made  no  provision  for  the  support  or 
instruction  of  these  unfortunates,  who  depend- 
ed for  subsistence  upon  their  friends,  or  lived 
by  begging ;  and  long  after  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era  they  received  but  little  of 
the  sympathy  which  the  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity inculcate.  The  first  known  public  asylum 
for  the  blind  was  founded  at  Paris  in  12(50  by 
Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  and  was  called  the 
hospice  des  Quime  Vingti.  It  was  established 
for  the  benefit  of  soldiers  who  were  suffering 
from  ophthalmia  contracted  in  the  campaigns 
in  Egypt,  and  was  intended,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, for  15  score  or  300  blind  persons,  although 
for  many  years  the  number  has  been  much 
larger.  Its  annual  income  is  about  $80,000. 
The  allowance  to  each  blind  man  is  $89  per 
annum;  if  he  is  married,  it  is  increased  to 
$110;  and  if  he  has  children,  he  receives  an 
additional  $10  for  each  child.  It  has  also  about 
600  pensioners  who  do  not  reside  at  the  hos- 
pital, but  receive,  according  to  their  age  and 
circumstances,  a  yearly  sum  of  $20,  $30,  or 
$40,  to  aid  in  their  support.  Some  of  those 
entitled  to  a  residence  in  the  hospital  prefer  to 
remain  with  their  families  in  other  parts  of  the 
city,  and  to  them  a  pension  of  $50  per  annum 
is  paid.  No  instruction  is  given  to  the  inmates 
of  the  Quinze  Vingts,  but  some  of  them  exe- 
cute pieces  of  work  which  are  remarkable  for 
taste  and  ingenuity.  A  similar  but  less  exten- 
sive institution  was  established  at  Chartres  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century,  and  en- 
dowed by  King  John  in  1350  to  enable  it  to 
accommodate  120  blind  persons.  From  a  va- 
riety of  causes  the  number  of  inmates  dwindled 
till  in  1837,  according  to  Dufau,  there  were  but 
10.  It  is  now  closed. — During  the  16th  cen- 
tury benevolent  men  who  had  witnessed  with 
sympathy  the  sad  fate  of  the  blind  devised  pro- 
cesses for  their  instruction,  but  with  no  great 
success.  In  1670  Padre  Lana  Terzi,  a  Jesuit 
of  Brescia,  who  had  already  published  an  essay 
on  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes,  produced  a 
treatise  on  the  instruction  of  the  blind.  Nearly 
a  century  later  the  abb6  Deschamps  and  Dide- 
rot proposed  plans  for  their  instruction  in  read- 


ing and  writing;  but  it  was  not  till  1784,  when 
Valentin  Haiiy  commenced  his  labors,  that  any 
institution  specially  intended  for  the  education 
of  the  blind  was  successfully  attempted.  At- 
tracted at  first  to  humanitarian  labors  by  the 
brilliant  example  of  the  abb6  de  l'Ep6e  in  be- 
half of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  he  enthusiastically 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  instructing  the 
blind.  About  this  time  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  celebrated  Theresa  von  Paradis,  the 
blind  pianist,  and  received  great  encouragement 
from  the  interest  she  took  in  his  enterprise. 
His  first  pupil  was  a  young  blind  beggar  named 
Leseur,  who  afterward  became  instrumental  in 
promoting  the  education  of  the  blind,  as  Mas- 
sieu  had  been  in  that  of  deaf  mutes.  He 
taught  him  to  distinguish  raised  letters,  arith- 
metical figures,  and  outline  maps,  and  hi  a 
few  weeks  exhibited  him  before  the  mem- 
bers of  the  iociete  philanthropique,  who  were 
enthusiastic  in  their  admiration.  A  small 
house,  No.  18  Notre  Dame  des  Victoires, 
was  secured,  with  funds  to  support  12  pupils. 
During  the  year  the  number  increased  to  24, 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  unceasing  labors, 
improved  so  rapidly  that  he  exhibited  them 
before  Louis  XVI.  and  the  court.  Haiiy  be- 
came a  lion,  and  the  school  increased  in  num- 
bers and  popularity.  Many  of  its  pupils  became 
proficients  in  music  and  mathematics.  In  1791 
the  school  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of 
the  state,  but  the  sums  decreed  for  its  support 
were  paid  only  in  assignats,  which  soon  became 
worthless.  Hauy  and  his  blind  pupils  worked 
at  the  printing  press  procured  in  their  more 
fortunate  days,  and  eked  out  an  existence  by 
the  severest  toil.  After  the  establishment  of 
the  empire  the  school  was  transferred  to  the 
Quinze  Vingts,  where  its  members  became  de- 
moralized from  associating  with  the  inmates 
of  that  institution,  Hauy  resigned,  but  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  2,000  francs.  In  1806  he 
visited  St.  Petersburg  at  the  invitation  of  the 
emperor  Alexander  I.,  and  founded  the  insti- 
tution for  the  blind  in  that  city.  He  was  also 
instrumental  in  founding  the  institution  for 
the  blind  at  Berlin  about  the  same  time.  In 
1814  the  French  government  assigned  the 
school  of  Hauy  separate,  quarters  in  the  rue  St. 
Victor,  and  gave  it  ampler  funds  and  the  title 
of  "Royal  Institution  for  the  Blind."  Dr. 
Guille  was  appointed  director,  a  man  of  energy 
and  tact,  but  excessively  vain  and  jealous  of 
the  fame  of  Hatty.  After  some  difficulty  he 
resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Dufau,  who 
had  been  for  25  years  a  teacher  in  the  institu- 
tion. The  next  institution  of  the  kind  in  point 
of  time  was  founded  at  Liverpool  in  1791,  and 
in  1793  asylums  for  the  blind  were  established 
at  Edinburgh  and  Bristol.  A  list  of  the  va- 
rious institutions  for  the  blind  in  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland  is  given  in  the  following 
table,  compiled  from  the  "Guide  to  the  In- 
stitutions and  Charities  for  the  Blind  in  the 
United  Kingdom,"  by  Mansfield  Turner  and 
William  Harris  (London,  1871) : 


716 


BLIND 


TABLE    OP   INSTITUTIONS   FOB  THE   BLIND   IN 
GEEAT   BRITAIN   AND    IBELAND. 


NAME    OF    INSTITUTION. 


School  for  the  Blind.  Liverpool 

Catholic  Blind  Asylum,  Liverpool 

School  for  the  Bund,  St.  George's  Fields, 
London 

Society  ibr  Teaching  the  Blind,  St.  John's 
Wood,  London, 

Alexandra  Institute,  Oxford  street,  London 

Henshaw's  Blind  Asylum,  Manchester. . . . 

Royal  Victoria  Asylum,  Newcastle 

Institute  for  the  Blind,  Bath 

Blind  School  Home,  Bath 

Institute  for  the  Blind,  Birmingham 

Asvlurn  for  the  Blind,  Brighton 

Asylum  for  the  Blind,  Bristol 

West  of  England  Institute,  Exeter 

Institute  for  Indigent  Blind,  Norwich 

Midland  Institution  for  the  Blind.  Notting- 
ham   

Yorkshire  School  for  the  Blind,  York 

Asylum  for  Industrious  Blind,  Edinburgh 

School  for  Blind  Children,  Edinburgh. . . . 

Asylum  for  the  Blind.  Aberdeen 

Asylum  for  the  Blind,  Glasgow 

Richmond  National  Institution.  Dublin.. . 

Molyneaux  Asylum  for  the  Blind,  IJublin. 

Ulster  Society  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind, 
Belfast 

Asylum  for  the  Blind,  Cork 


Total. 


When 
founded. 


1791 
1*41 

1799 

1838 
1863 
1827 
183S 
I860' 

iavr 

1845 

1842 
1798 
1S3S 
1805 

1S44 
1833 
1798 
1886 
1812 
18-27 
1810 
1815 

1881 
1840 


No.  of 
pupill. 


67 
44 

160 

56 
20 
84 
44 
9 
12 
75 
50 
46 
47 
80 

54 
71 
29 
84 
12 
42 
20 
60 

88 


1,178 


In  London  23  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  the 
blind  have  been  established  by  donations  and 
bequests.  Of  these  the  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal :  West's  charity  for  the  blind,  to  grant 
pensions  of  £5  to  blind  persons  over  50  years 
of  age,  was  founded  in  1718.  It  assists  331 
persons,  the  annuities  amounting  to  £1,655. 
Ilethermgton's  charity  for  the  aged  blind  era- 
powers  the  governors  of  Christ's  hospital  to  pay 
annuities  of  £10  to  blind  persons  "  who  have 
seen  better  days,"  and  who  are  over  60  years 
of  age.  The  income  from  the  endowment  is 
£7,522,  and  from  legacies  and  donations  in 
1870  there  was  £2,100,  making  a  sum  of  £9,622, 
which,  after  deducting  certain  payments  to 
Christ's  hospital,  is  distributed  among  695  blind 
people.  The  painters'  and  stainers'  company's 
charities  for  the  blind  give  pensions  of  £10 
each  to  blind  persons  over  60  years  of  age, 
granted  under  the  wills  of  five  persons  (four  of 
them  women)  dated  from  1780  to  1808.  The 
sum  invested  is  £65,375.  Came's  charity  dis- 
tributed pensions  of  £5  each  to  110  blind  per- 
sons in  1870.  The  Christian  blind  relief  socie- 
ty distributes  about  £1,000  annually  among 
200  blind  from  donations  and  legacies.  The 
blind  men's  friend,  or  Day's  charity,  founded 
by  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Day,  grants  pensions 
of  £12,  £16,  and  £20  to  deserving  blind  per- 
sons ;  the  number  so  benefited  in  1 870  was  237. 
The  indigent  blind  visiting  society,  founded  in 
1834,  distributes  £1,530  in  instructing  and 
otherwise  aiding  the  blind.  The  Jews'  society 
distributes  £1,000  annually,  paying  8s.  per  week 
each  to  indigent  blind  Jews. — Reading  is  taught 
in  various  kinds  of  type,  those  of  Alston  (Ro- 
man), Lucas  (stenographic),  and  Moon  predom- 
inating in  Great  Britain.  The  institutions  in 


England  are  all  connected  with  the  English 
church,  with  the  exception  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic school  at  Liverpool,  but  there  is  no  exclusion 
on  account  of  creed.  Generally  persons  are 
only  admitted  from  certain  localities,  specified 
in  the  title  of  the  institution.  The  schools  are 
mostly  supported  by  donations,  annual  subscrip- 
tions, and  legacies ;  and  in  general  the  friends  or 
parishes  of  the  pupils  pay  about  £10  per  annum 
toward  their  maintenance.  The  school  for  the 
indigent  blind,  St.  George's  Fields,  however, 
boards,  clothes,  and  educates  160  blind  persons 
without  cost  to  their  friends  for  a  period  of  six 
years.  The  education  given  in  most  of  the 
schools  in  the  United  Kingdom  consists  in  reli- 
gious training  and  instruction  in  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  history,  geography,  and  music, 
and  to  a  great  extent  the  arts  of  making  bas- 
kets, brushes,  matting,  and  mattresses,  knitting, 
netting,  &c. — The  information  contained  in  the 
following  notice  of  European  blind  institutions 
is  chiefly  derived  from  Die  Fursorge  far  die 
Blinden,  by  Herr  Pablasek,  director  of  the  im- 
perial institution  for  the  blind  at  Vienna,  and 
from  the  work  of  Mr.  W.  Hanks  Levy,  before 
cited.  France  has  13  schools  for  the  blind  and 
one  asylum,  the  hospice  des  Quime  Vingts.  Of 
the  schools  there  is  one  at  Paris,  the  old  school 
of  Hauy,  and  one  at  each  of  the  following 
places :  Lyons,  Chameliere,  Arras,  Lille,  Fives, 
Nancy,  Montpellier,  Rhodez,  St.  M(klard-les- 
Soissons,  St.  Hippolite-du-Fort,  Vienne,  and 
Marseilles.  All  these  schools,  however,  afford 
aid  to  only  a  small  number  compared  to  those 
in  the  United  States.  Braille's  system  of  read- 
ing and  writing,  and  of  musical  notation,  is 
generally  adopted.  Instruction  in  tuning  the 
pianoforte  receives  a  good  deal  of  attention, 
and  it  is  said  that  there  are  in  France  about 
200  blind  organists  holding  situations.  The 
general  education  is  not  very  thorough,  but  the 
branches  pursued  are  nearly  the  same  as  in 
Great  Britain.  The  industrial  employments  of 
basket  making,  chair  bottoming,  knitting,  and 
the  making  of  list  shoes  are  generally  adopted ; 
and  at  Nancy  the  art  of  turning  is  carried  on 
to  a  considerable  extent,  some  of  the  workmen 
earning  5  francs  a  day.  The  first  institution 
for  the  blind  in  Germany  was  the  one  com- 
menced at  Berlin  by  Valentin  Hauy  in  1806, 
Ilerr  Zeune,  the  inventor  of  relief  maps,  being 
appointed  the  director.  The  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  Dresden  in  1809,  by  Kdnigsberg  in 
1818,  and  by  Breslan  in  1819.  There  are  also 
institutions  for  the  blind  at  each  of  the  following 
towns :  Gmilnd,  Munich,  Nuremberg,  Wurz- 
burg,  Freiburg,  Stuttgart,  Bruchsal,  Brunswick, 
Halle,  Mannheim,  Magdeburg,  Posen,  Woll- 
stein,  Duren,  Soest,  Kiel,  Hanover,  Weimar, 
Hamburg,  Leipsic,  Friedberg,  Metz,  Wittstock, 
Paderborn,  Barby,  Wiesbaden,  Illzach,  Ellwan- 
gen,  and  Frankfort-on-the  Main.  There  is  also 
a  primary  school  for  children  at  Berlin,  and  one 
at  Hubertsburg.  In  these  33  institutions  the 
reading  is  principally  in  the  raised  type  of  the 
Roman  alphabet.  The  Bible  society  of  Stutt- 


BLIND 


TIT 


gart  has  contributed  largely  to  the  printing  of 
the  embossed  German  Bible,  the  greater  part 
of  which  was  printed  at  Illzach.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  music  is  characteristic  of  the  German 
institutions.  The  industrial  employments  are 
basket  making,  reseating  chairs,  making  list 
shoes,  brush  making,  netting,  and  knitting. 
Eope  making  is  carried  on  at  Hanover  and 
turning  at  Munich.  In  Germany  it  -is  usual 
for  the  sexes  to  occupy  opposite  wings  in  the 
same  institution,  while  in  France  they  occupy 
buildings  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  The  in- 
stitution at  Breslau  was  founded  and  managed 
for  nearly  half  a  century  by  Herr  Knie,  who 
was  born  blind  ;  and  the  present  director  of  the 
institution  at  Kiel,  Herr  Simonon,  is  also  blind. 
Austria  has  six  educational  institutions  and  two 
asylums  and  industrial  establishments.  Of  the 
former  there  is  one  in  each  of  the  following 
cities:  Vienna,  Prague,  Linz,  Pesth,  Brunn, 
and  Lemberg;  and  of  the  latter  one  is  at 
Vienna  and  one  at  Prague.  The  first  institu- 
tion for  the  blind  in  Austria  was  founded  in 
180-1  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Klein,  who  was  its 
director  for  about  half  a  century.  The  em- 
bossed Roman  type  in  capitals  and  small  let- 
ters is  employed  in  the  Austrian  institutions, 
and  pricking  letters  in  paper  is  practised  in 
writing.  Music  is  cultivated  with  reference  to 
earning  a  livelihood,  and  the  industrial  employ- 
ments are  similar  to  those  in  Germany.  Rus- 
sia has  four  institutions  for  the  blind:  one  at 
St.  Petersburg,  established  by  Hatty  in  1806; 
one  at  Warsaw,  established  in  1825 ;  one  at 
Helsingfors,  the  capital  of  Finland  ;  and  one  at 
Gatchina,  a  small  town  about  30  m.  from  St. 
Petersburg.  The  education  and  industrial  em- 
ployments are  similar  to  those  in  Germany, 
music  receiving  much  attention.  Sweden  has 
a  blind  institution  at  Stockholm,  founded  in 
1806,  and  one  at  Gothenburg.  The  Roman 
and  Moon's  types  are  used  in  reading,  and  the 
employments  are  principally  basket  making  and 
knitting.  Norway  has  lately  established  an 
institution  for  the  blind  at  Christiania.  In 
1811  a  school  for  the  blind  was  established  at 
Copenhagen  by  the  "  Society  of  the  Chain,  "an 
organization  similar  to  that  of  the  freemasons, 
and  continued  under  their  management  till 
1837,  when  it  was  taken  under  the  care  of  the 
state  and  called  the  "  Royal  Institution  for  the 
Blind."  Herr  Moldenhawer  was  appointed 
director,  and  a  sum  of  $2,000  per  annum  al- 
lowed from  the  royal  treasury,  the  society  of 
the  chain  endowing  it  with  $8,000.  Denmark 
has  also  an  industrial  institution  for  adults  at 
Copenhagen,  established  in  1862,  on  the  plan  of 
the  London  association.  The  common  alphabet 
is  employed  in  reading,  and  they  have  a  con- 
trivance for  pencil  writing  and  for  embossing 
letters  by  hand.  In  Iceland,  which  belongs  to 
Denmark,  it  is  said  the  proportion  of  blind  to 
the  whole  population  is  about  1  in  300.  Hol- 
land has  institutions  for  the  blind  at  Amster- 
dam (founded  in  1808),  Groningen,  Rotterdam, 
Utrecht,  the  Hague,  and  one  in  North  Brabant. 


The  common  Roman  type  and  also  Braille's  and 
Moon's  characters  are  used  in  reading.  Music 
and  the  trades  receive  about  the  same  attention 
as  in  Germany  and  England.  The  blind  in 
Holland  are  entirely  supported  by  voluntary 
subscription.  In  Belgium  an  asylum  for  the 
blind  Is  said  to  have  been  established  at  Bruges 
in  1305  by  Robert  de  Bethune,  in  gratitude  for 
the  courage  displayed  by  the  inhabitants  of  that 
town  in  repelling  an  invasion  of  Philip  the  Fair 
in  1300.  A  similar  asylum  was  established  sit 
Ghent  by  Peter  Vander  Leyen  about  1370. 
Both  of  these  have  passed  away,  although  the 
house  of  worship  which  was  connected  with 
the  one  at  Bruges  is  said  to  still  exist.  The 
first  school  for  the  blind  in  Belgium  was  estab- 
lished at  Brussels  in  1833.  There  is  also  an- 
other institution  for  the  blind  in  that  city,  two 
at  Ghent,  and  one  each  at  Bruges,  Ypres, 
Mons,  Antwerp,  and  Li6ge.  Braille's  system 
of  reading  and  writing  is  used  in  all  these 
schools  except  the  one  at  Bruges,  where  a  mod- 
ified system  by  the  director,  the  abb6  Carton, 
who  died  in  1863,  is  employed.  The  industrial 
arts  are  basket  making,  bottoming  chairs,  and 
knitting,  and  at  Bruges  the  making  of  bead 
rosaries.  The  deaf  and  dumb  share  in  common 
with  the  blind  the  institutions  in  Belgium,  which 
are  supported  by  the  state.  The  first  institution 
for  the  blind  in  Switzerland  was  established  at 
Zurich  in  1809.  There  are  also  an  educational 
and  industrial  institute  at  Bern,  a  combined 
school  and  hospital  at  Lausanne,  an  asylum 
and  industrial  institution  at  Schatt'hausen,  and 
one  at  Fribourg.  At  these  institutions;  with 
the  exception  of  the  one  at  Lausanne,  the  Ro- 
man type  is  employed,  but  at  the  latter  place 
Braille's  system  is  in  use.  The  principal  in- 
dustrial occupation  of  the  blind  in  Switzerland 
is  wood  turning.  At  Lausanne  there  is  a 
young  man  named  Edward  Meister,  a  turner, 
who  is  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind.  Much  cannot 
be  said  of  the  institutions  for  the  blind  in  Italy. 
Pablasek  mentions  four  as  existing  at  Paler- 
mo, Naples,  Milan,  and  Padua ;  but  they  do  not 
appear  to  be  in  a  well  organized  condition. 
To  the  credit  of  Italy,  however,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  first  book  ever  published  on  the 
condition  of  the  blind  was  written  by  an  Ital- 
ian and  printed  in  Italian  and  French  in  1646, 
called  II  cieco  afflitto  e  contolato,  or  UAveugle 
afflige  et  console,  being  a  letter  from  S.  D.  C. 
to  Vincent  Armanni.  In  Spain  there  are  two 
institutions  for  the  blind,  one  at  Madrid  and 
one  at  Barcelona.  They  are  not  in  a  prosper- 
ous condition,  although  the  number  of  blind  in 
Spain  would  seem  to  be  great  enough  to  stimu- 
late the  government  to  take  some  active  meas- 
ures for  their  relief.  An  institution  for  the 
blind  was  commenced  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1854,  by  the  efforts  of  a  blind  gentleman,  Jos6 
Alvares  de  Alevedo,  who  was  educated  at  the 
Paris  institution.  He  did  not  live  to  see  his 
plans  carried  out,  having  died  the  same  year; 
but  the  school  now  exists,  with  about  30  pupils. 
In  Asiatic  Turkey.,  Mr.  Mott  of  Beyrout  has 


718 


BLIND 


had  parts  of  the  Bible  embossed  in  Arabic  in 
Moon's  type.  Some  of  the  American  and  Eng- 
lish residents  in  China  are  also  doing  some- 
thing toward  aiding  and  instructing  the  blind 
in  some  of  the  seaports. — The  following  table 
presents  a  list  of  the  institutions  for  the 
blind  in  the  United  States  in  1870,  prepared 
by  Dr.  Howe,  director  of  the  Perkins  insti- 
tute for  the  blind  at  Boston,  for  the  bureau  of 
education  at  Washington.  -The  facts  exhibit- 


ed by  it  show  that  more  attention  is  bestowed 
upon  the  care  and  education  of  the  blind  in 
this  country  than  in  any  other.  While  only  five 
of  these  institutions  were  commenced  before 
1840,  it  will  be  observed  that  more  than  6,000 
blind  persons  have  been  under  their  care  and 
instruction,  a  proportion  considerably  greater 
than  obtains  in  Great  Britain,  and  vastly 
greater  than  in  most  of  the  countries  on  the 
continent  of  Europe. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOB   THE   BLIND   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


NAME. 

IXXSATTOK. 

Year  of  formation. 

Total  No.  admit- 
ted lince  opening. 

Present  number. 

jl* 

§ 

Is 

3  S. 

•si 

o 

ft 

Ss 

Superintendent. 

Perkins  Inst.  and  Mass.  Asylum  for  the  Blind 

Boston.  Mass. 
New  York  city. 
Philadelphia. 
Columbus.  O. 
Staunton,  Va, 
Louisville,  Ky. 
Nashville.  Tenn. 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Jacksonville,  111. 
Janesville,  Wis. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Baton  Rouge,  La. 
Baltimore,  Md. 
Jackson.  Miss. 
Vinton,  Iowa. 
Macon,  Ga. 
Austin,  Texas. 
Flint.  Mich. 
Talladega,  Ala. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Faribault,  Minn. 
Oakland,  Cal. 
Wyandotte,  Kan. 
Batavia,  N.  Y. 
Ced'r8prings,S.C. 
Romney,  W.  Va. 

1829 
1881 
1838 
1887 
1889 
1842 
1844 
1846 
1847 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1852 

U58 
1658 
1868 
1856 
1854 
1858 

1868 
1866 
1867 
1867 
1869 
1870 

776 

1,001 
751 
782 
645 
277 
128 
113 
481 
894 
178 

168 
159 
186 
103 
187 
29 
41 
62 
106 
70 
69 
85 
23 
60 
108 
105 
83 

40 
61 
60 
80 

18 
9 
24 
4 
2 
7 
4 
8 
6 

none. 
1 

»3,655 
2,500 
8,800 
1,116 
420 
1.5(10 
1,920 
1,100 
8,910 

Samuel  G.  Howe. 
Wm.  B.  Waite. 
Vfm.  Chapin. 
G.  L.  Srnead. 
Chas.  D.  McCoy. 
B.  B.  Huntoon. 
J.  M.  Sturtevant. 
S.  F.  Tomhnson. 
W.  II.  Churchman 
Joshua  1'hoads. 
Thos.  11.  Little. 
II.  K.  Foster. 
P.  Lane. 
F.  D.  Morrison. 
Sarah  B.  Merrill. 
G.  A.  Knnpp. 
W.  D.  Williams. 
R.  M.  Mills. 
Egbert  L.  Bangs. 
Joe.  H.  Johnson. 
Otis  Patten. 
J.  L.  Noves. 
\V.  Wilkinson. 
W.  W.  Updegraff. 
A.  D.  Lord. 
J.  M.  Hughston. 
II.  11.  llollister. 

Institution  for  the  Blind  

Institution  for  the  Blind  

Institution  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  

Institution  for  the  Blind              

18 

.   H 

Institution  for  the  Blind  

Institution  for  the  Blind        

Institution  for  the  Blind  

25 
17 

7 
7 
9 
14 

28 
8 

Institution  for  the  Blind          .          

Institution  for  the  Blind  

465 

Institution  for  the  Blind 

Louisiana  Inst.  for  instruction  of  the  Blind  .  . 
Institution  for  the  Blind              

28 

124 
244 

1 
2 
9 

2 

1.000 
100 
1,580 

Institution  for  the  Blind  .  .   . 

Academy  for  the  Blind 

Institution  for  the  Blind               

15 

1 

160 

Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind.  ,  . 
Institution  for  the  Doaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  .  .  . 
Institution  for  the  Blind  

854 

181 
14 
40 
66 
88 
28 
121 
14 
11 

2 
11 

87 
83 
66 

8 

2,456 

Minnesota  Inst.  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind.  . 
Institution  for  Deaf.  Dumb,  and  Blind  

19 
15 
27 
8 
8 

1 

1,850 

Kansas  Institution  for  the  Blind        

New  York  State  Institution  for  the  Blind  .  .  . 
Institution  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  

166 

"'is' 

2 
1 
1 

400 

Institution  for  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind 

456 

Total... 

2.018 

The  following  early  history  of  the  institution 
for  the  blind  at  Boston  is  condensed  from  a 
report  of  its  trustees.  Through  the  exertions 
of  Dr.  John  D.  Fisher  an  association  of  gen- 
tlemen was  formed  in  that  city  in  the  year 
1829  for  the  purpose  of  founding  an  institu- 
tion for  the  blind,  and  an  act  of  incorporation 
•was  procured  under  the  name  of  the  "  New 
England  Asylum  for  the  Blind."  Owing  to 
the  time  occupied  in  collecting  information, 
it  was  not  opened  till  1832,  and  then  with  six 
pupils  in  a  private  house  in  Pleasant  street, 
Boston.  Dr.  Samuel  Gridley  Howe  took  charge 
of  the  institution  as  director,  and  under  his 
able  management  it  has  flourished  to  this  day. 
Col.  Thomas  Handasyd  Perkins  gave  it  his  man- 
sion in  Pearl  street,  which  was  exchanged  in 
1839  for  the  Mount  Washington  hotel  in  South 
Boston,  where  it  has  remained  ever  since.  Mr. 
William  Oliver  made  a  still  more  munificent 
donation,  and  other  gentlemen  contributed  lib- 
erally. The  Massachusetts  institution  has  from 
the  first  aimed  to  give  the  blind  an  education 
which  should  fit  them  for  any  position  in  life 
compatible  with  their  infirmity.  The  education 


of  the  celebrated  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb  girl 
Laura  Bridgman  in  this  institution,  who  was 
born  the  year  it  was  founded,  forms  an  interest- 
ing portion  of  its  history.  Some  of  the  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States  are  legally  private  in- 
corporations ;  whether  receiving  aid  from  the 
state  or  not,  the  latter  has  no  control  in  the  man- 
agement, which  is  held  by  a  board  of  trustees. 
Such  is  the  case  with  the  New  York  institution 
for  the  blind,  in  New  York  city.  Others  are 
purely  state  institutions,  and  others  still  are 
mixed,  the  property  being  held  by  a  corpora- 
tion, and  the  state  appointing  a  certain  num- 
ber of  trustees.  The  Boston  institution  is  of 
the  latter  character.  Dr.  Howe,  in  his  com- 
munication to  the  commissioners  of  education, 
says:  "In  1831  Dr.  Akerly  of  New  York  city, 
who  had  been  active  in  introducing  instruction 
for  deaf  mutes,  interested  himself  and  others 
in  procuring  like  benefits  for  the  blind.  Some 
children  were  taken  from  the  almshouse  and 
instructed  by  way  of  experiment  in  a  small 
room  ii;  Canal  street  by  Dr.  John  D.  Russ,  who 
raised  th'a  infant  institution  to  maturity ;  and 
though  he  !ong  since  ceased  to  superintend  it 


BLIND 


719 


officially,  be  has  not  yet  ceased  to  be  its  effi- 
cient friend.  The  first  thought  of  building  up 
special  institutions  for  the  instruction  of  the 
blind  seems  to  have  occurred  to  benevolent 
persons  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  Penn- 
sylvania almost  simultaneously,  but  without 
concert.  In  Philadelphia,  the  benevolent  Rob- 
erts Vaux  had  been  urging  the  matter  for  sev- 
eral years  upon  bis  friends  in  that  city  before  j 
they  finally  organized  the  excellent  institution  ; 
which  has  grown  to  be  among  the  foremost  in 
the  world.  The  success  of  these  institutions 
awakened  an  interest  all  over  the  United 
States.  A  detachment  of  pupils  from  the 
Perkins  institute  visited  17  states  and  were 
exhibited  before  the  legislatures  and  people." 
The  course  of  instruction  in  all  the  institutions 
for  the  blind  in  this  country  embraces  nearly 
the  same  studies,  and  is  of  necessity  chiefly 
oral.  The  primary  instruction  for  the  young 
is  in  spelling,  reading,  moral  lessons,  and  arith- 
metic ;  afterward  come  geography,  arithmetic, 
history,  grammar,  writing,  physiology,  algebra, 
geometry,  natural  philosophy,  mental  philoso- 
phy, science  of  government,  logic,  chemistry, 
and  moral  philosophy.  Conversation,  reading, 
writing,  and  music  are  of  course  continually 
practised,  and  many  of  the  pupils  become 
adepts  in  the  last  named  art,  as  they  do  in  all 
parts  of  the  world. — Printing  for  the  Blind. 
Attempts  were  made  in  the  Kith  century  to 
print  for  the  blind  in  intaglio,  and  afterward 
experiments  were  made  with  raised  letters 
made  to  slide  in  grooves.  In  1640  Pierre  Mo- 
reau,  a  Paris  notary,  undertook  to  cast  movable 
leaden  letters,  but  the  plan  was  not  successful. 
In  1780  Weissenburg,  a  blind  man  of  Mann- 
heim, made  geographical  maps  in  relief;  and 
several  blind  Germans  adopted  the  device  of 
forming  letters  with  pins  in  cushions.  It  is 
said  that  when  Theresa  von  Paradis  of  Vienna 
returned  to  Paris  from  England  in  1784,  she 
represented  musical  notes  with  pins  upon  a 
cushion,  and  that  from  this  her  friend  Hatty 
conceived  the  idea  of  embossing  letters  on  stiff 
paper.  As  Mile,  von  Paradis  also  possessed  the 
contrivances  of  Weissenburg  and  of  Von  Kem- 
pelen,  it  is  probable  that  Hauy  derived  quite  as 
many  suggestions  from  them.  It  is  generally 
stated  that  the  first  book  in  relief  printing  was 
Hatty's  Estai  »ur  V 'education  des  aveugles  (Paris, 
1786),  which  was  translated  into  English  by 
Dr.  Thomas  Blacklock,  the  blind  poet.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  from  the  "Annual  Register" 
for  1762,  that  Mile.  Salignac,  a  blind  lady,  re- 
ceived communications  from  her  friends  writ- 
ten by  pricking  the  letters  in  paper  with  a  pin, 
and  Diderot  says  that  Priault  printed  some 
books  for  her.  Printing  for  the  blind  had  been 
introduced  in  France  for  43  years,  and  in  Prus- 
sia 23  years,  before  it  was  used  in  England, 
although  the  mechanical  arts  were  taught  to 
the  blind  in  Liverpool  only  seven  years  after 
the  practice  was  commenced  at  Paris.  James 
Gall  of  Edinburgh  printed  in  1827  the  first 
book  in  English  in  relief  for  the  blind.  Mr. 
98  VOL.  n. — 46 


Gall  visited  London  in  1829,  and  introduced 
his  printing  in  that  city.  About  1832  he  com- 
pleted at  Edinburgh  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
which  is  probably  the  first  book  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ever  printed  for  the  use  of  the  blind. 
His  alphabet  is  the  common  English  lower 
case,  or  small  letter,  reduced  to  angles  and 
straight  lines,  as  follows  : 


rStvvwxYZ. 


Numerals.  I  . 

In  1832  the  society  of  arts  in  Scotland  offered 
a  gold  medal,  of  the  value  of  20  sovereigns,  for 
the  best  alphabet  and  method  of  printing  for  the 
blind.  Twenty-one  alphabets  were  submitted 
to  the  committee,  14  of  which  were  for  com- 
petition. Of  these  only  four  have  survived. 
The  one  which  obtained  the  medal  was  that  of 
Dr.  Fry,  which,  with  slight  modifications  made 
by  Mr.  Alston,  the  treasurer  of  the  asylum  for 
the  blind  in  Glasgow,  are  simply  the  Roman 
capitals  very  slightly  altered,  and  nearly  the 
same  as  those  which  have  been  until  recently 
used  at  Philadelphia.  One  of  the  alphabets 
submitted  to  the  committee  was  composed  of 
stenographic  characters,  invented  by  Mr.  T.  M. 
Lucas  of  Bristol,  as  follows: 


•'?c 

a  b    c 


(Cx< 

d  e  f 


O)  •-/  — I 


•-x" 

k     I     n 

fS\ 


o   p     q     r 

Numer-      .  — - 
als.       f 


s    t  u    v    w    x     y 

s.  J  C  J^^r 


2      34567     890 

S3       if      th    sh    ph    ch      ng  wh   gh  & 


This  alphabet  is  principally  used  only  in  three 
of  the  schools  in  England,  and  partially  in  three 
others.  It  is  said  to  be  difficult.  A  few  years 
later  a  phonetic  alphabet  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Frere,  which  is  now  taught  only  at  Norwich. 
Mr.  Levy  remarks  that  "it  is  useful  in  enabling 
persons  entirely  uneducated  to  learn  to  read  in 
a  short  space  of  time,  but  that  it  tends  very 
much  to  vitiate  pronunciation."  Mr.  Moon, 
who  had  been  engaged  in  teaching  Frere's 
system  at  Brighton,  printed  in  1847  a  book 
in  the  following  characters,  which  are  exclu- 
sively used  in  one  school  in  London,  one  in 
Brighton,  one  in  Edinburgh,  one  in  Aberdeen, 
one  in  Dublin,  and  one  in  Cork  : 

ALC  ;>rrioij<i_-i  NO^- 

abode    fghijk    1    m*h    o     p 


qrst      uvwx      yz 


chsh&     1234567      890 


720 


BLIND 


The  following  is  the  alphabet  in  the  system  of 
tangible  point  printing  which  was  introduced 
about  the  year  1839  at  the  imperial  institution 
for  the  blind  in  Paris  by  the  lute  M.  Braille  : 

•  :•••:  •.  :•:::..•  ^  :  •  r :» :•  5* 

abc    de    fg    h    ijklmnop 

•:»••  s'  :.:.::::  u  C  H 


q    r 


w    x    y    z    & 


This  system  is  used  in  the  schools  in  France, 
at  Lausanne  in  Switzerland,  at  some  of  the 
schools  in  Belgium  and  Holland,  and  at  Rio  Ja- 
neiro. The  modification  of  this  alphabet  by 
the  abbe  Carton  consists  principally  in  chang- 
ing the  points  so  as  to  make  the  characters 
have  some  resemblance  to  the  Roman  letter, 
but  it  has  never  been  adopted  except  at  the 
school  in  Bruges,  where  it  was  introduced  by  its 
author.  Printing  in  relief  for  the  blind  in  the 
United  States  was  begun  at  Boston  by  Dr. 
Howe  in  1834,  and  at  Philadelphia  by  Mr. 
Friedlander  in  1835.  Dr.  Howe's  alphabet 
consists  of  tie  following  alteration  of  the  lower 
case  Roman  type  : 


The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  printed  in  this 
type  in  1834,  and  in  1836  the  New  Testament 
was  printed  in  four  volumes  and  sold  for  one 
dollar  a  volume.  This  was  the  first  New  Tes- 
tament printed  for  the  blind  in  any  language. 
The  Old  Testament  was  completed  in  1842.  In 
all,  there  have  been  about  50  different  works 
printed  in  this  type  at  the  Perkins  institute, 
among  which  are  Lardner's  "  Universal  His- 
tory,'' Howe's  "Geography,"  Howe's  "Atlas 
of  the  Islands,"  Peirce's  "Geometry"  with 
diagrams,  "Astronomical  Dictionary,"  Guyot's 
"  Geography,"  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  "  Mil- 
ton's Poetical  Works,"  "The  Old  Curiosity 
Shop,"  &c.  The  alphabet  introduced  into  the 
Pennsylvania  institution  by  Mr.  Friedlander  is 
similar  to  those  of  Fry  and  Alston,  and  to  the 
Roman  used  in  many  of  the  schools  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  nearly  like  the  black  type 
called  Gothic—  A,'  B,  C,  D,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  In  this 
type  the  Pennsylvania  institution  has  published 
portions  of  the  Bible  ;  "  Dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language,"  3  vols.  ;  "Select  Library,"  5 
vols.  ;  "  Student's  Magazine,"  4  vols.  ;  "Church 
Music,  with  Hymns,"  the  musical  characters  in 
relief,  3  vols.  ;  Die  Ostereier  (German)  ;  and 
several  other  hooks.  It  has  lately  been  deci- 
ded, however,  to  adopt  the  type  of  Dr.  Howe, 
which  is  the  principal  reading  type  now  in  use 
in  all  the  institutions  in  the  United  States.  A 
system  of  tangible  point  writing  and  printing 
has  lately  been  devised  by  Mr.  William  B.  Wait, 
the  superintendent  of  the  New  York  institu- 
tion for  the  blind,  in  which  the  letters  that 
occur  oftenest  are  represented  by  the  fewest 
points.  The  following  is  the  alphabet  : 


abc  def  gh 
i  j  k  1  m  n  op 
q  r  s  t  u  v  w  x 


An  alphabet  of  capital  letters  is  formed  from 
these,  but  it  is  not  proposed  to  use  it  much,  ex- 
cept in  cases  where  it  would  he  obviously  pre- 
ferable. There  are  signs  for  words  and  com- 
binations which  occur  often,  as  t/ie,  and,  of,  &c. 
An  instrument  called  a  guide,  similar  to  the 
one  used  by  M.  Braille,  but  differing  in  some 
important  respects,  is  used  in  the  formation  of 
the  letters,  which  are  made  by  pressing  the 
pointof  a  blunt  style  upon  paper  which  is  held 
upon  a  frame  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
guide.  The  upper  part  of  the  guide  is  repre- 
sented in  the  subjoined  cut,  in  which  the  word 


"justice  "  is  spelled,  as  will  be  observed,  from 
'  right  to  left,  in  which  manner  all  relief  print- 
ing must  be  done.  When  the  paper  is  turned 
over  and  the  ends  reversed,  the  raised  points 
which  are  made  by  the  style  will  appear  as  fol- 
lows : 


The  lower  part  of  the  guide,  which  is  placed 
beneath  the  paper,  has  six  parallel  grooves, 
two  for  each  row  of  cells,  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  the  upper  and  lower  lines  of  points. 
The  cells  and  bars  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
guide  are  made  of  such  dimensions  that  when 
a  style  of  the  proper  size  is  used,  the  points 
formed  in  each  of  the  angles  of  the  cells  will 
be  equidistant ;  therefore  spaces  of  any  desired 
length  may  be  left  between  the  letters,  any 
letter  being  formed  entirely  in  one  cell,  or 
partly  in  one  and  partly  in  the  next ;  the  bars 
not  being  intended  for  separating  the  letters, 
but  for  locating  the  points.  In  regard  to  the 
respective  merits  of  the  systems  of  printing  tor 
the  blind,  there  has  been  considerable  contro- 
versy. Mr.  Levy,  the  blind  author,  says:  "In 
considering  the  best  means  for  enabling  tint 
blind  to  read,  it  is  necessary  to  fully  compre- 
hend the  powers  of  touch  as  enjoyed  by  the  per- 
son for  whom  the  means  of  reading  are  espe- 
cially intended. . . .  The  great  error  that  has  pre- 
vailed ever  since  the  invention  of  raised  letters 
is  the  supposition  that  the  sense  of  touch  exists 
with  equal  intensity  in  all  blind  persons,  and  that 


ISLINI) 


721 


to  render  this  apparent  the  due  cultivation  of  the 
sense  of  feeling  is  all  that  is  required.  Touch 
differs  from  sight  in  many  respects,  but  chiefly 
in  this,  that  while  sight  can  take  in  at  one  glance 
many  objects  included  within  a  vast  area,  touch 
can  only  convey  to  the  brain  by  one  act  of  con- 
tact the  impression  of  the  first  small  point  that 
arrests  its  progress.  Let  a  small  horizontal 
line  be  made  on  a  piece  of  paper,  the  person 
who  wishes  to  feel  it  proceeds  from  the  left  side 
of  the  paper  quite  unconscious  of  what  may 
meet  his  finger ;  he  presently  comes  in  contact 
with  a  point,  which  fact  with  more  than  light- 
ning speed  is  conveyed  to  the  brain.  Now  it  is 
obvious  that  if  it  were  possible  to  convey  to 
the  brain  a  distinct  idea  of  one  special  letter  or 
word  every  tune  the  finger  comes  in  contact 
with  a  point,  '  tangible '  reading  would  reach 
perfection.  The  first  thing  is  to  select  the 
most  tangible  characters,  viz.,  those  whose 
properties  can  be  perceived  immediately  that 
the  finger  comes  in  contact  with  them." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Johns,  chap- 
lain to  the  asylum  for  the  blind,  St.  George's 


Fields,  London,  says  :  "  Sooner  or  later  some 
one  system  of  embossed  printing  will  be  gen- 
erally adopted,  and  it  must  embrace  the  fol- 
lowing features  :  It  must  resemble  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  type  in  use  among  seeing  men ; 
that  the  blind  scholar  in  learning  to  read  may 
have  every  possible  help  from  his  remembrance 
of  letters  he  may  once  have  seen,  but  which 
now  his  fingers  must  feel  for  him,  or  from  any 
one  who  can  read  an  ordinary  book  ;  or,  if 
need  ^be,  that  a  friend  may  read  to  him." 
Systems  of  notation  in  raised  characters  have 
been  invented  by  Rousseau,  Braille,  Guadet, 
and  Mahoney,  and  possess  merit,  inasmuch  as 
they  permit  the  pupil  to  record  any  piece  of 
music  for  future  reference ;  but  the  principal 
method  of  cultivating  music  by  the  blind  must 
always  be  by  the  ear,  and  in  this  they  excel. 
— As  to  the  extent  of  the  misfortune  of  loss 
of  sight  as  compared  to  that  of  loss  of  hearing 
and  speech,  Mr.  Johns  substantially  says:  "At 
first  one  would  be  naturally  led  to  suppose 
that  the  condition  of  the  blind  man  is  by  far 
the  most  deplorable  ;  that  his  isolation  is  more 


EMINENT  BLIND  PERSONS. 


NAME. 

Country. 

Bora  or 
nourlihed. 

_.   .            At  what  ige 
became  blind. 

For  what  celebrated. 

Cn.  Aufidius,  Prsetor  
Diodotus                         .   .  . 

B.  0.  108 
50 
A.  D.  815 

Philosophy,  geometry  ;  History  of  Greect. 
Philosophy  ;  preceptor  of  Cicero. 
Philosophy  and  divinity. 
Rhetoric  and  theology. 
Military  exploits. 
Poetry  ;  Life  of  Wallace. 
Poetry;  Confessio  Amantis. 
Patriotism  and  military  genius. 
Law  and  divinity. 
Philosophy  and  literature. 
Theology  and  morals. 
Philosophy  and  medicine. 
Poetry,  philosophy,  and  religion. 
Literature. 
Painting  and  literature. 
Greek,  mathematics,  and  music. 
Mathematics  and  mechanics. 
Commentary  on  law. 
Astronomy,  theology. 
History  of  Dauphiny. 
Mathematics. 
Music  and  natural  philosophy. 
Poetry,  divinity,  and  music. 
Poetry  ;  Fables.  6  vols.  8vo. 
Geography,  maps  in  relief. 
Natural  history. 
Sculptor. 
Pianist  and  composer. 
Poetry. 
Poetry. 
Theology. 
Mathematics  and  astronomy. 
Music  ;  oratorio  of  Jcphtha. 
Poems  ;  Letters  to  Washington. 
Road  surveyor  and  contractor. 
Botany  and  natural  philosophy. 
Poet,  and  teacher  of  the  blind. 
Sculpture. 
Mechanics. 
Police  magistrate. 
Music  and  mathematics. 
Sculptor  and  carver  in  wood. 
Director  of  a  blind  institution. 
Member  of  the  Belgian  congress. 
Traveller  and  author. 
Treatise  on  Harmony. 
History  of  the  Norman  conquest. 
Inventor  of  point-writing  for  blind. 
Poetry  and  fiction. 
<  'lergyman  and  author  ;  discourses. 
Clergyman  and  author;  hymns. 

Asia  Minor 

At  adult  age  .  . 
A.  D.  840  At  5  years  
898     At5  years.... 
1205    iOld  age. 
Born  blind.  .  .  . 
1402      Manhood  
1424      .  .   . 

Eusebius  the  Asiatic  

Enrico  Dandolo,  Doge  

Venice  
Scotland 

110S 
1861 
1820 

Nicaise  of  Mechlin  

Belgium  
Bruges,  Belgium  .  . 
Russy,  nr.  Ravenna 

ah'.'  1480 

1482      At  8  years  .... 
af.  1529  At  8  years.... 
1505     At  8  months.. 
15S7      In  youth  
1496     Born  blind... 
1520 

Margaret  of  Ravenna  
.T.  Sohegkius.  of  Thorndorf. 

1450 
1450 
1588 
1518 
1604 
1598 

iesi 

1682 
1750 
1721 
1786 
ab.  1740 
1750 
HilO 
1759 
1706 
1608 
1687 
1707 
1718 
1756 
1717 
1757 
1772 
ab.  1800 
1777 

i792 
1782 

Switzerland 

Giovanni  Paolo  Lomazzo.  .  . 

Milan,  Italv  

ab.  1«00  At  17  years... 
1590  In  childhood.. 
1665  At  88  years... 
1678 

Marseilles  

Dauphiny.  France. 
Grenoble,  France  .  . 
Yorkshire,  Engl'd. 
Kirkcaldy,  Scotl'd.. 
Annan.  Scotland.  .  . 
Colmar,  Germany. 
Mannheim,  Ge  rm'y 
Geneva  
Cambassi,  Italy.  .  . 
Vienna  . 

1698 

Bourchenu  de  Valbonnais.  . 
Nicholas  Saunderson  
Henry  Moyes  

In  infancy  .  .  . 
1789      At  1  year  
1807      At  8  years.... 
1791      At  6  months.. 
1809      In  infancy  
At  7  years.  .  .  . 
1831      At  17  years.  .  . 
1664      At  20  years... 
1824     At  5  years.... 
1788     At  84  years... 
1674     At  44  years... 
1681      At  4  years.... 
1788     At  50  years... 
1786     At  2  years  .   . 
1814     At  19  years.  .  . 
1802     At  6  years.  .  .  . 
1825     At  8  years.  .  .  . 
1801      In  youth  
At  25  years  .  .  . 
1809      At  10  years... 
1780     From  youth... 
1884      At  an  early  age 
1850      At  5  years.  .  .  . 
Born  blind 

Thomas  Blacklock.  D.  D.  .  . 
Gottlieb  Konrad  Pfeffel.... 

Francois  Huber  
Giovanni  Gonelli  .    

Anna  Williams 

Wales 

John  Milton  

London  

Rev.  John  Troughton  
Leonard  Euler  

Coventry,  England. 
Basel,  Switzerland. 
London  
Liverpool  
Knaresboro',  Eng.  . 
Kcndal,  England.  . 

John  Stanley  
Edward  Rus'hton  
John  Metcalf  
John  Gough  

M.  Avisse. 

M.  Buret  

France  
Glasgow  
Westminster  
Dalkcith,  Scotland. 
Tyrol  
Prussia  

John  Kay  
Sir  John  "Fielding  
David  Macbeth. 

Joseph  Kleinhauns  
Herr  Knie  

Alexander  Rodenbach  
James  Hohnan  

Belgium  
Exeter,  England.  .  . 
Paris  
Paris  
Lagny.  France  

1786 
1786 
ab.  l-i  in 
1795 
1809 
1818 
1784 
1775 

At  11  years.  .  . 
1857 

M.  Moncoulteau  
Augustin  Thierry  
Louis  Braille  

....      Born  blind.... 
1856     At  27  years... 
:At  6  years.  .  . 
....      At  18  months. 
1862      At  16  years... 
1859      At  48  years... 

Timothy  Woodbridge.  .  .  . 
Samuel  Willard  

Stockbridge.  Mass. 
Deerfleld,  Mass... 

722 


BLIND 


BLIND   FISH 


complete.  But  no  one  who  has  ever  really 
known  an  educated  blind  man  in  society  will 
again  incline  to  such  an  opinion.  It  is  true 
that  the  deaf  mute  can  see  all  that  is  going  on 
around  him,  but  he  can  mostly  only  take  an  im- 
perfect part  in  it.  From  the  world  of  sweet 
sound  he  is  utterly  barred  out,  while  the  divine 
gift  of  speech  is  entirely  denied  him  ;  but  the 
blind  man  enters  into  the  society  of  his  fellow 
men  as  freely  as  if  gifted  with  the  keenest  vis- 
ion. The  whole  world  of  sound  is  open  to  him 
with  all  its  special  speaking,  joy,  and  beauty ; 
the  silver  paradise  of  music  opens  to  him  her 
fairy  gates,  a  new  guide  takes  him  by  the  hand, 
and  under  her  glowing,  joyous  sway  he  travels 
swiftly  to  the  land  where  faith  is  even  greater 
than  sight."  In  the  cases  of  such  men  as  Saun- 
derson,  Huber,  Zisca,  Dr.  Blacklock,  and  others, 
it  may  be  believed  that  scarcely  any  calamity 
not  involving  the  loss  of  mental  health  would 
have  hindered  the  development  of  their  innate 
greatness.  That  a  blind  boy  should  ever  come 
to  occupy  the  chair  in  a  university  once  held  by 
Newton,  that  a  blind  youth  should  successfully 
prosecute  investigations  in  afield  of  natural  his- 
tory which  required  the  most  careful  observa- 
tion, or  that  it  should  be  said  of  a  man,  as  it  was 
of  Zisca,  that  "he  was  more  dreaded  by  the  ene- 
mies of  his  country  after  he  became  blind  than 
before,"  must  ever  be  matter  of  wonder  and 
admiration.  A  list  of  the  most  famous  blind 
persons  mentioned  in  history  and  others  of 
eminence  will  be  found  in  the  preceding  table. 
Of  the  living  blind  men  in  the  United  States 
who  have  become  distinguished  as  authors  and 
teachers  may  be  mentioned  the  Eev.  William 
H.  Milburn,  a  pulpit  orator  of  much  power, 
and  author  of  a  book  called  "  Rifle,  Axe,  and 
Saddlebags,"  and  several  other  popular  works; 
William  H.  Churchman,  the  present  able  super- 
intendent of  the  institution  for  the  blind  at 
Indianapolis ;  J.  M.  Sturtevant,  superintendent 
of  the  institution  for  the  blind  at  Nashville ; 
Otis  Patten,  superintendent  of  the  institution 
for  the  blind  at  Little  Rock  ;  the  Rev.  Patrick 
Lane,  superintendent  of  the  institution  for  the 
blind  at  Baton  Rouge ;  and  the  Rev.  Adam 
McOlellan  of  Brooklyn. 

BLIND,  Karl,  a  German  political  agitator, 
born  in  Mannheim,  Sept.  4,  1820.  While  study- 
ing law  in  Heidelberg  he  was  twice  arrested  for 
political  offences,  and  spent  several  months  in 

grison.  He  was  banished  from  Germany  for 
is  participation  in  the  republican  rising  under 
Hecker  in  the  spring  of  1848,  and  while  plotting 
with  Struve  and  other  exiles,  he  was  expelled 
from  Alsace  by  order  of  Gen.  Cavaignac  on  a 
charge  of  abetting  the  Paris  insurrection  of 
June.  Joining  Struve  in  the  September  move- 
ment, he  was  with  him  captured  after  the  fight 
at  Staufen,  in  S.  Baden,  and  sentenced  to  eight 
years'  imprisonment  at  Bruchsal.  Liberated 
after  eight  months  by  a  revolutionary  mob,  he 
went  to  Carlsruhe,  whence  the  grand  duke 
had  fled ;  but  Brentano,  whom  he  accused  of 
secretly  working  for  the  restoration  of  the  de- 


posed dynasty,  soon  got  rid  of  him  by  sending 
him  as  a  plenipotentiary  of  the  provisional 
government  of  Baden  and  the  Palatinate  to 
Paris.  There  he  was  accused  of  encouraging 
the  rising  of  June  13,  1849.  Expelled  from 
France  in  August,  he  went  to  Brussels,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  that  city  also  in  1852,  and 
established  himself  in  London,  where  he  for 
a  long  time  continued  his  political  agitations 
through  the  press  of  various  countries.  After 
the  events  of  1866,  however,  his  revolutionary 
ardor  abated.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  Baden 
government  in  1867.  In  1872  he  published  a 
pamphlet  entitled  "Away  with  the  House  of 
Peers,"  which  was  exclusively  circulated  in 
Berlin. 

lil.lM)  FISH,  the  common  name  of  several 
species  of  fish,  of  different  genera,  living  in  the 
subterranean  waters  of  the  United  States  and 
Cuba ;  but  especially  of  the  amblyopsis  spelceus 
(De  Kay)  of  the  Mammoth  cave  of  Kentucky. 
In  some  of  the  lamprey-like  fishes  the  eyes  are 


Blind  Fish  (Amblyopsis  spelseus). 

mere  specks,  serving  only  for  the  simple  per- 
ception of  light,  without  the  formation  of  an 
image  ;  many  catfishes  (siluridai)  have  similar 
rudimentary  eyes,  entirely  unfit  for  purposes 
of  vision.  In  the  Mammoth  cave  these  fishes 
are  nearly  colorless,  while  the  blind  catfishes 
retain  the  general  dark  color  of  other  members 
of  the  family.  The  common  blind  fish  comes 
nearest  to  the  cyprinodonts  and  the  shore  min- 
nows. They  are  rather  solitary,  difficult  to 
capture  by  the  net  from  the  acuteness  of  their 
senses  of  hearing  and  touch,  and  look  like 
ghosts  in  the  water ;  they  are  very  active,  tak- 
ing their  food  both  at  the  surface  and  near  the 
bottom,  and  are  able  to  capture  a  rapid-mov- 
ing mudfish  (melanura),  having  eyes,  living  in 
the  same  waters ;  the  blind  fish,  with  its  sen- 
sitive tactile  organs,  is  able  to  pursue  and  over- 
take the  fish  with  eyes,  but  without  a  highly 
developed  sense  of  touch,  and  which  con- 
stantly encounters  obstacles  in  the  darkness. 
They  are  viviparous,  bringing  forth  their  young 
in  September  and  October;  they  vary  in  length 
from  2  to  4^  inches.  The  head  of  amblyopsis 


BLINDWORM 


723 


is  without  scales  as  far  as  the  pectoral  fins,  the 
rest  of  the  body  having  small  ones ;  the  sides 
of  the  head  are  provided  with  numerous  trans- 
verse and  longitudinal  ridges,  each  having  20 
to  30  papillas,  cup-shaped  at  the  top  and  with 
a  delicate  tactile  filament  freely  supplied  with 
nerves  from  the  5th  pair ;  there  are  also  on 
the  sides,  from  the  pectoral  to  the  tail,  about 
10  vertical  ridges,  with  the  papilla  less  well 
defined ;  the  naked  skin  is  of  extreme  delicacy. 
The  optic  lobes  of  the  brain  are  as  well  de- 
veloped as  in  ordinary  fishes,  and  rudimentary 
eyes  have  been  found  under  the  skin  by  Prof. 
J.  Wyman  and  others.  The  eyes  have  the 
membranes,  pigment,  and  lens,  and,  though 
imperfect,  are  constructed  after  the  vertebrate 
type.  They  cannot  form  an  image,  as  the  in- 
tegument and  areolar  tissue  over  them  would 
prevent  the  transmission  of  any  but  very  dif- 
fused light ;  no  pupil  or  undoubted  iris  has 
been  found.  The  organ  of  hearing  is  largely 
developed.  The  vent  is  in  advance  of  the 
pectorals.  They  are  probably  distributed  in 
all  the  subterranean  rivers  flowing  through 
the  limestone  region  under  the  carboniferous 
rocks  of  the  central  United  States;  they  have 
often  been  taken  from  wells. — Another  color- 
less blind  fish  (typhlichthys  subterraneus,  Gi-  ; 
rard),  1J  to  2  inches  long  and  having  no  ven- 
tral fins,  has  been  found  in  the  Mammoth 
cave,  and  in  the  central  and  southern  portion 
of  the  subterranean  region.  In  the  genus  cho- 
logaster  (Ag.)  are  found  all  the  family  charac- 
ters of  the  above  two  blind  species,  but  it  has 
eyes,  a  brownish  color,  and  no  papillary  ridges 
on  the  head  and  body ;  yet  it  is  a  subterranean 
fish  in  some  instances.  In  the  Cuban  blind 
fishes  (genera  lucifuga  and  stygieola),  de- 
scribed by  Prof.  Poey,  there  are  ciliary  appen- 
dages on  the  head  and  body,  well  developed  as 
organs  of  touch,  but  without  the  tactile  barbels 
on  the  jaws  usually  found  in  the  cod  group,  to 
which  these  fishes  are  nearly  allied ;  the  optic 
lobes  are  large,  and  the  eyes  exist,  but  so  im- 
bedded in  the  flesh  of  the  head  as  to  be  use- 
less; the  body,  cheeks,  and  opercular  bones 
are  covered  with  scales.  Though  they  resemble 
amblyopsis,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  belong  to 
a  marine  family,  though  now  found  in  fresh 
water  in  caves,  and  are  far  removed  from  the 
latter. — From  the  facts  here  enumerated,  and 
many  others  that  may  be  found  in  the  "Amer- 
ican Naturalist,"  vol.  vi.,  pp.  6-30,  for  Jan- 
uary, 1872,  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam  expresses  the 
opinion  that  these  fishes  have  always  been 
blind,  and  have  not  become  so  from  living  in 
darkness.  As  far  as  known,  the  young  of 
blind  fishes  have  no  external  eyes  when  born. 

KM  M>  Vt'Olt  >1  (anguis  fragilis.  Linn.),  a  rep-  : 
tile  of  the  order  of  saurians  and  family  of  scin-  | 
coids,  or  lepiilo-sauri.     It  is  neither  a  worm,  | 
nor  is  it  blind.     The  family  is  extremely  inter- 
esting, as  it  serves  to  establish  a  gradation  be-  , 
tween  the  true  saurians  and  the  serpents  by 
means  of  the  genus  anguis  and  others  nearly 
allied  to  it,  in  which  the  body  becomes  elon- 


gated and  serpentiform,  the  ribs  increase  in 
number,  and  the  limbs  cease  to  appear  exter- 
nally, being  quite  rudimentary.  We  see  a  sim- 


BUndwunii  (Anguia  fragilis). 

ilar  approach  to  the  ophidians  in  some  of  the 
cyclosaurians,  as  in  the  amphisbwna,  which  is 
properly  a  saurian.  These  intermediate  forms 
were  placed  by  Gray  in  his  order  of  saurophi- 
dians ;  while  Merrem,  being  unable  to  draw  the 
line  between  ophidians  and  saurians,  united 
them  into  the  single  order  squamata.  The 
body  and  tail  of  the  blindworm  are  cylindrical 
and  snake-like,  the  latter  being  as  long  as  the 
former,  and  even  longer ;  the  head,  triangular 
and  rounded  in  front,  is  covered  by  11  large 
and  several  smaller  plates ;  the  nostrils  are  lat- 
eral, each  opening  in  the  centre  of  the  nasal 
plates;  the  tongue  is  free,  flat,  not  retractile 
into  a  sheath,  divided  slightly  at  the  end,  but 
not  forked  like  that  of  the  serpent,  its  surface 
partly  granular  and  partly  velvety ;  the  palate 
is  not  toothed ;  the  jaw  teeth  are  small,  sharp, 
and  inclined  backward.  The  bones  of  the  head 
are  not  movable  as  in  serpents,  and  the  jaws 
are  short  and  united  firmly  at  the  symphysis,  so 
that  the  opening  of  the  mouth  is  always  the 
same,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  great  mo- 
bility and  extensibility  of  those  parts  in  ophidi- 
ans. The  genus  anguis,  and  its  allied  genera, 
also  approach  the  saurians,  and  differ  from  the 
serpents,  in  having  two  eyelids,  moving  ver- 
tically, and  capable  of  entirely  covering  the 
eye,  the  lower  one  provided  with  scales.  The 
external  auditory  foramen  is  distinct,  though 
small  and  linear ;  there  are  no  legs,  but  the 
rudiments  of  the  shoulder,  sternum,  and  pelvis 
are  found  in  the  substance  of  the  muscles, 
while  in  the  snakes  they  are  reduced  to  a 
mere  vestige  of  a  posterior  extremity.  The 
scales  are  six-sided,  except  on  the  sides  where 
they  are  rhomboid,  smooth,  imbricated,  or  fish- 
like,  and  nearly  of  the  same  size  above  and  be- 
neath. One  lung  is  much  more  developed  than 
the  other,  as  in  serpents;  the  opening  of  the 
cloaca  is  transverse.  The  blindworm  is  found 
in  Europe,  from  Russia  and  Sweden  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  also  in  northern  Africa;  it 
forms  now  the  only  species  of  the  genus  anguis, 


724 


BLISTER 


BLOCKADE 


which  formerly  included  all  the  sealed  reptiles 
with  very  short  or  no  feet,  and  with  the  scales 
nearly  alike  ahove  and  helow.  It  is  gentle  and 
inoffensive  in  its  habits,  and  quite  harmless ; 
even  if  provoked  to  bite,  its  teeth  are  so  small 
and  weak  as  hardly  to  make  an  impression 
upon  the  human  skin.  It  is  very  timid,  and 
when  taken  hold  of  is  in  the  habit  of  forcibly 
and  stiffly  contracting  the  body,  in  which  state 
it  becomes  so  fragile  as  to  be  broken  by  a 
slight  blow,  or  an  attempt  to  bend  it ;  hence 
its  specific  name  fray  His.  The  glass  snake,  an 
American  species  of  saurian  (ophuaurw),  pos- 
sesses the  same  property,  as  do  many  other 
scincoids.  There  is  no  rupture  of  muscular 
fibre,  but  a  separation  of  one  layer  from  the  ad- 
joining one;  in  such  cases,  the  detached  por- 
tion is  said  to  be  reproduced  the  next  year. 
From  its  smoothness  it  is  able  to  penetrate  into 
very  small  openings,  and  it  delights  to  burrow 
in  soft  dry  soil,  and  under  decaying  wood  and 
leaves;  it  moves  by  lateral  contractions,  and 
sheds  its  skin,  according  to  Bell,  like  the  true 
snakes.  It  is  ovo-viviparous,  the  young  being 
brought  forth  alive  in  June  or  July,  to  the  num- 
ber of  from  7  to  14.  The  general  color  is  a 
brownish  gray,  with  a  silvery  glance,  with  seve- 
ral parallel  longitudinal  rows  of  dark  spots  on 
the  sides,  and  one  along  the  middle  of  the  back  ; 
the  length  is  from  10  to  14  inches,  of  which  the 
head  is  about  half  an  inch.  Its  food  consists 
of  worms,  insects,  and  small  terrestrial  mol- 
lusks ;  it  is  not  fond  of  the  water.  In  France  it 
is  called  Vorvet.  The  blindworm  approaches 
the  ophidians  in  its  form,  manner  of  progres- 
sion, absence  of  feet,  number  of  ribs,  and  in- 
equality of  lung  development ;  but  it  belongs 
to  the  scineoid  saurians  by  the  structure  of  the 
tongue,  head,  and  jaws,  by  the  occurrence  of 
movable  eyelids,  and  by  the  peculiarities  of  the 
vertebral  column. 

BLISTER,  a  topical  application,  which,  ap- 
plied to  the  skin,  produces  an  irritation,  and 
raises  the  cuticle  in  the  form  of  a  vesicle  filled 
with  serous  fluid.  The  powder  of  the  dried 
cantharis,  or  Spanish  fly,  operates  rapidly,  with 
certainty,  and  is  now  invariably  used  for  this 
purpose.  (See  OANTHAEIDES.)  Morbid  action 
in  one  part  of  the  organism  may  often  be  re- 
lieved or  removed  by  counter-irritation  in  an- 
other and  a  neighboring  part,  and  on  this  prin- 
ciple the  blister  is  applied.  When  the  imme- 
diate effect  of  a  blister  is  required,  the  vinegar 
of  cantharides  is  a  very  prompt  and  effectual 
application.  A  piece  of  blotting  paper  moist- 
ened with  this  fluid  raises  a  blister  almost  im- 
mediately. It  is  sometimes  thus  applied  behind 
the  ears  in  toothache,  or  over  the  stomach  in 
cases  of  sudden  cramp.  The  raw  surface  pro- 
duced in  this  manner  affords  a  ready  means  of 
introducing  certain  medicinal  substances  into 
the  system  by  absorption;  morphine,  for  in- 
stance, sprinkled  on  this  raw  surface,  is  quickly 
absorbed,  and  patients  may  be  thus  relieved 
where  remedies  could  not  be  otherwise  em- 
ployed, as  in  colic  and  cholera. 


IM.OCll.  JlarkDS  Elieser,  a  German  naturalist,  of 
:  Jewish  parentage,  born  at  Anspach  in  1723, 
i  died  in  Berlin,  Aug.  6,  1799.  On  arriving  at 
manhood  he  was  almost  illiterate,  but  then 
thoroughly  learned  German  arid  Latin  and  de- 
voted himself  to  medical  and  scientific  studies, 
taking  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  He  practised  his  profession  for  many 
years  in  Berlin,  and  wrote  several  medical 
treatises;  but  his  great  work  was  one  on 
ichthyology  (Allgemeine  Natvrgeschichte  der 
Fische,  12  vols.,  Berlin,  1782-'95),  excellently 
illustrated,  which  was  in  its  time  of  great 
value.  He  made  a  fine  collection  of  specimens, 
which  is  now  in  the  Berlin  zoological  museum. 
BLOCK,  Hanriee,  a  French  political  economist, 
born  in  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1816.  He  was  taken 
to  France  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  is  a 
naturalized  French  citizen.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  to  a  position  in  the  statistical  bureau 
of  the  ministry  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
public  works,  which  he  resigned  in  1861  to  de- 
vote himself  exclusively  to  authorship.  His 
chief  works  are:  Des  charges  de  I' agriculture 
dans  les  divers  pays  de  V Europe  (Paris,  1850) ; 
L'Espagne  en  1850 ;  Statistiyue  de  la  France 
(1860) ;  Puissance  comparee  des  divers  £tats  de 
r  Europe  (1862);  Les  finances  de  France  de- 
puis  1815  (1863);  Les  theoriciens  du  sociii- 
lisme  en  Allemagne  (1872);  and  Annuaire  de 
V 'administration  francaise,  which  he  began  in 
1858,  and  continued  several  years.  He  has 
written  largely  for  periodicals  on  statistics  and 
political  economy,  and  has  edited  journals  de- 
voted to  those  subjects.  In  1861  the  academy 
of  sciences  gave  him  the  Monthyon  prize  for 
statistics. 

BLOCKADE,  in  international  law,  the  closing 
of  an  enemy's  port  by  a  besieging  force.  It 
has  been  described  by  Sir  William  Scott  as  "  a 
sort  of  circumvallation  round  a  place,  by  which 
all  foreign  connection  and  correspondence  is,  as 
far  as  human  power  can  effect  it,  to  be  en- 
tirely cut  off."  The  circumstances  essential  to 
a  valid  blockade  are  tolerably  well  settled  by 
the  decisions  of  eminent  jurists  in  prize  cases. 
The  first  of  these  is  that  a  state  of  war  must 
exist,  though  this  may  be  without  an  actual 
declaration  of  war,  for  the  blockade  may  be 
the  first  hostile  act.  The  second  is  that  it  be 
sustained  by  a  blockading  force  sufficient  to 
make  it  hazardous  to  attempt  to  enter  or  de- 
part from  the  port,  although  if  the  ships  com- 
posing it  be  for  any  short  time  driven  from 
their  positions  by  sudden  tempest  or  other 
similar  cause,  the  blockade  is  not  thereby 
raised.  The  purpose  of  this  measure  is  to  in- 
flict injury  upon  an  enemy,  either  by  reducing 
the  place,  or  by  weakening  his  power  of  resist- 
ance by  cutting  off  his  supplies,  or  both ;  but  as 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  injury  must  fall 
upon  neutrals,  the  belligerent  is  justly  required 
to  make  his  blockade  what  the  term  imports, 
and  neither  would  neutral  nations  submit  to  it 
if  he  did  not,  nor  would  the  prize  courts  sanc- 
tion the  captures  which  might  be  made  for 


BLOCKADE 


BLODGET 


725 


evading  it.  The  third  circumstance  essential 
is  that  a  neutral  against  whom  it  is  sought  to 
be  enforced  should  have  been  notified  of  it.' 
The  notice  may  be  by  formal  notification  of  the 
executive  published  to  the  world,  or  actual  no- 
tice at  the  time  trade  with  the  port  is  at- 
tempted ;  but  notice  may  be  presumed  in  any 
case  where  the  blockade  has  become  matter 
of  public  and  general  notoriety.  The  privilege 
of  the  blockading  force  is  to  seize  and  send  in 
for  condemnation  any  vessel  with  its  cargo  en- 
deavoring to  trade  with  the  port ;  and  if  the 
vessel  succeeds  in  violating  it,  she  may  be  fol- 
lowed and  seized  on  the  high  seas,  and  does 
not  purge  herself  of  the  offence  until  she  has 
returned  to  the  port  from  which  she  originally 
set  out.  In  cases  of  neutral  vessels  in  port 
when  the  blockade  is  declared,  the  notoriety 
of  the  act  is  sufficient  notice ;  they  are  at  lib- 
erty to  leave  with  such  cargo  as  they  may 
then  have  on  hoard,  but  must  not  take  on 
more.  A  neutral  vessel  incurs  no  liability  in 
trading  at  a  port  not  blockaded  in  goods  des- 
tined to  the  blockaded  port  by  land  carriage. — 
Some  notable  attempts  have  been  made  to  en- 
force mere  paper  blockades.  The  Berlin  de- 
cree of  Nov.  21,  1806,  of  the  emperor  Napo- 
leon, declared  all  the  British  islands  in  a  state 
of  blockade,  and  threatened  capture  and  con- 
demnation to  vessels  trading  with  them.  The 
English  government  retaliated,  and  between 
the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  orders  in  council  on  the  other,  though 
no  actual  blockade  was  established,  all  neu- 
tral trade  with  Great  Britain  and  France  and 
their  respective  colonies  and  dependencies 
was  threatened  with  destruction.  The  United 
States  was  the  principal  sufferer  from  these 
measures,  and  justly  considered  herself  enti- 
tled to  redress.  The  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war  in  the  United  States  in  1861  presented 
some  embarrassing  questions  as  to  the  proper 
course  to  take  in  regard  to  the  southern  ports. 
Two  courses  were  open  to  the  government :  to 
declare  the  ports  closed  as  ports  of  entry,  or  to 
establish  a  blockade.  As  the  ports  belonged 
to  the  country,  and  it  was  the  right  of  the 
government  to  declare  what  should  and  what 
should  not  be  ports  of  entry,  it  was  argued  by 
some  that  the  simplest  course  to  take  was  to 
exercise  the  undoubted  right  to  close  them, 
and  thereby  render  all  trade  with  them  unlaw- 
ful. Such  a  course,  however,  it  must  be  evi- 
dent, would  be  taken  not  in  the  interests  of 
commerce  and  not  for  any  motive  operating  in 
time  of  peace,  and  therefore,  whatever  name 
might  be  given  it,  would  be  really  a  belligerent 
act  resorted  to  in  order  to  inflict  injury  upon 
a  public  enemy;  and  it  was  highly  probable 
that  neutral  nations  would  insist  that,  though 
called  a  mere  municipal  regulation,  it  was  in 
its  nature  an  attempt  at  blockade,  and  to  be 
respected  must  appear  to  be  made  by  the 
proper  force.  The  government  took  the  other 
course,  and  in  April,  1861,  the  president  is- 
sued proclamations  declaring  the  southern 


ports  blockaded.  The  blockade  at  first  was 
not  so  complete  as  afterward,  and  some  vigor- 
ous remonstrances  were  made  against  it  in 
England  as  being  in  law  wholly  ineffectual ; 
but  the  British  government,  after  careful  in- 
vestigation, did  not  venture  to  pronounce  it 
insufficient,  and  correctly  laid  down  the  rule 
of  law  as  follows :  "  Her  majesty's  government 
are  of  opinion  that,  assuming  the  blockade  is 
duly  notified,  and  also  that  a  number  of  ships 
is  stationed  and  remains  at  the  entrance  of  a 
port  sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  it,  or 
to  create  an  evident  danger  in  entering  or 
leaving  it,  and  that  these  ships  do  not  volun- 
tarily permit  ingress  or  egress,  the  fact  that 
various  ships  may  have  successfully  escaped 
through  it  will  not  of  itself  prevent  the  block- 
ade from  being  an  effective  one  by  international 
law."  Notwithstanding  a  considerable  trade 
was  carried  on  through  the  blockaded  ports  by 
means  of  swift  vessels  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose, this  conclusion  of  the  British  government 
was  adhered  to ;  the  prize  courts  declared  the 
same  doctrine,  and  Secretary  Welles  in  his 
annual  report  for  the  second  year  of  the  war 
was  able  to  boast  of  the  blockade  as  "  the 
greatest  of  all  naval  triumphs."  But  some  oi 
the  ports  it  was  found  impossible  wholly  to 
close,  and  in  a  few  instances,  notably  in  the 
case  of  Charleston,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
preclude  passage  through  some  of  the  channels 
by  sinking  therein  old  vessels,  stones,  and  other 
obstructions.  This,  being  taken  as  an  attempt 
to  destroy  the  ports,  was  remonstrated  against 
by  the  British  minister,  as  not  sanctioned  by 
the  laws  of  war ;  but  it  was  replied  by  Mr. 
Seward  that  the  obstructions  were  only  tem- 
porary, and  in  fact  they  proved  of  little  im- 
portance.— A  blockade  terminated  is  said  to 
be  raised,  and  this  may  be  done  by  public 
proclamation  or  by  withdrawing  the  block- 
ading force. 

BLOCK  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  midway  between  Montauk  Point,  at  the 
E.  extremity  of  Long  Island,  and  Point  Judith, 
Rhode  Island,  8  m.  long  and  from  2  to  5  m. 
wide.  It  belongs  to  the  state  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  constitutes  the  town  of  New  Shoreham, 
Newport  county ;  pop.  in  1871, 1,113.  On  the 
N.  W.  side  is  a  lighthouse  with  two  fixed 
lights,  58  ft  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  lat. 
41°  13'  N.,  Ion.  71°  35'  W. 

Itl.OIM.IT.  Luriii.  an  American  physicist,  born 
at  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  May  25,  1823.  He  began 
early  to  make  observations  in  physical  science, 
and  in  1851  became  assistant  at  the  Smithso- 
nian institution,  Washington,  having  in  charge 
the  researches  in  climatological  and  atmospheric 
physics.  In  1852-'3  he  directed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Pacific  railroad  surveys  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  determination  of  altitudes  and  gra- 
dients by  means  of  the  barometer.  In  1854  he 
prepared  a  quarto  volume  of  the  statistics  of 
scientific  observation  at  the  United  States  mili- 
tary posts.  In  1857  he  published  a  valuable 
work  on  "The  Climatology  of  the  United 


726 


BLODGET 


BLOIS 


States,  and  of  the  Temperate  Latitudes  of  the 
North  American  Continent,"  which  was  widely 
circulated  in  Europe,  and  for  which  he  was 
highly  complimented  by  Humboldt.  It  con- 
tinues to  be  the  standard  work  on  the  sub- 
ject. In  1863  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  financial  and  statistical  reports  of  the  treas- 
ury department,  of  which  he  prepared  live  vol- 
umes, 1862-'3  to  1864-'5.  Since  1865  he  has 
been  United  States  appraiser  at  large  of  cus- 
toms. For  the  treasury  department  he  prepar- 
ed, from  1865  to  1867,  reports  on  finance  and 
revenue ;  reports  on  industrial  progress  and 
census  of  industry,  1861  and  1871  ;  and  on  the 
resources  of  North  Carolina,  1870.  His  pam- 
phlet on  the  "  Commercial  and  Financial  Re- 
sources  of  the  United  States,"  in  1864,  was  re- 
printed in  Germany,  and  did  much  to  sustain 
the  credit  of  the  government  in  the  money 
markets  of  the  old  world. 

lil.OIM.l.T,  Samuel,  an  American  inventor, 
born  at  Woburn,  Mass.,  in  1720,  died  at  Haver- 
hill,  N.  H.,  Sept.  1,  1807.  Before  the  revolu- 
tion he  was  judge  of  common  pleas  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  was  at  the  siege  of  Louisburg 
in  1745.  In  1783,  having  raised  by  a  machine 
of  his  own  invention  a  valuable  cargo  from  a 
vessel  sunk  near  Plymouth,  he  became  pos- 
sessed with  the  idea  of  recovering  the  buried 
treasures  of  the  ocean,  and  went  to  Spain  and  to 
England  with  this  view.  He  desired  to  obtain 
a  contract  for  raising  the  Royal  George,  but 
meeting  with  no  encouragement  returned  to 
New  Hampshire,  and  in  1791  commenced  the 
manufacture  of  duck.  In  1793  he  removed  to 
Haverhill,  and  began  the  construction  of  the 
canal  which  bears  his  name,  around  the  Amos- 
keag  falls.  Before  it  was  completed,  after 


C  :,stl«   of  Bio 


spending  large  sums  upon  it,  he  became  em- 
barrassed, and  was  thrown  into  prison  for  debt. 
He  was  rigidly  temperate  in  his  habits,  and  had 
peculiar  theories  about  exposure  to  the  weather. 


He  expected  by  his  mode  of  life  to  prolong  it 
to  the  age  of  100  years,  but  at  the  age  of  87  he 
died  from  the  effects  of  exposure  on  a  journey 
from  Boston  to  Haverhill. 

BLOEMAERT,  Abraham,  a  Dutch  painter,  horn 
at  Gorkuiu  about  1564,  died  in  Utrecht  in  1647. 
Hi1  was  the  son  of  an  architect,  studied  under 
Dutch  and  French  masters,  and  painted  for  the 
churches  of  Brussels  and  Mechlin.  He  excelled 
in  landscape  and  as  a  colorist.  The  best  of  his 
historical  pictures  is  that  representing  the  death 
of  Niobe  and  her  children.  He  produced  a 
number  of  excellent  copper  etchings  in  chiar- 
oscuro. His  four  sons  also  were  favorably 
known  artists,  especially  COKNEUS  and  ADRIAN, 
engravers. 

BLOFJIFJV.  I.  Jan  Frans  van,  a  Flemish  paint- 
er, born  in  Antwerp  in  1656,  died  in  Rome  in 
1740.  He  was  an  imitator  of  Poussin,  and  was 
called  Orizonte  on  account  of  the  fine  horizons 
in  his  Roman  landscapes.  His  best  pictures  are 
in  the  Colonna,  Doria,  Rospigliosi,  and  Monte 
Cavallo  palace  in  Rome.  II.  Peter  van,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  about  1645,  died  in  1719. 
He  was  in  Rome  till  1699,  when  he  became 
director  of  the  academy  of  Antwerp.  He  ex- 
celled chiefly  as  a  painter  of  battles.  The  gal- 
i  leries  at  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Munich  possess 
some  of  his  pictures. 

BLOEJIFOXTEIN,  a  town  of  S.  Africa,  capital 
!  of  the  Orange  River  Free  State,  on  the  Modder 
;  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Vaal,  in  lat.  29°  8'  S., 
Ion.  43°  47'  E.,  about  600  m.  N.  E.  of  Cape 
Town,  and  260  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Port  Natal ; 
'•  pop.   1,200.     Under  British  rule  (1848-'54)  it 
was  the  capital  of  a  district  of  -the  same  name. 
Though  a  small  town,  it  carries  on  a  large  com- 
merce in  wool  and  other  articles,  chiefly  with 

Cape  Colony  and  with 

the  sister  republic  of 
Transvaal.  It  has  a  the- 
atre, a  public  school,  a 
club,  and  a  large  Dutch 
Reformed  church,  be- 
sides Anglican,  Metho- 
dist, and  Roman  Catho- 
lic chapels.  The  in- 
habitants are  chiefly 
Boers. 

BLOIS,  a  city  of 
France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Loir-et- 
Cher,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Loire,  and  on 
the  railway  from  Paris 
to  Nantes,  100  m.  S. 
W.  of  Paris;  pop.  in 
1866,20,086.  It  is  built 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill 
overlooking  the  river. 
•  The  streets  in  the  upper 
part  are  narrow  and 

1  crooked,  and  some  of  them  are  too  steep  for 
the  use  of  carriages,  stairs  being  cut  in  sev- 
!  eral  places  for  the  accommodation  of  pedes- 
trians.    Blois   contains    many   objects  of    in- 


BLOMFIELD 


BLONDEL 


727 


terest,  including  a  Gothic  cathedral,  the  epis- 
copal palace,  the  town  house,  and  the  ancient 
castle  of  the  counts  of  Blois.  It  was  early  a 
place  of  importance,  and  during  the  middle 
ages  was  governed  by  counts  descended  from 
Hugh  Capet,  who  also  possessed  the  city  of 
Ohartres.  The  last  of  them,  Guy  II.,  sold  his 
feudal  estate  to  Louis  of  Orleans,  hrother  of 
Charles  VI.,  whose  grandson,  Louis  XII.,  united 
it  to  the  crown.  The  castle  became  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Valois,  and 
was  enlarged  and  improved  at  various  times 
until  it  was  one  of  the  handsomest  palaces  of 
the  country.  Francis  I.,  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX., 
and  Henry  III.  held  their  courts  in  it,  and  the 
states  general  of  France  were  twice  convened 
there  during  the  reign  of  Henry  III. :  in  1576, 
when  they  repealed  the  edict  of  pacification, 
and  the  king,  unable  to  oppose  the  league, 
declared  himself  its  chief;  and  in  1588,  when 
the  same  prince,  fearing  he  might  be  deprived 
of  his  crown  and  perhaps  his  life  through  the 
intrigues  of  the  Lorraine  princes,  had  the  duke 
of  Guise  murdered  by  his  body  guards  in  the 
antechamber  of  his  own  apartments,  and  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine  secretly  despatched,  a  few 
few  hours  later,  in  a  more  secluded  room. 
When  Maria  de'  Medici  was  in  1617  exiled  from 
the  court,  she  resided,  virtually  as  a  prisoner, 
in  this  castle,  whence  18  months  later  she  es- 
caped through  a  high  window.  In  1814,  on 
the  approach  of  the  allied  armies  to  Paris, 
the  empress  Maria  Louisa  and  the  council  of 
regency  repaired  for  a  while  to  this  place. 
Afterward  the  castle  was  entirely  neglected, 
and  used  as  barracks  for  cavalry.  During  the 
later  years  of  Louis  Philippe's  reign  it  was  care- 
fully restored.  Blois  has  several  literary  and 
scientific  societies,  a  botanical  garden  founded 
by  Henry  IV.,  a  public  library,  a  departmental 
college,  and  a  diocesan  seminary,  besides  hos- 
pitals and  other  public  institutions.  It  trades 
in  wines,  spirits,  vinegar,  staves,  and  licorice, 
and  produces  serges,  hosiery,  gloves,  cutlery, 
and  hardware.  A  handsome  bridge  of  11 
arches,  built  in  1717,  connects  the  town  with 
the  suburb  of  St.  Gervais.  The  city  is  fur- 
nished with  spring  water  through  an  old  aque- 
duct believed  to  be  of  Roman  origin. 

BLOMFIELD,  Charles  James,  an  English  clergy- 
man and  scholar,  born  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  | 
May  29,  1786,  died  in  London,  Aug.  5,  1857.  ; 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  in  1810-'12  edited  the  "Prometheus"  and 
other  plays  of  ^Eschylus.  His  edition  of  Cal- 
lirnacl.us  appeared  in  1824.  He  contributed 
largely  to  the  Museum  Criticum,  and  to  the 
quarterly  reviews,  generally  furnishing  critical 
papers  on  classical  subjects.  He  edited  the 
Mmm  Cantabriffiemes  in  conjunction  with  Ren- 
nel,  and  the  "Posthumous  Tracts"  of  Person 
in  conjunction  with  Monk,  afterward  bishop 
of  Gloucester.  He  also  edited  the  Adversaria 
Portoni,  and  in  1828  compiled  a  Greek  gram- 
mar for  schools.  In  1810  lie  was  appointed  to 
the  rectories  of  Warrington  and  Dunton ;  in 


1  1819  he  was  made  a  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
London;  in  1824  he  became  bishop  of  Chester, 
and  in  1828  bishop  of  London.  He  occupied 
that  see  for  28  years,  and  retired  in  September, 
1856,  on  account  of  ill  health,  with  a  pension 
of  £5,000  a  year,  and  the  use  of  the  palace  at 
Fulham  for  life.  In  parliament  he  maintained 
high  church  principles.  He  took  great  inter- 
est in  measures  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and 

!  the  improvement  of  the  laboring  classes,  and 
advocated  the  general  diffusion  of  education. 
Besides  his  classical  publications,  he  was  the 
author  of  a  "  Manual  of  Family  Prayers  "  and 
"  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 

BLOMMAERT,  Pliilip,  a  Flemish  writer,  born 
ia  Ghent  about  1809,  died  there,  Aug.  14,  1871. 

,  Possessed  of  a  considerable  fortune,  he  devoted 
himself  to  an  attempt  to  revive  Flemish  liter- 
ature and  the  use  of  his  native  language.  In 
pursuance  of  that  object  he  published  an  edi- 
tion of  the  old  Flemish  poets  of  the  llth,  12th, 
13th,  and  14th  centuries,  with  glossaries,  notes, 
and  emendations,  and  afterward  published  a 
translation  of  the  Nibelungenlied,  in  iambics. 
His  best  work,  however,  is  a  history  of  the 
Belgians. 

BLOND,  Jacqnes  Cbristophe  le,  a  printer  of  en- 
gravings in  colors,  born  in  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1670,  died  in  a  hospital  in  Paris  in 
1741.  He  was  bred  a  painter,  and  in  1711 
went  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  met  with  great 
success  in  painting  miniature  portraits.  He 
conceived  the  idea  of  an  establishment  to  print 
engravings  in  colors,  and  spent  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  and  all  the  means  he  could  obtain 
upon  experiments  which  were  comparatively 
unsuccessful.  He  worked  mainly  in  London 
and  Paris,  and,  finding  at  last  that  he  was  not 
to  obtain  the  brilliant  results  anticipated,  turn- 
ed his  attention  to  producing  Raphael's  cartoons 
in  tapestry,  in  which  he  also  failed  for  lack  of 
means  to  finish  his  work.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  inventor  of  printing  in  colors. 

BLONDEL,  a  French  trouvere  of  the  12th 
century,  born  at  Nesle,  near  Peronne,  Picardy. 
He  is  generally  regarded  as  the  minstrel  who 
was  the  friend,  teacher,  and  companion  of 
Richard  Coaur  de  Lion  in  his  expeditions.  Ac- 
cording to  a  tradition,  when  Richard  on  his  re- 
turn from  the  Holy  Land  was  imprisoned  by 
Leopold  of  Austria  in  the  fortress  of  Diirren- 
stein,  Blondel  discovered  the  place  of  his  cap- 
tivity by  singing  under  the  castle  window  a 
part  of  one  of  his  familiar  songs,  the  other 
part  being  taken  up  from  within  by  the  king. 
Blondel  then  went  to  England  and  caused  the 
monarch  to  be  ransomed.  This  story  is  con- 
firmed by  the  chronicles  of  Rheims  of  the  13th 
century,  edited. by  Alexis  Paulin  Paris  (1836) ; 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  corroborated  by 
other  authorities.  The  national  and  arsenal 
libraries  of  Paris  contain  29  MS.  songs,  part  of 
which  are  ascribed  to  the  trouvere,  and  others 
to  the  French  poet  Robert  Blondel,  who  died 
about  1461.  Let  auvres  de  Blond.el  de  Neele, 

I  by  Prosper  Tarbfi  (Rheims,  1862),  contain  a 


728 


BLOOD 


full  account  of  the  historical  and  legendary 
data  respecting  Blondel  and  an  edition  of  his 
and  Richard's  songs. 

BLOOD,  in  man  and  the  higher  animals,  the 
red  liquid  which  circulates  in  the  cavities  of 
the  heart,  the  arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capil- 
lary vessels.  I.  PHYSICAL  QUALITIES  OF  THE 
BLOOD.  In  the  living  hody  the  blood  is  a  some- 
what tenacious  liquid,  containing  innumerable 
solid  particles  (the  blood  globules),  which  are 
seen  only  with  the  microscope.  In  the  arteries 
the  blood  is  more  or  less  of  a  light  vermilion 
tint  in  children,  and  of  a  purplish  or  bright 
cherry  red  in  adults,  and  somewhat  darker  in 
old  people  and  in  pregnant  women.  In  the 
veins  it  is  dark  red,  and  even  blackish.  In 
disease,  and  also  in  various  physiological  states, 
the  blood  may  be  very  dark  in  the  arteries, 
and  in  other  cases  very  bright  in  the  veins. 
The  peculiar  odor  of  the  blood  usually  resem- 
bles that  of  the  perspiration  of  the  individual 
from  whom  the  blood  has  heen  taken.  The 
blood  is  transparent  when  seen  in  thin  layers ; 
opaque  otherwise.  The  specific  gravity  of  nor- 
mal human  blood  averages  1-055,  its  physio- 
logical limits  being  1-045  and  1 '075.  The  min- 
imum of  density  is  in  pregnant  women  and  in 
children,  and  the  maximum  in  adult  men.  The 
capacity  of  the  blood  for  heat  is,  according  to 
Nasse,  in  an  exact  ratio  to  its  density.  II. 
QUANTITY  OP  BLOOD  IN  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 
Of  the  various  means  employed  to  find  out  the 
relative  amount  of  blood  in  the  body,  that 
which  consists  in  first  weighing  an  animal,  then 
taking  out  as  much  of  its  blood  as  possible,  and 
weighing  the  latter,  is  not  to  be  relied  on,  as 
the  blood  never  flows  out  entirely  from  the 
blood  vessels.  However,  as  it  is  interesting  to 
know  how  much  blood  may  escape  from  divided 
blood  vessels,  we  will  give  a  list  of  the  results 
obtained  by  various  experiments.  In  the  ewe 
the  weight  of  the  blood  is  to  the  weight  of  the 
body  as  1  to  22  or  23;  in  the  ox  as  1  to  12 
(Herbst),  or  1  to  23  or  24  (Wanner) ;  in  the 
cow,  as  1  to  21  -77  ;  in  the  sheep,  as  1  to  20  or 
27-72 ;  in  the  dog,  as  1  to  10  or  12,  or  21 ;  in 
the  horse,  as  1  to  18;  in  the  lamb,  as  1  to  20 
or  22 ;  in  the  cat,  as  1  to  22  ;  in  the  rabbit,  as 
1  to  24  or  29 ;  in  the  ass,  as  1  to  23 ;  in  the 
fox,  as  1  to  21 ;  in  the  mouse,  as  1  to  22'5. 
From  these  results,  it  has  been  concluded  that 
in  man  the  proportion  of  blood  is  from  ^  to 
TV,  and  therefore,  for  a  man  weighing  160  Ibs., 
the  quantity  of  blood  is  from  8  to  16  Ibs.  But 
Haller  relates  many  cases  of  hemorrhage  in 
which  men  and  women  have  lost  9,  10,  11,  15, 
18,  or  22  Ibs.,  or  even  30  Ibs.  of  blood  from 
the  nose,  and  12  Ibs.  in  one  night,  or  8  pints, 
by  vomiting  (gastrorhagid).  Burdach  says  that 
Wrisberg  has  seen  a  woman  who  died  from  a 
loss  of  26  Ibs.  of  blood  from  the  uterus,  and 
that  another  woman  after  decapitation  yielded 
24  Ibs.  of  blood.  From  facts  of  this  kind  Hal- 
ler, Quesnay,  and  Hoffmann  inferred  that  there 
is  about  28  Ibs.  of  blood  in  the  body  of  a  man 
of  average  size.  The  best  mode  of  estimating 


the  amount  of  blood  in  a  man  has  been  cm- 
ployed  by  Lehmann  and  E.  Weber.  They 
determined  the  weight  of  two  criminals  both 
before  and  after  decapitation.  The  quantity 
of  the  blood  which  escaped  from  the  body  was 
ascertained  in  the  following  manner :  water 
was  injected  into  the  vessels  of  the  trunk  and 
head,  until  the  fiuid  escaping  from  the  veins 
had  only  a  pale  red  or  yellow  color ;  the  quan- 
tity of  the  blood  remaining  in  the  body  was 
then  calculated,  by  instituting  a  comparison 
between  the  solid  residue  of  this  pale  red  aque- 
I  ous  fluid,  and  that  of  the  blood  which  first 
I  escaped.  By  way  of  illustration,  we  subjoin 
I  the  results  yielded  by  one  of  the  experiments. 
The  living  body  of  one  of  the  criminals  weighed 
60,140  grammes,  and  the  same  body,  after  de- 
capitation, 54, 600 grammes;  consequently,  5,540 
grammes  of  blood  had  escaped ;  28-56  grammes 
of  this  blood  yielded  5-36  grammes  of  solid 
residue;  60-5  grammes  sanguineous  water,  col- 
lected after  the  injection,  contained  3-724 
grammes  of  solid  substances;  6-050  grammes 
of  the  sanguineous  water  that  returned  from  the 
veins  were  collected,  and  these  contained  37'24 
grammes  of  solid  residue,  which  corresponds 
to  1,980  grammes  of  blood ;  consequently,  the 
body  contained  7,520  grammes  of  blood  (5,540 
escaping  in  the  act  of  decapitation,  and  1,980 
remaining  in  the  body) ;  hence,  the  weight  of 
the  whole  of  the  blood  was  to  that  of  the  body 
nearly  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  8.  The  other  ex- 
periment yielded  a  precisely  similar  result.  By 
this  mode  of  calculation,  which  gives  a  nearer 
approximation  than  any  other  to  the  propor- 
tion of  blood,  we  have  not,  however,  the  exact 
proportion,  because  blood  remains  in  some  of 
the  capillaries.  The  only  positive  conclusion 
we  can  draw  from  these  experiments  is  that 
there  is  at  least  20  Ibs.  of  blood  in  the  body 
of  a  healthy  man  weighing  160  Ibs.  Valentin 
has  employed  another  mode  of  calculation, 
which,  unlike  the  preceding,  has  given  a  pro- 
portion of  blood  in  the  body  greater  than  that 
which  really  exists.  He  bleeds  an  animal,  and 
determines  the  proportion  of  solid  parts  in 
the  blood ;  then  a  certain  quantity  of  water  is 
injected  into  the  veins,  and  immediately  after- 
ward blood  is  drawn  again,  and  its  proportion 
of  solid  parts  determined ;  and  after  a  compar- 
ison of  the  two  results,  a  calculation  is  made 
which  gives  the  quantity  of  blood.  In  dogs 
it  was  found  that  the  amount  of  blood,  com- 
pared to  the  weight  of  the  body,  is  as  1  to  4£, 
and  in  sheep  as  1  to  5.  If  this  result  be  ap- 
plied to  man,  we  find,  for  a  man  weighing  160 
Ibs.,  from  32  to  36  Ibs.  of  blood,  which  is  most 
probably  an  over-estimate.  Dr.  Blake,  by  an- 
other method,  has  obtained  more  important 
results.  He  injects  into  the  veins  of  an  animal 
a  certain  quantity  of  the  sulphate  of  alumina, 
a  salt  which  is  not  quickly  destroyed  in  the 
blood,  or  expelled  from  it;  then  he  analyzes 
the  blood,  and  by  the  proportion  of  this  salt 
found  in  it  he  ascertains  very  nearly  the  quan- 
tity of  blood  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  The 


BLOOD 


729 


conclusion  is  that  there  is  1  Ib.  of  blood  for  8 
or  9  of  the  animal,  and  therefore  from  18  to 
•20  Ibs.  of  blood  in  a  man  weighing  160  Ibs. 
From  all  these  facts  it  results  that  the  quantity 
of  blood  in  an  adult  man  is  very  likely  a  little 
above  20  Ibs.  There  is  more  blood  in  men  than 
in  women.  It  is  not  positively  determined 
whether  a  fat  or  a  lean  person  has  most  blood  ; 
but  Schultz  says  that  there  is  more  blood  in 
lean  oxen  than  in  fat  ones.  Berard  justly  re- 
marks that  it  is  a  mistake  to  believe  that  there 
is  proportionally  more  blood  in  newly  born  chil- 
dren than  in  adults.  III.  COMPOSITION  OF  THE 
BLOOD.  There  is  no  fluid  in  the  body  having 
so  complex  a  composition  as  the  blood.  This 
fact  may  be  easily  understood,  as  we  know 
that  through  the  blood  passes  everything  that 
is  going  to  or  coining  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  either  solid  or  liquid.  The  chemical 
analysis  of  the  blood  is  extremely  difficult,  and 
much  is  still  to  be  learned  as  regards  its  com- 
position. On  comparing  the  results  obtained 
by  various  experimenters  who  have  analyzed 
the  blood,  we  find  a  great  difference  between 
them.  Gorup-Besanez  has  proved  that  these 
differences  depend  mostly  on  the  method  of 
analysis ;  for  he  found  that  when  four  samples 
of  the  same  blood  were  analyzed  by  himself 
according  to  the  four  principal  methods,  the 
results  were  strikingly  different,  as  the  follow- 
ing table  will  show : 


AUTHORS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  METHODS. 

MM* 

Becquerel 
and  Rodler. 

Hoefle. 

Gonip-B«- 
urnez 

Water 

796-93 
203-07 

1-95 
115-16 

68-82 

27-14 

796-98 
203-07 

1-95 
117-82 
68-87 

19-48 

796-98 
203-07 

1-95 
108-28 
80-84 

47-05 

796-98 

208-07 

195 
108-28 
70-75 

27-14 

Solid  matters.  .  . 
Fi  brine  

Corpuscles  
Albumen  
Extractive  mat- 
ters and  salts. 

Hence  it  is  of  no  value  to  compare  researches 
on  the  composition  of  blood  in  disease  in  men 
at  different  ages,  or  in  different  animals,  made 
by  experimenters  who  have  employed  different 
methods.  The  following  table  represents  the 
composition  of  normal  human  blood,  according 
to  the  researches  of  Lehmann.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  proportion  of  corpuscles  is  notably 
larger  than  in  the  former  table. 


1.  Water 


i.  Solid  re- 
sidue    H 
204-55. 

r  1.  Fibrine  . 

2-025 
8-375 

141-110 
39-420 
2-015 
8-270  J 
2-665' 
•090 
•6fiS 
1-825 
2-197 
•585 

•212 

•143  J 

2.  Corpuscle 

8.  Albumen 
4.  Fatty  mat 
6.  Extractive 

6.  Mineral 
substances, 
exclusive  of 
iron 

. 

(  Hrematine  .... 
<  Globulinc&cel 
(  membrane.. 

matters  

Chlorine 

Sulphuric  acid... 
Phosphoric  acid 
Potassium  ...  . 

Phosphate  of 

Phosphate  of 
^     magnesia  .... 

795-45 


196-215 


8-835 


This  is  another  proof  of  the  differences  due  to 
methods  of  analysis :  in  the  last  case,  the  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  have  not  been  deprived  of 
their  salts,  and  therefore  their  weight  is  more 
considerable  than  in  cases  where  they  lose  a 
part  of  their  constituents  before  being  weighed. 
Many  other  substances  are  found  in  the  blood 
besides  those  above  enumerated.  Among  the 
fatty  matters  we  find  the  saponifiable  fats 
(which  chiefly  consist  of  oleate  and  margarate 
of  soda),  a  phosphorized  fatty  matter,  choles- 
terine,  and  seroline.  Besides  these  substances, 
there  is  probably  also  one  or  many  volatile 
fatty  acids,  to  which  the  blood  owes  its  odor. 
The  so-called  extractive  substances  of  the 
blood  are  very  different  from  each  other,  some 
of  them  being  nitrogenized  matters,  while 
others  are  not.  Among  these  substances  are 
found  what  Mulder  calls  binoxide  and  tri- 
toxide  of  proteine  and  sugar,  urea,  uric  and 
hippuric  acids,  creatine,  creatinine,  &c.  In 
the  blood  vessels,  and  during  life,  blood  con- 
sists essentially  of  two  parts,  which  differ  ex- 
tremely: one  is  solid,  the  corpuscles  or  glo- 
bules, the  other  is  liquid,  the  liquor  sanguinis. 
According  to  Lehmann,  the  corpuscles  form 
fully  one  half  of  the  volume  of  the  blood. 
Their  analysis  compared  to  that  of  the  liquor 
sanguinis  shows  that  they  differ  much  from  it : 

1,000  parti  of  blood  corpuscle*  con-  1,000  parts  of  liquor  sanguinis  con- 
Water....  ,..68300  Water....  902-90 

Solid  residue 812-00  ,  Solid  residue 97-11) 


Ilaematine  (including 

iron) 16-75 

Globullne  and  cell  mem- 
brane   282-22 

Fat 2-81 

Extractive  matters 2-60 

Mineral  substances 8-12 


Fibrlne 4-05 

Albumen 78-84 

Fat 1-72 

Extractive  matters 8-94 

Mineral  substances ....  8*55 


1.  Chlorine 

2.  Sulphuric  acid 

8.  Phosphoric  acid.   .. 

4.  Potassium 

5.  Sodium 

6.  Oxygen 

7.  Phosphate  of  lime . . 

8.  Phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia   


1-686  [  1.  Chlorine 8-644 

0-066  i  2.  Sulphuric  acid 0-115 

1-184  j  8.  Phosphoric  acid. . . .  0-191 

8-828  I  4.  Potassium 0-828 

1-052    5.  Sodium 8-841 

0-667    6.  Oxygen 0-408 

0-114    7.  Phosphate  of  lime. .  0-811 

j  8.  Phosphate  of  mag- 

0-078  !      nesla 0-222 


Of  the  many  metals  found  in  the  blood,  the 
most  important  seems  to  be  iron,  which  is 
found  not  only  in  the  blood,  but,  according  to 
M.  Verdeil,  in  all  the  coloring  matters  of  the 
body.  Iron  in  the  blood  is  found  only  in  the 
corpuscles,  combined  with  the  coloring  matter, 
the  h»matine.  According  to  Lecanu,  there  is 
7  per  cent,  of  iron  in  hasmatine.  In  15  kilo- 
grammes(33  Ibs.)  of  blood,  the  proportion  of  hee- 
matine  is  about  34  grammes  (1  oz.),  and  there- 
fore the  quantity  of  iron  is  nearly  2'42  grammes 
(nearly  50  grains).  Copper  was  found  in  the 
blood  by  Sarzeau,  and  manganese  by  Denis. 
Millon  ascertained  the  constant  existence  of 
these  two  metals,  and  also  of  lead,  in  the  blood. 
These  metals  exist  in  greater  quantity  in  the 
globules  than  in  the  liquor  sanguinis.  It  is 
very  important  to  know  that  these  metals, 
and  particularly  copper,  exist  normally  in  the 
blood,  to  avoid  mistakes  that  might  be  made 


730 


BLOOD 


in  cases  of  suspected  poisoning  by  them.  It 
has  been  said  that  arsenic  exists  normally  in 
blood,  but  this  assertion  has  been  disproved. 
Nickles  has  pointed  out  the  existence  of  an  in- 
teresting element  in  blood,  fluorine.  The  blood 
of  man  differs  from  that  of  woman,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  comparative  analyses 
made  by  Becquerel  and  Rodier : 


Density  of  defibrinated  blood 1060-8 

Water 779 

Corpuscles 141-1 

Albumen 69-4 


Fibrine 

Extractive  matters  and  free  salts. . . 

Fattv  matters 

Seroline 

Phosphorized  fatty  matter 

Cholesterine 

Animal  soap 


M 

6-8 

1-600 
0*20 
0-488 
0-OS8 
1-004 


1057-5 

791 

127-2 
70-5 
2-2 
7-4 
1-620 
0-020 
0-464 
O'O'.IO 
1-046 


The  same  chemists  have  also  found  that  there 
is  less  iron  in  the  blood  of  woman  than  in  that 
of  man.  The  blood  of  children  is  richer  in  solid 
constituents,  and  especially  blood  corpuscles, 
than  that  of  adults.  It  is  just  the  reverse  with 
the  blood  of  old  people  compared  to  that  of 
adults.  During  pregnancy  the  blood  contains 
more  water  than  in  other  circumstances ;  the 
quantity  of  albumen  and  of  blood  corpuscles  is 
diminished.  Cazeaux  has  justly  pointed  out 
that  the  so-called  plethora  of  pregnant  women 
is  not  a  plethora  of  blood,  but  of  water,  and 
that  it  is  usually  very  wrong  to  bleed  women 
during  pregnancy  only  because  they  seem  to 
have  too  much  blood.  Among  animals,  the 
blood  of  omnivora  and  carnivora  is  richer  in 
organic  solid  constituents  than  that  of  the  her- 
hivora.  So  also  is  that  of  the  warm-blooded 
vertebrata,  compared  to  the  cold-blooded.  The 
blood  of  the  arteries  differs  from  that  of  the 
veins  in  many  points.  Its  corpuscles  have  a 
smaller  quantity  of  solid  constituents,  especially 
fats,  but  they  contain  relatively  more  hasma- 
tine  and  salts.  It  has  more  fibrine  and  more 
water,  and  therefore  relatively  less  albumen. 
It  has  also  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  fats,  and 
a  much  greater  amount  of  extractive  matters, 
while  its  salts  are  diminished.  For  the  com- 
position of  the  blood  of  the  portal  and  hepatic 
veins,  see  LIVER. — Changes  in  the  composition 
of  the  blood  are  effected  very  quickly ;  during 
digestion,  for  instance,  the  solid  constituents 
of  the  blood  manifestly  increase,  while  the  re- 
verse takes  place  during  fasting.  In  all  the 
circumstances  which  modify  the  blood,  it  is 
chiefly  the  number  and  the  composition  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  which  change.  The  differ- 
ences between  different  animals  as  to  the  quan- 
tity of  blood  corpuscles  are  very  great ;  for  in- 
stance, the  pig  has  145-5  of  dry  blood  corpus- 
cles, while  the  goat  has  only  86-0,  out  of  1,000 
parts  of  blood.  Of  course  this  relates  only  to 
dried  corpuscles,  as  Lehmann  has  found  that 
the  normal  corpuscles  in  man  form  more  than 
one  half  the  quantity  of  the  blood.  When 
it  is  said  that  the  proportion  of  corpuscles  is 
only  T^jf  of  the  blood,  this  relates  to  dry  cor- 
puscles. The  proportion  of  this  most  important 


element  in  the  blood  of  man  is  put  down  at 
a  higher  or  lower  amount,  according  to  the 
means  employed  to  separate  or  to  dry  them. 
In  this  way  we  may  explain  how  Lehmann 
gives  the  proportion  of  149-485  for  the  dry 
corpuscles  in  1,000  parts  of  blood,  while  Bec- 
querel and  Rodier  give  the  proportion  of  141-1, 
Richardson  134-8,  Lecanu  132-5,  Prevost  and 
Dumas  129-0,  Andral  and  Gavarret  127'0,  Popp 
120-0,  Nasse  116-5,  and  Soberer  only  112-0,  for 
the  blood  of  man.  The  quantity  of  fibrine  in 
the  blood,  even  in  very  weak  anaemic  or  hy- 
drajmic  persons,  increases  in  all  cases  of  inflam- 
mation accompanied  with  fever.  IV.  MICRO- 
SCOPICAL STCDY  OF  THE  BLOOD.  When  the 
blood  is  examined  with  a  microscope,  many 
things  may  be  found :  1,  red  corpuscles  or 
disks  ;  2,  white,  or  rather  colorless,  corpuscles ; 
3,  molecular  elements ;  4,  pigment ;  5,  crystals ; 
6,  coagulated  fibrine.  We  will  study  succes- 
sively these  different  elements.  1.  Bed  corpus- 
cles or  disks.  Their  discovery  is  due  to  Mal- 
pighi  (in  1666),  although  it  seems  that  Swam- 
merdam  had  seen  them  a  few  years  before. 
They  are  found  in  the  blood  of  all  the  verte- 
brata. Their  form  varies  much  in  animals  of 
different  classes.  In  mnn  they  are  thick,  cir- 
cular, slightly  biconcave  disks,  consisting  of  a 
colorless  investing  membrane,  and  of  red  or, 
in  refracted  light,  yellow,  viscid,  fluid  contents. 
They  have  no  nucleus,  at  least  in  adult  men. 
In  the  other  mammalia  the  red  corpuscles  are 
more  or  less  similar  to  those  of  man — except, 
however,  a  few  tribes  (camel,  dromedary,  lla- 
ma), in  which  the  red  corpuscles  are  not  circu- 
lar and  concave,  but  elliptic  and  biconvex.  In 
birds  they  are  also  elliptic  or  oval,  and  elevated 
in  the  centre.  In  ampliibia  they  are  oval  also, 
and  strongly  convex.  We  owe  to  the  laborious 
researches  of  Gulliver  the  indication  of  the  size 
of  the  red  corpuscles  in  an  immense  number  of 
animals.  We  will  take  from  the  table  he  has 
published  only  what  relates  to  man  and  to  the 
most  common  animals,  or  to  those  which  have 

MEASUREMENTS    OF   THE   RED    CORPUSCLES    OF 
THE    BLOOD. 

MAMMALIA  (continued). 

Long  diameter. 

28.  Beaver SJi'25 

24.  Guinea  pig 8588 


I.  MAMMALIA. 

Long  diameter. 

1.  Man 8200 

2.  Monkeys,  from  8624 

to 8888 

8.  Bats,   from  4465  to  4175 

4.  Mole 4747 

5.  Bear  (Ursus  Ameri- 
canus) 8698 

6.  Dog 8542 

7.  Wolf 3600 

8.  Cat 4404 

9.  Lion 4322 

10.  Tiger 4206 

11.  Whale 8099 

12.  Pig 4230 

13.  Elephant 2745 

14.  Horse 4600 

15.  Ass 4000 

16.  Ox 4267 

17.  Eeddeer 4824 

IX.  Sheep 5800 

19.  Goat 6866 

20.  Hare 8560 

21.  Kabbit 3607 

22.  Mouse  ...                .  .  3614 


II.   BlEDS. 

1.  Raven  ...                  . .  1961 

2.  Swallow 2170 

8.  Cock 2102 

4.  Swan Itn6 

III.  REPTILES. 

1.  Tortoise  (land) 1252 

2.  Alligator 1824 

8.  Lizard 165B 

IV.  AMPHIBIA. 

1.  Common  frog 1108 

2.  Common  toad 1043 

8.  Siren 420 

V.  FISHES. 

1.  Perch 2099 

2.  Carp 2142 

3.  Eel 1745 


BLOOD 


731 


corpuscles  of  the  most  remarkable  size.  The 
measurements  are  all  made  in  vulgar  fractions 
of  an  English  inch.;  but  for  the  sake  of  conve- 
nience, the  numerator,  being  invariably  1,  is 
omitted,  and  the  denominators  only  are  printed. 
These  measures  show  that  the  size  of  the  blood 
corpuscles  is  not  at  all  in  proportion  with  the 
size  of  the  animal.  For  instance,  the  corpus- 
cles of  man  are  larger  than  those  of  the  ass,  the 
horse,  the  bear,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  &c.,  which 
are  larger  animals  than  man.  It  is  nevertheless 
remarkable  that  the  elephant  and  the  whale 
are  among  the  animals  whose  blood  corpuscles 
are  the  largest.  In  the  same  individual  the 
blood  disks  are  not  all  of  the  same  size  ;  in 
man  their  diameter  varies  between  j^Vs  to 


j-j-Vs  of  an  mcn)  tne  average  being  s-jVj.  The 
red  corpuscles  of  man,  although  larger  than 
those  of  most  of  the  mammalia,  are  so  small 
(the  oW  Part  °f  an  inch)  that,  according  to 
Home,  19,880  of  these  corpuscles,  placed  side 
by  side,  would  cover  only  a  surface  of  a  square 
inch.  Young  says  that  to  cover  such  a  surface 
255,000  corpuscles  would  be  necessary.  The 
number  of  red  corpuscles  in  the  body  of  a  man 
is  immense.  To  convey  an  idea  of  this  num- 
ber, we  will  merely  state  that,  according  to 
StOltzing,  there  are  from  three  to  four  or  five 
millions  of  corpuscles  in  one  cubic  millimetre 
(the  linear  millimetre  being  about  ^  of  an 
inch).  Vierordt  and  Voelcker  had  already  ob- 
tained analogous  results.  The  red  corpuscles 
are  very  elastic  and  pliant,  so  much  so  that 
they  may  pass  through  blood  vessels  the  diame- 
ter of  which  is  somewhat  smaller  than  theirs. 
They  exist  in  all  the  vertebrata  except  one,  the 
lancelet  (amphioxus  lanceolatus),  a  very  singu- 
lar and  little  developed  fish.  2.  White  or  color- 
lens  corpuscles.  These  globules  seem  to  have 
been  seen  for  the  first  time  by  the  celebrated 
Hewson,  in  the  last  century.  However,  it  is 
only  in  our  days  that  they  have  been  well  stu- 
died. They  are  found  in  all  the  vertebrata,  in- 
cluding the  amphibia,  whose  blood  has  no  other 
corpuscle.  They  are  much  more  globular  than 
the  red  corpuscles,  but  not  perfectly  spherical  ; 
they  have  a  granular  capsule  and  a  nucleus 
of  several  small  ones.  They  are  quite  pale  or 
colorless;  they  do  not  contain  iron,  and  have 
much  more  fat  than  the  red  corpuscles.  Their 
size  hardly  varies  in  the  different  classes  of  ani- 
mals, so  that  they  are  in  some  smaller  and  in 
others  larger  than  the  red  corpuscles,  which 
vary  much  in  size.  In  warm-blooded  animals 
(man  included)  they  average  rather  more  than 
infof  °f  an  mcn  m  diameter.  An  interesting 
fact  concerning  the  pale  corpuscles  of  the 
blood  is,  that  they  seem  to  be  endowed  with 
the  faculty  of  altering  their  form.  According 
to  the  discovery  of  Mr.  Wharton  Jones,  and 
to  the  more  recent  researches  of  M.  Davaine, 
they  often  show  a  slow  protrusion  from  their 
membranous  wall  ;  after  which  another  one 
forms  itself  in  another  part,  while  the  first 
slowly  disappears  ;  sometimes  a  depression  is 
formed  instead  of  a  protrusion.  These  changes 


have  been  seen  even  in  circulating  blood  in 
living  animals.  These  spontaneous  alterations 
of  form  have  been  considered  by  some  phys- 
iologists as  a  proof  that  these  cells  or  cor- 
puscles are  microscopical  animals.  But  ap- 
parently spontaneous  movements  are  not  suf- 
ficient signs  of  independent  life,  for,  admitting 
that  these  corpuscles  are  animalcules,  Brown- 
Sequard  has  shown  that  all  the  muscles  of 
man  or  of  animals,  separated  from  the  body, 
may  have  apparently  spontaneous  movements ; 
so  that  we  should  have  to  admit  that  each 
elementary  muscular  fibre  is  a  distinct  animal 
being,  if  apparently  spontaneous  motions  were 
a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  independent  liv- 
ing organism.  The  number  of  colorless  cells  is 
very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  red  disks. 
There  is  one  colorless  corpuscle  to  300  or  400 
red,  according  to  Bonders  and  Moleschott. 
The  number  of  colorless  cells  increases  more 
than  that  of  the  red  disks  after  eating,  and  par- 
ticularly after  taking  albuminous  food.  3.  Mo- 
lecular elements.  There  is  in  the  Wood  a 
number  of  exceedingly  small  solid  particles 
which  the  French  (Donne,  Robin)  call  globulins 
(small  globules).  Their  nature  is  unknown,  and 
their  form  has  no  definite  character ;  it  may 
be  that  they  are  particles  of  coagulated  fibrine. 
4.  Pigment.  There  is  frequently,  and  perhaps 
always,  in  the  blood  of  man  and  of  the  higher 
animals,  a  small  quantity  of  black  pigment  un- 
der various  forms.  Sometimes  there  are  only 
exceedingly  fine  granules,  like  those  of  the 
skin  (which  are  the  cause  of  its  color) ;  in 
other  cases  there  are  plates  of  pigment,  which 
seem  chiefly  to  result  from  an  aggregation  of 
granules.  The  presence  of  cells  containing 
black  pigment  is  very  rare  in  the  blood.  From 
the  researches  of  Brown-Sequard,  it  seems  that 
the  quantity  of  pigment  increases  in  the  blood 
of  animals  when  the  supra-renal  capsules  have 
been  extirpated.  The  accumulation  of  pig- 
ment in  the  blood  of  man,  according  to  Planer, 
and  in  that  of  animals,  according  to  Brown- 
Sequard,  is  a  cause  of  rapid  death.  5.  Crys- 
tals. It  happens,  though  very  rarely,  that 
without  any  preparation  the  blood  corpuscles 
become  decomposed,  and  their  coloring  matter, 
slightly  changed  in  its  chemical  composition, 
forms  rhomboidal  or  simple  needle-shaped  crys- 
tals. By  the  addition  of  water,  of  ammonia,  or 
some  other  reagents,  it  is  easy  to  produce  many 
crystals  in  a  drop  of  almost  any  blood,  as  has 
been  ascertained  by  Virchow,  Kunde,  O.  Funke, 
Reichmann,  and  others.  M.  Charles  Robin  has 
once  found  in  the  liver  a  mass  of  altered  blood 
as  large  as  a  hazel  nut,  entirely  transformed  into 
crystals,  or  rather  containing  nothing  but  haama- 
tine  crystallized,  the  other  elements  of  the  blood 
having  been  absorbed.  Brown-Sequard  has 
pointed  out  the  fact  that,  in  dogs  especially, 
after  the  extirpation  of  the  supra-renal  capsules, 
the  formation  of  crystals  in  the  blood  is  very 
considerable  and  rapid.  6.  Coagulated  fibrine. 
Some  micrographers,  especially  Nasse  and  Vir- 
chow, call  certain  solid  particles  floating  in  the 


732 


BLOOD 


blood  fibrinous  flakes.  Ilenle  at  first  consider- 
ed these  particles  as  shreds  of  epithelium,  from 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  blood  vessels ;  after- 
ward as  aggregations  of  cell  membranes  of  de- 
stroyed blood  disks.  Lehmann  admits  that  ex- 
periments of  Doderlein  have  proved  that  these 
flakes  are  not  composed  of  coagulated  fibrine. 
Bruch  has  tried  to  show  that  the  pretended 
fibrinous  flakes  are  nothing  more  than  epithe- 
lial cells  from  the  skin  of  the  observer  himself, 
which  have  fallen  from  his  face  or  his  hands 
on  the  preparation.  It  is  very  probable  that 
these  flakes  are  in  a  great  measure,  but  not 
entirely,  composed  of  epithelial  cells,  and 
that  truly  coagulated  fibrine,  in  more  or  less 
small  particles,  exists  in  blood  out  of  the 
blood  vessels,  at  least.  Besides  the  morpho- 
logical elements  above  described,  we  find  in  the 
blood  of  certain  inferior  animals  vibriones,  or 
other  infusoria,  and  microscopical  drops  of  fat. 
The  assumed  presence  in  the  blood  of  another 
distinct  element,  i.  e.,  the  lymph  or  chyle  cor- 
puscle, has  received  a  different  interpretation 
from  that  previously  admitted  :  the  colorless  or 
pale  corpuscles  of  the  blood  have  been  proved 
to  be  similar  to  the  chyle  or  lymph  corpuscles. 
V.  COAGVLATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  When  drawn 
from  a  vein  or  an  artery  of  man,  blood  usually 
begins  to  coagulate  in  a  few  minutes.  From 
the  liquid  state  it  passes  at  first  to  the  condition 
of  a  soft  jelly,  which  gradually  becomes  more 
and  more  consistent.  The  whole  mass  of  the 
blood  seems  in  the  beginning  to  become  solid, 
but  by  the  contraction  of  the  coagulated  sub- 
stance the  liquid  is  expelled  from  the  kind 
of  network  formed  by  this  substance,  and  the 
coagulum  or  clot  gradually  becomes  smaller. 
The  part  of  the  blood  which  remains  liquid  is 
called  serum.  It  had  been  imagined  that  the 
coagulation  of  the  blood  depended  upon  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  blood  corpuscles  one  to  the  other ; 
but  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  coagulation 
is  only  the  result  of  the  solidification  of  the 
fibrine,  which,  taking  place  in  the  whole  mass  of 
the  blood,  contains  the  blood  corpuscles  impris- 
oned in  the  network  it  forms.  The  following 
table  shows  what  changes  take  place  in  the 
blood  during  coagulation : 


Liq.  blood 


Liquor 


Blood  corpuscles. 


brine  i  )-  C'oag. 

vClot  ( 


blood. 


The  serum  is  the  liquor  sanguinis  deprived  of 
its  fibrine,  and  no  longer  holding  the  corpuscles ; 
the  clot  is  the  fibrine  solidified,  and  holding  the 
blood  corpuscles.  It  is  well  proved  that  the  co- 
agulation of  the  blood,  removed  from  the  body, 
depends  upon  the  coagulation  of  its  fibrine.  If 
blood  drawn  from  the  vessels  of  a  living  man 
or  animal  be  whipped  with  glass  rods,  its  fibrine 
becomes  solidified  on  these  rods,  and  the  whole 
of  it  may  in  this  manner  be  taken  away,  and 
then  the  defibrinated  blood  remains  liquid. 
Nevertheless,  many  blood  corpuscles  sometimes 
adhere  one  with  another,  and  in  so  doing  offer 
a  half  solid  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  vase,  but 


the  least  motion  shows  that  there  is  no  coagu- 
lation. When  they  are  included  in  a  fibrinous 
clot,  the  blood  corpuscles  contribute  to  its  so- 
lidification by  some  slight  adhesion  with  the 
fibrine,  and  by  their  being  included  in  its  net- 
work. The  circumstances  which  influence  the 
coagulation  of  the  blood  have  been  the  subject 
of  a  great  many  investigations,  among  which 
the  most  important  are  those  of  Hewson,  John 
Davy,  T.  Thackrah,  C.  Scudamore,  Gulliver, 
and  more  recently  Zimmermann,  E.  Brucke. 
and  B.  W.  Richardson.  We  will  examine  here 
only  what  relates  to  the  principal  circumstances 
and  assumed  causes  of  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood.  1.  Influence  of  temperature.  The  co- 
agulation of  the  blood  drawn  from  the  blood 
vessels  does  not  depend  upon  the  loss  of  its  tem- 
perature. It  is  true  that  the  blood  flowing 
from  the  vein  of  a  man  in  a  room,  even  at  a 
summer  temperature,  soon  loses  several  degrees 
of  heat,  and  falls  from  102°  to  98°,  or  to  a  lower 
degree.*  But  this  loss  of  a  few  degrees  of 
heat  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  coagulation  of 
the  blood,  because  every  day,  during  the  win- 
ter, our  blood,  in  the  nose,  in  the  ears,  and  the 
extremities  of  the  limbs,  loses  many  more  de- 
grees without  coagulating.  Besides,  the  blood 
of  cold-blooded  animals  coagulates  as  well  as 
that  of  the  warm-blooded.  Ilewson  has  dem- 
onstrated that  it  is  possible  to  freeze  the  blood 
while  yet  fluid,  and  that  after  being  rendered 
fluid  again  by  thawing,  it  will  coagulate  in  the 
ordinary  way.  Hunter  succeeded  in  freezing 
the  blood  in  the  ear  of  a  living  rabit,  and  after 
some  time,  being  thawed,  it  did  not  coagulate. 
A  low  temperature  retards  coagulation,  but  the 
physiologists  who  maintain  that  coagulation  is 
prevented  by  a  temperature  near  the  freezing 
point  are  mistaken.  Brucke  says  that  he  has 
seen  blood  coagulated  at  every  temperature 
above  32°  F.,  and  even  below  that  point,  provi- 
ded the  blood  itself  was  not  frozen.  But  he  has 
seen  the  blood  of  frogs  sometimes  remain  fluid 
for  eight  days,  while  kept  in  the  snow.  Brown- 
Sequard  has  seen  the  blood  of  frogs  coagulated 
so  quickly  at  a  temperature  of  33°  or  34°  F.,  or  a 
little  above,  that  hemorrhage  from  the  section 
of  one  third  of  the  ventricular  mass  of  the  heart 
was  stopped  by  a  clot,  and  life  was  maintained. 
As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  higher  the  tem- 
perature, within  certain  limits,  the  sooner  co- 
agulation takes  place ;  but  it  seems,  according 
to  Gulliver,  that  the  coagulating  power  is  lost 
by  a  temperature  of  150°  F.,  as  blood  heated 
to  that  point  remains  permanently  fluid.  The 
experiments  of  Polli,  Trousseau,  Leblanc,  and 
others,  seem  to  show  that  the  temperature 
most  favorable  to  coagulation  is  very  nearly 
that  of  the  blood  itself.  2.  Influence  of  air. 
Many  physiologists  have  thought  that  the  cause 
of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  when  drawn 

*  The  temperature  of  the  blood  is  erroneously  marked  at 
98°  on  the  thermometers.  Experiments  made  by  John  Davy 
and  by  Brown-S£quard  have  shown  that,  at  least  in  the 
abdomen  and  in  the  chest,  the  blood  in  man  is  at  a  higher  de- 
gree. According  to  the  last-named  experimenter,  it  is  be- 
tween 10-2°  and  1P8°. 


BLOOD 


733 


from  the  blood  vessels  of  a  living  man  or  ani- 
mal, was  a  peculiar  action  of  air.  Hewson  be- 
lieved that  air  had  a  considerable  coagulating 
influence.  In  proof  of  this  he  relates  the  fol- 
lowini;  experiments:  Having  laid  bare  the  ju- 
gular vein  in  a  living  rabbit,  he  tied  it  up  in  three 
places,  and  then  opened  it  between  two  of  the  i 
ligatures  and  emptied  that  part  of  its  blood.  He  ' 
next  blew  warm  air  into  the  empty  vein  and 
put  another  ligature  upon  it,  and,  letting  it  rest  , 
till  he  thought  the  air  had  acquired  the  same 
degree  of  heat  as  the  blood,  he  then  removed 
the  intermediate  ligature,  and  mixed  the  air 
with  the  blood.  The  air  immediately  made  the  ; 
blood  florid  where  it  was  in  contact  with  it,  as  i 
could  be  seen  through  the  coats  of  the  vein.  In 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  he  opened  the  vein  and 
found  the  blood  entirely  coagulated ;  and  "as 
the  blood,"  says  Hewson,  "could  not  in  this 
time  have  been  completely  congealed  by  rest 
alone,  the  air  was  probably  the  cause  of  its  co- 
agulation." Brucke  says  that  air  blown  in  the 
manner  mentioned  by  Hewson  usually  hastens 
coagulation,  but  that  it  is  not  always  so. 
Brown-Sequard  has  ascertained  that  blood 
mixed  with  air  blown  into  the  jugular  veins  of 
dogs  does  not  always  coagulate.  In  some  cases, 
four  months  after  the  operation,  the  blood  was 
found  liquid  in  the  vein  between  two  ligatures. 
It  has  been  remarked  that  when  blood  is  placed  j 
in  a  cup,  coagulation  begins  sooner  in  the  part  ; 
in  contact  with  air  than  in  the  interior  of  the  i 
liquid,  but  Briicke  states  that  he  has  seen  co-  ] 
agulation  begin  as  quickly  in  the  surface  in 
contact  with  the  walls  of  the  cup.  If  coagula- 
tion depended  upon  a  peculiar  influence  of  at- 
mospheric air,  it  should  not  take  place  when 
blood  is  not  exposed  to  air.  John  Davy  and 
H.  Nasse  have  seen  coagulation  occur  as  quick- 
ly in  unexposed  as  in  exposed  blood.  Scuda- 
more  says  even  that  coagulation  is  more  rapid 
in  a  pneumatic  receiver,  where  blood  is  not 
submitted  to  the  action  of  air.  From  many 
experiments  Brucke  has  drawn  the  following 
conclusions:  1.  Air  usually  hastens  the  coagu- 
lation of  the  blood.  2.  Air,  when  introduced 
into  the  heart  and  vessels  of  living  turtles,  does 
not  induce  coagulation.  3.  The  blood  of  frogs, 
when  deteriorated  by  the  action  of  the  heart  or 
of  the  other  tissues  of  the  animal,  and  so  de-  i 
prived  of  its  free  oxygen,  sometimes  requires 
atmospheric  air  for  its  coagulation.  4.  Normal 
blood  needs  not  the  presence  of  air  for  its  co- 
agulation. Therefore,  and  chiefly  from  the  last 
conclusion,  it  follows  that  air  is  not  the  general 
cause  of  coagulation  of  the  blood.  3.  Influ- 
ence of  carbonic  acid.  Scudamore  admits  that 
blood  coagulates  out  of  the  body  chiefly  be- 
cause it  loses  its  carbonic  acid,  which  in  this 
theory  is  the  substance  that  in  the  blood  main- 
tains fibrine  in  a  liquid  state.  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  and  his  brother  John  made  decisive  ex- 
periments against  this  view.  They  found  that 
blood  exposed  only  to  carbonic  acid  coagu- 
lates, though  more  slowly  than  when  exposed 
to  oxygen.  Experiments  of  Brucke  show  also 


that  the  loss  of  carbonic  acid  by  the  blood  is 
not  necessary  for  its  coagulation.  4.  Influence 
of  motion  and  rest.  It  has  been  said  that  blood 
coagulates  out  of  the  body  because  it  is  not  in 
motion.  If  blood  received  in  a  bottle  is  agi- 
tated as  soon  as  it  flows  from  the  vein,  it 
usually  seems  to  remain  liquid;  but  if  carefully 
examined,  a  great  many  particles  of  coagulated 
fibrine  are  found  in  it.  When  fibrine  coagulates 
in  this  case,  it  cannot  form  long  fibres,  disposed 
in  a  kind  of  complicated  network  in  the  whole 
mass  of  the  blood ;  in  consequence  of  the  agi- 
tation, it  forms  only  small  solid  particles.  The 
blood  effused  in  the  body,  or  kept  in  a  blood 
vessel,  between  two  ligatures,  in  a  living  ani- 
mal, frequently  does  not  coagulate,  although  it 
is  not  in  motion.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  rest 
is  not  the  cause  of  coagulation  of  blood,  either 
in  the  body  after  death  or  out  of  the  living 
body.  5.  John  Hunter  proposed  an  absurd 
theory  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood;  but  as 
he  grounds  his  view  on  interesting  facts,  al- 
though most  of  them  are  only  partially  true, 
we  shall  examine  his  theory.  He  observes: 
"  My  opinion  is  that  it  (the  blood)  coagulates 
from  an  impression ;  that  is,  its  fluidity  under 
such  circumstances  being  improper,  or  no 
longer  necessary,  it  coagulates  to  answer  now 
the  necessary  purpose  of  solidity."  Trying  to 
prove  this  untenable  theory,  he  says  that  when 
the  vital  principle  of  the  blood  is  lost,  it  does 
not  coagulate,  which  fact,  he  thinks,  shows 
that  coagulation  is  a  vital  action.  Animals 
killed  by  lightning  or  by  electricity,  or  those 
which  are  run  very  hard  and  killed  in  a  state 
of  exhaustion,  or  are  run  to  death,  have  not 
their  blood  coagulated,  according  to  Hunter. 
He  also  asserts  that  blows  on  the  stomach  kill- 
ing immediately,  and  deaths  from  sudden  gusts 
of  passion,  act  in  the  same  way,  and  by  the 
same  cause,  i.  «.,  the  loss  of  the  vital  principle. 
As  regards  death  by  electricity,  Scudamore 
and  Brown-Sequard  have  ascertained  that 
blood  coagulates  after  it,  hut  the  clot  is  not  so 
hard  as  in  other  cases.  Gulliver  collected 
many  facts  to  prove  that  blood  may  coagulate 
in  all  the  circumstances  mentioned  by  Hunter; 
but  in  most  of  these  cases  coagulation  was 
very  imperfect.  It  is  extremely  probable  that 
blood  is  then  altered  in  its  composition,  and 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  alterations  in  the 
nervous  centres  and  in  the  muscles.  6.  A 
view  proposed  by  Zimmermann  is  quite  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Hunter.  According  to  the 
German  chemist,  blood  coagulates  because  it 
putrefies  when  it  is  not  submitted  to  the  chem- 
ical influence  of  living  tissues.  This  view  is 
grounded  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  blood  kept 
liquid  by  certain  salts  or  other  substances  be- 
comes at  once  or  very  quickly  coagulated  when 
a  small  quantity  of  putrefied  matter  is  placed 
in  it.  This  is  certainly  an  interesting  experi- 
ment, but  it  does  not  prove  that  coagulation 
depends  upon  putrefaction,  and  it  seems  strange 
that  such  a  theory  should  be  proposed  by  a 
man  who  knows  that  sometimes  blood  coagu- 


734 


BLOOD 


lates  in  two  or  three  minutes  after  having  been 
drawn  from  a  blood  vessel.  7.  Dr.  B.  W. 
Kichardson  of  London  some  years  ago  obtained 
the  great  Astley  Cooper  prize  for  a  paper  on 
the  cause  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  which 
he  attributes  to  the  separation  from  the  blood 
of  a  principle  which  he  thinks  always  exists  in 
circulating  blood.  This  principle  is  the  car- 
bonate of  ammonia.  The  proofs  of  this  theory 
are  that  the  author  has  always  found  this  sub- 
stance given  out  by  the  blood  at  the  time  it 
coagulates,  and  that  when  this  substance  is 
kept  by  the  blood  it  remains  liquid.  Zimmer- 
mann  has  published  a  paper  to  show :  1,  that 
the  discovery  of  the  constant  presence  of  am- 
monia in  the  blood  belongs  to  himself;  2,  that 
there  are  many  facts  which  are  in  opposition 
to  the  view  of  Dr.  Richardson.  These  views 
seem  not  only  improbable,  but  in  opposition' to 
many  facts.  8.  We  come  now  to  the  most 
probable  cause  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
and  the  only  one  which  in  the  present  state  of 
science  has  no  fact  against  it,  and  seems,  on 
the  contrary,  to  agree  with  all  the  facts.  This 
cause  is  a  negative  one;  it  is  the  absence  of  a 
peculiar  influence  on  the  blood  that,  according 
to  the  theory,  produces,  or  rather  allows  co- 
agulation. It  is  supposed  that  fibrine  natu- 
rally tends  to  coagulate,  and  that  some  pecu- 
liar influence  of  the  living  tissues  prevents  its 
doing  so.  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Thackrah,  and 
others,  have  been  led  to  consider  this  view  as 
probable.  They  found  that  blood  kept  an  hour 
in  a  vein,  between  two  ligatures,  was  still 
fluid,  while  it  coagulated  in  from  two  to  four 
minutes  when  extracted  from  the  vessel.  Gul- 
liver has  seen  also  that  blood  is  very  slow  to 
coagulate  when  confined  in  a  vein  of  a  living 
dog.  Brown-Sequard  has  found  blood  still 
liquid,  after  many  months,  in  the  veins  of 
dogs,  where  it  had  been  confined  after  the  ap- 
plication of  two  ligatures,  and  he  has  ascer- 
tained that  this  blood  coagulated  in  a  few 
minutes  after  having  been  abstracted  from  the 
veins.  It  is  well  known  that  blood  effused 
everywhere  in  the  bodj'  frequently  remains 
liquid,  and  also  that  in  leeches  it  sometimes 
does  not  coagulate,  while  in  all  these  cases  as 
soon  as  the  liquid  blood  is  separated  from  the 
living  tissues  it  becomes  solid.  Coagulation  is 
slow  even  in  the  blood  vessels  and  heart  of  a 
dead  animal  or  man.  But  all  these  facts  lead 
only  to  the  conclusion  that  a  peculiar  influence 
of  tissues  and  organs  during  life,  or  a  little 
after  death,  has  the  power  of  preventing  co- 
agulation ;  they  do  not  show  what  is  this  pe- 
culiar influence.  Thackrah  thought  it  was  the 
vital  or  nervous  power  of  the  tissues.  Briicke 
has  shown  that  even  when  the  heart  has  lost 
its  vital  properties,  it  keeps  the  blood  fluid, 
and  he  has  arrived  at  a  theory  which  we  do 
not  think  yet  fully  proved.  He  maintains  that 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  liquid  fibrine  in  liquid 
normal  blood,  and  that  coagulated  fibrine  is 
the  result  of  an  atomic  change  in  some  part  of 
the  albumen  of  the  liquor  sanguinis.  We  will 


cc  include  our  examination  of  the  facts  and 
theories  concerning  the  cause  of  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  blood,  by  saying  that  there  is  in  the 
blood  vessels,  and  in  the  heart,  and  also  in 
other  tissues,  some  physical  or  chemical  influ- 
ence which  maintains  the  blood  fluid,  and  that 
when  this  influence  is  removed  the  blood  co- 
agulates. Schroeder  van  der  Kolk  had  ima- 
gined that  coagulation  of  the  blood  was  pre- 
vented by  an  influence  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
nervous  centres  on  the  blood  through  the  blood 
vessels,  and  he  thought  he  had  proved  the 
correctness  of  this  view  in  finding  that  when 
he  destroyed  the  brain  and  the  spinal  marrow, 

|  coagulation  quickly  took  place  in  the  blood. 

;  But  Brown-Sequard  has  found  that  the  de- 
struction of  the  spinal  marrow  in  the  whole 
length  of  its  lumbar  enlargement,  in  birds 
and  cats,  not  only  did  not  produce  coagulation 

]  of  the  blood,  but  did  not  immediately  kill 
the  animals,  many  of  which  have  lived  many 
months  after  the  operation.  When  the  ar- 
teries or  veins  are  changed  in  their  structure 
by  an  inflammation  or  other  disease,  they 
lose  their  power  of  preventing  coagulation. 
9.  Coagulation  is  hastened  or  immediately  de- 
termined by  certain  substances.  J.  Simon 
has  seen  it  take  place  on  threads  kept  in 
the  current  of  blood  in  veins  and  arteries  in 
living  animals.  Dupny  and  De  Blainville  have 
seen  coagulation  quickly  produced  in  blood 
after  the  injection  of  cerebral  matter.  II.  Lee 
has  seen  the  same  thing  after  injection  of  pus, 
and  Virchow  and  others  after  injection  of  mer- 
cury and  other  substances.  Iodine  and  iodides 
and  galvanic  currents  hasten  coagulation,  and 
have  been  employed,  on  account  of  their  influ- 
ence on  blood,  for  the  cure  of  aneurisms.  10. 
Coagulation  is  retarded  or  entirely  prevented 
by  certain  substances.  Neutral  salts  act  in 
this  way,  as  well  as  many  medicines  and  poi- 
sons, such  as  opium,  belladonna,  aconite,  hy- 
oscyamus,  digitalis,  strong  infusions  of  tea  and 
coffee,  &c.  Gulliver  has  kept  horses'  blood 

I  liquid  for  57  weeks  by  the  influence  of  nitre, 
and  this  blood  rapidly  coagulated  when  it  was 
diluted  with  water.  This  fact  explains  how 
in  some  cases  blood  does  not  coagulate  in  the 
body  after  death.  So  it  is  particularly  after 
drowning,  or  death  by  irrespirable  gases,  or 
poisoning  by  cyanhydric  acid,  &c.  But  if  the 

I  following  fact,  mentioned  by  Polli,  be  true,  it 
is  possible  that,  in  some  of  those  cases  where 
blood  has  been  found  fluid  in  the  veins  long 
after  death,  the  coagulation  would  have  been 
observed  taking  place  at  a  later  period  if  the 
blood  had  been  kept  long  enough.  Polli  says 
he  has  seen  blood  remain  liquid  a  fortnight 
and  then  coagulate  spontaneously,  and  he 
thinks  that  blood  will  always  be  found  to  co- 
agulate if  kept  long  enough.  11.  The  surface 
of  a  clot  of  blood  very  often  presents  a  more 
or  less  considerable  layer  of  coagulated  fibrine 
nearly  free  from  red  corpuscles,  and  conse- 
quently without  color;  this  layer  is  what  is 
called  the  buflfy  coat.  We  owe  to  Gulliver  the 


BLOOD 


735 


explimauon  of  the  production  of  this  coat.  The 
red  corpuscles  have  a  density  superior  to  that 
of  the  liquor  sanguinis,  and  when  the  blood  is 
at  rest  they  naturally  sink  until  an  obstacle 
prevents  their  doing  so.  As  long  as  coagula- 
tion has  not  begun,  the  globules  move  toward 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;  and  when  fibrine 
forms  the  solid  shreds  which  constitute  the  co- 
agulum,  the  upper  layer  of  the  mass  of  the 
blood  no  more  contains  red  corpuscles,  and 
therefore  is  colorless.  Now,  in  inflammation 
the  sinking  power  of  the  red  globules  is  in- 
creased, so  that  the  colorless  layer  of  coagu- 
lated fibrine  is  thicker  than  in  other  cases,  and 
thus  it  is  that  the  huffy  coat  and  its  thickness 
are  sometimes  a  good  indication  of  the  exist- 
ence and  even  of  the  degree  of  an  inflammation. 
But  there  are  many  circumstances  besides  in- 
flammation and  without  it  which  lead  to  the 
production  of  the  huffy  coat.  Andral  has 
shown  that  when  the  proportion  of  red  corpus- 
cles is  diminished  in  the  blood,  the  buff  exists 
frequently  on  the  top  of  a  small  clot.  This  is 
the  case  in  chlorosis,  in  anaemia,  &c.  Another 
circumstance  which  favors  the  formation  of  a 
colorless  layer  of  coagulated  fibrine  is  the 
aggregation  of  the  red  corpuscles  in  columns 
or  piles  (like  piles  of  coin),  which  renders 
them  heavier  and  increases  their  speed  in  sink- 
ing. In  inflammation,  as  shown  by  II.  N"asse, 
Wharton  Jones,  and  others,  the  red  corpuscles 
have  an  increased  tendency  to  aggregate,  and 
this  explains  why  the  buffy  coat  is  so  frequent- 
ly thick  in  inflammation.  Lehmann  has 
shown,  however,  that  all  the  circumstances 
which  have  been  considered  as  favorable  to 
the  sinking  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and  to  the 
formation  of  the  buffy  coat,  are  insufficient  to 
explain  the  facts  in  all  cases,  and  that  there 
are  some  unknown  causes  of  production  of  the 
buff.  12.  The  coagulation  of  blood  does  not 
generate  heat,  as  has  been  imagined.  The  ex- 
periments of  John  Davy,  and  especially  those  of 
Denis,  afford  convincing  proofs  in  this  respect. 
VI.  FORMATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  We  shall  not 
examine  here  the  first  formation  of  this  liquid, 
that  is,  its  production  in  embryos ;  this  subject 
belongs  to  the  article  EMBRYOLOGY.  We  shall 
only  inquire  into  the  sources  of  the  blood,  and 
the  mode  of  production  of  its  principal  materi- 
als, in  completely  developed  animals.  Three 
sources  exist  for  the  formation  of  the  various 
materials  composing  the  blood:  1,  the  body; 
2,  the  food ;  3,  the  respiration.  That  the  body 
itself  is  a  source  of  blood  we  cannot  doubt.  If, 
as  Piorry  has  shown,  we  take  blood  from  a 
dog  in  such  quantity  that  we  cannot  abstract 
one  or  two  ounces  more  without  killing  the 
animal,  we  find  the  next  day,  although  the 
dog  has  not  been  fed,  that  we  may  take  out 
again  10  or  12  ounces  of  blood  without  causing 
death.  It  follows  from  this  fact  that  a  forma- 
tion of  blood  has  occurred,  and,  as  there  has 
been  no  food  taken,  the  blood  formed  must 
come  from  the  body.  As  regards  the  share  of 
respiration  in  the  formation  of  blood,  we  shall 
99  VOL.  ii. — i7 


only  remark  here  that  it  gives  certain  gases, 
|  especially  oxygen.  For  more  details  on  the 
influence  of  oxygen  and  other  gases  on  the 
;  blood,  see  RESPIRATION.  The  formation  of 
blood  is  very  rapid  when  abundant  and  very 
nutritive  food  is  taken,  as  is  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing facts,  most  of  which  are  related  by  Hal- 
ler.  For  several  years  a  young  girl  was  bled 
sometimes  every  day,  at  other  times  every 
other  day ;  a  hysterical  woman  was  bled  1,020 
times  in  19  years ;  another  individual  had  a 
loss  of  1,000  Ibs.  of  blood  in  a  year ;  in  another, 
5  Ibs.  of  blood  were  lost  every  day  for  62 
days ;  a  young  man  had  a  loss  of  75  Ibs.  of 
blood  in  10  days;  an  Italian  physician,  Dr. 
Oavalli,  relates  that  a  woman  was  bled  3,500 
times  in  28  years !  It  seems  from  these  facts, 
and  from  many  others,  that  the  power  of 
formation  of  blood  increases  with  the  frequency 
of  the  losses  of  this  liquid,  and  with  the  habit 
of  repairing  these  losses.  The  food,  before 
being  able  to  repair  the  losses  of  blood  or  to 
give  to  this  liquid  the  materials  which  it  fur- 
nishes to  the  tissues,  must  be  modified  by  diges- 
tion, and  brought  to  the  blood  by  absorption, 
either  directly  or  by  the  lymphatic  vessels. 
The  part  of  the  food  absorbed  by  these  vessels 
is  called  chyle.  The  transformation  of  lymph 
and  chyle  into  blood  is  an  act  of  much  great- 
er magnitude  than  was  formerly  supposed. 
According  to  the  researches  of  Bidder  and 
Schmidt,  there  is  about  28'6  Ibs.  of  lymph  and 
chyle  poured  into  the  blood  of  a  man  daily,  i.  e., 
from  one  sixth  to  one  seventh  of  the  weight  of 
the  body.  Of  this  amount  6'6  Ibs.  are  true 
chyle,  and  22  Ibs.  are  true  lymph.  In  these 
two  liquids  elements  similar  to  those  of  the 
blood  are  found :  i.  e.,  water,  salts,  fats,  albu- 
men, fibrine,  and  corpuscles.  This  shows  that 
the  work  of  formation  of  blood  from  chyle,  as 
well  as  lymph,  is  not  very  considerable; 
in  other  words,  the  transformation  of  food  into 
blood  is  already  much  advanced  in  the  bowels 
and  in  the  lymphatic  vessels.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  questions  relative  to  the  formation 
of  the  blood  is  that  of  the  origin  of  the  blood 
corpuscles.  In  the  first  place,  as  regards  the 
colorless  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  there  is  now 
no  doubt  that  they  are  entirely  similar  to  the 
lymph  corpuscles,  and  that  they  have  been 
brought  into  the  blood  with  the  lymph  and 
chyle.  As  regards  their  formation,  see  LYMPH. 
The  source  of  the  albumen  of  the  blood  is 
chiefly  the  food,  and  it  is  brought  into  the  cir- 
culation by  direct  absorption  by  the  veins  in 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  only  partly  by 
the  chyle.  The  origin  of  the  fibrine  of  the 
blood  is  not  exclusively  the  food,  as  some  phys- 
iologists maintain.  It  must  come  from  the  tis- 
sues or  from  the  albuminous  matters  of  the 
blood,  for  Brown-S6quard  has  proved  that 
when  blood  deprived  of  fibrine  is  injected  into 
the  arteries  of  a  limb,  the  veins  give  out  blood 
containing  fibrine,  and  in  greater  quantity  if 
the  limb  is  galvanized.  Besides,  it  is  known 
that  in  animals  deprived  of  food,  or  bled  many 


736 


BLOOD 


BLOODHOUND 


times,  the  quantity  of  fibrine  increases  in  the 
blood.  There  must  be  a  very  considerable 
formation  of  fibrine  in  the  blood,  as,  according 
to  the  remarks  of  Brown-Sequard,  there  are 
many  pounds  of  this  substance  transformed 
into  other  substances,  in  the  course  of  a  day, 
in  the  liver  and  the  kidneys.  The  origin  of  the 
fats  of  the  blood,  as  Persoz,  Liebig,  Bidder  and 
Schmidt,  and  others,  have  well  proved,  is  not 
exclusively  from  the  fats  of  the  food.  But  it 
remains  to  be  shown  from  what  principles  of 
tlie  food  or  of  the  blood,  and  in  which  organ, 
the  formation  of  fat  takes  place.  Many  of  the 
extractive  substances  of  the  blood  are  either 
formed  in  it  or  in  the  tissues.  As  to  the  salts 
and  the  metals  of  the  blood,  they  come  from 
the  food.  The  sugar  of  the  blood  comes  in  a 
great  measure  from  the  food,  and  from  a  trans- 
formation of  certain  substances  by  the  liver. 
VII.  USES  OF  THE  BLOOD.  Nutrition — that  is, 
the  act  by  which  the  various  tissues  grow  or 
are  maintained  alive,  and  by  which  they  ex- 
crete materials  which  are  no  longer  useful  to 
their  organization  and  vital  properties — is  the 
result  of  the  interchange  between  the  blood 
and  the  tissues.  We  will  now  examine  how 
far  some  elements  of  the  blood  may  influence 
the  vital  properties  of  the  tissues,  to  show  that 
these  properties  depend  upon  some  materials 
furnished  by  the  blood.  Brown-Sequard  has 
discovered  that  all  the  nervous  and  contractile 
tissues  in  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  the  motor 
and  sensitive  nerves,  the  muscles  of  animal  or 
organic  life,  the  iris,  the  skin,  &c.,  may,  after 
having  lost  their  vital  properties,  their  life,  re- 
cover these  properties  again,  and  in  some  re- 
spects be  resuscitated,  when  blood  containing 
a  great  quantity  of  oxygen  is  injected  into  the 
arteries  of  all  these  parts.  Still  more,  he  has 
found  that,  when  cadaveric  or  post-mortem 
rigidity  exists  in  limbs  of  animals  or  men,  oxy- 
genated blood  has  the  power  of  restoring  local 
life  in  these  parts.  These  experiments  he  has 
made  on  many  animals,  and  on  the  arms  of  two 
decapitated  men,  in  one  13,  in  the  other  14 
hours  after  decapitation.  He  has  ascertained 
that  black  blood  (which  contains  but  a  small 
amount  of  oxygen)  has  no  power  of  regenerat- 
ing the  vital  properties  of  the  various  tissues, 
and  that  the  more  blood  corpuscles  and  oxygen 
there  were  in  the  blood  employed,  the  quicker 
and  the  more  powerful  was  its  regenerating  in- 
fluence. Blood  deprived  of  fibrine  acted  as 
well  as  blood  containing  fibrine,  showing  that 
fibrine  is  not  a  necessary  material  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  vital  properties  of  the  various 
tissues.  In  one  case  he  maintained  local  life 
for  41  hours  in  a  limb  separated  from  the  body 
of  an  animal.  For  other  facts  relating  to  the 
uses  of  the  blood,  see  NUTRITION,  SECRETION, 
and  TRANSFUSION;  for  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  see  CIRCULATION. 

BLOOD,  Thomas,  an  Irish  adventurer,  general- 
ly known  as  Colonel  Blood,  born  about  1628, 
died  in  Westminster,  Aug.  24,  1680.  He  was 
a  disbanded  officer  of  Cromwell's  army.  In 


1663  he  formed  a  conspiracy  to  surprise  the 
castle  of  Dublin,  which  was  defeated  by  flic 
vigilance  of  the  duke  of  Ormond,  the  lord  lieu- 
tenant, and  some  of  the  conspirators  were  exe- 
cuted. Blood  escaped  to  England,  determined 
to  be  revenged  upon  the  duke.  One  night  in 
1670  he  seized  the  duke  while  riding  in  his 
coach  through  St.  James  street,  London,  bound 
him  on  horseback  behind  an  accomplice,  and 
declared  that  he  would  hang  him  at  Tyburn. 
The  duke  was  finally  rescued  by  his  servants. 
In  1671  Blood  nearly  succeeded  in  carrying 
otf  the  crown  and  regalia  from  the  tower  of 
London.  It  was  now  for  the  first  time  dis- 
covered that  he  was  the  perpetrator  of  the  as- 
sault upon  Ormond.  Charles  II.,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Buckingham,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  employed  Blood,  granted  the  felon  an 
interview,  and  not  only  pardoned  him,  but 
gave  him  an  estate  in  Ireland  of  £500  a  year, 
and  made  him  a  special  favorite.  Blood  enjoyed 
the  pension  for  10  years,  but,  being  charged 
with  circulating  a  scandal  against  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  held  to  bail,  and  died  in  his 
own  house  before  the  trial  came  on. 

BLOODHOUND  (canis  familiaris),  a  hound 
trained  for  the  pursuit  of  men,  wounded  ani- 
mals, or  beasts  of  prey.  The  bloodhound  is 
not  peculiarly  ferocious,  as  its  name  would  im- 


Bloodhound  (Canis  familiaris). 

ply,  and  will  hunt  any  other  game  to  which  he 
is  trained  as  readily  as  he  will  man ;  and  many 
other  dogs  may  be  trained  more  or  less  per- 
fectly to  follow  the  scent  of  man,  as  must  be 
evident  to  every  one  who  has  seen  a  lost  dog, 
which  when  he  comes  upon  the  scent  of  his 
master's  foot  will  follow  it  until  he  has  found 
him.  Any  hound  naturally  pursues  whatever 
he  perceives  to  be  prey;  and  the  distinc- 
tion of  foxhound,  staghound,  harrier,  boar- 
hound,  or  the  like,  is  only  a  matter  of  educa- 
tion and  training,  and  not  of  natural  instinct. 
The  bloodhound  originally,  of  the  old  Talbot 
or  southern  breed,  was  larger  than  the  fox- 
hound, tall,  square-headed,  slow,  with  long 
pendulous  ears,  heavy  drooping  lips  and  jowl, 
and  a  stern  and  noble  expression.  He  was 
broad-chested,  deep-tongned,  and  in  pursuit  so 


BLOODLETTING 


737 


slow  that  a  horse  could  always  keep  him  in 
sight,  and  in  a  long  chase  an  active  pedestrian 
could  keep  him  in  hearing.  His  powers  of 
scenting,  however,  were  so  extraordinary,  that 
not  only  would  he  follow  the  deer  or  other 
animal  of  which  he  was  in  pursuit  through 
herd  after  herd  of  the  same  animals,  but  he 
would  recognize  its  trail  on  the  ground  as  long 
as  12  or  14  hours  after  the  creature  had  passed 
by ;  and  if  it  were  lost  on  one  day,  and  he  were 
put  on  its  fresh  track  again  on  the  following 
morning,  he  would  follow  it  so  long  as  it  ran 
on  solid  soil.  This  animal  was  called  the 
bloodhound  for  two  reasons :  First,  if  the  ani- 
mal he  pursues  he  wounded  and  its  blood 
spilled  on  the  earth,  he  will  follow  the  track 
of  the  blood,  as  he  will  that  of  the  foot.  Sec- 
ondly, if  fresh  blood  of  some  other  animal  be 
spilled  across  the  track  of  the  animal  pursued, 
the  hound  will  stop  confused  on  the  fresh 
blood,  and  will  follow  the  old  scent  no  longer. 
On  the  frontiers  of  England  and  Scotland, 
probably  first,  and  certainly  longest  and  most 
systematically,  were  kept  and  trained  blood- 
hounds, called  in  the  northern  patois  of  the 
borders  sleuth  hounds;  they  were  nothing 
more  than  the  large  Talbot,  trained  exclusively 
to  follow  cattle-stealing  outlaws  and  maraud- 
ers. The  breed  is  Btill  maintained  in  a  few 
large  deer  parks  in  the  north  of  England,  for 
following  up  outlying  bucks,  which  they  will 
single  out  of  the  herd,  and  never  leave  until 
they  are  taken.  In  color  they  are  usually 
tawny,  not  brindled,  with  black  muzzles;  or 
black  and  tan,  the  latter  being  called  St.  Hu- 
bert's breed,  and  esteemed  the  hardiest. — The 
animal  known  ns  the  Cuban  bloodhound  is  not 
a  bloodhound,  but  is  a  descendant  of  the  mastiff, 
crossed  probably  with  the  bulldog.  It  was 
trained  by  the  Spaniards  at  first  to  pursue  In- 
dians, and  was  afterward  employed  in  the  cap- 
ture of  fugitive  negroes.  It  has  some  scenting 
powers,  but  it  is  as  inferior  in  these  to  the  true 
bloodhound  as  it  is  superior  to  him  in  blood- 
thirstiness  and  cruel,  indiscriminate  pugnacity. 
It  has  no  utility  except  as  a  man-hunter.  This 
is  the  variety  once  occasionally  used  in  the 
southern  states  in  the  pursuit  of  fugitive  slaves. 
The  large  Russian  greyhound,  which  has  a 
cross  of  the  bulldog,  possesses  considerable 
powers  of  scent,  and  has  often  been  employed 
for  the  same  purposes  as  the  bloodhound. 

BLOODLETTING,  or  Phlebotomy  (Or.  fMy,  a 
vein,  and  rtfiveiv,  to  cut),  the  act  of  opening  a 
vein  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  blood,  as 
a  means  of  relief  in  certain  cases  of  diseased 
action  in  the  organism.  Bloodletting  is  usually 
performed  at  the  bend  of  the  arm,  because  the 
superficial  veins  are  large  in  that  locality,  and 
more  distinctly  seen  than  anywhere  else.  Be- 
fore using  the  lancet  the  surgeon  ascertains 
the  position  of  the  artery  at  the  bend  of  the 
arm ;  it  is  commonly  felt  pulsating  nearly  under 
the  largest  vein.  This  vein  must  be  avoided,  be- 
cause of  the  danger  of  wounding  the  artery  by 
passing  the  lancet  too  deeply.  The  vein  next 


in  size,  but  not  so  near  the  artery,  is  therefore 
selected.  A  bandage  about  two  fingers  in 
breadth  and  a  yard  in  length  is  tied  firmly  round 
the  arm,  about  an  inch  above  the  place  where 
the  opening  is  to  be  made.  This  will  cause  the 
veins  to  rise ;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
tie  the  bandage  so  tightly  that  the  pulse  can- 
not be  felt  at  the  wrist.  The  surgeon  then 
grasps  the  elbow  with  his  left  hand,  placing 
his  thumb  firmly  upon  the  vein,  a  little  below 
the  place  where  he  intends  making  the  punc- 
ture, to  keep  it  in  its  place,  and  prevent  it 
from  rolling  tinder  the  skin  during  the  opera- 
tion. The  lancet  is  then  passed  obliquely  into 
the  vein.  The  flow  of  blood  is  facilitated  by 
keeping  the  hand  and  wrist  in  motion.  When 
a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  discharged,  the 
bandage  is  removed  from  the  arm  above  the 
puncture ;  the  surgeon  puts  his  thumb  upon 
the  wound  to  stop  the  bleeding,  and  with  the 
other  hand  washes  the  blood  from  the  arm. 
The  lips  of  the  wound  are  then  placed  in  con- 
tact ;  a  small  compress  of  old  linen  is  placed 
over  it,  and  secured  by  a  bandage  passed  round 
the  elbow  in  the  form  of  the  figure  8.  The 
crossing  of  the  bandage  should  be  immediately 
over  the  compress.  If  blood  should  make  its 
way  through  the  linen  some  time  after  the  arm 
has  been  bound  up,  the  bandage  must  be  made 
more  tight,  and  slackened  somewhat  after  the 
bleeding  has  ceased.  The  bandage  is  retained 
two  or  three  days,  and  the  arm  is  kept  in  a  sling, 
for  rest,  at  least  24  hours.  In  fat  people  it  is 
sometimes  very  difficult,  or  perhaps  impossible, 
to  render  the  superficial  veins  of  the  arm  visible ; 
in  such  cases  blood  may  be  drawn  from  the 
ankle.  A  bandage  is  applied  round  the  leg 
about  two  inches  above  the  ankle ;  the  foot  is 
immersed  some  time  in  warm  water,  to  make 
the  veins  rise ;  the  largest  vein  either  on  the 
inside  or  the  outside  of  the  ankle  is  then  opened, 
and  the  foot  is  again  plunged  into  warm  water, 
or  the  blood  would  not  run  freely.  Bleeding 
at  the  wrist  is  also  resorted  to,  when  the  veins 
at  the  bend  of  the  arm  are  too  small  or  other- 
wise difficult  to  operate  upon ;  the  cephalic  vein 
of  the  thumb  or  the  back  and  outer  side  of 
the  wrist  is  s'elected  in  that  case.  Bleeding  at 
the  neck  is  also  practised  at  times.  In  this  case 
the  operation  is  performed  on  the  external  jugu- 
lar vein,  at  either  side  of  the  neck.  The  vein  runs 
in  an  oblique  direction,  and  the  incision  is  made 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  because  the  vein 
is  there  more  prominent,  and  higher  up  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  network  of  nerves  which  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  wound.  In  addition  to 
the  usual  materials,  a  card  is  required  in  this 
operation  to  form  a  channel  for  the  blood. 
Two  or  three  pledgets  are  placed,  one  upon  the 
other,  on  the  jugular  vein,  at  its  lowest  part, 
just  above  the  collar  bone.  These  are  maintain- 
ed in  place  by  a  ligature,  the  centre  of  which 
is  placed  directly  upon  them,  while  the  two 
ends  are  carried  down,  the  one  forward,  the 
other  backward,  to  the  opposite  armpit,  where 
they  are  tied  in  a  single  bow.  The  vein  then 


738 


BLOOD  MOSEY 


BLOODEOOT 


swells,  and  should  be  fixed  by  two  fingers  of  ' 
the  left  hand.  Beneath  the  skin  of  the  neck, 
and  lying  upon  the  jugular  vein,  there  is  a 
muscle  as  thin  as  paper,  the  platysma  myoides, 
the  fibres  of  which  run  in  an  oblique  direction 
from  the  collar  bone  to  the  border  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  is  the  direction  of  the  vein  itself; 
the  incision  is  made  at  a  right  angle  with  re- 
spect to  the  direction  of  these  fibres,  that  they 
may  contract  and  form  no  obstacle  to  the  issue 
of  the  blood.  It  is  also  made  rather  wide,  to 
insure  a  free  issue  from  the  vein.  The  blood 
trickles  down,  and  the  card  is  used  to  direct  it 
into  the  vessel  of  reception.  To  encourage  the 
flow  of  blood  the  patient  moves  the  lower  jaw, 
as  in  mastication,  now  and  then  taking  a  deep 
breath.  When  the  bleeding  is  ended,  a  bit  of 
adhesive  plaster  is  applied  over  the  orifice,  and 
a  pledget  placed  upon  it,  which  is  maintained 
in  place  by  a  ligature  wound  closely,  not  tight- 
ly, round  the  neck,  and  fixed  with  a  pin. 
Bloodletting  at  the  neck  is  neither  difficult  nor 
dangerous,  and  is  performed  at  times  in  cases 
of  congestion  of  blood  in  the  head,  as  in  apo- 
plexy, asphyxia  from  hanging,  &c. — Bloodlet- 
ting is  much  less  frequently  practised  now  than 
formerly,  and  some  medical  practitioners  repu- 
diate the  practice  altogether ;  but  the  most 
eminent  physicians,  who  combine  a  scientific 
education  with  many  years  of  practical  expe- 
rience in  the  best  hospitals  of  Europe  and 
America,  still  recognize  the  necessity  of  blood- 
letting in  some  cases,  as  a  means  of  producing 
immediate  results  of  a  salutary  nature,  where 
the  life  of  the  patient  would  be  endangered  by 
delay.  Physiology  forbids  the  loss  of  blood  on 
all  occasions  of  trifling  indisposition,  especially 
in  feeble  constitutions  and  in  city  populations, 
as  was  formerly  of  frequent  occurrence  in  medi- 
cal practice.  Both  leeching  and  general  bleed- 
ing are  practised  now  more  cautiously  than 
formerly;  and  cupping,  as  a  substitute  for 
leeching,  is  practised  with  the  same  discretion 
by  well  educated  physicians. 

BLOOD  MONEY,  money  paid  to  the  next  of 
kin  of  a  man  who  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  another,  accidentally  or  with  premedi- 
tation. It  secured  the  murderer  and  his  rela- 
tions against  retaliation  by  the  relatives  of  the 
deceased.  The  Greeks  called  it  TTOJV^,  the  Lat- 
ins pcena,  the  Franks,  Alemanni,  and  Scandina- 
vians manbote,  wehrgeld,  orwyrgilt,  the  British 
Celts  saarhard,  and  the  Irish  Celts  eric.  The 
Arabs  call  it  diyeh.  The  institution  still  flour- 
ishes in  many  communities  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
Among  the  Arabs  the  blood  money"  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  from  1,000  dir- 
hems  of  silver  (about  $150)  to  10,000  ($1,500). 
The  price  for  a  woman  is  about  one  third 
of  that  for  a  man,  or  somewhat  more.  If 
pregnant  with  a  male  child  at  the  time  of 
the  murder,  the  murderer  or  his  relations  pay 
the  full  price  of  a  man  and  woman ;  if  with  a 
female  child,  then  the  full  price  of  two  women. 
— In  English  criminal  law  the  term  blood 
money  was  also  applied  to  rewards  offered  by 


statute  to  informers  against  highway  rob- 
bers, thieves,  burglars,  and  utterers  of  false 
coin  or  forged  bank  notes.  Such  statutes, 
however,  were  found  to  tempt  evil-disposed 
persons  to  make  a  living  out  of  these  laws  by 
entrapping  unwary  and  foolish  people  into  the 
commission  of  crime,  and  they  have  consequent- 
ly been  repealed. 

BLOOD  RAIN,  a  shower  of  grayish  and  red- 
dish dust  mingled  with  rain,  which  sometimes 
falls  on  vessels  off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa 
and  southern  Europe.  The  dust  of  these  show- 
ers has  been  ascertained  by  Ehrenberg  to  be 
largely  made  up  of  microscopic  organisms,  es- 
pecially the  silicious  shells  of  diatoms;  in  a 
shower  which  fell  at  Lyons  in  1846,  he  esti- 
mated the  total  weight  at  720,000  Ibs.,  of 
which  one  eighth,  or 
90,000  Ibs.,  were  these 
minute  organisms.  Fig- 
ures of  many  of  these 
may  be  seen  in  Da- 
na's "Geology,"  under 
"  Dynamical  Geology." 
Darwin  describes  a 
shower  near  Cape 
Verd,  which  was  at 
least  1,600  miles  wide, 
covering  an  area  of 
more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles,  and  extending  more  than  1,000 
miles  from  the  coast  of  Africa.  Lesser  show- 
ers have  fallen  in  Italy,  reddish  snow  at  the 
same  time  appearing  on  the  Alps.  The  red 
color  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  red  oxide 
of  iron.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  show- 
ers is  referred  to  in  Homer's  Iliad.  T lie- 
origin  of  the  dust  is  not  known ;  possibly  it  is 
extra-terrestrial.  The  species,  of  which  over 
300  have  been  made  out,  are  not  African ;  a 
few  resemble  South  American.  According  to 
Dana,  the  zone  in  which  these  showers  occur 
covers  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa, 
with  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  corresponding  latitudes  in  western  and 
middle  Asia. 

BLOODROOT,  the  root  of  the  sanyuinaria 
Canadensu,  called  also  red-root.  This  is  an 
herbaceous  perennial  plant  belonging  to  the 
poppy  family,  growing  abundantly  throughout 
the  United  States  in  rich  soils  and  shady  situa- 
tions, and  flowering  in  March  and  April.  The 
rootstock  or  rhizome  extends  horizontally  be- 
neath the  surface  a  few  inches  in  length,  and 
of  the  size  of  the  finger.  It  sends  forth  side 
shoots,  from  the  ends  of  which,  as  well  as 
from  that  of  the  main  root,  rise  the  scape  and 
leaf  stalks,  surrounded  by  the  sheath  of  the 
bud,  all  of  which  spring  up  together.  The 
leaf  is  heart-shaped,  but  deeply  lobed,  yellow- 
ish green  on  the  upper  surface,  paler  on  the 
under,  and  strongly  marked  by  orange-colored 
veins.  The  scape  is  round  and  straight,  from 
a  few  inches  to  a  foot  in  height,  and  ter- 
minated by  a  single  flower  of  about  eight 
petals,  which  are  white,  but  sometimes  tinged 


BLOOD  STAINS 


739 


with  rose  or  purple.  All  parts  of  the  plant 
are  pervaded  by  an  orange-colored  sap,  of 
deepest  color  in  the  root.  They  all  possess  the 
Bame  medicinal  qualities,  but  the  root  only  is 


Bloodroot  (Sangalnaria  Canadensls). 

made  use  of.  This  is  dried  and  pulverized, 
and  is  administered  while  fresh,  either  in  the 
powder,  or  in  pills  prepared  from  it  for  the 
purpose  of  avoiding  the  irritating  effect  of  the 
powder  upon  the  throat,  and  also  in  infusion 
or  decoction  and  tincture.  Its  properties  are 
those  of  an  acrid  narcotic  and  emetic,  in  over- 
dose producing  violent  thirst,  faintness,  and 
dimness  of  vision.  In  some  cases  ita  effects 
have  been  fatal.  Upon  fungous  surfaces  it  acts 
as  an  escharotic.  It  has  been  found  useful  in 
numerous  diseases,  among  which  are  typhoid 
pneumonia,  catarrh,  scarlatina,  rheumatism, 
jaundice,  dyspepsia,  &c.  Many  physicians 
have  long  relied  upon  it  wholly  for  the  cure  of 
croup.  Its  active  properties  appear  to  reside 
in  a  peculiar  alkaline  principle  called  san- 
guinarine,  which  is  separated  in  the  form  of  a 
white  pearly  substance.  This  has  an  acrid 
taste,  and  forms  with  the  acids  salts,  all  of 
which,  when  dissolved  in  water,  produce  beau- 
tiful red  colors. 

BLOOD  suns.  Various  medico-legal  ques- 
tions are  often  to  be  solved  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  stains  resembling  those  made  by  blood. 
The  principal  of  these  are :  1.  Is  it  possible,  and 
by  what  means,  to  decide  that  a  stain  is  pro- 
duced by  blood  or  not  ?  2.  Is  it  possible,  and 
by  what  means,  to  ascertain  that  the  blood  of  a 
stain  comes  from  a  man  or  from  an  animal  ?  8. 
Is  it  possible  to  find  out  whether  the  blood  of 
a  stain  comes  from  one  man  or  another  ?  I.  It  is 
usually  easy  to  ascertain  whether  a  stain  is  due 
to  blood  or  not,  either  by  the  chemical  test  of 
reagents  or  the  physical  test  of  the  microscope. 
The  latter  is  the  more  decisive,  but  a  complete 
medico-legal  examination  must  comprise  both 
of  them.  If  there  is  a  stain  of  suspected  blood 


on  a  piece  of  cloth,  or  any  other  stuff,  the 
stained  part  must  be  cut  off  and  dipped  into 
a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  coloring  matter,  if 
it  is  that  of  blood,  will  detach  iti-elf  and  reach 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  supernatant  fluid 
remaining  tolerably  clear  or  slightly  rose- 
colored.  The  fibrine  will  remain  attached  to 
the  stuff  as  a  grayish  or  rosy-white  substance. 
If  the  liquid  be  boiled,  the  color  will  be  destroy- 
ed and  the  albumen  coagulated ;  in  its  inferior 
parts,  where  the  coloring  matter  has  accumu- 
lated, the  liquid  will  become  grayish  or  green- 
ish, while  the  upper  portion  will  acquire  a 
slightly  yellow  tint.  The  red  soluble  dyes,  or 
stains  from  the  juices  of  fruits,  are  very  rarely 
coagulated,  and  they  do  not  lose  their  color 
when,  after  having  been  dissolved  in  water,  the 
solution  is  boiled.  Besides,  they  are  rendered 
crimson  or  green,  passing  sometimes  to  violet, 
when  treated  with  ammonia,  while  this  reagent, 
unless  it  be  used  in  great  quantities  and  con- 
centrated, does  not  change  the  color  of  blood 
or  of  a  watery  solution  of  a  blood  stain.  When 
ammonia  is  powerful  enough  to  alter  the  color 
of  blood,  it  gives  it  a  brownish  tint,  instead  of 
the  crimson,  green,  or  violet  colors  that  it  gives 
to  dyes.  If  the  solution  of  a  blood  stain  has  co- 
agulated by  boiling,  we  find  that  potash  dis- 
solves the  coagulum,  rendering  it  limpid  and 
green  by  reflection,  and  pink  by  refraction.  If 
chlorhydric  acid  is  then  added,  the  transpa- 
rency disappears,  but  it  returns  if  another 
quantity  of  potash  is  added.  These  reactions 
belong  only  to  blood.  The  nature  of  the  small- 
est stain,  able  only  to  furnish  one  drop  of  a  so- 
lution, may  be  found  out  by  the  above-mention- 
ed chemical  means.  In  such  circumstances, 
according  to  Boutigny,  the  drop  should  be 
thrown  into  a  silver  spoon  at  a  very  high  tem- 
perature. The  liquid  in  this,  as  in  any  other 
case,  i.  e.,  with  any  kind  of  liquid  whatever, 
being  suddenly  exposed  to  an  extreme  heat, 
instead  of  evaporating  takes  the  shape  of  a 
sphere,  and  then  experiments  may  easily  be 
tried,  and  the  action  of  ammonia,  of  potash,  of 
chlorhydric  acid,  &c.,  may  rapidly  be  ascer- 
tained.— The  microscope  usually  shows  more 
quickly  and  positively  than  chemical  reagents 
whether  a  stain  is  due  to  blood.  With  the  help 
of  this  instrument  the  red  and  the  colorless 
corpuscles  may  be  seen  easily.  (See  BLOOD.) 
There  is  nothing  to  be  found  with  the  micro- 
scope in  the  stains  of  the  various  dyes  which 
can  in  any  way  be  mistaken  for  the  blood  cor- 
puscles. The  presence  of  these  well  charac- 
terized particles  in  a  stain  is  therefore  an  in- 
contestable proof  that  it  contains  blood.  But 
the  blood  corpuscles  may  have  become  so  much 
altered  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  their 
presence,  at  least  without  the  help  of  chemical 
reagents.  The  microscope,  unaided  by  chem- 
istry, therefore,  may  fail  to  detect  blood  in 
old  stains.  However,  it  is  usually  easy  to  find 
the  red  corpuscles,  and  they  have  been  detect- 
ed in  stains  of  many  years'  duration.  Dr.  Tay- 


740 


BLOOD  STAINS 


lor  says  that  he  has  obtained  clear  evidence 
of  their  existence  in  a  small  quantity  of  blood, 
which  had  been  kept  in  a  dry  state  for  three 
years.  Dr.  Charles  Robin  has  discovered  the 
presence  of  red  corpuscles  on  clothes  in  stains 
of  eight  or  ten  years'  duration.  Prof.  Jeffries 
Wyman  says  that  in  blood  which  had  been 
allowed  to  dry  in  masses  he  has  failed  to  find 
the  red  corpuscles,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the 
white  or  colorless  corpuscles  may  be  softened 
out  after  they  have  been  dried  for  months,  and 
their  characteristic  marks  readily  obtained.  He 
found  it  easy  to  detect  them  in  blood  which 
had  been  dried  for  six  months.  Dr.  Robin  has 
given  a  drawing  representing  what  the  micro- 
scope showed  in  a  solution  of  a  stain  found  on 
the  blade  of  a  knife.  No  red  corpuscle  is  fig- 
ured, while  on  the  contrary  many  colorless  ones 
are.  But  the  mere  fact  of  the  presence  of  col- 
orless corpuscles,  with  nearly  the  same  appear- 
ance that  they  have  in  fresh  blood,  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  prove  that  a  stain  is  due  to  blood,  be- 
cause the  chyle  and  lymph  corpuscles,  those  of 
pus,  and  even  some  of  those  of  mucus,  are  similar 
to  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  When 
clothes  have  been  washed  after  having  been 
stained  with  blood,  nearly  or  quite  all  the  cor- 
puscles are  removed,  or  so  much  altered  that 
their  presence  cannot  be  ascertained  positively. 
But  chemistry  may  then  render  it  very  proba- 
ble that  there  has  been  blood  on  such  clothes, 
by  detecting  in  them  iron  and  a  coagulable 
organic  matter.  If  blood  stains  are  on  the 
blade  of  a  knife,  the  microscope  and  chemi- 
cal reagents  may  enable  us  to  distinguish  them 
from  rust.  Usually,  when  the  knife  is  heated, 
a  blood  stain  may  be  peeled  off,  leaving  a  neat 
metallic  surface  where  it  was ;  it  is  not  so  with 
rust,  which  remains  almost  unaltered.  Besides, 
when  the  stain  is  washed,  it  leaves  a  much 
smoother  surface  if  it  is  due  to  blood  than  if  it 
comes  from  rust.  Usually  in  this  latter  case 
there  is  a  peculiarly  dentated  surface,  the  pres- 
ence of  which  leaves  no  possibility  of  a  mistake. 
In  a  case  where  Daubrawa  was  requested 
to  ascertain  the  existence  of  blood  stains  on  a 
knife  which  was  suspected  to  have  been  used 
in  the  commission  of  a  murder,  this  instrument, 
having  lain  a  long  time  in  a  damp  place,  was 
rusted,  but  there  were  certain  bright  spots 
free  from  rust,  and  surrounded  by  it.  On 
heating  the  point  of  the  blade  these  spots  scaled 
off,  while  the  rust  remained  adherent ;  and  on 
immersing  the  knife  in  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  bright  spots  remained  unaltered  while 
the  rust  readily  dissolved.  Some  of  the  re- 
agents which  serve  to  detect  blood  were  then 
employed,  and  it  was  found  that  the  bright 
spots  were  really  covered  with  blood,  which 
had  prevented  the  formation  of  rust.  In  an- 
other case  in  which  a  man  had  been  accused  of 
murder,  an  examination  of  a  knife  covered  with 
red  spots,  and  found  concealed  behind  a  piece 
of  furniture,  proved  that  the  stains  were  due 
to  rust  produced  by  lemon  juice.  Blood  may- 
be detected  even  on  a  stone.  Prof.  Lassaigne 


ascertained  its  presence  a  full  month  after  it  had 
been  shed  on  a  pavement  of  soft  freestone,  which 
had  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  air,  of  rain, 
and  of  the  sun.  The  color  of  the  stain  had 
passed  to  a  dirty  green,  with  a  reddish  tint 
hardly  discernible.  In  a  place  where  stains 
of  blood  are  suspected  to  exist,  and  where  none 
are  found  by  daylight,  the  search  for  the  red 
spots  must  be  made  by  artificial  light.  In  a 
case  where  Ollivier  d' Angers  had  vainly  tried 
by  daylight  to  find  stains  of  blood  on  the  floor 
and  on  the  paper  hangings  of  a  room,  he  de- 
tected many  by  candlelight.  II.  When  it  is 
decided  that  a  red  stain  is  due  to  blood,  it  re- 
mains to  be  ascertained  if  the  blood  is  that  of 
a  man  or  of  an  animal.  Chemistry  in  such 
an  examination  is  of  little  avail.  The  physical 
character  of  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood  is 
almost  the  only  guide.  It  has  been  said,  how- 
ever, that  some  reagents  may  develop  in  the 
blood  such  a  smell  that  it  is  easy  to  determine 
not  only  from  what  animal  the  blood  comes, 
but  also  whether  it  is  that  of  a  man  or  of  a 
woman.  When  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the 
blood  of  an  animal  or  of  a  man,  it  gives  rise 
to  a  smell  which  has  been  said  to  be  just  the 
same  as  that  of  the  individual  that  furnished 
the  blood.  The  chemist  (Barruel)  who  dis- 
covered this  fact  was  almost  always  able  to 
make  out  by  this  means  what  was  the  source  of 
blood  sent  to  him ;  so  were  Colombat  and  some 
other  physicians;  but  decisive  examinations 
have  shown  that  very  few  have  the  organ  of 
smell  sensitive  enough  for  this  purpose.  In 
man  and  all  the  mammalia  (except  the  camel 
tribe),  the  red  corpuscles  are  circular,  flat  disks, 
while  in  most  fishes,  in  reptiles,  birds,  and  cam- 
els, they  are  oval.  In  a  case  mentioned  by 
Taylor,  it  was  suggested  in  the  defence  that 
the  blood  stains  on  the  clothes  of  the  prisoner 
were  due  to  his  having  killed  some  chickens. 
The  shape  of  the  globules  negatived  this  part 
of  the  defence.  In  another  case  the  blood  was 
alleged  to  be  that  of  a  fish;  this  was  also  dis- 
proved by  the  shape  of  the  corpuscles.  Dr.  H. 
Bennett  of  Edinburgh  states  that  a  patient 
having  bronchitis  had  put  bird's  blood  in  her 
sputa,  and  that  after  the  microscope  had  shown 
this  fact  she  was  greatly  surprised  that  it  had 
been  discovered,  and  confessed  that  she  had 
done  it  for  the  purpose  of  imposition.  On 
looking  at  the  table  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  (see  BLOOD),  it  will  be  found 
that  the  blood  disks  of  man  are  larger  than 
those  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  To  cover 
the  extent  of  a  linear  inch  requires  3,200  of  the 
red  corpuscles  of  a  man,  4,404  of  those  of  a 
cat,  and  6,366  of  those  of  a  goat.  C.  Schmidt 
thinks  he  has  shown  that  by  accurate  meas- 
urements of  the  red  corpuscles,  the  blood  of 
all  the  common  mammalia  can  be  individually 
detected  and  also  distinguished  from  that  of 
man.  He  proposes  to  avoid  the  errors  arising 
from  a  greater  or  a  slighter  evaporation,  by 
drying  the  blood  corpuscles  before  measuring 
them.  He  gives  the  following  table  : 


BLOODSTONE 


BLOOMARY 


741 


DIAMETER  OF  BLOOD  COEPU3CLES  IN  MILLIMETRES. 

0-0077  ......  0-0074  ........  0-0080 

0-0070  ........  0-0066  ........  0-0074 

.......  0-0065  ........  0-0060  .......  0-0070 

0-0060 

0-0060 

0  0058 

0-0054 


I.Man 
2.  Dog. 
8.  Kabbit 

4.  Eat 

5.  Pig 

6.  Mouse 
T.  Ox 

8.  Cat 

9.  Horse 
10.  Sheep 


0-0064 

0-0062 

.......  0-0061 

0-0058 


0-0056  ........  0-0053 

0-0057  ........  0-0058 


0-0068 
0-0065 
0-0065 
0-OU62 
0-0060 
0-0060 


........ 

0-0044  ........  0-0040  ........  0-0048 


Dr.  Taylor  says  he  has  tried  the  method  of 
Schmidt  and  has  not  found  it  practically  avail- 
able, and  he  declares  that  the  question  of  the 
distinction  between  the  blood  of  man  and  that 
of  certain  animals  is  unsolved.  He  adds  that 
when  blood  has  been  dried  on  clothing,  we 
cannot  with  certainty  and  accuracy  distinguish 
that  of  an  ordinary  domestic  animal  from  that 
of  man.  Usually,  however,  in  fresh  blood,  the 
measurement  of  the  red  corpuscles  will  decide 
the  question;  and  in  old  stains,  when  the  blood 
corpuscles  have  changed  their  form  and  become 
jagged  or  stellate,  it  will  often  occur  that  sev- 
eral substances  will  give  them  their  normal 
shape  and  render  possible  the  determination  of 
their  source.  But  the  evidence  here  is  based 
on  conjecture  only,  and  should  therefore  be  re- 
ceived with  the  greatest  caution.  Not  only  can 
the  red  corpuscles  be  altered  in  their  size  and 
shape,  but  they  may  be  decomposed  and  give 
origin  to  crystals  which  are  so  similar,  whether 
coming  from  the  blood  of  certain  animals  or 
that  of  man,  that  no  distinction  is  possible. 
Fortunately  there  are  almost  always  at  least  a 
few  undecomposed  red  corpuscles  among  the 
crystals.  III.  It  is  absolutely  impossible  to 
distinguish  the  blood  of  one  man  from  that  of 
another  by  means  of  the  comparison  of  the  red 
corpuscles.  There  may  be  more  difference  be- 
tween the  corpuscles  of  two  samples  of  blood 
from  the  same  man  than  between  those  of  two 
men.  A  great  many  external  causes  may  pro- 
duce variations  in  the  size  of  the  red  globules; 
and  besides,  the  proportion  of  water  and  of 
certain  gases  or  salts  in  the  blood  has  a  great 
influence  on  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the 
red  corpuscles.  All  who  know  the  facts  ad- 
vanced in  favor  of  or  against  the  theory  of 
Henle,  concerning  the  causes  of  the  difference 
of  color  of  the  arterial  and  venous  blood  (see 
RESPIRATION),  are  aware  of  the  changes  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  due  to  oxygen,  carbonic  acid, 
&c.  The  smell  of  the  blood  of  women  might 
by  some  persons  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
the  blood  of  men,  but  we  cannot  place  any  re- 
liance on  the  senses  of  anybody  for  such  a  dis- 
tinction ;  and  we  know  that  even  Barruel,  who 
discovered  the  influence  of  sulphuric  acid  in 
increasing  the  odor  of  blood,  once  failed  to  dis- 
tinguish the  blood  of  a  man  from  that  of  a 
woman.  Chemistry  also  is  of  no  avail  for  the 
discrimination  of  the  blood  of  one  man  from 
that  of  another. 

BLOODSTONE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  of  a  dark 
green  color,  having  little  red  spots  of  jasper 
sprinkled  through  its  mass.  When  cut  and 


polished,  the  red  spots  appear  like  little  drops 
of  blood.     It  is  somewhat  prized  as  a  gem. 

BLOOMARY,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  a 
kind  of  furnace  for  the  production  of  malleable 
iron  from  cast  or  pig  iron,  and  sometimes  to  a 
similar  furnace  for  the  direct  extraction  of  mal- 
leable iron  from  its  ores.  In  both  cases  the 
lump  of  iron  obtained,  when  finished  under  the 
hammer,  is  called  a  bloom,  from  the  German 
Blume,  a  flower,  because,  it  is  said,  the  product 
is  as  it  were  the  flower  of  the  6re.  The  direct 
fabrication  of  malleable  iron  from  the  ore  ap- 
pears to  have  been  practised  from  remote  anti- 
quity. The  natives  of  India,  Burmah,  Borneo, 
Madagascar,  and  some  parts  of  Africa  practise 
the  direct  conversion  of  iron  ores  into  metallic 
iron  in  furnaces  which  are  rude  bloomaries. 
In  certain  districts  of  India  the  amount  of  me- 
tallic iron  thus  produced  is  very  considerable, 
and  much  of  it  is  manufactured  into  steel ;  but 
the  furnaces  used  are  small  in  size  and  do  not 
yield  more  than  30  or  40  Ibs.  of  iron  daily,  with 
the  labor  of  three  or  four  men,  and  a  great 
waste  of  ore  and  charcoal.  The  massive  rich 
ore  coarsely  pulverized,  or  the  grains  of  iron 
ore  obtained  by  washing  the  sands  in  some 
places,  are  heated  with  charcoal  in  shallow 
open  furnaces  until  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state  ;  but  as  the  metal  thus  produced  is  infusi- 
ble at  the  heat  of  these  furnaces,  it  agglutinates 
into  an  irregular  mass,  known  as  a  loup,  which 
is  afterward  hammered  and  converted  into  a 
bloom.  Somewhat  similar  methods  of  making 
malleable  iron  have  long  been  known  in  various 
countries  of  Europe,  where  under  improved 
forms  they  are  still  followed,  and  have  thence 
been  brought  to  North  America.  Of  these 
furnaces  for  the  direct  production  of  blooms 
from  the  ore  five  forms  are  known  in  Europe, 
viz. :  the  Corsican  and  Catalan  forges,  the 
German  bloomary  forge,  the  Osmund  furnace, 
and  the  German  Stucleofen  or  high  bloomary 
furnace,  which  had  high  walls  and  approached 
in  form  the  modern  blast  furnace,  of  which  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  immediate  precursor. 
All  of  these  employ  a  blast  to  increase  the  heat, 
but  the  name  of  blast  furnace  is  technically 
given  only  to  those  furnaces  in  which  by  in- 
creasing the  heat  the  reduced  iron  is  subse- 
quently carburetted  and  fused,  being  thus  sep- 
arated in  the 'form  of  cast  or  pig  metal  from 
the  melted  impurities  or  slag,  both  of  which 
are  drawn  off  by  tapping  the  furnace  from  time 
to  time.  The  production  of  iron  in  this  way 
is  a  continuous  process,  while  in  the  various 
bloomary  furnaces  the  operation  is  interrupted 
from  time  to  time  In  order  to  remove  from  the 
hearth  the  accumulated  mass  of  reduced  but 
unmelted  malleable  iron,  which  is  then  freed 
from  the  slag  or  cinder  by  hammering.  Of 
these  furnaces  the  Corsican  is  the  most  primi- 
tive form,  and  is  now  nearly  if  not  quite  dis- 
used. It  was  said  to  consume  more  than  800 
Ibs.  of  charcoal  in  making  100  Ibs.  of  iron. — 
The  Catalan  forge  or  bloomary  is  so  called  from 
the  province  of  Catalonia  In  Spain,  where  it  was 


742 


BLOOMAEY 


formerly  much  used,  us  well  as  in  the  neighbor- 
ing parts  of  France,  especially  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ariege.  The  Catalan  forge  as  used  in 
France  consists  of  a  rectangular  hearth  con- 
structed chiefly  of  heavy  iron  plates,  and  in  the 
largest  size  measures  40  by  32  inches,  and  is 
from  20  to  24  inches  deep,  or  from  12  to  15  in- 
ches below  the  tuyere  or  pipe  through  which 
the  blast  enters.  In  some  cases,  however,  fur- 
naces of  not  more  than  one  half  these  dimen- 
sions are  built.  The  pressure  of  the  blast  does 
not  exceed  1^  or  If  inch  of  mercury,  and  the 
tuyere  is  directed  downward  at  an  angle  of  30° 
or  40°.  The  wall  facing  the  tuyere  slopes  out- 
ward toward  the  top,  and  in  working  the 
greater  part  of  the  charge  of  ore  is  heaped 
against  it,  and  occupies  from  one  third  to  one 
half  of  the  cavity  of  the  furnace,  the  remaining 
space  being  filled  with  ignited  charcoal.  The 
ore  is  previously  broken  so  that  the  largest 
lumps  are  not  more  than  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, while  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  the 
material  will  pass  through  a  screen  the  bars  of 
which  are  four  tenths  of  an  inch  apart.  This 
finer  ore  is  thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  fire 
from  time  to  time  during  the  operation,  which 
is  conducted  with  many  precautions  as  to  regu- 
lating the  blast,  stirring,  and  supplying  the  fine 
ore  and  coal.  At  the  end  of  six  hours,  in  the 
ordinary  routine,  there  is  withdrawn  from  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  an  agglomerated  mass  of 
reduced  but  unmelted  iron,  which  is  then  forg- 
ed into  blooms  or  bars.  The  operation  con- 
sumes, in  one  of  the  larger-sized  forges,  about 
9J  cwt.  of  iron  ore  (a  limonite  holding  40  or  50 
per  cent,  of  iron  is  treated  in  the  Arie'ge)  and 
10£  cwt.  of  charcoal,  and  yields  3  cwt.  of  bar 
iron.  According  to  another  calculation,  there 
are  required  in  this  process,  for  the  production 
of  100  Ibs.  of  iron,  340  Ibs.  of  charcoal  and  312 
Ibs.  of  an  ore  containing  from  45  to  48  per  cent, 
of  iron.  Of  this  about  seven  tenths  are  ob- 
tained in  the  metallic  state,  the  remainder 
passing  into  the  slag;  100  Ibs.  of  the  ore  yield 
81  Ibs.  of  bar  iron  and  41  Ibs.  of  slag,  which  is 
a  dark-colored  basic  silicate,  very  rich  in  oxide 
of  iron.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  this 
direct  method  of  treatment  a  portion  of  the 
oxide  of  iron  is  always  consumed  in  fluxing  the 
impurities  of  the  ore,  so  that  the  purest  ores 
are  generally  sought  for  the  purpose.  In  the 
blast  furnace,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  judicious 
use  of  lime  or  other  basic  fluxes,  the  slags  are 
obtained  almost  free  from  iron,  and  the  loss  of 
the  metal  is  thus  avoided. — The  German  bloom- 
ary  furnace  was  formerly  used  in  Silesia  and 
the  Palatinate,  and  is  described  at  some  length 
by  Karsten  (1816),  but  is  dismissed  with  a  few 
words  in  Bruno  KerPs  treatise  (Huttenkunde, 
1864,  iii.  427),  from  which  its  use  would  seem 
to  be  nearly  or  quite  abandoned  in  Germany. 
According  to  Karsten,  the  German  bloomary 
consists  of  an  iron  pot,  or  a  box  of  iron  plates, 
in  either  case  lined  with  refractory  bricks,  and 
having  an  internal  diameter  of  from  14  to  21 
inches,  and  the  same  depth,  the  dimensions 


varying  with  the  fusibility  of  the  ore,  the  force 
of  the  blast,  and  the  quality  of  the  coal.  The 
tuyere  is  horizontal.  The  furnace  having  been 
filled  and  heaped  up  with  burning  charcoal, 
the  ore  is  thrown  upon  the  fire  by  shovelfuls 
at  a  time,  until  a  loup  of  sufficient  size  has  been 
formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  as  already 
described  in  the  Catalan  method.  When  the 
blast  is  too  intense,  or  the  coal  very  dense,  it 
may  happen  that  the  reduced  iron  becomes 
carburetted  by  the  excessive  heat  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  produce  a  steel-like  iron,  or  even 
molten  cast  iron,  instead  of  a  loup  of  soft  mal- 
leable iron.  A  similar  state  of  things  some- 
times occurs  in  the  Catalan  forge,  and  is  occa- 
sionally taken  advantage  of  to  produce  an 
imperfect  kind  of  steel.  From  the  above  de- 
scription it  will  be  seen  that  the  method  by  the 
German  bloomary  differs  from  that  by  the 
Catalan  in  the  fact  that  in  the  latter  the  greater 
part  of  the  charge  of  ore  is  placed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  operation,  in  a  coarsely 
broken  state,  on  the  sloping  wall  of  the  fur- 
nace, opposite  the  tuyere,  while  the  remaining 
portion  is  subsequently  projected  in  a  more 
finely  divided  condition  upon  the  surface  of  the 
fire.  In  the  German  method,  on  the  contrary, 
the  whole  of  the  ore  is  reduced  to  this  finer 
condition,  and  is  added  by  small  portions;  a 
plan  which  dispenses  with  the  charging  of  the 
furnace  with  ore  after  each  operation,  as  in  the 
Catalan  method,  and  permits  of  a  continuous 
working,  interrupted  only  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  loups  from  time  to  time. — The  German 
bloomary  in  an  improved  form  is  extensively 
used  for  the  reduction  of  iron  ores  in  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
bloomary  fire,  the  Jersey  forge,  or  the  Cham- 
plain  forge ;  it  is  also  frequently  called  the  Cata- 
lan forge,  from  which,  as  already  shown,  it  is  dis- 
tinct in  form  and  still  more  distinct  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  worked.  This  latter  seems 
however  to  be  unknown,  at  least  in  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States. 
i  The  German  bloomary  was  probably  introduced 
into  North  America  early  in  the  last  century. 
Among  the  forges  in  operation  in  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania  in  1856,  Lesley,  in  his  "Iron 
Manufacturers'  Guide,"  mentions  one  as  having 
been  established  in  1733  and  another  in  1725. 
The  magnetic  iron  sands  of  the  seacoast  early 
attracted  the  attention  both  of  the  American 
colonists  and  of  metallurgists  in  England,  as 
appears  from  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Mohlen 
as  early  as  1742  upon  what  was  called  the  Vir- 
ginian black  sand  (the  name  of  Virginia  being 
at  a  still  earlier  period  given  to  the  whole 
coast  from  Canada  to  Florida).  These  black 
sands  from  Killingworth,  Connecticut,  were 
there  successfully  treated  in  a  bloomary  fur- 
nace in  1762  by  the  Rev.  Jared  Elliot,  who 
obtained  blooms  of  50  Ibs.  •weight  of  iron, 
which  was  afterward  made  into  steel  of  supe- 
rior quality,  and  for  his  discovery  received  the 
following  year  a  medal  from  the  society  of  arts 
of  London.  Steel  works  had  at  that  time  been 


BLOOMARY 


743 


erected  in  Connecticut  for  the  treatment  of  the 
metal  thus  produced,  but  were  abandoned  on 
account  of  an  act  of  parliament  forbidding  the 
manufacture  of  steel  in  the  British  colonies. 
In  the  districts  where  it  was  first  worked,  in- 
cluding northern  New  Jersey  and  the  adja- 
cent parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  the 
bloomary  process  has  fallen  into  disuse  since 
wood  has  become  scarce,  and  extensive  work- 
ings of  coal  in  the  vicinity,  with  great  facilities 
for  transportation,  have  rendered  it  more  pro- 
fitable to  treat  the  ores  in  the  blast  furnace 
than  in  the  bloomary  fire.  In  northern  New 
York,  on  the  contrary,  the  use  of  the  bloom- 
ary process  has  continued  to  extend  within 
the  past  few  years,  and  in  1868  the  production 
of  iron  by  this  method  in  that  region  was  esti- 
mated at  nearly  40,000  tons,  a  large  portion 
of  which  is  consumed  at  Pittsburgh  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel  by  cementation,  for  which 
it  is  much  prized.  Two  establishments  in  the 
vicinity  of  Keeseville  had  in  that  year  respec- 
tively 18  and  21  bloomary  fires,  and  the  whole 
number  in  activity  in  Essex  and  Cimton  counties 
in  1867  was  said  to  be  186.  It  is  only  in  moun- 
tainous regions,  abounding  in  rich  iron  ores  and 
wood  suitable  for  charcoal,  and  still  inacces- 
sible to  railways,  that  this  process  can  hold  its 
ground.  Its  advantages  are,  that  the  outlay 
and  floating  capital  required  are  inconsiderable, 
and  the  consumption  of  charcoal  comparatively 
small.  The  direct  mode  of  reduction  can  only 
be  applied  to  rich  ores,  which  to  yield  good 
results  in  the  German  or  Catalan  bloomary 
should  contain  not  much  less  than  50  per  cent, 
of  iron,  while  much  richer  ores  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Two  tons,  and  of  the  richest  and 
purest  ores  H  ton,  will  under  careful  manage- 
ment yield  one  ton  of  blooms.  The  bloomary 
hearths  used  in  northern  New  York  vary  in 
area  from  27x30  to  28x32  inches,  and  in 
depth  from  20  to  25  inches  above  the  tuyere, 
and  from  8  to  14  inches  below.  The  sides  are 
of  heavy  cast-iron  plates,  and  the  bottom, 
though  often  of  beaten  earth  or  cinders,  is  in 
the  best  constructed  hearths  also  of  iron,  made 
hollow  and  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  water  circu- 
lating through  it.  The  side  plates  slope  gently 
inward  in  descending,  and  rest  on  ledges  in  the 
bottom  plate.  A  water  box  is  let  into  the 
tuyere  plate.  The  tuyere,  which  is  inclined 
downward,  has  its  opening  in  the  form  of  a 
segment  of  a  circle.  In  some  localities  these 
dimensions  differ  from  those  given ;  and  the 
bloomaries  lately  erected  at  Moisie  in  the  lower 
St.  Lawrence,  for  the  treatment  of  the  mag- 
netic iron  sands,  measure  32  x  30  inches,  and 
have  the  tuyere  nearly  horizontal.  The  blast 
employed  in  the  American  bloomaries  has  a 
pressure  of  1|  to  If  lb.,  and  is  heated  to  550° 
or  600°  F.,  by  passing  through  inverted  siphon 
tubes  of  cast  iron  placed  in  a  chamber  above 
the  furnace.  By  the  use  of  the  hot  blast  the 
production  of  the  furnaces  is  much  increased, 
and  a  considerable  saving  of  charcoal  is  effect- 
ed without  any  deterioration  in  the  quality  of 


1  the  metal.  The  working  of  these  furnaces  is 
conducted  as  follows :  The  fire  being  kept  ac- 
tive and  the  furnace  heaped  with  coal,  the 
coarsely  pulverized  ore  is  scattered  at  short  in- 
tervals upon  the  top  of  the  burning  fuel,  and  in 
its  passage  downward  is  reduced  to  the  metal- 
lic state,  but  reaches  the  bottom  without  being 
melted  and  there  accumulates,  the  grains  ag- 
glomerating into  an  irregular  mass  or  loup, 
while  the  earthy  matters  form  a  liquid  slag  or 
cinder  which  lies  around  and  above  it,  and  is 
drawn  off  from  time  to  time  through  an  open- 
ing in  the  front  plate.  At  the  end  of  two 
or  three  hours,  or  when  a  sufficiently  large 
loup  is  formed,  this  is  lifted  by  means  of  a  bar 
from  the  bottom,  brought  before  the  tuyere  for 
a  few  minutes  to  give  it  a  greater  heat,  and 
then  carried  to  the  hammer,  where  it  is 
wrought  into  a  bloom ;  the  bloomary  fire  itself 
being  generally  used  for  reheating.  This  opera- 
tion being  concluded,  the  addition  of  ore  to  the 
fire  is  resumed,  and  the  production  of  iron  is 
kept  up  with  but  little  interruption.  A  skilled 
workman  will  with  a  large-sized  bloomary  fur- 
nace bring  out  a  loup  of  300  Ibs.  every  three 
hours,  thus  making  the  produce  of  a  day  of  24 
hours  2,400  Ibs.  of  rough  blooms.  The  con- 
sumption of  charcoal  is  from  250  to  300  bushels, 
(weighing  16  or  18  Ibs.  to  the  bushel)  for  each 
ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  of  blooms  produced.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  cost  of  the  ore  and  coal,  which  varies 
somewhat  with  the  locality,  the  estimate  of  a 
competent  iron  master  in  northern  New  York 
in  1868  gave  for  wages  $9,  and  for  general  ex- 
penses $3  50,  for  each  ton  of  blooms  produced. 
— Several  plans  have  been  introduced  having  for 
their  object  the  reduction  of  rich  iron  ores  at 
low  temperatures  in  close  chambers  by  carbonic 
oxide,  and  the  spongy  metallic  iron  thus  ob- 
tained was  in  many  cases  transferred  at  once  to 
a  hearth  and  converted  into  blooms.  Such 
was  the  case  in  the  methods  of  Clay,  of  Chenot, 
and  of  Renton.  In  the  manufacture  of  blooms 
from  cast  iron  by  the  Walloon  method,  now  to 
a  great  extent  superseded  by  puddling,  the 
iron,  generally  purified  by  a  first  fusion  in  what 
is  called  a  running-out  fire,  is  brought  in  small 
portions  at  a  time  before  the  tuyere  on  a  char- 
coal fire  similar  to  the  German  bloomary  fire 
just  described,  and  known  as  a  sinking  fire.  It 
there  melts  down  and  is  at  the  same  time  de- 
carbonized, the  product  accumulating  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  in  a  loup,  which  is  treat- 
ed in  the  manner  already  described  and  yields 
a  bloom  of  malleable  iron.  The  iron  thus  ob- 
tained is  superior  in  quality  to  that  produced  by 
puddling,  and  for  the  finer  kinds  of  metal  the 
process  is  still  practised  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Sweden,  where  a  modification  of  the  bloomary 
known  as  the  Lancashire  hearth  is  employed. 
The  loss  in  this  process  of  conversion  is  con- 
siderable, and  the  consumption  of  charcoal  in 
the  production  of  the  pig  iron  and  its  subse- 
quent conversion  in  the  bloomary  fire  is  about 
equal  to  that  required  in  the  direct  process. 


744 


BLOOMFIELD 


BLOOMFIELD,  Robert,  an  English  pastoral 
poet,  born  at  ilonington,  Suffolk,  Dec.  3,  1766, 
died  at  Shefford,  Bedfordshire,  Aug.  19,  1823. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  father,  a  tailor,  and 
was  taught  to  read  by  his  mother,  who  kept  a 
dame  school.  Not  being  sufficiently  robust 
for  a  farmer's  boy,  he  was  sent  to  London  to 
learn  the  business  of  a  shoemaker,  and  in  his 
brief  leisure  read  a  few  books  of  poetry,  in- 
cluding Thorn  son's  "Seasons,"  which  he  greatly 
admired.  He  composed  in  a  garret  where  he 
lodged  "  The  Farmer's  Boy,"  in  which  he  de- 
scribed the  country  scenes  he  had  been  familiar 
with  in  childhood.  Several  London  publishers 
declined  this  poem,  but  it  was  seen  by  Mr. 
Capel  Lofft,  and  under  his  patronage  it  was 
published  in  1800.  Within  three  years  over 
26,000  copies  were  sold,  and  it  was  translated 
into  German,  French,  Italian,  and  Latin.  The 
fluke  of  Grafton  appointed  Bloomfleld  to  a 
government  situation,  but  ill  health  caused  him 
to  return  to  his  trade  of  ladies'  shoemaker,  the 
duke  settling  a  shilling  a  day  on  him  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  Finally,  he  retired  to  Shefford, 
where  he  died  in  debt,  leaving  a  widow  and 
four  children.  His  "  Farmer's  Boy,"  which 
has  often  been  reprinted,  is  by  far  his  best  pro- 
duction. His  other  principal  poems  are:  "Rural 
Tales  and  Ballads,"  "Good  Tidings,"  "Wild 
Flowers,"  "The  Banks  of  the  Wye,"  and 
"  May  Day  with  the  Muses." 

BLOOMFIELD,  Samuel  Thomas,  D.  D.,  an  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  critic,  born  in  1790,  died  at 
Wandsworth  Common,  Sept.  28,  1869.  He 
was  educated  at  Sidney  college,  Cambridge, 
took  orders,  and  held  till  the  end  of  his  life  the 
vicarage  of  Bisbrooke,  Rutland.  IJe  published, 
under  the  title  Recensio  Synoptica,  exegetical, 
critical,  and  doctrinal  annotations  on  the  New 
Testament  (8  vols.,  1826)  ;  a  Greek  and  English 
lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  revised  and 
enlarged  from  Dr.  Robinson's  (1829);  a  trans- 
lation of  Thucydides  (3  vols.,  1829)  ;  Thucyd- 
ides's  "History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War," 
with  a  new  recension  of  the  Greek  text  and 
elaborate  notes  (2  vols.,  1843);  and  "The  Greek 
Testament,  with  English  Notes,  critical,  philo- 
logical," &c.  (2  vols.,  1832 ;  9th  ed.,  1855).  Dr. 
Bloomfield's  Greek  Testament  has  been  more 
largely  used,  both  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  than  that  of  any  other  English  critic, 
and  is  still  highly  approved  as  a  learned,  judi- 
cious, and  trustworthy  work. 

BLOOMINGTON,  a  village  and  the  capital  of 
Monroe  co.,  Indiana,  situated  on  a  ridge  between 
the  E.  and  W.  forks  of  White  river ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,032.  A  railroad  from  New  Albany  to 
Michigan  City  passes  through  the  village.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  state  university,  which  in 
1871  had  13  instructors,  277  male  and  31  fe- 
male students,  and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes. 
The  law  school  connected  with  it  had  2  pro- 
fessors, 53  students,  229  alumni,  and  a  library 
of  1,100  volumes. 

BLOOMINGTOJV,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Mc- 
Lean co.,  Illinois,  116  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Chicago, 


BLOUNT 

and  154  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  St.  Louis ;  pop.  in 
1860,  7,075 ;  in  1870,  14,590.  The  city  is 
handsomely  built,  has  street  railways  and 
steam  fire  engines,  and  contains  36  schools 
attended  by  3,091  pupils,  a  female  seminary, 
and  the  Major  female  college.  The  Illinois 
Wesleyan  university,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
institution,  was  organized  in  1852,  and  in  1870 
had  200  pupils  in  all  the  departments,  6  in- 
structors, and  a  library  of  15,000  volumes. 
Three  daily  and  two  weekly  papers  are  pub- 
lished. Bloomington  is  a  great  railroad  centre, 
and  is  increasing  rapidly  in  population  and 
wealth.  The  Chicago,  Alton,  and  St.  Louis 
railroad  and  the  northern  division  of  the  Il- 
linois Central  intersect  at  this  point,  which  is 
also  on  the  line  of  the  Indianapolis,  Blooming- 
ton,  and  Western  railway.  The  construction 
and  repair  shops  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton 
company  are  built  of  stone,  and  with  the  yards 
attached  cover  13  acres  of  ground.  The  city 
also  contains  numerous  mills  and  factories  of 
all  descriptions.  A  large  wholesale  trade  is 
carried  on,  the  city  competing  with  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis  for  the  patronage  of  the  neigh- 
boring towns. 

BLOUNT.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Alabama,  drained 
by  the  upper  courses  of  the  Locust  and  Mul- 
berry forks  of  Black  Warrior  river ;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,945,  of  whom  682 
were  colored.  Portions  of  the  surface  are 
mountainous,  and  covered  with  forests  of  ex- 
cellent timber.  Blount's  Springs,  on  Mulberry 
fork,  is  a  popular  watering  place.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  47,375  bushels  of 
wheat,  266,553  of  Indian  corn,  12,779  of  oats, 
81,578  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  950  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  1,651  horses,  633  mules 
and  asses,  3,235  milch  cows,  5,323  other  cat- 
tle, 9,507  sheep,  and  15,983  swine.  Capital, 
Blountsville.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bordering  on  North  Carolina ;  area,  450  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,237,  of  whom  1,456  were  col- 
ored. Holston  river,  on  the  N.  W.  boundary, 
is  navigable  by  steamboats ;  the  Tennessee 
bounds  it  on  the  west,  and  Little  river  and 
numerous  small  creeks  intersect  it.  The  Knox- 
ville  and  Charleston  railroad  extends  from 
Knoxville  to  Marysville.  The  surface  is  trav- 
ersed by  several  mountain  ridges,  the  principal 
of  which  are  Iron  or  Smoky  mountain,  and 
Chilhowee  mountain.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
carefully  tilled.  Marble,  limestone,  and  iron 
ore  abound.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  107,819  bushels  of  wheat,  384,583  of 
Indian  corn,  104,501  of  oats,  18,178  Ibs.  of 
wool,  129,535  of  butter,  and  20,219  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  2,847  horses, 
2,488  milch  cows,  5,018  other  cattle,  10,828 
sheep,  and  15,725  swine.  Capital,  Maryville. 

BLOIUT,  Charles,  an  English  deistical  writer, 
born  in  Middlesex,  April  27,  1654,  died  in 
August,  1693.  His  first  work,  a  pamphlet  in 
defence  of  Dryden's  "  Conquest  of  Granada," 
was  followed  in  1679  by  Anima  Mundi,  a 
work  giving  a  historical  account  of  the  opin- 


BLOUNT 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


745 


ions  of  the  ancients  on  a  future  life,  and  in 
1680  by  "Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians," 
and  a  translation  of  the  Latin  version  of  part 
of  Philostratus's  Life  of  Apollonius  Tyanseus, 
with  irreligious  annotations,  which  were  se- 
verely censured  hy  Bayle.  His  tracts,  "  A  Just 
Vindication  of  Learning  and  of  the  Liberty 
of  the  Press"  and  "Reasons  for  the  Liberty 
of  Unlicensed  Printing,"  consisting  chiefly 
of  garbled  extracts  from  Milton's  "Areopa- 
gitica,"  and  his  reputed  anonymous  treatise 
"William  and  Mary  Conquerors  "  (1693),  which 
was  designedly  written  in  the  spirit  of  ultra 
tories  and  churchmen,  with  a  view  of  entrap- 
ping the  censor  Bohun,  contributed  much  to 
inflame  the  public  mind  against  the  censorship 
of  the  press.  After  the  premature  death  of 
his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Sir  Timothy  Tyrell,  he 
wanted  to  marry  her  sister,  and  wrote  a  tract 
in  defence  of  such  marriages;  but,  unable  to 
overcome  either  the  scruples  of  the  lady  or  the 
prohibitions  of  the  law,  he  inflicted  on  himself 
a  fatal  wound.  According  to  Pope,  he  did  not 
intend  to  kill  himself,  but  only  meant  to  frighten 
his  sister-in-law  into  accepting  him.  Macaulay 
thinks  he  has  been  much  overrated,  but  gives 
him  credit  for  having  greatly  aided  in  the 
emancipation  of  the  English  press.  Charles 
Gildon  wrote  an  apology  for  his  suicide,  and 
published  a  collection  of  his  letters  under  the 
title  of  "The  Oracle  of  Reason"  (1690),  and 
"  The  Miscellaneous  Works  of  Charles  Blount, 
Esq."  (1695).— His  father,  Sir  HENEY  (1602- 
-'82),  was  the  author  of  "  A  Voyage  to  the 
Levant"  (1636);  and  his  elder  brother,  Sir 
THOMAS  POPE  (1649-'97),  who  served  in  five 
parliaments,  wrote  Centura  Celebriorum  Au- 
thorum  (fol.,  1690),  De  Re  Poetica,  and  a  com- 
pilation on  natural  history. 

BLOOIT,  Thomas,  an  English  writer,  horn  at 
Bardesley,  Worcestershire,  in  1618,  died  at 
Orleton,  Dec.  26,  1679.  He  published  "The 
English  Academy  of  Eloquence"  (1654);  a 
"Dictionary  of  Hard  Words"  (1656) ;  "Lamps 
of  the  Law,  and  Lights  of  the  Gospel "  (1658) ; 
"  Boscobel,"  a  history  of  Charles  II.'s  escape 
after  the  battle  of  Worcester  (1660;  part  2, 
1681) ;  a  "  Law  Dictionary  "  (1671) ;  "  A  World 
of  Errors  Discovered  in  the  New  World  of 
Words"  (1673);  and  some  works  of  less  im- 
portance. He  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  wrote  a  Catholic  almanac  and  a  cata- 
logue of  the  Catholics  who  lost  their  lives 
in  the  king's  cause.  The  popish  plot  and  the 
anxiety  occasioned  by  the  excitement  of  the 
time  are  believed  to  have  broken  his  health 
and  caused  his  death. 

BLOl'NT,  William,  an  American  politician, 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1744,  died  in  Knox- 
ville,  Tenn.,  March  26,  1800.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate from  North  Carolina  to  the  continental 
congress,  and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  federal 
constitution  in  1787.  In  1790  he  was  appoint- 
ed governor  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio. 
After  the  formation  from  this  territory  of  the 
state  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  he  waa  elected  one 


of  its  first  senators  in  the  national  congress. 
In  1797  he  was  impeached  by  the  house  of 
representatives  for  having  intrigued,  when 
governor  of  the  territory,  to  transfer  New 
Orleans  and  the  neighboring  districts,  then  be- 
longing to  Spain,  to  Great  Britain,  by  means 
of  a  joint  expedition  of  English  and  Indians. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  senate,  and  the  pro- 
cess was  then  dropped  in  the  house.  The  pro- 
ceedings against  him  increased  his  popularity 
among  his  constituents,  by  whom  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  senate,  of  which  he  be- 
came president. 

BLOW,  John,  an  English  composer,  born  at 
North  Collingham,  Nottinghamshire,  in  1648, 
died  in  London  in  1708.  On  the  accession  of 
Charles  II.  he  became  a  chorister  in  the  chapel 
royal,  and,  though  only  a  child,  composed  sev- 
eral anthems.  He  afterward  became  succes- 
sively one  of  James  II.'s  private  musicians, 
master  of  the  choir  of  St.  Paul's,  organist  of 
Westminster  abbey,  and  composer  to  the  royal 
chapel.  He  published  the  Amphion  Anglicus, 
a  collection  of  songs  and  hymns.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  and  on  his  mon- 
ument is  engraved  the  Gloria  Patri,  one  of 
his  first  canons. 

BLOWING  MACDI3VES.  Besides  the  common 
bellows  (see  BELLOWS),  a  variety  of  other  ma- 
chines have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of 
propelling  air  in  large  volume,  or  with  great 
pressure  and  volume  together.  The  most 
efficient  of  these  machines  are  the  blowing 
cylinders,  which  are  used  to  supply  air  to  blast 
furnaces,  and  by  their  great  size  and  strength 
are  made  to  furnish  immense  bodies  of  air 
under  great  pressures.  Fan  blowers  are  used 
for  supplying  large  volumes  of  air,  but  for  pur- 
poses in  which  a  high  pressure  is  unimportant. 
The  water  blowing  machine,  for  which  we 
have  neither  name  nor  use  in  this  country,  but 
which  is  well  known  in  the  mining  regions  of 
central  and  southern  Europe  by  the  name  of 
trompe,  is  so  ingenious,  and  may  in  some  situ- 
ations prove  so  valuable  a  contrivance,  that  it 
cannot  be  passed  over  without  notice.  There 
is  also,  in  the  same  countries,  a  very  simple 
blowing  apparatus,  used  for  ventilating  mines, 
also  too  little  known  in  this  country,  called 
the  ventilator  of  the  Hartz,  which  is  well  wor- 
thy of  notice. — Blowing  cylinders  of  the  best 
construction  are  made  of  cast  iron,  the  inner 
surface  turned  perfectly  true,  fitted  with  air- 
tight iron  heads,  each  of  which  is  furnished 
with  a  large  valve,  corresponding  to  the  clapper 
of  the  bellows,  opening  inward.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  heads  the  smooth  iron  piston  rod 
moves  in  close  packing,  carrying  a  piston  which 
is  fitted  accurately  to  the  cylinder.  As  the 
piston  moves  in  one  direction,  the  air  enters 
through  the  valve  in  the  head  behind  it,  while 
that  in  front  is  forced  through  an  aperture  on 
one  side,  which  is  furnished  with  a  valve  open- 
ing outward,  and  connects  with  a  pipe  leading 
to  any  desired  point.  By  reversing  the  motion 
the  end  exhausted  of  air  is  refilled,  while  tho 


74G 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


other,  by  the  shutting  of  the  valve  through 
which  the  air  entered,  is  made  to  furnish  its 
contents  through  the  side  opening  to  the  same 
main  pipe,  which  connects  with  the  other  end. 
The  principle  of  the  machine  is  thus  the  same 
as  that  of  the  double-acting  force  pump  for  pro- 
pelling water.  By  the  alternate  motion  of  the 
piston,  a  current  of  air  is  maintained  of  con- 
siderable steadiness,  and  of  quantity  and  pres- 
sure according  to  the  size  of  the  cylinder  and 
its  valves,  the  rapidity  of  the  movement,  and 
the  power  applied.  The  pressure  is  equalized 
by  the  use  of  an  air  receiver  of  great  capacity, 
into  which  the  air  is  forced  through  a  larger 
aperture  than  that  for  its  exit ;  its  elasticity  is 
thus  made  to  act  as  a  perfect  spring.  For  pro- 
pelling the  air  into  blast  furnaces,  the  blowing 
cylinders  are  made  of  great  size  and  strength. 
They  are  often  set  in  pairs,  upon  horizontal 
frames  of  cast  iron,  the  piston  rods  being  con- 
nected with  cranks  geared  to  the  main  shaft 
of  the  steam  engine.  Two  such  cylinders,  of 
5  ft.  diameter  and  6  ft.  stroke,  afford  at  a  com- 
mon rate  of  running  (as  eight  full  strokes  per 
minute),  sufficient  air  for  a  first  class  furnace. 
No  allowance  being  made  for  escape  of  air,  and 
room  occupied  by  the  piston  and  rod,  each 
movement  of  the  piston  should  discharge  the 
contents  of  the  cylinder,  which  are  117'81  ft. 
A  full  revolution  of  the  crank  discharges  it 
twice,  and  this  being  repeated  eight  times  in 
a  minute,  the  effect  of  the  two  cylinders  is  to 
drive  forward  3,370  cubic  feet  every  minute. 
Instead  of  being  placed  horizontally,  a  single 
blowing  cylinder  is  sometimes  used  of  great 
dimensions,  placed  upright,  and  the  piston  rod 
attached  to  one  end  of  the  lever  beam  of  the 
steam  engine,  the  steam  cylinder  connecting 
with  the  other  end.  Some  are  also  connected 
by  the  same  piston  rod  passing  through  the 
steam  cylinder  and  blowing  cylinder,  without 
the  intervention  of  either  beam  or  gearing. 
— A  fan  blower  is  a  short  cylinder  of  cast  iron, 
through  the  axis  of  which  passes  a  shaft,  made 
to  revolve  by  a  pulley  attached  to  it  outside  of 
the  cylinder.  Upon  the  shaft  within  the  box 
are  placed  four  or  five  wings,  which  when  ro- 
tating pass  near  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  cyl- 
inder. The  apparatus,  drawn  in  section,  is  like 
an  undershot  water  wheel  enclosed  in  a  box. 
Around  the  axle,  openings  are  left  in  the  sides 
of  the  box  for  the  admission  of  the  air.  This 
may  for  purposes  of  ventilation  be  drawn  from 
a  distance  through  air  pipes  discharging  into 
the  box.  The  motion  of  the  wings  carries  the 
air  around,  and  a  new  supply  enters  to  be 
taken  on  by  the  next  wing.  The  discharge  is 
through  a  box  or  pipe  placed  at  a  tangent  to 
the  cylinder  and  opening  into  it.  The  bottom 
of  this  box  forms  the  base  upon  which  the  ap- 
paratus rests;  and  in  some  machines,  as  this 
lower  plate  curves  around  to  form  the  case  of  the 
blower,  it  is  made  to  take  a  spiral  form  instead 
of  that  of  a  true  cylinder,  the  radius  of  the  cir- 
cle lessening  as  the  arc  is  produced.  This  is 
called  the  eccentric  fan ;  the  other,  in  which  the 


revolving  axis  is  in  the  centre  of  the  cylinder,  is 
the  concentric  fan.  The  latter  is  supposed  to 
work  to  disadvantage  by  carrying  around  a  por- 
tion of  the  compressed  air  a  second  time,  while 
the  wings  of  tbe  other,  revolving  above  the 
bottom  of  the  discharge  box,  afford  more  room 
for  the  escape  of  the  air,  and  at  the  same  time 
cut  off,  as  they  pass  into  the  upper  portion  of 
the  box,  and  close  to  its  inner  surface,  the  en- 
trance for  any  air  from  without.  By  the  high 
speed  at  which  the  fans  are  made  to  revolve 
a  large  body  of  air  is  discharged  through  the 
aperture,  but  with  little  pressure.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  run  them  at  the  rate  of  1,800  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  for  the  air  at  its  dis- 
charge to  have  a  velocity  of  3,280  ft.  in  the 
same  time.  According  to  the  statements  of 
Dr.  Ure,  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions," the  velocity  of  the  discharge  is  actu- 
ally about  three  fourths  of  that  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  fan  blades.  If  the  effective  velocity 
of  these  be  70  ft.  per  second,  and  the  area  of 
the  discharge  pipe  be  3  ft.,  the  quantity  of  air 
discharged  is  210  ft.,  or  12,600  ft.  per  minute. 
The  weight  of  this  amount  of  air  is  about  9C9 
Ibs.  For  a  heavy  body  falling  to  acquire  a 
velocity  of  70  ft.  per  second,  the  height  of  the 
fall  must  be  76-5  ft.  This,  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  pounds  moved,  and  divided  by 
33,000,  will  give  the  horse  power,  which  in 
this  case  is  2  '24,  required  to  produce  this  result. 
The  pressure  of  the  blast  is  rarely  more  than 
from  one  quarter  to  half  a  pound  upon  the 
square  inch ;  hence  the  fan  can  only  be  used 
where  no  great  resistance  is  offered  to  the  blast. 
It  is  admirably  adapted  for  .blowing  a  large 
number  of  open  fires,  or  for  cupola  furnaces. 
— The  trompe  is  a  machine  dependent  upon 
a  current  of  water  falling  from  a  considerable 
height.  It  consists  of  a  large  pipe,  about  2  ft. 
square,  leading  from  an  upper  reservoir  of 
water  to  a  cistern  or  box,  25  to  30  ft.  or  more 
below  it.  A  few  feet  under  the  cistern,  the 
pipe  is  contracted  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  in 
order  to  divide  the  water  into  many  stream- 
lets in  its  fall.  Below  this  narrow  place  are  a 
number  of  holes  through  the  pipe  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air.  This  is  taken  down  by  the 
water  as  it  descends,  and  passes  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  cistern  at  the  bottom,  where  a  block 
is  placed,  upon  which  the  water  dashes,  caus- 
ing the  air  to  separate  from  it.  The  water 
passes  through  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cis- 
tern into  a  side  box,  in  which  is  placed  a  valve 
for  checking  the  exit  of  the  water,  that  the  air 
which  collects  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cistern 
may  be  kept  at  any  desired  pressure.  From 
the  top  of  the  cistern  a  small  air  pipe  conveys 
the  blast  to  any  required  point.  This  appara- 
tus is  used  for  furnishing  air  to  cupelling  and 
melting  furnaces. — The  ventilator  of  the  llartz 
is  an  apparatus  of  great  simplicity,  designed  to 
be  connected  with  any  part  of  the  machinery 
about  mines  that  will  give  a  slow  alternating 
motion,  and  which  is  usually  kept  in  action, 
the  object  being  to  furnish  a  continual  supply 


BLOWPIPE 


747 


of  air  to  mines.  Two  cylindrical-shaped  ves- 
sels, such  as  long  casks,  are  selected,  of  such 
sizes  that  one,  when  inverted,  may  easily  move 
up  and  down  within  the  other.  The  outer 
one  is  nearly  filled  with  water,  and  is  furnished 
with  an  air  pipe,  which  leads  from  its  upper 
part  through  the  water,  and  through  its  bottom 
down  into  the  mine.  Upon  the  upper  end  of 
this  pipe  is  a  valve  opening  downward.  The 
inner  inverted  cask  surrounds  this  pipe.  It 
has  upon  its  upper  end  a  large  valve  opening 
within.  Being  suspended  by  a  chain  to  the 
end  of  a  lever  beam,  or  to  the  arm  of  a  bob, 
air  passes  within  as  it  is  lifted  up,  and  is  pro- 
pelled as  it  descends  through  the  pipe.  By 
this  alternating  motion  a  continual  current  of 
air  is  supplied  with  little  cost  of  power  or  at- 
tention. A  more  perfect  arrangement  of  this 
machine  is  in  making  it  double,  by  attaching 
one  to  each  end  of  the  lever  beam.  For  blow- 
ing furnaces  these  machines  have  the  common 
disadvantage  of  all  water  blasts,  that  they 
cause  the  air  to  take  up  more  or  less  moisture, 
which  is  discharged  into  the  furnace,  and  must 
to  some  extent  diminish  the  effect  of  the  blast. 
BLOWPIPE,  in  the  simplest  form,  a  small 
metallic  tube  of  tapering  shape,  its  smaller  end 
curved  around  to  form  a  right  angle,  and  the 
larger  end  of  convenient  size  for  applying  to 
the  mouth,  designed  to  concentrate  the  heat 
of  a  flame  upon  a  particular  point.  It  is  8  or 
10  inches  in  length,  with  a  bore  varying  from 
•j^  to  -fa  of  an  inch,  but  drawn  out  at  the  small 
extremity  to  a  very  minute  aperture.  Through 
this  air  is  blown  upon  the  flame  of  a  lamp, 
causing  a  portion  of  the  flame  to  be  diverted 
in  a  jet  of  intense  heat.  It  is  an  instrument 
of  great  use  with  jewellers  for  soldering  small 
pieces  of  work,  and  with  glassblowers  and 
enamellers,  for  softening  and  working  small 
articles.  By  these  it  is  often  used  upon  a 
larger  scale  with  a  bellows  for  supplying  it 
with  air,  instead  of  furnishing  this  by  the 
month.  But  the  most  important  use  of  the 
blowpipe  is  to  the  mineralogist  and  analytical 
chemist,  in  whose  hands  it  is  made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  small  furnace,  with  the  ad- 
vantage that  the  operations  taking  place  are 
directly  under  the  eye.  When  used,  the  point 
is  placed  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and  the  cur- 
rent of  air  is  directed  across  this,  by  a  steady 
blast  from  the  mouth.  A  lateral  cone  of  flame 
is  thus  produced,  which  is  pale  blue  without 
and  blue  within.  At  the  point  of  the  inner 
blue  cone  is  the  greatest  intensity  of  heat.  A 
small  particle  of  metallic  ore  placed  upon  char- 
coal, and  kept  at  this  point,  may  be  reduced 
to  a  metallic  state,  the  charcoal  aiding  the 
process  by  its  chemical  action  in  abstract- 
ing the  oxygen  of  the  ore.  If  of  difficult  re- 
duction, the  experiment  may  be  aided  by  the 
introduction  of  proper  fluxes,  as  in  crucible 
operations.  The  outer  cone  of  flame  in  con- 
tact with  the  air  possesses  oxidating  proper- 
ties ;  and  in  this  the  preparatory  operation  of 
calcining  and  desulphurizing  is  effected  upon 


the  particle  of  ore,  before  it  is  submitted  to 
the  reducing  flame.  Control  is  thus  had  over 
any  desired  amount  of  heat,  and  with  a  facility 
of  employing  it  for  different  purposes  in  a  small 
way,  which  renders  the  blowpipe  far  prefer- 
able for  experimental  purposes  to  the  cumber- 
some furnaces  and  other  expensive  apparatus 
which  were  required  before  its  application  for 
determining  the  properties  of  mineral  sub- 
stances. The  process  of  cupellation  is  very 
readily  effected  upon  small  pieces  of  metallic 
lead  containing  silver  or  gold.  The  button  of 
metal  is  placed  in  a  small  cupel  of  bone  ash, 
and  this  is  laid  upon  a  piece  of  charcoal  for 
a  support.  It  is  thoroughly  heated  and  the 
button  melted  in  the  reducing  flame,  and  then 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  oxidizing  flame. 
In  this  the  lead  is  kept  in  fusion,  and  a  pellicle 
of  oxide  of  lead  is  continually  formed  upon  the 
surface,  and  as  constantly  absorbed  in  the 
cupel,  till  the  lead  is  all  thus  removed,  and  the 
little  globule  of  the  more  precious  metal,  so 
small  perhaps  as  to  be  scarcely  visible,  is  kept 
as  a  bright  point  in  the  centre  of  the  cupel. 
By  working  upon  a  weighed  quantity  in  re- 
peated operations,  and  adding  the  products  to 
each  other,  the  analysis  may  be  made  quanti- 
tative by  the  use  of  the  ingeniously  contrived 
apparatus  applied  by  Plattner  to  the  estimation 
of  the  weight  of  minute  bodies.  Another  im- 
portant use  of  the  instrument  is  melting  small 
particles  of  undetermined  substances  with  differ- 
ent fluxes,  as  borax  or  salt  of  phosphorus,  upon 
a  fine  piece  of  platinum  wire,  hooked  at  the 
end  to  sustain  the  little  bead.  By  the  reaction 
of  the  ingredients  of  the  substance  with  the 
flux,  as  seen  in  the  mode  of  melting,  the  color 
of  the  head  in  one  flame,  and  its  change  to  an- 
other color  in  the  other  flame,  these  ingredients 
are  detected  and  the  compound  determined. 
For  example,  copper  gives  a  green  bead  in  the 
outer  flame,  but  a  red  one  in  the  inner  when 
borax  is  the  flux  used ;  iron  gives  a  yellowish 
green  bead,  cobalt  a  blue  bead,  and  manganese 
a  violet  bead,  which  is  made  colorless  in  the  in- 
ner flame.  The  qualitative  analysis  is  rendered 
more  complete  by  subjecting  the  substance  to 
the  action  of  the  blowpipe  in  glass  tubes,  for  the 
purpose  of  detecting  the  volatile  ingredients,  as 
water  by  the  steam,  ammonia  by  its  vapor  and 
odor,  sulphur  by  its  odor  and  yellow  sublimate, 
and  arsenic  by  the  metallic  ring  it  forms  around 
the  inside  of  the  tube,  where  its  vapor  con- 
denses. This  may  be  satisfactorily  effected 
where  the  particle  under  examination  is  too 
small  to  he  visible  without  the  aid  of  the 
microscope.  The  substance  may  also  be  dis- 
solved in  acids  in  glass  tubes,  and  the  precipi- 
tates obtained,  freed  from  some  of  their  asso- 
ciated matters,  be  subjected  to  the  test  by  the 
blowpipe.  Many  minerals  may  be  determined 
by  simply  heating  them  alone  in  platinum- 
pointed  forceps  and  observing  whether  they 
fuse  and  how ;  what  color  they  impart  to  flame, 
and  what  appearance  the  fused  mineral  pre- 
sents. Thus  the  blowpipe,  with  a  few  simple 


T48 


BLOWPIPE 


instruments  and  some  tests,  all  of  which  may 
he  easily  transported,  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
portable  laboratory.  In  skilful  hands  all  min- 
eral substances  may  be  determined  and  a  com- 
plete qualitative  analysis  made  by  it;  and  by 
the  improvements  introduced  by  Prof.  Plattner, 
many  quantitative  analyses  may  be  effected  for 
practical  purposes.— The  blowpipe  was  first  ap- 
plied to  the  examination  of  minerals  by  Swab, 
counsellor  of  the  college  of  mines  in  Sweden 
in  1738.  Cronstedt,  of  the  same  country,  next 
took  up  the  subject,  and  made  great  use  of  the 
blowpipe  for  distinguishing  minerals  by  their 
chemical  properties.  This  was  for  his  work  on 
mineralogy,  in  which  he  introduced  the  classi- 
fication of  minerals  according  to  their  chemical 
composition.  This  hook  was  first  published  in 
1758,  and  was  translated  into  English  hy  Von 
Engestrom  in  1765,  who  added  to  it  a  treatise 
upon  the  blowpipe,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  used  by  Cronstedt.  The  attention  of  sci- 
entific men  was  thus  directed  to  its  great  use 
as  an  analytical  instrument,  hut  the  difficulty  of 
learning  to  apply  it,  without  practical  instruc- 
tion, prevented  its  being  so  generally  received 
as  it  deserves  to  he ;  and  had  not  the  Swedish 
chemists  continued  to  employ  and  improve  it, 
it  might  after  all  have  fallen  into  disuse.  Berg- 
man found  it  very  serviceable  in  his  chemical 
researches,  and  Gahn,  who  assisted  him,  car- 
ried its  use  to  a  higher  state  of  perfection  than 
had  hefore  been  attained.  Berzelius  enjoyed 
the  most  friendly  intercourse  with  this  remark- 
able man,  and  preserved  in  his  "Elements  of 
Chemistry  "  the  most  important  results  of  the 
experiments,  which  Gahn  never  took  upon 
himself  to  publish.  Speaking  of  Gahn  in  a 
later  work  ("Treatise  upon  the  Use  of  the 
Blowpipe  "),  he  remarks  that  when  travelling 
he  always  carried  this  instrument,  and  all  new 
substances  which  he  met  with  he  subjected  to 
its  test ;  and  it  was  an  interesting  thing  to  see 
the  readiness  and  certainty  with  which  he  as- 
certained the  nature  of  substances  not  recog- 
nizable hy  their  external  properties.  Long 
before  the  subject  of  vegetable  substances  con- 
taming  copper  was  brought  to  public  notice, 
Berzelius  says  he  has  often  seen  Gahn  extract 
from  the  ashes  of  a  quarter  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
particles  of  metallic  copper  visible  to  the  eye. 
The  most  perfect  form  of  the  instrument  now 
in  use  is  that  adopted  by  Gahn.  The  long, 
straight  tube  which  serves  as  the  handle  passes 
into  one  end  of  a  cylinder  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  long,  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  from 
the  side  of  which  the  jet  tube  projects  about  1J 
inch  to  its  capillary  extremity.  The  object  of 
the  cylinder  is  to  intercept  the  moisture  of  the 
breath,  which  without  such  an  arrangement 

§  asses  through  the  tube,  and  is  projected  in 
_rops  into  the  flame.  Berzelius  added  a  little 
jet  of  platinum,  which  slips  over  the  end  of 
the  brass  jet,  and  which  may  be  taken  off  and 
cleaned  whenever  it  becomes  obstructed,  by 
burning  out  the  impurities  with  the  blowpipe 
itself.  The  aperture  of  the  platinum  jet  is 


0-012  to  0-015  inch  in  diameter.  Several  of 
them,  with  holes  of  different  diameters,  accom- 
pany the  instrument,  and  are  changed  as  the 
fiamc  is  desired  to  be  more  pointed  and  intense, 
or  of  less  intensity  and  to  cover  a  larger  surface. 
Considerable  practice  is  required  to  blow  con- 
tinuously without  exhausting  the  lungs.  This 
is  done  by  breathing  only  through  the  nostrils, 
and  using  the  cheeks  for  propelling  the  air. 
By  this  means  a  steady  current  may  be  kept  up 
for  a  long  time  without  fatigue.  The  process 
is  with  some  persons  very  difficult  of  attain- 
ment, but  is  at  last  caught,  one  knows  not  how, 
and  is  never  afterward  lost.  Quick's  gas  blow- 
pipe, and  automatic  blowpipes  worked  by  a 
small  rubber  ball  held  in  the  hand,  have  been 
introduced  to  save  the  fatigue  of  blowing  from 
the  lungs.  The  treatise  on  the  blowpipe  by 
Berzelius,  which  long  occupied  the  first  rank 
among  the  works  upon  this  subject,  and  was 
translated  in  this  country  by  Mr.  3.  D.  Whitney, 
has  been  superseded  by  an  exhaustive  book  by 
Professors  Plattner  and  Richter  of  the  royal 
mining  academy  of  Freiberg.  Prof.  Plattner  has 
incorporated  the  results  of  his  operations  with 
the  blowpipe  in  a  work  of  great  interest,  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  Henry  B. 
Cornwall  of  the  Columbia  college  school  of 
mines.  This  forms  a  very  valuable  manual, 
containing  the  descriptions  of  the  various  pro- 
cesses for  estimating  the  quantities  in  which 
many  of  the  metals  are  found  in  their  natural 
and  artificial  compounds,  as  also  for  detecting 
the  qualities  of  metallic  combinations  in  gen- 
eral. The  methods  adopted  by  Prof.  Plattner 
for  separating  the  minute  particles,  and  ascer- 
taining their  weights,  are  of  great  ingenuity 
and  simplicity,  and  valuable  for  the  prompti- 
tude with  which  they  may  be  used ;  but  to  be 
successfully  practised,  they  require  long  and 
patient  use  of  the  instruments. — The  little  glo- 
bules of  gold  and  silver  extracted  from  their 
combinations  by  the  blowpipe  are  often  too 
small  to  be  weighed,  but  their  quantity  is  de- 
termined by  a  method  introduced  by  Harkort 
of  measuring  their  diameter.  This  is  done  by 
running-  the  globules  along  between  two  lines 
upon  an  ivory  scale,  which  diverge  at  a  very 
small  angle,  and  are  crossed  by  many  other 
lines  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  which 
serve  as  the  divisions  of  the  scale.  Wherever 
the  globule  is  found  to  be  contained  between 
the  two  diverging  lines,  its  diameter  is  at  once 
obtained,  and  the  weight  corresponding  to  this, 
whether  of  gold  or  of  silver,  these  having  been 
previously  determined  with  care  for  the  scale. 
To  insure  exactness  in  the  measurement,  a  good 
magnifying  glass  is  required,  and  care  to  view 
the  scale  in  a  position  perpendicular  to  the 
line  of  sight.  The  measuring  instrument  of 
Riiger,  furnished  with  a  micrometer  screw, 
yields  exceedingly  accurate  results,  and  saves 
the  fatigue  of  the  eye.  Although  the  globules 
are  not  often  perfectly  spherical,  it  has  been 
found  in  practice  that  within  certain  limits  this 
method  may  be  relied  on  for  the  approximate 


BLOWPIPE 


749 


analysis  of  many  metallic  compounds. — The 
compound  or  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe  is  an  ap- 
paratus invented  by  Dr.  Robert  Hare  of  Phila- 
delpbia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. By  this  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen is  made  to  produce  the  jet,  which  being 
inflamed  just  beyond  their  point  of  mixing,  an 
amount  of  intense  heat  is  evolved  far  exceed- 
ing what  had  ever  been  before  obtained.  Sub- 
stances hitherto  regarded  as  infusible  were 
melted  down  with  great  facility.  Pure  lime 
was  observed  to  give  an  intensity  of  light 
greater  than  had  ever  before  been  seen.  This 
caused  its  use  to  be  recommended  by  Lieut. 
Drummond  of  the  British  navy  for  light- 
houses, and  his  name  has  since  been  applied 
to  the  light,  which  was  first  obtained  and  no- 
ticed by  Dr.  Hare.  The  first  arrangement 
adopted  by  Dr.  Hare  was  to  collect  each  gas  in 
a  separate  reservoir,  and  cause  them  to  be  dis- 
charged by  separate  jets  at  the  point  of  com- 
bustion. But  finding  that  a  more  intense  heat 
is  generated  by  first  mixing  them  under  some 
pressure,  he  brought  them  into  a  single  tube, 
and  caused  this  to  terminate  in  15  jet  pipes  of 
platinum.  These  were  adjusted  so  as  to  pass 
through  a  vessel,  in  which  ice  or  snow  could 
be  placed  to  keep  the  gases  from  becoming 
heated,  and  thus  obviate  the  danger  of  explo- 
sion by  a  retrocession  of  the  flame  into  the  sin- 
gle pipe.  With  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  Dr. 
Hare  succeeded  in  fusing  large  quantities  of 
platinum,  and  at  the  meeting  of  the  American 
philosophical  society  in  January,  1839,  he  ex- 
hibited a  specimen  of  the  metal,  weighing  be- 
tween 22  and  23  oz.  troy  weight,  which  was 
part  of  a  mass  of  25  oz.  fused  in  May,  1838, 
about  2  oz.  of  the  metal  having  flowed  over 
in  consequence  of  the  cavity  not  being  suffi- 
ciently capacious  to  contain  it  all.  He  also 
obtained  platinum  directly  from  the  crude  pro- 
duct of  the  mines.  Dr.  Hare  observed  that 
the  most  intense  heat  was  generated  when  the 
proportion  of  the  gases  was  the  same  as  in 
water,  viz.,  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one 
of  oxygen,  and  that  by  the  use  of  a  condensing 
syringe  for  forcing  the  mixture  with  consider- 
able pressure,  the  effect  was  still  further  in- 
creased. With  this  modification,  Prof.  Clarke, 
of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  England,  re- 
peated the  experiments  made  years  previously 
by  Dr.  Hare.  He  also  enclosed  in  the  pipe 
leading  from  a  vessel  containing  the  two  gases 
a  great  number  of  layers  of  fine  wire  gauze. 
Though  his  experiments  were  successful,  and 
were  a  subject  of  great  scientific  interest,  the 
apparatus  proved  too  dangerous  for  use,  the 
wire  gauze  not  preventing  the  explosion  of 
the  gases.  Further  improvements  have  been 
introduced  by  filling  the  safety  chamber  with 
alternate  layers  of  wire  gauze  and  of  the  finest 
fibres  of  asbestus.  Brass  wires  are  also  used, 
packed  closely  together  in  a  bundle  and  pressed 
into  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the  chamber. 
The  quality  of  the  oxygen  is  found  to  have  a 
sensible  effect  upon  the  intensity  of  the  heat, 


that  obtained  from  chlorate  of  potash  being 
much  preferable  to  that  from  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. Few  substances  are  found  capable  of 
resisting  the  high  temperatures  obtained  by 
this  blowpipe.  Platinum  melts  instantly,  and 
gold  in  contact  with  borax  is  entirely  volatilized. 
Quartz  crystal  melts  with  a  beautiful  light, 
pieces  of  china  ware  are  fused  and  form  crystals, 
and  flints  produce  a  transparent  glass. — An 
apparatus  of  great  efficiency  and  simplicity  of 
construction  was  used  in  New  York  city  by 
the  Drs.  Roberts,  dentists,  for  remelting  plati- 
num scraps,  and  converting  them  into  mer- 
chantable plate.  They  employed  two  copper 
gasometers  of  cylindrical  form,  one  for  each 
gas,  that  for  hydrogen  of  the  capacity  of  220 
gallons,  and  that  for  oxygen  of  80  gallons.  The 
pressure  of  the  Croton  water,  which  is  about 
60  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  forced  the  gases 
through  metallic  pipes  to  the  apparatus  con- 
nected with  the  burner.  In  this  apparatus 
each  pipe  connects  with  a  short  brass  tube, 
which  is  closely  packed  with  wire,  and  these 
unite  in  another  brass  tube,  which  is  also  closely 
packed  in  the  same  way.  From  this,  by  a  pipe 
of  only  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  diameter, 
the  mixed  gases  are  then  conveyed  to  the 
burner.  This  is  a  small  platinum  box  inserted 
in  a  lump  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  asbestus,  the 
apertures  in  the  disk  making  its  extremity  be- 
ing 21  little  holes  in  three  rows,  such  as  might 
be  made  by  the  point  of  a  pin.  The  platinum 
disk  in  which  these  holes  are  perforated  is 
only  about  i  by  J  inch  in  size.  It  is  found  that 
copper  answers  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as 
platinum.  The  lump  of  plaster  is  constructed 
like  the  water  tuyere  of  a  forge  or  furnace, 
and  is  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  cold  water 
constantly  flowing  through  it.  The  supply  of 
the  gases  is  regulated  by  stopcocks,  one  for 
each  gas,  placed  near  the  point  of  their  coming 
together.  The  jet  points  downward.  The 
platinum  scraps  are  first  compressed  in  an  iron 
mould  into  cylindrical  cakes  of  the  weight  of 
3  or  4  oz.  each.  Two  or  three  of  these  are  set 
upon  a  thin  flat  fire  brick,  and  heated  in  a  fur- 
nace to  a  white  heat.  Being  then  transferred 
with  the  fire  brick  to  a  large  tin  pan  like  a  milk 
pan,  which  is  well  coated  within  with  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  brought  under  the  jet,  this  is  instant- 
ly ignited,  and  the  platinum  at  once  begins  to 
melt.  Its  surface  assumes  a  brilliant  appear- 
ance of  the  purest  white,  like  that  of  silver, 
and  soon  the  whole  is  melted  into  one  mass ; 
but  so  great  is  its  infusibility,  that  it  chills 
before  it  can  flow  off  the  flat  surface  of  the  fire 
brick,  and  it  cannot  therefore  be  cast  in  a 
mould.  For  the  uses  to  which  platinum  is 
applied  this  is  of  no  consequence,  as  the  cake 
of  metal  is  easily  hammered  into  any  desired 
shape,  or  may  be  rolled  at  once  into  plates,  or 
cut  and  drawn  into  wire.  With  the  apparatus 
of  the  Drs.  Roberts,  53  oz.  of  platinum  were 
melted  into  one  cake  at  one  operation,  lasting 
only  13  minutes,  in  April,  1858.  This  was 
hammered  down  without  waste,  and  drawn 


750 


BLtfCIIER 


out  into  a  plate  over  40  inches  long  and  about 
3  inches  wide.  Prof.  Henry  St.  Claire  Deville 
of  Paris  has  considerably  modified  Dr.  Roberts's 
method  of  melting  platinum,  and  performs  the 
operation  in  lime  crucibles.  Messrs.  Johnson 
and  Matheys  of  London  have  fused  some  pounds 
of  platinum  and  iridium  in  Deville's  furnace. — 
A  compound  blowpipe  is  conveniently  made  by 
placing  one  tube  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter inside  another  of  one  half  inch  diameter. 
Illuminating  gas  is  admitted  at  the  side  of  the 
outer  tube  and  lighted  at  one  end,  while  the 
other  end  is  made  gas-tight.  A  current  of  air 
is  blown  by  bellows  through  the  inner  tube, 
which  at  once  changes  the  yellow  gas  flame  to 
the  intense  blue  blowpipe  flame ;  the  combus- 
tion is  more  complete  and  the  flame  hotter  as 
the  mixture  of  gas  and  air  is  more  perfect. 
This  piece  of  apparatus  is  called  Bunsen's  blast 
lamp;  it  is  used  in  all  chemical  laboratories 
which  have  gas,  and  is  also  used  by  glass  blow- 
ers in  the  manufacture  of  nice  chemical  and 
philosophical  apparatus.  By  this  method  the 
effect  of  a  furnace  is  obtained  by  chemists  for 
melting  the  contents  of  small  crucibles  in  ana- 
lytical operations.  If  either  or  both  gases  be 
passed  through  heated  pipes,  a  still  higher  de- 
gree of  heat  may  be  obtained.  By  substitut- 
ing oxygen  for  the  atmospheric  air,  globules 
of  platinum  may  be  instantly  melted  upon 
charcoal.  This  mixture  may  be  conveniently 
and  economically  used  instead  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  for  the  production  of  the  Drummond 
light.  The  so-called  Bohemian  glass  blowers 
seem  still  to  prefer  the  old-fashioned  blowpipe, 
consisting  of  two  gas  burners  about  10  inches 
apart,  with  air  jets  blowing  directly  toward 
each  other,  by  which  means  the  two  opposite 
sides  _of  the  glass  are  heated  at  the  same  time. 
Itl.M  HIM:.  Gebhard  Lcberecht  Ton,  prince  of 
Wahlstadt,  Prussian  field  marshal,  born  at 
Rostock,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Dec.  16, 
1742,  died  at  Krieblowitz,  in  Silesia,  Sept.  12, 
1819.  He  was  sent,  while  a  boy,  to  the  island 
of  Riigen,  and  there,  in  1756,  secretly  enlisted 
in  a  regiment  of  Swedish  hussars  as  ensign, 
to  serve  against  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia. 
Made  prisoner  in  the  campaign  of  1760,  he  was, 
after  a  year's  captivity,  and  after  he  had  ob- 
tained his  dismissal  from  the  Swedish  service, 
prevailed  upon  to  enter  the  Prussian  army.  In 
1771  he  was  appointed  senior  captain  of  cavalry. 
In  1778  Oapt.  Von  Jagersfeld,  a  natural  son  of 
the  margrave  ofSchwedt,  being  appointed  in  his 
stead  to  the  vacant  post  of  major,  Blucher  wrote 
to  Frederick :  "  Sire,  Jagersfeld,  who  possesses 
no  merit  but  that  of  being  the  son  of  the  mar- 
grave of  Schwedt,  has  been  preferred  to  me.  I 
beg  your  majesty  to  grant  my  discharge."  In 
reply  Frederick  ordered  him  to  be  shut  up  in 
prison  until  he  would  retract  his  request ;  but 
as  he  remained  obstinate  for  nearly  a  year, 
the  king  complied  with  his  petition  in  a  note 
to  this  effect :  "  Capt.  Von  Blucher  may  go  to 
the  devil."  He  now  retired  to  Silesia,  married, 
became  a  farmer,  acquired  a  small  estate  in 


Pomerania,  and,  after  the  death  of  Frederick 
II.,  retntered  his  former  regiment  as  major,  on 
the  express  condition  of  his  appointment  being 
dated  back  to  1779.  Some  montbs  later  his 
wife  died.  Having  participated  in  the  blood- 
less invasion  of  Holland,  he  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant colonel  in  1788,  and  in  1700  colonel. 
In  1793  he  distinguished  himself  during  the 
campaign  in  the  Palatinate  against  republican 
France  as  a  leader  of  light  cavalry,  and  in  May, 
1794,  after  the  victorious  affair  of  Kirrweiler, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major  general. 
While  incessantly  alarming  the  French  by  bold 
coups  de  main  and  successful  enterprises,  he 
never  neglected  keeping  the  headquarters  sup- 
plied with  the  best  information  as  to  the  hos- 
tile movements.  His  diary,  written  during 
this  campaign,  and  published  in  1796  by  Count 
Goltz,  his  adjutant,  is  considered,  despite  its 
illiterate  style,  a  classical  work  on  vanguard 
service.  After  the  peace  of  Basel  he  married 
again.  Frederick  William  III.  appointed  him 
in  1801  lieutenant  general,  in  which  quality  he 
occupied,  and  administered  as  governor,  Erfurt, 
Muhlhausen,  and  Munster.  In  1805  a  small 
corps  of  observation  was  collected  under  him 
at  Bayreuth.  In  1806  he  led  the  Prussian  van- 
guard at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt  (Oct.  14). 
His  charge  was,  however,  broken  by  the  terrible 
fire  of  Davoust's  artillery,  and  his  proposal  to 
renew  it  with  fresh  forces  and  the  whole  of  the 
cavalry  was  rejected  by  the  king  of  Prussia. 
After  the  double  defeat  at  Anerstiidt  and  Jena, 
he  retired  down  the  Elbe,  picking  up  the  rem- 
nants of  different  corps,  which  swelled  his 
army  to  about  25,000  men.  His  retreat  to  Lu- 
beck, before  the  united  forces- of  Soult,  Berna- 
dotte,  and  Murat,  forms  one  of  the  few  honor- 
able episodes  in  that  epoch  of  German  war- 
fare. Since  Lubeck  was  a  neutral  territory,  his 
making  the  streets  of  that  open  town  the  thea- 
tre of  a  desperate  fight,  which  exposed  it  to  a 
three  days'  sack  on  the  part  of  the  French 
soldiery,  afforded  the  subject  of  passionate  cen- 
sure ;  but  under  existing  circumstances  the  im- 
portant thing  was  to  give  the  German  people 
one  example,  at  least,  of  stanch  resistance. 
Thrown  out  of  Lubeck,  he  had  to  capitu- 
late in  the  plain  of  Ratkow,  Nov.  7,  on  the 
express  condition  that  the  cause  of  his  surren- 
der should  be  stated  in  writing  to  be  "  want 
of  ammunition  and  provisions."  Liberated 
on  his  word  of  honor,  he  repaired  to  Ham- 
burg, there,  in  company  with  his  sons,  to  kill 
time  by  card-playing,  smoking,  and  drinking. 
Being  exchanged  for  Gen.  Victor,  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  general  of  Pomerania;  but 
one  of  the  secret  articles  of  the  alliance  con- 
cluded, Feb.  24,  1812,  by  Prussia  with  Napo- 
leon, stipulated  for  Blucher's  discharge  from 
service,  like  that  of  Scharnhorst  and  other  dis- 
tinguished Prussian  patriots.  To  soothe  this 
official  disgrace,  the  king  secretly  bestowed 
upon  him  the  handsome  estate  of  Kunzendorf 
in  Silesia.  During  the  period  of  transition  be- 
tween the  peace  of  Tilsit  and  the  German  war 


BLtJCHER 


751 


of  independence,  Scharnhorst  and  Gneisenau, 
the  chiefs  of  the  Tugendbund,  desiring  to  ex- 
temporize a  popular  hero,  had  chosen  Blucher. 
In  propagating  his  fame  among  the  masses,  they 
had  succeeded  so  well,  that  when  Frederick 
William  III.  called  the  Prussians  to  arms  by 
the  proclamation  of  March  17, 1813,  they  were 
strong  enough  to  impose  him  upon  the  king  as 
the  general-in-chief  of  the  Prussian  army.  In 
the  well  contested,  but  for  the  allies  unfortu- 
nate, battles  of  Liltzen  and  Bautzen  he  act- 
ed under  Wittgenstein,  the  commander  of  the 
Russian  army.  During  the  retreat  of  the  allied 
armies  from  Bautzen  to  Schweidnitz,  he  lay  in 
ambush  at  Haynau,  from  which  he  fell  with  his 
cavalry  on  the  French  advanced  guard  under 
Maison,  who  in  this  affair  lost  1,500  men  and  11 
guns.  Through  this  surprise  Blucher  raised  the 
spirit  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  made  Napoleon 
very  cautious  in  pursuit. — Blucher's  command 
of  an  independent  army  dates  from  the  ex- 
piration of  the  truce  of  Tracheuberg,  Aug.  10, 
1813.  The  allied  sovereigns  had  then  divided 
their  forces  into  three  armies :  the  army  of  the 
north  under  Bernadotte,  stationed  along  the 
lower  Elbe ;  the  main  army,  advancing  through 
Bohemia;  and  the  Silesian  army,  with  Blu- 
cher as  its  commander-in-chief,  supported  by 
Gneisenau  as  the  chief  of  his  staff,  and  Muffling 
as  his  quartermaster  general.  These  two  men, 
attached  to  him  in  the  same  quality  until  the 
peace  of  1815,  supplied  all  his  strategical  plans. 
Blucher  himself,  as  Muffling  says,  "  understood 
nothing  of  the  strategical  conduct  of  a  war ;  so 
little  indeed,  that  when  a  plan  was  laid  before 
him  for  approval,  even  relating  to  some  unim- 
portant operation,  he  could  not  form  any  clear 
idea  of  it,  or  judge  whether  it  was  good  or 
bad."  Like  many  of  Napoleon's  marshals,  he 
was  unable  to  read  the  maps.  The  Silesian 
army  was  composed  of  three  corps  (Tarmee  : 
40,000  Russians,  under  Count  Langeron;  16,- 
000  men  under  Baron  von  Sacken;  and  a 
Prussian  corps  of  40,000  men  under  Gen.  York. 
Blucher's  position  was  extremely  difficult  at 
the  head  of  this  heterogeneous  army.  Lan- 
geron, who  had  already  held  independent  com- 
mands, and  demurred  to  serving  under  a  for- 
eign general,  was  moreover  aware  that  Blucher 
had  received  secret  orders  to  limit  himself  to 
the  defensive,  but  was  altogether  ignorant  that 
the  latter,  in  an  interview  on  Aug.  11  with 
Barclay  de  Tolly  at  Reichenbach,  had  extorted 
the  permission  to  act  according  to  circum- 
stances. Hence  Langeron  thought  himself 
justified  in  disobeying  orders  whenever  the 
general-in-chief  seemed  to  him  to  swerve  from 
the  preconcerted  plan,  and  in  this  mutinous 
conduct  he  was  strongly  supported  by  Gen. 
York.  The  danger  arising  from  this  state  of 
things  became  more  and  more  threatening, 
when  the  battle  on  the  Katzbach  secured  Blu- 
cher that  hold  on  his  army  which  guided  it  to 
the  gates  of  Paris.  Marshal  Macdonald,  charged 
by  Napoleon  to  drive  the  Silesian  army  back 
into  the  interior  of  Silesia,  began  the  battle 
100  VOL.  H. — 48 


by  attacking,  Aug.  26,  Blucher's  outposts, 
stationed  from  Prausnitz  to  Kraitsch,  where 
the  Neisse  flows  into  the  Katzbach.  The  so- 
called  battle  on  the  Katzbach  consisted  in  fact 
of  four  different  actions,  the  first  of  which, 
the  dislodging  by  a  bayonet  attack  from  a 
plateau  behind  a  ridge  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Neisse  of  about  eight  French  battalions,  which 
constituted  hardly  one  tenth  of  the  hostile 
force,  led  to  results  quite  out  of  proportion  to 
its  original  importance,  in  consequence  of 
the  fugitives  from  the  plateau  not  being  col- 
lected at  Niederkrain,  and  left  behind  the 
Katzbach  at  Kraitsch,  in  which  case  their 
flight  would  have  had  no  influence  whatever 
on  the  rest  of  the  French  army  ;  in  consequence 
of  different  defeats  inflicted  at  nightfall  upon 
the  enemy  by  Sacken's  and  Langeron's  corps 
stationed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neisse;  in 
consequence  of  Marshal  Macdonald,  who  com- 
manded in  person  on  the  left  bank,  and  had 
defended  himself  weakly  till  7  o'clock  in  the 
evening  against  Langeron's  attack,  marching 
his  troops  at  once  after  sunset  to  Goldberg,  in 
such  a  state  of  exhaustion  that  they  could  no 
longer  fight,  and  must  fall  into  the  enemy's 
hand ;  and,  lastly,  in  consequence  of  the  state 
of  the  season,  violent  rains  swelling  the  other- 
wise insignificant  streams  the  fugitive  French 
had  to  traverse— the  Neisse,  the  Katzbach,  the 
Deichsel,  and  the  Bober — to  rapid  torrents, 
and  making  the  roads  almost  impracticable. 
Thus  it  occurred,  that  with  the  aid  of  the 
country  militia  in  the  mountains  on  the  left 
flank  of  the  Silesian  army,  the  battle  on  the 
Katzbach,  insignificant  in  itself,  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  18,000  prisoners,  above  100  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  more  than  300  ammunition, 
hospital,  and  baggage  wagons.  After  the  bat- 
tle Blucher  did  everything  to  instigate  his 
forces  to  exert  their  utmost  strength  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy,  justly  representing  to 
them  that  "  with  some  bodily  exertion  they 
might  spare  a  new  battle."  On  Sept.  3  he 
crossed  the  Neisse  with  his  army,  proceeding 
by  Gorlitz  to  concentrate  at  Bautzen.  By  this 
move  he  saved  the  main  army,  which,  routed 
at  Dresden,  Aug.  27,  and  forced  to  retreat  be- 
hind the  Erzgebirge,  was  now  disengaged ;  Na- 
poleon being  compelled  to  advance  with  re- 
enforcements  toward  Bautzen,  there  to  take  up 
the  army  defeated  on  the  Katzbach,  and  to  offer 
battle  to  the  Silesian  army.  During  his  stay 
in  the  E.  corner  of  Saxony,  Blucher,  by  a  series 
of  retreats  and  advances,  always  shunned  battle 
when  offered  by  Napoleon,  but  always  engaged 
when  encountering  single  detachments  of  the 
French  army.  On  Sept.  22,  23,  and  24  he  exe- 
cuted a  flank  march  on  the  right  of  the  enemy, 
advancing  by  forced  marches  to  the  lower 
Elbe,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  army  of  the  north. 
On  Oct.  2  he  bridged  the  Elbe  at  Elster  with 
pontoons,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  3d  his 
army  defiled.  This  movement,  not  only  bold, 
but  even  hazardous,  inasmuch  as  he  complete- 
ly abandoned  his  lines  of  communication,  was 


752 


BLtfCHER 


necessitated  by  supreme  political  reasons,  and 
led  finally  to  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  which  but 
for  Blilcher  the  slow  and  over-cautious  grand 
army  would  never  have  risked.  The  army  of 
the  north,  of  which  Bernadotte  was  the  com- 
mander-in-chief,  was  about  90,000  strong,  and 
it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should 
advance  on  Saxony.  By  means  of  the  close 
connection  which  he  maintained  with  Billow 
and  Wintzingerode,  the  commanders  of  the 
Prussian  and  Russian  corps  forming  part  of  the 
army  of  the  north,  Blilcher  believed  that  he 
had  obtained  convincing  proofs  of  Bernadotte's 
coquetting  with  the  French,  and  of  the  im- 
possibility of  inciting  him  to  any  activity  so 
long -as  he  remained  alone  on  a  separate  theatre 
of  war.  Bulow  and  Wintzingerode  declared 
themselves  ready  to  act  in  spite  of  Bernadotte, 
but  to  do  so  they  wanted  the  support  of  100,- 
000  men.  Hence  Blilcher's  resolution  to  ven- 
ture upon  his  flank  march,  in  which  he  persist- 
ed despite  the  orders  he  had  received  from  the 
sovereigns  to  draw  near  to  them  on  the  left, 
toward  Bohemia.  He  was  not  to  be  diverted 
from  his  purpose  through  the  obstacles  which 
Bernadotte  systematically  threw  in  his  way, 
even  after  the  crossing  of  the  Elbe  by  the  Sile- 
sian  army.  Before  leaving  Bautzen  he  had 
despatched  a  confidential  officer  to  Bernadotte, 
to  inform  him  that,  since  the  army  of  the 
north  was  too  weak  to  operate  alone  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  he  would  come  with  the 
Silesian  army,  and  cross  at  Elster  on  Oct.  3  ; 
he  therefore  invited  him  to  cross  the  Elbe  at 
the  same  time,  and  to  advance  with  him  toward 
Leipsic.  Bernadotte  not  heeding  this  message, 
and  the  enemy  occupying  Wartenburg  opposite 
Elster,  Blilcher  first  dislodged  the  latter,  and 
then,  to  protect  himself  in  case  Napoleon  should 
fall  upon  him  with  his  whole  strength,  began 
establishing  an  intrenched  encampment  from 
Wartenburg  to  Bleddin.  Thence  he  pushed 
forward  toward  the  Mulde.  On  Oct.  7,  in  an 
interview  with  Bernadotte,  it  was  arranged 
that  both  armies  should  march  upon  Leipsic. 
On  the  9th,  while  the  Silesian  army  was  pre- 
paring for  this  march,  Bernadotte,  on  the  news 
of  Napoleon's  advance  on  the  road  from  Meis- 
sen, insisted  upon  retreating  behind  the  Elbe, 
and  only  consented  to  remain  on  its  left  bank 
on  condition  that  Blilcher  would  resolve  to 
cross  the  Saale  in  concert  with  him,  in  order 
to  take  up  a  position  behind  that  river.  Al- 
though by  this  movement  the  Silesian  army 
lost  anew  its  line  of  communication,  Blilcher 
consented,  since  otherwise  the  army  of  the  north 
would  have  been  effectually  lost  for  the  allies. 
On  Oct.  10  the  whole  Silesian  army  stood 
united  with  the  army  of  the  north  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mulde,  the  bridges  over  which 
were  destroyed.  Bernadotte  now  declared  a 
retreat  upon  Bernburg  to  have  become  neces- 
sary, and  Blilcher,  with  the  single  view  of  pre- 
venting him  from  crossing  the  right  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  yielded  again  on  the  condition  that 
Bernadotte  should  cross  the  Saale  at  Wettin 


and  take  up  a  position  there.  On  the  llth, 
when  his  columns  were  just  crossing  the  high 
road  from  Magdeburg  to  Halle,  Blilcher  being 
informed  that,  in  spite  of  his  positive  promise, 
Bernadotte  had  constructed  no  bridge  at  Wet- 
tin,  resolved  upon  following  that  high  road  in 
forced  marches.  Napoleon,  seeing  that  the 
northern  and  Silesian  armies  avoided  accepting 
battle,  which  he  had  offered  them  by  concen- 
trating at  Duben,  and  knowing  that  they  could 
not  avoid  it  without  retreating  across  the  Elbe 
— being  at  the  same  time  aware  that  he  had 
but  four  days  left  before  he  must  meet  the  main 
army,  and  thus  be  placed  between  two  fires — 
undertook  a  march  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe  toward  Wittenberg,  in  order  by  this  simu- 
lated movement  to  draw  the  northern  and  Si- 
lesian armies  across  the  Elbe,  and  then  strike  a 
rapid  blow  on  the  main  army.  Bernadotte  in- 
deed, anxious  for  his  lines  of  communication 
with  Sweden,  gave  his  army  orders  to  cross 
without  delay  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  by 
a  bridge  constructed  at  Aken,  while  on  the 
same  day,  Oct.  13,  he  informed  Blilcher  that 
the  emperor  Alexander  had,  for  certain  impor- 
tant reasons,  put  him  (Blticher)  under  his  or- 
ders. He  consequently  requested  him  to  follow 
his  movements  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe 
with  the  Silesian  army,  with  the  least  possible 
delay.  Had  Blucher  shown  less  resolution  on 
this  occasion  and  followed  the  army  of  the 
north,  the  campaign  would  have  been  lost, 
since  the  Silesian  and  northern  armies,  amount- 
ing together  to  nearly  200,000  men,  would  not 
have  been  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  He 
wrote  in  reply  to  Bernadotte  that,  according  to 
all  his  information,  Napoleon  had  no  intention 
whatever  of  removing  the  theatre  of  war  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  but  only  intended 
to  lead  them  astray.  At  the  same  time  he 
conjured  Bernadotte  to  give  up  his  intended 
movement  across  the  Elbe.  Having,  mean- 
while, again  and  again  solicited  the  main  army 
to  push  forward  upon  Leipsic,  and  offered  to 
meet  it  there,  he  received  at  last,  Oct.  15,  the 
long  expected  invitation.  He  immediately  ad- 
vanced toward  Leipsic,  while  Bernadotte  re- 
treated toward  the  Petersberg.  On  his  march 
from  Halle  to  Leipsic,  Oct.  16,  Blilcher  routed  at 
Mockern  the  6th  corps  of  the  French  army  under 
Marmont,  in  a  hotly  contested  battle,  in  which 
he  captured  54  pieces  of  artillery.  Without  de- 
lay he  sent  accounts  of  the  issue  of  this  battle  to 
Bernadotte,  who  was  not  present  on  the  first  day 
of  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  On  its  second  day,  Oct. 
17,  Blucher  dislodged  the  enemy  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Parthe,  with  the  exception  of  some 
houses  and  intrenchments  near  the  Halle  gate. 
On  the  18th,  at  daybreak,  he  had  a  conference 
at  Brachenfeld  with  Bernadotte,  who  declared 
he  could  not  attack  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Parthe  unless  Blucher  gave  him  for  that  day 
30,000  men  of  the  Silesian  army.  Keeping 
the  interest  of  the  whole  exclusively  in  view, 
Blucher  consented  without  hesitation,  but  on 
the  condition  of  remaining  himself  with  these 


BLtfCHER 


753 


30,000  men,  and  thus  securing  their  vigorous 
cooperation  in  the  attack.  After  the  final  vic- 
tory of  Oct.  19,  and  during  the  whole  of  Napo- 
leon's retreat  from  Leipsic  to  the  Rhine,  Blucher 
alone  gave  him  an  earnest  pursuit.  While,  on 
Oct.  19,  the  generals  in  command  met  the  sov- 
ereigns in  the  market  place  of  Leipsic,  and 
precious  time  was  spent  in  mutual  compliments, 
his  Silesian  army  was  already  marching  in  pur- 
suit of  the  enemy  to  Lutzen.  On  his  march 
from  Lutzen  to  Weissenfels,  Prince  William  of 
Prussia  overtook  him,  to  deliver  to  him  the 
commission  of  a  Prussian  field  marshal.  The 
allied  sovereigns  had  allowed  Napoleon  to 
gain  a  start  which  could  never  be  recovered ; 
but  from  Eisenach  onward  Blucher  found  him- 
self every  afternoon  in  the  room  which  Napo- 
leon had  left  in  the  morning.  When  about 
to  march  upon  Cologne,  there  to  cross  the 
Rhine,  he  was  recalled  and  ordered  to  block- 
ade Mentz  on  its  left  bank  ;  his  rapid  pursuit  as 
far  as  the  Rhine  having  broken  up  the  confed- 
eration of  the  Rhine,  and  disengaged  its  troops 
from  the  French  divisions  in  which  they  were 
still  enrolled.  While  the  headquarters  of  the 
Silesian  army  was  established  at  Hochst,  the 
main  army  marched  up  the  upper  Rhine.  Thus 
ended  the  campaign  of  1813,  the  success  of 
which  was  entirely  due  to  Blucher's  bold  enter- 
prise and  iron  energy. — The  allies  were  divided 
as  to  the  plan  of  operations  now  to  be  followed ; 
the  one  party  proposing  to  stay  on  the  Rhine, 
and  there  to  take  up  a  defensive  position ;  the 
other  to  cross  the  Rhine  and  march  upon  Paris. 
After  much  wavering  on  the  part  of  the  sover- 
eigns, Blucher  and  his  friends  prevailed,  and 
the  resolution  was  adopted  to  advance  upon 
Paris  in  a  concentric  movement,  the  main  army 
being  to  start  from  Switzerland,  Bulow  from 
Holland,  and  Blucher,  with  the  Silesian  army, 
from  the  middle  Rhine.  For  the  new  campaign, 
three  additional  corps  were  made  over  to  Blu- 
cher, viz.,  Kleist's,  the  elector  of  Hesse's,  and 
the  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg's.  Leaving  part  of 
Langeron's  corps  to  invest  Mentz,  and  the  new 
reinforcements  to  follow  as  a  second  division, 
Blucher  crossed  the  Rhine  Jan.  1,  1814,  at 
three  points,  at  Mannheim,  Oanb,  and  Cob- 
lentz,  drove  Marmont  beyond  the  Vosges  and 
the  Saar,  posted  York's  corps  between  the  fort- 
resses of  the  Moselle,  and  with  a  force  of  28,000 
men,  consisting  of  Sacken's  corps  and  a  division 
of  Langeron's,  proceeded  by  Vaucouleurs  and 
Joinville  to  Brienne,  in  order  to  effect  his 
junction  with  the  main  army  by  his  left.  At 
Brionne,  Jan.  29,  he  was  attacked  by  Napoleon, 
whose  forces  mustered  about  40,000,  while 
York's  corps  was  still  detached  from  the  Sile- 
sian army,  and  the  main  army,  110,000  strong, 
had  only  reached  Chaumont.  Blucher  had  con- 
sequently to  face  the  greatly  superior  forces  of 
Napoleon,  but  the  latter  neither  attacked  him 
with  his  usual  vigor,  nor  hindered  his  retreat 
to  Trannes,  save  by  some  cavalry  skirmishes. 
Having  taken  possession  of  Brienne,  placed  part 
of  his  troops  in  its  vicinity,  and  occupied  Dien- 


ville,  La  Rothiere,  and  Chaumenil,  with  three 
different  corps,  Napoleon  would  on  Jan.  30  have 
been  able  to  fall  upon  Blucher  with  superior 
numbers,  as  the  latter  was  still  awaiting  his  re- 
enforcements.  Napoleon,  however,  kept  up  a 
passive  attitude,  while  the  main  army  was  con- 
centrating by  Bar-sur-Aube,  and  detachments 
of  it  were  strengthening  Blucher's  right  flank. 
The  emperor's  inactivity  is  explained  by  the 
negotiations  of  the  peace  congress  of  Chfttil- 
lon,  which  he  had  contrived  to  start,  and  by 
which  he  expected  to  gain  time.  In  fact,  after 
the  junction  of  the  Silesian  with  the  main  army 
had  been  effected,  the  diplomatic  party  insist- 
ed that  during  the  deliberations  of  this  con- 
gress the  war  should  be  carried  on  as  a  feint 
only.  Prince  Schwarzenberg  sent  an  officer 
to  Blucher  to  procure  his  acquiescence,  but 
Blucher  dismissed  him  with  this  answer :  "  We 
must  go  to  Paris.  Napoleon  has  paid  his  visits 
to  all  the  capitals  of  Europe ;  should  we  be  less 
polite?  In  short,  he  must  descend  from  the 
throne,  and  until  he  is  hurled  from  it  we  shall 
have  no  rest."  He  urged  the  great  advantages 
of  the  allies  attacking  Napoleon  near  Brienne, 
before  he  could  bring  up  the  remainder  of  his 
troops,  and  offered  to  make  the  attack  himself, 
if  he  were  only  strengthened  in  York's  absence. 
The  consideration  that  the  army  could  not  sub- 
sist in  the  barren  valley  of  the  Aube,  and  must 
retreat  if  it  did  not  attack,  caused  his  advice 
to  prevail.  The  battle  was  decided  upon,  but 
Prince  Schwarzenberg,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  main  army,  instead  of  bearing  upon  the 
enemy  with  the  united  force  at  hand,  only 
lent  Blucher  the  corps  of  the  crown  prince  of 
Wurtemberg(40,000  men),  that  of  Gyulay  (12,- 
000),  and  that  of  Wrede  (12,000).  Napoleon 
on  his  part  neither  knew  nor  suspected  any- 
thing of  the  arrival  of  the  main  army.  When 
about  1  o'clock,  Feb.  1,  it  was  announced  to 
him  that  Blucher  was  advancing,  he  would  not 
believe  it.  Having  made  sure  of  the  fact,  he 
mounted  his  horse  with  the  idea  of  avoiding  the 
battle,  and  gave  Berthier  orders  to  this  effect. 
When,  however,  between  Old  Brienne  and  Ro- 
fhiere,  he  reached  the  young  guard,  who  had 
got  under  arms  on  hearing  the  approaching 
cannonade,  he  was  received  with  such  enthusi- 
asm that  he  thought  fit  to  improve  the  opportu- 
nity, and  exclaimed,  "  Vartillerie  en  avant!  " 
Thus,  about  4  o'clock,  the  affair  of  La  Rothiere 
commenced  in  earnest.  At  the  first  reverse, 
however,  Napoleon  no  longer  took  any  personal 
part  in  the  battle.  His  infantry  having  thrown 
itself  into  the  village  of  La  Rothiere,  the  com- 
bat was  long  and  obstinate,  and  Blucher  was 
even  obliged  to  bring  up  his  reserve.  The 
French  were  not  dislodged  from  the  village  till 
11  o'clock  at  night,  when  Napoleon  ordered 
the  retreat  of  his  army,  which  had  lost  4,000  or 
5,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  2,500  prison- 
ers, and  about  50  cannon.  If  the  allies,  then 
only  six  days'  march  from  Paris,  had  vigorously 
pushed  on,  Napoleon  must  have  succumbed  be- 
fore their  immensely  superior  numbers ;  but  the 


754 


BLtfCHER 


sovereigns,  still  apprehensive  of  cutting  Napo- 
leon off  from  making  his  peace  at  the  congress 
of  Chatillon,  allowed  Prince  Schwarzenberg  to 
seize  upon  every  pretext  for  shunning  a  decisive 
action.  While  Napoleon  ordered  Marmont  to 
return  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aube  toward 
Ramerupt,  and  himself  retired  by  a  flank  march 
upon  Troyes,  the  allied  army  split  into  two 
armies,  the  main  army  advancing  slowly  upon 
Troyes,  and  the  Silesian  army  marching  to  the 
Marne,  where  Blucher  knew  he  woxild  find 
York,  besides  part  of  Langerou's  and  Kleist's 
corps,  so  that  his  aggregate  forces  would  be 
swelled  to  about  50,000  men.  The  plan  was 
for  him  to  pursue  Marshal  Macdonald,  who 
had  meanwhile  appeared  on  the  lower  Marne, 
to  Paris,  while  Schwarzenberg  was  to  keep  in 
check  the  French  main  army  on  the  Seine. 
Napoleon,  however,  seeing  that  the  allies  did 
not  know  how  to  use  their  victory,  and  sure 
of  returning  to  the  Seine  before  the  main  ar- 
my could  have  advanced  far  in  the  direction 
of  Paris,  resolved  to  fall  upon  the  weaker  Si- 
lesian army.  Consequently,  he  left  20,000 
men  under  Victor  and  Oudinot  in  face  of  the 
100,000  men  of  the  main  army,  advanced 
with  40,000  men,  the  corps  of  Mortier  and 
Ney,  in  the  direction  of  the  Marne,  took  up 
Marmont's  corps  at  Nogent,  and  on  Feb.  9 
arrived  with  these  united  forces  at  S6zanne. 
Meanwhile  Blucher  had  proceeded  by  St. 
Ouen  and  Sompuis  on  the  road  leading  to 
Paris,  and  on  Feb.  9  established  his  headquar- 
ters at  the  little  town  of  Vertus.  The  dispo- 
sition of  his  forces  was  this:  about  10,000  men 
at  his  headquarters;  18,000,  under  York,  post- 
ed between  Dormans  and  Chateau-Thierry,  in 
pursuit  of  Macdonald,  who  was  already  on  the 
great  post  road  leading  to  Paris  from  Epernay ; 
30,000  under  Sacken,  between  Montmirail  and 
La  Fert6-sous-Jouarre,  destined  to  prevent  the 
intended  junction  of  Sebastiani's  cavalry  with 
Macdonald,  and  to  cut  off  the  passage  of  the 
latter  at  La  Ferte-sous-Jouarre ;  the  Russian 
general  Olzuvieff  cantoned  with  5,000  men  at 
Champaubert.  This  faulty  distribution,  by 
which  the  Silesian  army  was  drawn  up  in  a  ver/ 
extended  position  en  echelon,  resulted  from  the 
contradictory  motives  which  actuated  Blucher, 
or  rather  his  military  advisers,  Gneisenau  and 
Muffling.  On  the  one  hand,  he  desired  to  cut 
off  Macdonald,  and  prevent  his  junction  with 
Sebastiani's  cavalry ;  on  the  other  hand,  to  take 
np  the  corps  of  Kleist  and  Kaptzevitch,  who 
were  advancing  from  Chalons,  and  expected  to 
unite  with  him  on  the  9th  and  10th.  The  one 
motive  kept  him  back,  the  other  pushed  him 
on.  On  Feb.  9  Napoleon  fell  upon  Olzuvieff  at 
Champaubert,  and  routed  him.  Blucher,  with 
Kleist  and  Kaptzevitch,  who  had  meanwhile 
arrived,  but  without  the  greater  part  of  their 
cavalry,  advanced  against  Marmont,  despatched 
by  Napoleon,  and  followed  him  in  his  retreat 
upon  La  F6re  Champenoise,  but,  on  the  news  of 
Olzuvieffs  discomfiture,  returned  in  the  same 
night  with  his  two  corps  to  Bergeres,  there  to 


cover  the  road  to  Chalons.  After  a  successful 
combat  on  the  10th,  Sacken  had  driven  Mac- 
donald across  the  Marne  at  Trilport,  but,  hearing 
on  the  night  of  the  same  day  of  Napoleon's 
march  to  Champaubert,  hastened  back  on  the 
1 1th  toward  Montmirail.  Before  reaching  it,  he 
was  at  Vieils  Maisons  obliged  to  form  against 
the  emperor,  coming  from  Montmirail  to  meet 
him.  Beaten  with  great  loss  before  York  could 
unite  with  him,  the  two  generals  effected  their 
junction  at  Viffort,  and  retreated  Feb.  12  to 
Chateau-Thierry,  where  York  had  to  stand  a 
very  damaging  rear-guard  engagement,  and 
withdrew  thence  to  Oulchy-la-Ville.  Having 
ordered  Mortier  to  pursue  York  and  Sacken  on 
the  road  of  Fismes,  Napoleon  remained  on 
the  13th  at  Chateau-Thierry.  Uncertain  as  to 
the  whereabout  of  York  and  Sacken  and  the 
success  of  their  engagements,  Blucher  had  from 
Berg&res,  during  the  llth  and  12th,  quietly 
watched  Marmont  posted  opposite  him  at 
Etoges.  When  informed  on  the  13th  of  the 
defeat  of  his  generals,  and  supposing  Napoleon 
to  have  moved  off  in  search  of  the  main  army, 
he  gave  way  to  the  temptation  of  striking  a 
parting  blow  upon  Marmont,  whom  he  consid- 
ered Napoleon's  rear  guard.  Advancing  on 
Champanbert,  he  pushed  Marmont  to  Mont- 
mirail, where  the  latter  was  joined  on  the  14th 
by  Napoleon,  who  now  turned  against  Blucher, 
met  him  at  noon  at  Vauchamps,  20,000  strong, 
but  almost  without  cavalry,  attacked  him, 
turned  his  columns  with  cavalry,  and  threw 
him  back  with  great  loss  on  Champaubert. 
During  its  retreat  from  the  latter  place,  the 
Silesian  army  might  have  reached  Etoges  be- 
fore it  grew  dark,  without  any  considerable 
loss,  if  Blucher  had  not  taken  pleasure  in  the 
deliberate  slowness  of  the  retrograde  move- 
ment. Thus  he  was  attacked  during  the  whole 
of  his  march,  and  one  detachment  of  his  forces, 
the  division  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Prussia, 
was  again  beset  from  the  side  streets  of  Etoges, 
on  its  passage  through  that  town.  About  mid- 
night Blucher  reached  his  camp  at  Bergeres, 
broke  up  after  some  hours'  rest  for  Chalons, 
and  arrived  there  about  noon,  Feb.  15.  At 
this  place  he  was  joined  by  York's  and  Sacken's 
forces  on  the  16th  and  17th.  The  different 
affairs  at  Champaubert,  Montmirail,  Chateau- 
Thierry,  Vauchamps,  and  Etoges  had  cost  him 
15,000  men  and  27  guns.  Leaving  Marmont 
and  Mortier  to  front  Blucher,  Napoleon  with 
Ney  returned  in  forced  marches  to  the  Seine, 
where  Schwarzenberg  had  driven  back  Victor 
and  Ondinot,  who  had  retreated  across  the 
Yeres,  and  there  taken  up  12,000  men  under 
Macdonald,  and  some  reinforcements  from 
Spain.  On  the  16th  they  were  surprised  by 
the  sudden  arrival  of  Napoleon,  followed  on 
the  17th  by  his  troops.  After  his  junction 
with  the  marshals  he  hastened  against  Schwarz- 
enberg, whom  he  found  posted  in  an  extended 
triangle,  having  for  its  summits  Nogent,  Monte- 
reau,  and  Sens.  The  generals  under  his  com- 
mand, Wittgenstein,  Wrede,  and  the  crown 


BLUCHER 


755 


prince    of    Wurtemberg,    being    successively 
attacked    and    routed    by   Napoleon,    Prince 
Schwarzenberg  retreated  toward  Troyes  and 
sent  word  to  Blilcher  to  join  him,  so  that  they 
might  in  concert  give   battle  on   the  Seine. 
Blucher,  strengthened  by  new  reinforcements, 
immediately  followed  this  call,  entered  Mery 
Feb.  21,  and  waited  there  the  whole  of  the 
22d  for  the  dispositions  of  the  promised  battle. 
He  learned  in  the   evening  that  an   applica- 
tion for  a  truce  had  been  made  to  Napoleon, 
through   Prince   Liechtenstein,  who  had  met 
with  a  flat  refusal.      Instantly  despatching  a 
confidential  officer  to  Troyes,  he  conjured  Prince 
Schwarzenberg  to  give  battle,  and  even  offered 
to  give  it  alone  if  the  main  army  would  only 
form  a  reserve ;  but  Schwarzenberg,  still  more 
frightened   by  the  news  that  Augereau   had 
driven  Gen.  Bubna  back  into  Switzerland,  had 
already  ordered    the  retreat    upon    Langres. 
Blucher  understood  at  once  that  a  retreat  upon 
Langres  would  lead  to  a  retreat  beyond  the 
Rhine ;  and,  in  order  to  draw  Napoleon  off 
from  the  pursuit  of  the  dispirited  main  army, 
resolved  upon  again  marching  straight  in  the 
direction  of  Paris,  toward  the  Marne,  where 
he  could  now  expect  to  assemble  an  army  of 
100,000  men,   Wintzingerode    having  arrived 
with    about  25,000  men    in  the  vicinity   of 
Rheims,  Bulow  at  Laon  with  16,000  men,  the 
remainder  of   Kleist's  corps   being   expected 
from  Erfurt,  and  the  rest  of  Langeron's  corps, 
under   St.   Priest,   from  Mentz.     It  was  this 
second  separation  of  Blucher  from  the   main 
array  that  turned  the  scale  against  Napoleon. 
If  the  latter  had  followed  the  retreating  main 
army  instead  of  the  advancing  Silesian  one. 
the   campaign  would  have  been  lost  for  the 
allies.     The  passage  of  the  Aube  before  Napo- 
leon had  followed  him,  the  only  difficult  point  in 
Blucher's  advance,  he   effected  by  construct- 
ing a  pontoon  bridge  at  Anglure  on  Feb.  24. 
Napoleon,    commanding    Oudinot    and    Mac- 
donald,  with  about  25,000  men,  to  follow  the 
main  army,  left  Herbisse  on  the  26th,  together 
with  Ney  and  Victor,  in  pursuit  of  the  Silesian 
army.     On  the  advice  sent   by  Blucher  that 
the  main  army  had  now  but  the  two  marshals 
before  it,  Schwarzenberg  stopped  his  retreat, 
turned   round  upon   Ondinot  and  Macdonald, 
and  beat  them  on  the  27th  and  28th.     It  was 
Blucher's  intention  to  concentrate  his  army  at 
some  point  as  near  as  possible  to  Paris.     Mar- 
tnont  with  his  troops  was  still  posted  at  Se- 
zanne, while  Mortier  was  at  Chateau-Thierry. 
On  Blucher's  advance,  Marmont  retreated,  and 
united  on  the  26th  with  Mortier  at  La  Ferte- 
Bous-Jouarre,  thence  to  retire  with  the  latter 
upon  Meaux.      Blucher's  attempt  during  two 
days  to  cross  the  Ourcq,  and  with  a  strongly 
advanced  front  to  force  the  two  marshals  to 
battle,  having  failed,  he  was  now  obliged  to 
march  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river.     He 
reached  Oulchy-le-Chatean  on  March  2,  learned 
in  the  morning  of  the  3d  the  capitulation  of 
Soissons,  which  had  been  effected  by  Billow  and 


Wintzingerode,  and  in  the  course  of  the  same 
day  crossed  the  Aisne  and  concentrated  his 
whole  army  at  Soissons.  Napoleon,  who  had 
crossed  the  Marne  at  La  Ferte-sous-Jouarre, 
two  forced  marches  behind  Blucher,  advanced 
in  the  direction  of  Chateau-Thierry  and  Fismes, 
and,  having  passed  the  Vesle,  crossed  the 
Aisne  at  Berry-au-Bac,  March  6,  after  the 
recapture  of  Rheims  by  a  detachment  of  his 
army.  Blucher  originally  intended  to  offer 
battle  behind  the  Aisne  on  Napoleon's  passage 
of  that  river,  and  had  drawn  up  his  troops  for 
that  purpose.  When  he  became  aware  that 
Napoleon  took  the  direction  of  Fismes  and 
Berry-au-Bac,  in  order  to  pass  the  Silesian 
army  by  the  left,  he  decided  upon  attacking 
him  from  Craonne  on  the  flank,  in  an  oblique 
position,  immediately  after  his  debouching  from 
Berry-au-Bac,  so  that  Napoleon  would  have 
been  forced  to  give  battle  with  a  defile  in  his 
rear.  Having  already  posted  his  forces,  with 
the  right  wing  on  the  Aisne,  with  the  left  on 
the  Lette,  half  way  from  Soissons  to  Craonne, 
he  resigned  this  excellent  plan  on  making  sure 
that  Napoleon  had  on  the  6th  been  allowed 
by  Wintzingerode  to  pass  Berry-an-Bac  unmo- 
lested, and  had  even  pushed  a  detachment  on 
the  road  to  Laon.  He  now  thought  it  necessa- 
ry to  accept  no  decisive  battle  except  at  Laon. 
To  delay  Napoleon,  who  by  Corbeny,  on  the 
causeway  from  Rheims,  could  reach  Laon  as 
soon  as  the  Silesian  army  from  Craonne,  Blii- 
cher  posted  the  corps  of  Vorontzoff  between 
the  Aisne  and  the  Lette,  on  the  strong  plateau 
of  Craonne,  while  he  despatched  10,000  horse 
under  Wintzingerode,  to  push  on  by  Fetieux 
toward  Corbeny,  with  the  order  to  fall  upon 
the  right  flank  and  rear  of  Napoleon  as  soon 
as  the  latter  should  be  engaged  in  attacking 
Vorontzoff.  Wintzingerode  failing  to  execute 
the  manoeuvre  intrusted  to  him,  Napoleon 
drove  Vorontzoff  from  the  plateau  on  the  7th, 
but  himself  lost  8,000  men,  while  Vorontzoff 
escaped  with  the  loss  of  4,700,  and  proved  able 
to  effect  his  retreat  in  good  order.  On  the  8th 
Blacher  had  concentrated  his  troops  at  Laon, 
where  the  battle  must  decide  the  fate  of  both 
armies.  Apart  from  his  numerical  superiori- 
ty, the  vast  plain  before  Laon  was  peculiarly 
adapted  for  deploying  the  20,000  horse  of  the 
Silesian  army,  while  Laon  itself,  situated  on 
the  plateau  of  a  detached  hill,  which  has  on 
every  side  a  fall  of  12  to  30  degrees,  and  at  the 
foot  of  which  lie  four  villages,  offered  great  ad- 
vantages for  the  defence  as  well  as  the  attack. 
On  the  9th  the  left  French  wing,  led  by  Na- 
poleon himself,  was  repulsed,  while  the  right 
wing,  under  Marmont,  surprised  in  its  bivouacs 
at  nightfall,  was  so  completely  worsted  that 
the  marshal  could  not  bring  his  troops  to  a  halt 
before  reaching  Fismes.  Napoleon,  completely 
isolated  with  his  wing,  numbering  35,000  men 
only,  and  cooped  up  in  a  bad  position,  must 
have  yielded  before  far  superior  numbers  flush- 
ed with  victory.  But  on  the  following  morn- 
ing a  fever  attack  and  an  inflammation  of  the 


756 


BLtJCHER 


BLUDOFF 


eyes  disabled  Blucher,  while  Napoleon  yet  re- 
mained in  a  provocatory  attitude,  in  the  same 
position,  which  so  far  intimidated  the  men  who 
now  directed  the  operations  that  they  not  only 
stopped  the  advance  of  their  own  troops  which 
had  already  begun,  but  allowed  Napoleon  to 
quietly  retire  at  nightfall  to  Soissons.  Still  the 
battle  of  Laon  had  broken  his  forces,  physically 
and  morally.  He  tried  in  vain  by  the  sudden 
capture  on  March  13  of  Rheims,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  St.  Priest,  to  restore 
himself.  So  fully  was  his  situation  now  under- 
stood, that  when  he  advanced  on  the  17th  and 
18th  on  Arcis-snr-Aube,  against  the  main  ar- 
my, Schwarzenberg  himself  dared  to  stand 
and  accept  battle,  which  lasted  through  the 
20th  and  21st.  When  Napoleon  broke  it  off, 
the  main  army  followed  him  up  to  Vitry,  and 
united  in  his  rear  with  the  Silesian  army. 
In  his  despair  Napoleon  took  a  last  refuge 
in  a  retreat  upon  St.  Dizier,  pretending  thus 
to  endanger  with  his  handful  of  men  the 
enormous  army  of  the  allies,  by  cutting  off  its 
main  line  of  communication  and  retreat  between 
Langres  and  _Chaumont ;  a  movement  replied 
to  on  the  part  of  the  allies  by  their  onward 
march  to  Paris.  On  March  30  took  place  the 
battle  before  Paris,  in  which  the  Silesian  army 
stormed  Montmartre.  Though  Blucher  had  not 
recovered  since  the  battle  of  Laon,  he  still  ap- 
peared in  the  battle  for  a  short  time,  on  horse- 
back, with  a  shade  over  his  eyes;  but  after  the 
capitulation  of  Paris  he  laid  down  his  command, 
the  pretext  being  his  sickness,  and  the  real  cause 
the  clashing  of  his  open-mouthed  hatred  against 
the  French  with  the  diplomatic  attitude  which 
the  allied  sovereigns  thought  fit  to  exhibit. 
Thus  he  entered  Paris,  March  81,  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  a  private  individual.  During  the 
whole  campaign  of  1814,  he  alone  among  the 
allied  army  represented  the  principle  of  the  of- 
fensive. By  the  battle  of  La  Rothiere  he  baf- 
fled the  Ohatillon  pacificators;  by  his  resolution 
at  Mery  he  saved  the  allies  from  a  ruinous  re- 
treat ;  and  by  the  battle  of  Laon  he  decided  the 
first  capitulation  of  Paris. — After  the  first  peace 
of  Paris  he  accompanied  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der and  King  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  on 
their  visit  to  England,  where  he  was  f&ted  as 
the  hero  of  the  day.  All  the  military  orders 
of  Europe  were  showered  upon  him  ;  the  king 
of  Prussia  created  for  him  the  order  of  the 
iron  cross ;  the  prince  regent  of  England  gave 
him  his  portrait,  and  the  university  of  Oxford 
the  academical  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1815  he 
again  decided  the  final  campaign  against  Na- 
poleon. After  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ligny, 
June  16,  though  now  73  years  of  age,  he  pre- 
vailed upon  his  routed  army  to  form  anew  and 
march  on  the  heels  of  their  victor,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  appear  in  the  evening  of  June  18  on  the 
battlefield  of  Waterloo,  an  exploit  unprece- 
dented in  the  history  of  war.  (See  WATERLOO.) 
His  pursuit  of  the  French  fugitives  from  Water- 
loo to  Paris  possesses  one  parallel  only,  in  Na- 
poleon's equally  remarkable  pursuit  of  the  Prus- 


sians from  Jena  to  Stettin.  He  now  entered 
Paris  at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  even  had 
Muffling,  his  quartermaster  general,  installed  as 
the  military  governor  general  of  Paris.  He  in- 
sisted upon  Napoleon's  being  shot,  the  bridge 
of  Jena  blown  up,  and  the  restitution  to  their 
original  owners  of  the  treasures  plundered  by 
the  French  in  the  different  capitals  of  Europe. 
The  first  wish  was  baffled  by  Wellington,  and 
the  second  by  the  allied  sovereigns,  while  the 
last  was  realized.  He  remained  at  Paris  three 
months,  very  frequently  attending  the  gam- 
bling tables  for  rouge-et-noir.  On  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  battle  on  the  Katzbach  he  paid  a 
visit  to  Rostock,  his  native  place,  where  the 
inhabitants  united  to  raise  a  public  monument 
in  his  honor.  On  the  occurrence  of  his  death, 
the  whole  Prussian  army  went  into  mourning 
for  eight  days. — Le  meux  dialle,  as  he  was 
nicknamed  by  Napoleon,  "  Marshal  Forwards," 
as  he  was  styled  by  the  Russians  of  the  Silesian 
army,  was  essentially  a  general  of  cavalry.  In 
this  specialty  he  excelled,  because  it  required 
tactical  acquirements  only,  but  no  strategical 
knowledge.  Participating  to  the  highest  de- 
gree in  the  popular  hatred  against  Napoleon 
and  the  French,  he  was  popular  with  the  mul- 
titude for  his  plebeian  passions,  his  gross  com- 
mon sense,  the  vulgarity  of  his  manners,  and 
the  coarseness  of  his  speech,  to  which,  how- 
ever, he  knew  on  fit  occasions  how  to  impart 
a  touch  of  fiery  eloquence.  He  was  the  model 
of  a  soldier.  Setting  an  example  as  the  bravest 
in  battle  and  the  most  indefatigable  in  exer- 
tion ;  exercising  a  fascinating  influence  on  the 
common  soldier ;  joining  to  his  rash  bravery  a 
sagacious  appreciation  of  the  ground,  a  quick 
resolution  in  difficult  situations,  stubbornness 
in  defence  equal  to  his  energy  in  the  attack, 
with  sufficient  intelligence  to  find  for  himself 
the  right  course  in  simpler  combinations,  and 
to  rely  upon  Gneisenau  in  those  which  were 
more  intricate,  he  was  the  true  general  for  the 
military  operations  of  1813-'15,  which  bore  the 
character  half  of  regular  and  half  of  insurrec- 
tionary warfare.  The  biography  of  Blucher  has 
been  written  by  Varnhagen  von  Ense  (Berlin, 
1843),  Bieske  (1862),  and  Scherr  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
sic,  1862). 

BLUDOFF,  Dmitri  JVikolayeritch,  count,  a  Rus- 
sian statesman,  born  in  Moscow  in  1783,  died  in 
St.  Petersburg,  March  2,  1864.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  Moscow,  was  long  in  the 
diplomatic  service  in  London,  Stockholm,  and 
Vienna,  and  was  afterward  transferred  to  the 
domestic  administration.  At  the  advent  of 
Nicholas  he  belonged,  with  Dashkoff  and 
Uvaroff,  to  the  triad  which  Karamzin,  the 
Russian  historian,  recommended,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  new  emperor,  as  the  fittest  men 
to  carry  out  his  reformatory  ideas.  Bludoff 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1832 
was  transferred  to  the  more  important  position 
of  secretary  of  the  interior.  In  1839  he  suc- 
ceeded Dashkoff  as  secretary  of  the  department 
of  justice,  and  subsequently  became  president 


BLUE 


BLUEFISH 


757 


of  the  legislative  department  in  the  council  of 
the  empire.  As  such  he  put  the  last  hand  to 
the  compilation  and  publication  of  the  general 
code  of  civil  and  criminal  laws  (Svod  Zakonov). 
He  was  made  a  count  of  the  empire  in  1842. 
In  1846-'7  he  was  special  envoy  to  Rome,  to 
conclude  a  concordat.  After  the  accession  of 
Alexander  II.  in  1855  BludofF  was  appoint- 
ed president  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  three  years  later  was  named 
on  the  committee  to  prepare  measures  for  the 
emancipation  of  the  serfs.  In  1861,  on  the  res- 
ignation of  Prince  Orloff,  he  became  president 
of  the  council  of  ministers  and  of  the  council 
of  the  empire. 

BLUE,  one  of  the  seven  primary  colors. 
Like  the  green  of  the  forest  and  the  field,  na- 
ture appears  to  have  adopted  the  color  for  the 
sea  and  sky  with  reference  to  its  soft  and  pleas- 
ing effect  upon  the  eye.  In  these,  its  various 
shades  are  seen  in  their  highest  perfection,  and 
they  are  also  most  brilliantly  displayed  in  the 
sapphire  and  the  turquoise.  In  the  arts,  it  is 
derived  for  dyes  from  the  products  of  the  vege- 
table, animal,  and  mineral  kingdoms.  Indigo 
is  the  most  common  vegetable  material  for 
producing  it.  A  great  variety  of  berries  are 
also  used,  the  juices  of  which  become  blue  by 
the  addition  of  alkali  or  salts  of  copper. 
Among  mineral  substances,  cobalt  is  the  most 
remarkable  for  the  brilliant  blue  produced  by 
its  salts.  Cobalt  blue  is  used  for  coloring  glass 
and  porcelain.  Mountain  blue  is  derived  from 
carbonate  of  copper.  Bremen  blue  or  verditer 
is  a  greenish  blue  color,  obtained  from  copper 
mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime.  Prussian  blue, 
used  for  chemical  purposes  and  as  a  pigment, 
is  obtained  from  horns,  hoofs,  or  dried  blood; 
other  blues  are  obtained  from  combinations  of 
molybdenum  and  oxide  of  tin.  Ultramarine  is 
a  beautiful  blue  pigment  prepared  from  the 
mineral  lapis  lazuli,  which  until  recently  has 
defied  all  imitation. 

BLUE,  Prussian.     See  PEUSSIAN  BLUE. 

BLUEBIRD,  a  North  American  bird  of  the 
genus  sialia,  order  paiseres,  tribe  dentirostres, 
and  family  luscinidee.  The  best  known  species, 
8.  Wilsonii  (Swains.),  is  about  7  inches  long 
and  10  inches  in  extent  of  wings;  the  bill  is 
black,  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  nearly 
straight;  the  plumage  of  the  male  is  soft  and 
blended,  above  of  a  bright  azure  blue,  below 
yellowish  brown,  and  the  belly  white ;  the  fe- 
male has  the  upper  parts  of  a  hue  approaching 
leaden,  with  the  rest  like  the  male,  though 
duller;  the  young  have  the  head  and  back 
brownish.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  excepting  perhaps  some  of  the 
Pacific  territories ;  it  is  very  sprightly  and 
familiar,  and  is  always  a  welcome  visitor. 
The  nest  is  made  either  in  a  box  prepared  for 
it,  or  in  any  convenient  hole  in  a  tree;  the 
eggs  are  from  four  to  six,  of  a  pale  blue  color. 
The  food  consists  of  various  kinds  of  insects 
and  spiders,  and  also  the  ripe  fruits  of  the 
south.  Its  song  is  a  soft  agreeable  warble,  be- 


coming plaintive  as  winter  approaches,  at 
which  season  most  of  them  repair  to  the  south- 
ern states.  There  are  two  other  species  much 
resembling  the  above,  S.  Mexicana  (Swains.) 


Bluebird  (Sialiu  Wilsonin. 

and  S.  aretiea  (Swains.).  The  bluebird  is  one 
of  the  earliest  of  our  spring  songsters,  and  does 
good  service  in  destroying  beetles,  grasshop- 
pers, grubs,  wire-worms,  and  other  similar 
pests;  it  rarely  injures  garden  fruits,  prefer- 
ring those  of  the  sumach  and  the  wild  cherry. 

BLUE  EARTH,  a  S.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bounded  N.  partly  by  the  Minnesota  river, 
and  intersected  by  the  Blue  Earth  or  Mankato ; 
area,  760  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  17,302.  The 
Winona  and  St.  Peter,  the  Minnesota  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  St.  Paul  and  Sioux 
City  railroads  traverse  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  725,879  bushels  of 
wheat,  198,060  of  Indian  corn,  467,575  of  oats, 
35,146  of  barley,  65,393  of  potatoes,  18,994 
tons  of  hay,  and  87,971  Ibs.  of  butter.  There 
were  4,402  horses,  11,731  horned  cattle,  6,690 
sheep,  and  5,652  swine.  Capital,  Mankato. 

l!l  I  I  1 1 1 1 1  is.  or  Blewfields,  a  river  and  town  of 
Nicaragua,  the  latter  on  the  Mosquito  coast.  The 
river  is  several  hundred  miles  long,  is  navigable 
for  80  miles,  and  empties  into  an  inlet  of  the 
Caribbean  sea.  It  is  also  known  as  Eio  Escon- 
dido.  The  town  stands  on  an  eminence  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  about  200  m.  E.  S.  E.  of 
Leon,  and  150  m.  N.  of  San  Jos6,  Costa  Rica, 
and  has  about  500  inhabitants  and  a  good  har- 
bor. It  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  king 
of  the  Mosquito  country. 

BLUEFISH  (temnodon  saltator,  Cuv.),  an 
acanthopterygian  fish  of  the  family  of  scombri- 
dee,  called  also  the  skipjack,  and  sometimes 
horse  mackerel ;  both  of  the  latter  terms  are 
applied  to  other  scomberoid  fishes,  and  the  last 
especially,  on  the  New  England  coast,  to  a 
species  of  tunny.  All  the  upper  part  of  the 


758 


BLUEING  OF  METALS 


BLUE  LAWS 


body  is  of  a  bluish  color,  the  lower  part  of  sides 
and  abdomen  whitish,  a  large  black  spot  at  the 
base  of  pectoral  fins ;  the  jaws  are  armed  with 
prominent,  sharp,  and  lancinated  teeth,  the 
lower  with  one  row,  the  upper  with  a  second 
posterior  row  of  small  ones;  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  vomer,  and  palatal  bones  are  also 
crowded  with  very  small  teeth;  the  operculum 
terminates  in  two  points,  not  spines,  the  lateral 
line  beginning  just  above  its  posterior  angle, 
and,  curving  with  the  body,  terminating  at  the 
base  of  the  caudal  fin ;  the  fins  are  covered 
with  scales.  It  arrives  on  the  coast  of  the 
middle  states  early  in  the  spring,  accompanying 
the  weakfish  (otolithus  regalis,  Ouv.)  in  its 
migrations,  and  feeding  principally  upon  it;  it 
is  not  uncommon  in  Massachusetts  bay  in  the 
summer  months,  where  it  is  often  seen  chasing 
the  schools  of  menhaden  and  mackerel,  jump- 
ing out  of  water,  and  so  hotly  pursuing  its 
prey  as  to  drive  large  numbers  of  them  upon 
the  beaches.  The  size  varies  from  1  to  3  feet 
in  length,  the  weight  from  5  to  14  Ibs.,  the 
former  being  the  ordinary  weight  of  those  seen 
in  the  market.  They  are  among  the  most 
swift,  strong,  and  voracious  of  fishes ;  they  will 
bite  eagerly  at  any  object  drawn  rapidly  through 


Bluefish  (Temnodon  saltator). 

the  water,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  to 
oatch  them  by  trolling  in  sail  boats ;  so  sharp 
are  their  teeth  that  it  is  necessary  to  wire  the 
line  for  a  short  distance  above  the  hook  or 
spoon.  It  is  so  terrible  a  foe  to  the  mackerel, 
that  the  scarcity  of  the  latter  fish  on  the  New 
England  coast  in  1857  was  attributed  by  the 
fishermen  mainly  to  its  presence.  It  generally 
swims  near  the  surface.  Toward  the  latter 
part  of  summer  it  is  most  excellent  eating.  It 
runs  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  even  to  quite  fresh 
water,  being  taken  in  the  Hudson  as  high  up 
as  Sing  Sing,  in  the  Delaware  at  Philadelphia, 
and  in  the  Potomac  as  far  up  as  Acquia  creek. 
It  ranges  far  along  the  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Valen- 
ciennes, inhabits  as  a  single  species  both  oceans. 
It  is  erratic  in  its  habits,  and  on  some  coasts 
does  not  appear  for  many  years  and  then  sud- 
denly returns  in  great  numbers.  During  the 
last  half  of  the  18th  century  and  the  first  half 
of  the  19th  it  disappeared  entirely  from  the 
coast  of  New  England. 

BLUEING  OF  METALS,  the  process  of  giving  a 
blue  color  to  metallic  substances  by  heat.  Iron 
when  heated  becomes  first  of  a  light,  then  of 
a  darker  gold  color,  and  finally  blue.  Steel 
heated  to  redness  and  suddenly  cooled  is  ren- 


dered hard  and  brittle.  It  is  restored  to  any 
degree  of  softness  by  heating  it  up  to  certain 
temperatures  and  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly. 
These  temperatures  are  precisely  indicated  by 
the  color  of  the  film  of  oxide  which  forms  upon 
its  surface.  The  first  perceptible  tint  is  a  light 
straw  color,  which  is  produced  by  the  lowest 
degree,  and  indicates  the  hardest  temper ;  the 
heat  required  is  from  430°  to  460°  F. ;  it  is 
used  for  lancets,  razors,  and  surgical  instru- 
ments. At  470°  a  full  yellow  is  produced ;  it 
is  the  temper  fitted  for  scalpels,  penknives,  and 
fine  cutlery.  The  temperature  of  490°  gives  a 
brown  yellow,  which  is  the  temper  for  shears 
intended  for  cutting  iron.  At  510°  the  first 
tinge  of  purple  shows  itself;  this  is  the  temper 
employed  for  penknives.  The  purple  hue 
which  appears  at  520°  is  the  tint  for  table  and 
carving  knives.  A  temperature  from  530°  to 
570°  produces  various  shades  of  blue,  such  as 
are  used  for  watch  springs,  sword  blades,  saws, 
and  instruments  requiring  great  elasticity.  The 
different  degrees  of  heat  may  be  exactly  regu- 
lated by  plunging  the  articles  in  an  oil  bath, 
the  temperature  of  which  is  ascertained  by 
means  of  thermometers.  Blacksmiths  usually 
temper  their  cold  chisels,  drills,  and  other 
tools,  by  chilling  them  from  a  red  heat  by  im- 
mersion in  water;  a  bright  spot  is  then  filed 
upon  the  point,  which  is  then  heated  in  the 
forge  until  this  spot  has  assumed  the  desired 
color. 

BLUE  LAWS,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  the 
early  enactments  of  several  of  the  New  Eng- 
land states,  but  more  frequently  limited  to  the 
laws  of  New  Haven  colony.  The  origin  of  the 
term  is  not  exactly  known.  The  most  probable 
derivation  is  that  given  by  Professor  Kingsley, 
who  thinks  the  epithet  "  blue  "  was  applied  to 
any  one  who  in  the  times  of  Charles  II.  looked 
with  disapprobation  on  the  licentiousness  of  the 
times.  Thus,  in  Iludibras, 

For  his  religion,  it  was  fit 

To  match  his  learning  and  his  wit ; 

'Twos  Presbyterian  true  blue. 

In  the  colonies  this  epithet  was  applied  not 
only  to  persons,  but  to  the  customs,  institutions, 
and  laws  of  the  Puritans.  Hence,  probably,  a 
belief  with  some  that  a  distinct  system  of  laws, 
known  as  the  blue  laws,  must  somewhere  have 
had  a  local  habitation.  The  existence  of  such 
a  code  of  blue  laws  is  fully  disproved.  The 
only  authority  in  its  favor  is  Peters,  who  is  no- 
toriously untrustworthy.  The  traditions  upon 
this  subject,  from  which  Peters  framed  his 
stories,  undoubtedly  arose  from  the  fact  that 
the  early  settlers  of  New  Haven  were  uncom- 
monly strict  in  their  application  of  the  "gene- 
ral rules  of  righteousness."  Judge  Smith,  in 
his  continuation  of  the  history  of  New  York, 
published  in  "New  York  Historical  Collec- 
tions," vol.  iv.,  gives  evidence  against  the  ex- 
istence of  the  blue  laws,  which  is  particularly 
valuable,  as  it  was  put  on  record  some  15  years 
before  Peters's  history  was  published.  He 
writes :  "  Few  there  are  who  speak  of  the  blue 


BLUE  LICK  SPRINGS 


BLUET  D'ARBERES 


759 


laws  (a  title  of  the  origin  of  which  the  author 
is  ignorant),  who  do  not  imagine  they  form  a 
code  of  rules  drawn  up  for  future  conduct,  by 
an  enthusiastic  precise  set  of  religionists ;  and 
if  the  inventions  of  wits,  humorists,  and  buf- 
foons were  to  be  credited,  they  must  consist  of 
many  large  volumes.  The  author  had  the 
curiosity  to  resort  to  them  when  the  commis- 
sioners met  at  New  Haven  for  adjusting  a  par- 
tition line  between  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts in  1767;  and  a  parchment-covered  book 
of  demi- royal  paper  was  handed  him  for  the 
laws  asked  for,  as  the  only  volume  in  the  office 
passing  under  this  odd  title.  It  contains  the 
memorials  of  the  first  establishment  of  the  col- 
ony, which  consisted  of  persons  who  had  wan- 
dered beyond  the  limits  of  the  old  charter  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  and  who,  as  yet  unauthor-  ! 
ized  by  the  crown  to  set  up  any  civil  govern- 
ment in  due  form  of  law,  resolved  to  conduct 
themselves  by  the  Bible.  As  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, the  judges  they  chose  took  up  an 
authority  which  every  religious  man  exercises 
over  his  own  children  and  domestics.  Hence 
their  attentions  to  the  morals  of  the  people  in 
instances  with  which  the  civil  magistrate  can 
never  intermeddle  in  a  regular  well  policed 
constitution,  because  to  preserve  liberty  they 
are  recognizable  only  by  parental  authority." 
"  The  good  men  and  good  wives  were  admon- 
ished and  fined  for  liberties  daily  corrected, 
but  never  made  criminal  by  the  laws  of  large 
and  well  poised  communities ;  and  so  far  is  the 
common  idea  of  the  blue  laws  being  a  collec- 
tion of  rules  from  being  true,  that  they  are 
only  records  of  convictions  consonant  in  the 
judgment  of  the  magistrates  to  the  word  of 
God  and  the  dictates  of  reason."  See  also 
Palfrey's  "History  of  New  England,"  vol.  ii., 
p.  32,  note. 

BLUE  UCR  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  Nicholas 
oo.,  Kentucky,  on  Licking  river,  40  m.  N.  E.  of 
Frankfort;  pop.  in  1870,  751.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  waters,  which  form  an  article 
of  considerable  traffic  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  They  contain  soda,  magnesia, 
lime,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  acid, 
in  combination  with  muriates  and  sulphates. 

BLUE  MONDAY,  originally  so  called  from  a 
fashion,  prevalent  in  the  16th  century,  of  dec- 
orating the  churches  on  the  Monday  preceding 
Lent  with  blue  colors.  It  was  celebrated  as  a 
general  holiday,  and  the  excesses  frequently 
committed  during  the  revels  led  to  stringent 
enactments  on  the  subject,  amounting  almost 
to  an  abolition  of  the  custom. 

BLUE  MOUNTAINS.     I.  The  central  mountain 
range  of  the  island  of  Jamaica.     It  extends  i 
E.  and  W.  through  the  centre  of  the  island,  ' 
with  offsets  covering  its  eastern  portion.     The 
main  ridges  are  from  6,000  to  8,000  ft.  high, 
and  are  flanked  by  lower  ranges,  gradually  slo- 
ping off  into  verdant  savannahs.     These  moun- 
tains are  remarkable  for  their  steep  declivities 
and   sharp,    narrow   crests,  which  are  some- 
times only  a  few  yards  across.     They  cover 


the  greater  part  of  the  island,  the  level 
portions  being  estimated  at  not  more  than 
JSj  part  of  the  whole.  The  valleys  are  deep 
longitudinal  depressions,  covered,  as  are  also 
the  sides  of  the  mountains,  with  dense  vegeta- 
tion and  stately  forests.  In  the  great  earth- 
quake of  1692  these  mountains  were  terribly 
shattered  and  rent.  II.  A  range  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  New  South  Wales,  extending  through 
the  counties  of  Oook,  Roxburgh,  and  West- 
moreland, nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  and 
forming  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  rivers 
of  the  coast  and  those  of  the  interior.  These 
mountains  attain  a  considerable  elevation,  Mt. 
Beemarang,  believed  to  be  the  loftiest  peak, 
having  a  height  of  4,100  ft.  The  road  which 
crosses  them,  built  in  1813,  is  in  places  3,400 
ft.  high.  The  range  consists  of  ferruginous  sand- 
stone. 

BLUE  RIDGE,  the  most  eastern  of  the  princi- 
pal ridges  of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  moun- 
tains. It  is  the  continuation  S.  of  the  Potomac 
of  the  same  great  ridge  which  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland  is  known  as  the  South  moun- 
tain. It  retains  the  name  of  Blue  Ridge  till  it 
crosses  the  James  river,  from  which  to  the 
line  of  North  Carolina  its  continuation  is  call- 
ed the  Alleghany  mountain.  Running  through 
North  Carolina  into  Tennessee,  it  again  bears 
the  name  of  Blue  Ridge.  (See  APPALACHIAN 
MOUNTAINS.) 

BLUE  RIVER,  a  river  of  Indiana,  rising  in 
Henry  county  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state, 
takes  a  S.  W.  course,  and  joins  Sugar  creek,  in 
Johnson  county,  after  which  it  takes  the  name 
of  Driftwood  fork,  or  East  fork  of  White  river. 
Above  Sugar  creek  it  is  from  30  to  60  yards 
wide,  and  affords  excellent  water  power.  The 
towns  of  Shelbyville  and  Newcastle  are  on  its 
banks. 

BLUE  STOCKINGS,  a  title  which  originated  in 
England  in  the  time  of  Dr.  Johnson  for  ladies 
who  cultivated  learned  conversation.  Dr.  Do- 
ran  relates  that  in  1757  it  was  much  the  fashion 
for  ladies  to  form  evening  assemblies  where 
they  might  participate  in  talk  with  literary  and 
ingenious  men.  One  of  the  most  eminent  talk- 
ers on  these  occasions  was  a  Mr.  Stillingfleet, 
who  always  wore  blue  stockings,  and  his  ab- 
sence at  any  time  was  so  regretted  that  it  used 
to  be  said,  "  We  can  do  nothing  without  the 
blue  stockings."  The  title  was  by  degrees 
transferred,  first  to  the  clubs  of  this  kind,  and 
then  to  the  ladies  who  attended  them.  It  soon 
became  a  general  appellation  for  pedantic  or 
ridiculously  literary  ladies.  One  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  clubs  was  that  which  met  at 
Mrs.  Montagu's,  which  was  sometimes  honored 
by  the  presence  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  princi- 
pal members  of  which  have  been  sketched  and 
eulogized  by  Hannah  More,  in  her  poem  enti- 
tled "  The  Bas  Bleu." 

BLUE  VITRIOL.     See  COPPER,  vol.  v.,  p.  318. 

BLUET  D'ARBERES,  Bernard,  a  professional 
French  fool,  born  about  1566,  died  in  1606.  In 
boyhood  he  was  a  shepherd,  afterward  a  cart- 


760 


BLUM 


BLUMENBACH 


wright,  and  then  fool  to  a  Savoyard  nobleman. 
At  the  age  of  34  he  went  to  Paris,  and  as- 
sumed the  titles  of  comte  de  Permission  and 
chevalier  des  ligues  des  XIII.  cantons  suisses. 
He  wrote  eulogies  for  the  great,  on  whose  boun- 
ty he  lived,  particularly  on  that  of  Henry  IV., 
and  afterward  wrote  prophecies  for  the  people. 
His  works  were  collected  into  173  l>ooks,  of 
which  about  130  have  come  down  to  us.  In 
1831,  a  copy  of  Bluet  was  sold  in  England  for 
£20  sterling.  It  is  said  that  when  the  plague 
of  1606  ravaged  Paris,  Bluet  announced  that 
his  total  abstention  from  food  for  nine  days 
would  save  the  city.  He  died  on  the  sixth 
day. 

BU'JI,  Robert,  a  German  revolutionist,  born 
in  Cologne,  Nov.  10,  1807,  executed  in  Vien- 
na, Nov.  9,  1848.  He  was  the  son  of  a  jour- 
neyman cooper,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  ob- 
tained employment  as  mass  servant,  but  after- 
ward found  occupation  in  a  lantern  manufac- 
tory and  was  promoted  to  the  counting  house. 
He  accompanied  his  employer  on  journeys 
through  the  southern  states  of  Germany,  and 
in  1829-'30  resided  with  him  at  Berlin.  Sum- 
moned in  1830  to  the  military  service,  he  was 
dismissed  after  six  weeks  and  returned  to  Co- 
logne, where  he  was  employed  as  man  of  all 
work  at  the  theatre.  In  1831  he  was  appoint- 
ed cashier  and  secretary  of  the  Leipsic  theatre, 
a  post  he  held  till  1847.  From  1831  to  1837 
he  made  contributions  to  the  Leipsic  family 
papers,  such  as  the  Komet,  the  Abendzeitung, 
&c.,  and  published  a  "Theatrical  Cyclopaedia," 
"Friend  of  the  Constitution,"  an  almanac  en- 
titled Vorwarts,  &c.  In  1840  he  became  one 
of  the  founders,  and  in  1841  one  of  the  direc- 
tors of  the  Schiller  association,  and  of  the  as- 
sociation of  German  authors.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  Sachsische  Vaterlandsb latter,  a  po- 
litical journal,  made  him  the  object  of  govern- 
ment persecution.  German  Catholicism  found 
a  warm  partisan  in  him.  He  founded  the  Ger- 
man Catholic  church  at  Leipsic,  and  became 
its  spiritual  director  in  1845.  On  Aug.  12, 
1845,  when  an  immense  meeting  of  armed  citi- 
zens and  students  threatened  to  storm  the 
riflemen's  barracks  at  Leipsic,  Blum  by  his  elo- 
quence prevented  a  riot.  The  Saxon  govern- 
ment continued  its  persecution  against  him, 
and  in  1847  suppressed  the  Vaterlandsbldtter. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  February, 
1848,  he  became  the  centre  of  the  liberal  party 
of  Saxony,  founded  the  "Fatherland's  Asso- 
ciation," which  soon  mustered  above  40,000 
members,  was  vice  president  of  the  preliminary 
German  parliament  assembled  at  Frankfort,  af- 
ter its  dissolution  a  member  of  the  committee 
it  left  behind,  and  ultimately  representative  of 
the  city  of  Leipsic  in  the  regular  parliament. 
His  political  theory  aimed  at  a  German  re- 
public based  on  the  different  traditionary  king- 
doms, dukedoms,  &c. ;  since,  in  his  opinion, 
the  latter  alone  were  able  to  preserve  intact 
what  he  considered  a  peculiar  beauty  of  Ger- 
man society,  the  independent  development  of 


its  different  orders.  When  the  news  of  the 
Vienna  insurrection  of  Oct.  6  reached  Frank- 
fort, he,  in  company  with  Frobel,  carried  to 
Vienna  an  address  drawn  up  by  the  parlia- 
mentary opposition,  which  he  handed  to  the 
municipal  council  of  Vienna,  Oct.  17.  Having 
enrolled  himself  in  the  ranks  of  the  students' 
corps,  and  commanded  a  barricade  during  the 
fight,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and,  after  the 
capture  of  Vienna  by  Windischgratz,  sentenced 
to  the  gallows,  a  punishment  commuted  to  that 
of  being  shot.  This  execution  took  place  at 
daybreak,  in  the  Brigittenau. 

I:I.M]I:M:\<  II.  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German 
naturalist,  born  at  Gotha,  May  11,  1752,  died 
in  Gottingen,  Jan.  22,  1840.  His  father  was 
a  teacher.  His  love  of  science  was  first  kin- 
dled when  he  was  only  10  years  of  age,  by  the 
sight  of  a  human  skeleton  in  the  house  of  a 
physician,  the  friend  of  his  father.  While  a 
schoolboy  he  made  collections  of  human  skulls 
and  the  bones  of  animals  as  a  basis  for  com- 
parative anatomy.  At  the  age  of  17  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  medicine  at  Jena,  where 
he  remained  three  years,  and  afterward  went 
to  Gottingen,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine  in  1775.  On  that  occasion 
he  wrote  a  thesis  on  the  different  varieties  of 
the  human  race,  De  Generis  Humani  Varietate 
Nativa,  in  which  he  developed  the  germ  of 
those  craniological  researches  and  comparisons 
for  which  he  afterward  became  celebrated. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  junior 
professor  of  medicine  at  Gottingen  and  keeper 
of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history,  and  two 
years  later  (1778)  regular  professor.  From 
1780  to  1794  he  edited  a  scientific  publication, 
the  Medicinische  Bibliothek,  for  which  he 
wrote  many  valuable  articles  on  medicine, 
physiology,  and  comparative  anatomy.  He 
also  obtained  a  reputation  by  the  publication 
of  his  Institutiones  Physiologic®,  a  condensed 
and  well  arranged  view  of  the  animal  func- 
tions; the  work  appeared  in  1787,  and  during 
a  period  of  34  years  passed  through  many 
editions  in  Germany,  where  it  was  the  gen- 
eral text  book  in  the  schools.  It  was  rendered 
into  English  by  Dr.  Caldwell,  and  published 
in  America  in  1798,  and  in  London,  by  Elliot- 
son,  in  1817.  Blumenbach  became  still  more 
extensively  known  by  his  manual  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  and  physiology  (Handbuch  der 
vergleichenden  Anatomie  iind  Physiologic),  of 
which  three  editions  were  published  in  Ger- 
many from  1804  to  1824.  It  was  translated 
into  English  in  1809  by  the  eminent  surgeon 
Lawrence;  and  again  with  the  latest  addi- 
tions and  improvements,  by  Coulson,  in  1827. 
Though  less  elaborate  than  the  works  of  Cu- 
vier  and  Carus,  this  work  of  Blumenbach  will 
always  be  valued  for  the  accuracy  of  his 
own  observations,  and  the  just  appreciation 
of  the  labors  of  his  predecessors.  Blumen- 
bach was  the  first  who  placed  comparative 
anatomy  on  a  truly  scientific  basis.  In  1785, 
long  before  Cnvier's  time,  he  instituted  the 


BLUNT 


BLUNTSCHLI 


761 


method  of  comparing  different  varieties  of  hu- 
man skeletons  as  well  as  skeletons  of  animals. 
Camper  had  only  compared  the  facial  angles 
of  the  skulls  of  Europeans,  negroes,  and  orang- 
outangs ;  Blumenbach  perceived  the  insufficien- 
cy of  these  few  points  of  comparison,  and  intro- 
duced a  general  survey  of  comparative  anatomy. 
He  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  comparing  the 
whole  cranium  and  face,  to  distinguish  the  va- 
rieties of  the  human  race  ;  and  his  numerous 
observations  were  published  in  the  Collectio 
Craniorum  Divermrum  Gentium,  published  at 
Gottingen,  in  7  decades,  from  1790  to  1828,  in 
4to,  with  80  figures,  and  in  the  Nova  Pentas 
Collection^  suce  Craniorum,  which  was  joined 
to  the  work  in  the  latter  year.  The  ethnologi- 
eal  division  of  mankind  into  five  races,  called 
respectively  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  the 
Malay,  the  Ethiopian,  and  the  American,  was 
first  proposed  by  Blumenbach,  and  for  many 
years  had  popular  currency,  though  now  dis- 
carded as  inadequate  by  most  ethnologists. 
The  greatest  part  of  Blumenbach's  life  was 
passed  at  Gottingen.  In  1783  he  visited 
Switzerland,  and  gave  a  curious  medical  to- 
pography of  that  country  in  his  Bibliothek. 
In  1788  he  was  in  England,  and  also  in  1792. 
The  prince  regent  in  1816  conferred  on  him 
the  office  of  physician  to  the  royal  family 
in  Hanover,  and  in  1821  made  him  knight 
companion  of  the  Guelphic  order.  The  royal 
academy  of  Paris  adopted  him  as  a  member 
in  1831.  In  1825  Blumenbach  celebrated  the 
50th  anniversary  of  his  inauguration  as  a  doc- 
tor of  medicine,  and  in  1826  of  his  professor- 
ship. In  1835  he  retired  from  public  life,  and 
only  lectured  privately  to  select  audiences. 

BLUNT.  I.  Kdinund  March,  an  American  hy- 
drographer,  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  June 
20, 1770,  died  at  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  2,  1862. 
His  "American  Coast  Pilot,"  describing  every 
port  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States,  has 
proved  a  useful  work  to  seamen  throughout 
the  world.  It  was  commenced  by  him  in  1796, 
and  the  24th  edition  was  published  by  his  son 
G.  W.  Blunt  of  New  York  in  1869  ;  and  it  has 
been  translated  into  most  of  the  European  lan- 
guages. His  other  nautical  works,  charts,  &c., 
are  numerous.  II.  Edmund,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Nov.  23, 1799, 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  2,  1866.  At  the 
age  of  17  he  surveyed  the  harbor  of  New  York ; 
and  from  that  time  up  to  1833  he  was  engaged 
in  surveys  in  the  West  Indies,  Guatemala,  and 
the  seacoast  of  the  United  States,  on  his  pri- 
vate account.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  a 
first  assistant  in  the  U.  S.  coast  survey,  in  which 
office  he  continued  till  his  death.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  E.  and  G.  W.  Blunt, 
nautical  publishers  of  New  York.  Mr.  Blunt 
while  on  the  coast  survey  advocated  and  pro- 
cured the  introduction  of  the  Fresnel  light  in 
American  lighthouses. 

BLUNT,  John  James,  an  English  divine,  horn 
at  Newcastle-under-Lyme  in  1794,  died  in 
Cambridge,  June  17,  1855.  He  obtained  a 


fellowship  in  the  university  of  Cambridge  in 
1816,  and  being  appointed  in  1818  one  of  the 
travelling  bachelors,  visited  Italy,  and  wrote  a 
volume  on  the  "  Vestiges  of  Ancient  Manners 
and  Customs  discoverable  in  Modern  Italy  and 
Sicily  "  (1823).  He  held  various  ecclesiastical 
appointments  till  1839,  when,  on  the  death  of 
Bishop  Marsh,  he  was  elected  Lady  Margaret's 
professor  of  divinity.  His  principal  works 
are :  "  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writ- 
ings both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  an 
Argument  of  their  Veracity  "  (1847 ;  5th  ed., 
1856) ;  "  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  first  three  Centuries  "  (2d  ed.,  1856) ;  and 
"Sketch  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church 
of  England,"  which  passed  through  15  edi- 
tions, and  was  translated  into  French  and 
German. 

BLUNTSCHLI,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  German  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
March  7,  1808.  He  studied  under  Savigny  at 
Berlin  and  under  Niebuhr  at  Bonn,  where  he 
graduated  in  1829.  He  was  employed  in  the 
judiciary  at  Zurich  and  as  teacher  at  the  uni- 
versity (1830),  and  subsequently  as  professor, 
and  member  of  the  grand  council  (1837)  and  of 
the  local  government  (1839).  In  opposition  to 
the  radicals,  he  founded  a  liberal-conservative 
party,  and  energetically,  but  in  vain,  exerted 
himself  to  prevent  the  civil  war  of  1847.  After 
the  downfall  of  the  Sonderbund,  and  the  de- 
cided victory  of  radicalism,  he  left  Switzer- 
land and  became  professor  of  German  and 
international  law  at  Munich  (1848),  and  since 
1861  he  has  been  professor  of  political  sci- 
ence at  Heidelberg.  He  was  active  in  1 862  in 
favor  of  a  German  house  of  representatives 
as  a  step  toward  national  unity,  and  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Baden  upper  house  in  the  cause 
of  parliamentary  reform.  In  conjunction  with 
Baumgarten  and  other  reformers  he  founded 
in  1864  the  Protestant  union,  was  president 
of  the  Protestant  conventions  at  Eisenach 
(1865),  Neustadt  (1867),  Bremen  and  Berlin 
(1868),  and  of  the  Baden  general  synod  (1867). 
After  the  victory  of  Prussia  over  Austria  in 

1866  he  favored  an   intimate  union  between 
North  and  South  Germany,  and  was  elected  in 

1867  to  the   Zollparlament  (customs  parlia- 
ment).   His  works  include  Stoats-  und  Rechts- 
geschichte  der  Stadt   und  Landschaft  Zurich 
(2  vols.,   1838-'9;    2d  ed.,  1856);    Geschichte 
des  Schweizerischen  Bundesrechts  (2  vols.,  1846 
-'52) ;    Allgemeines  Staatsrecht  (2  vols.,  Mu- 
nich,   3d  ed.,    1863) ;    Deutsches  Privatrecht 
(1853;  3d  ed.,  1864);  and  Geschichte  des  allge- 
meinen   Staatsrechts  und  der  Politik  (1864), 
the  last  named  being  the  first  of  a  series  of 
works  relating  to  the  history  of  the  various 
sciences,  the  publication  of   which  was  pro- 
posed by  Maximilian  II.,  the  late  king  of  Ba- 
varia.    Among  the  other  works  which  make 
him  a  high  authority  on  international  and  po- 
litical sciences  and  law  and  the  laws  of  war 
are :  Das  moderne  Kriegsrecht  der  civilisirten 
Staaten  ah  Rechtsbuch  dargettellt  (Nordlingen, 


762 


BOA 


1866);  Das  moderne  Volkerreeht  ah  Rechts- 
buch  mit  Erlauterungen  (Nordlingen,  1868 ; 
French  translation,  by  Lardy,  Paris,  1869) ; 
Das  moderne  Volkerreeht  in  dem  Framosisch- 
Deutechen  Kriege  von  1870  (Heidelberg,  1871) ; 
and  Das  Deutsche  Staatsworterbuch,  in  con- 
junction with  Brater  (11  vols.,  1857-'70). 

BOA;  a  large  serpent  of  the  family  boid(f, 
order  ophidia.  This  family  is  known  by  the 
following  characters :  The  under  part  of  the 
body  and  tail  is  covered  with  transverse  bands, 
each  of  a  single  piece,  narrow,  scaly,  and 
often  six-sided ;  there  is  neither  spur  nor  rattle 
at  the  tip  of  the  tail ;  the  hinder  limbs,  formed 
of  several  bones,  are  developed  into  an  ex- 
serted  horny  spine  or  hook  on  each  side  of 
the  vent ;  the  body  compressed,  larger  toward 
the  middle ;  the  tail  short  and  prehensile ;  the 
pupil  oblong  and  erect;  and  scales  small,  at 
least  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head.  They  are 
the  largest  of  serpents,  and  though  without 
venom,  their  immense  muscular  power  enables 
them  to  crush  within  their  folds  large  animals, 
which  they  first  lubricate  with  saliva,  and  then 
swallow  whole  by  their  enormously  dilatable 
jaws  and  gullet. — It  appears  that  serpents  of 
this  family  once  existed  in  Italy,  Greece,  and 
the  Mediterranean  regions  of  Africa.  Vir- 
gil's description  of  the  death  of  Laocoon  and 
his  two  sons,  as  well  as  the  magnificent  marble 
group  which  either  furnished  the  subject  for 
his  description,  or  was  suggested  to  the  sculptor 
by  it,  and  again  the  account  in  the  24th  idyl 
of  Theocritus  of  the  serpents  sent  by  Juno  to 
destroy  the  infant  Hercules  in  his  cradle,  all 
show  that  the  artists  were  perfectly  acquainted 
with  the  action  of  constricting  serpents.  The 
narrative  by  Valerius  Maximus  of  the  gigantic 
serpent  which  had  its  lair  by  the  waters  of  the 
river  Bagradas  (Mejerda),  not  far  from  Utica,  or 
the  present  site  of  Tunis,  and  kept  the  whole 
army  of  Regulus  at  bay,  killing  many  of  his 
soldiers,  until  it  was  at  length  destroyed  by 
stones  cast  from  the  engines  used  in  the  siege 
of  cities,  is  familiar  to  most  readers.  Pliny 
adds  that  the  serpents  called  bom  in  Italy  con- 
firm this ;  for  that  they  grow  so  large  that  one 
killed  on  the  Vaticanhill  in  the  reign  of  Claudius 
had  the  entire  body  of  an  infant  in  its  belly. 
Suetonius  mentions  the  exhibition  of  a  serpent 
of  50  cubits  (75  feet)  in  length,  in  front  of  the 
Comitium.  These  reptiles,  which  are  now 
found  in  tropical  countries  only,  have  been 
distinguished  into  25  genera,  under  which  are 
arranged,  according  to  characteristic  differ- 
ences, the  serpents  in  the  British  museum. 
Among  these  genera,  most  of  which  contain 
several  species,  are  the  following :  I.  Python, 
two  species,  distinguished  from  the  boas  by 
placing  its  eggs  in  groups,  and  covering  them 
with  its  body,  a  habit  which  had  been  doubted, 
but  has  been  verified  from  observation  of  the 
proceedings  of  a  python  in  the  jardin  des 
plantes  at  Paris :  the  ular  saioad  of  Hindo- 
stan,  Ceylon,  and  Borneo,  and  the  rock  snake 
of  Java.  The  former  is  one  of  the  largest  and 


most  terrible  of  all  these  monsters,  said  to  grow 
to  30  ft.  in  length,  and  proportionally  stout, 
and  to  be  able  to  manage  a  full-grown  buffalo. 


Female  Python  incubating. 

There  have  been  living  specimens  of  both  these 
snakes  in  the  zoological  gardens,  Regent's  park, 
London.  II.  ffortulia,  three  species,  all  of 
South  Africa:  the  Natal  rock  snake,  25  ft. 
long,  and  as  large  as  the  body  of  a  stout  man ; 
the  Guinea  rock  snake,  of  which  there  was  a 


Natal  Rock  Snake  (Hortulia  Natalensis). 

specimen  in  the  Regent's  park  ;  and  the  royal 
rock  snake,  supposed  to  weigh  over  100  Ibs. 
III.  Boa,  four  species,  peculiar  to  Mexico, 
Honduras,  Santa  Lucia,  and  Peru.  This  is  the 
genus  which  has  given  the  general  name  to  the 
whole  family  of  great  constricting  serpents. 
The  skin  of  one  of  these  serpents,  of  the  first 
species,  boa  constrictor,  the  tlicoatl  and  tema- 
cuilcahuilia  of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  object 
of  their  serpent  worship,  is  preserved  in  the 
British  museum.  The  proper  boa  is  decided 
by  Ouvier  not  to  be  a  native  of  any  portion  of 
the  old  world.  IV.  Eunectes,  one  species,  a 
native  of  tropical  America ;  this  is  the  anaconda, 
a  name  said  to  be  of  Ceylonese  origin,  which, 
like  that  of  boa,  has  been  vulgarly  given  to  the 
whole  family.  (See  ANACONDA.) — This  is  the 
most  terrible  class  of  destructive  reptiles  in  ex- 


BOA 


BOAR 


763 


istence.  Their  long,  keen  teeth  are  curved 
strongly  backward,  each  tooth  in  either  jaw 
fitting  between  the  interstices  of  two  in  the 


Bos  Constrictor. 

other,  clasping  whatever  they  seize  upon  inex- 
tricably. The  body  is  readily  wound  about  the 
victim  in  huge  knots,  compressed  closer  and 
closer  until  life  is  extinct.  Mr.  McLeod,  who 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  voyage  of  H.  M.  S. 
Alceste,  in  which  was  brought  over  to  England 
from  the  island  of  Borneo  a  serpent  of  the 
family  of  boida,  16  ft.  long  and  18  inches  in 
circumference,  describes  their  process  of  con- 
striction. A  goat  was  put  into  the  cage  of  the 
boa  every  three  weeks  and  swallowed,  not  by 
the  power  of  suction,  but  by  the  effect  of 
muscular  contraction,  assisted  by  two  rows  of 
strong,  hooked  teeth.  This  snake  was  2  hours 
and  20  minutes  employed  in  gorging  the  goat, 
during  which  time,  particularly  while  the  ani- 
mal was  in  the  jaws  and  throat  of  the  con- 
strictor, the  skin  of  the  latter  was  distended 
almost  to  bursting,  while  the  points  of  the 
horns  could  be  seen,  threatening  as  it  were  at 
every  moment  to  pierce  the  scaly  coat  of  the 
destroyer.  The  snake  coiled  himself,  and  re- 
mained torpid  for  three  weeks,  during  which 
he  so  completely  digested  and  converted  to  his 
own  use  the  whole  of  the  goat,  that  he  passed 
nothing  from  him  but  a  small  quantity  of  cal- 
careous matter,  not  equal  to  a  tenth  part  of  the 
bones  of  the  animal,  and  a  few  hairs ;  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  was  in  condition  to  devour 
another  goat.  Mr.  Broderip,  the  author  of 
"  Leaves  from  the  Note  Book  of  a  Naturalist " 
and  the  "Zoological  Journal,"  describes  in  al- 
most the  same  words  the  killing  and  degluti- 
tion of  a  rabbit,  which  he  observed  in  the  tower 
of  London.  The  time  required  to  kill  the  rabbit 
was  eight  minutes.  In  every  respect,  indeed, 
Mr.  Broderip  corroborates  the  observations  of 
Mr.  McLeod,  except  on  one  point,  whether  the 
respiration  of  the  serpent  is  suspended  during 
the  act  of  swallowing,  which  Mr.  McLeod 


affirms  and  Mr.  Broderip  denies,  although  with- 
out dissection  the  mode  of  his  breathing  can- 
not well  be  determined. 

BOADEN,  James,  an  English  dramatist  and 
biographer,  born  at  Whitehaven  in  1762,  died 
in  1839.  He  was  a  painter,  but  abandoned  the 
art,  and  wrote  plays,  none  of  which  now  keep 
possession  of  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  lives 
of  John  Kemble,  Mrs.  Siddons,  Mrs.  Jordan, 
and  Mrs.  Inchbald,  and  an  "Inquiry  into 
the  Authenticity  of  the  various  Pictures  and 
Prints  of  Shakespeare"  (London,  1824),  di- 
rected against  what  is  called  Talma's  portrait 
of  Shakespeare,  and  accepting  the  Chandos 
portrait  as  authentic. 

BOADICEA,  or  Bondleea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  a 
British  tribe  inhabiting  what  are  now  the  coun- 
ties of  Cambridge,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and  Hert- 
ford, died  about  A.  D.  62.  Her  husband,  Prasn- 
tagus,  the  king  of  the  Iceni,  dying,  left  the  em- 
peror Nero  and  his  own  two  daughters  joint 
heirs  to  his  great  wealth,  hoping  thereby  to 
preserve  his  family  and  kingdom  from  the  ra- 
pacity of  the  conquerors.  But  his  kingdom  was 
immediately  taken  possession  of  by  the  Roman 
centurions.  For  some  real  or  imaginary  of- 
fence the  British  queen  was  publicly  scourged, 
and  her  daughters  were  abandoned  to  the  lust 
of  the  slaves.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  Suetonius  Paulinus,  the  Roman  governor, 
from  that  part  of  England,  Boadicea  raised  the 
whole  military  force  of  her  barbarians,  and 
bursting  at  their  head  upon  the  Roman  colony 
of  London,  burned  the  city  and  put  to  the 
sword  in  that  and  neighboring  places  at  least 
70,000  Roman  citizens,  traders,  Italians,  and 
other  subjects  of  the  empire.  Suetonius  hur- 
ried to  the  scene  of  action  from  the  Isle  of 
Man.  The  queen  of  the  Iceni  was  in  command 
of  120,000  troops,  which  gradually  increased  to 
as  many  as  230,000,  according  to  Dion  Oassius, 
while  Suetonius  could  bring  into  the  field  fewer 
than  10,000  soldiers.  The  battle  was  fiercely 
contested,  and  Boadicea  displayed  great  valor; 
but  her  troops  being  finally  obliged  to  yield 
to  the  disciplined  Romans,  she  took  poison. 
The  victors  spared  nothing;  women,  chil- 
dren, the  beasts  of  burden,  the  dogs,  were  all 
cut  to  pieces.  It  is  said  that  80,000  Britons 
were  butchered  that  day,  while  of  the  legion- 
aries only  400  fell,  and  about  as  many  more 
were  wounded.  It  is  believed  that  the  ac- 
tion took  place  not  far  from  Verulnmium  (St. 
Albans),  a  Roman  colony,  which  at  the  first 
irruption  had  shared  the  fate  of  London. 

BOAR  (gug  aper),  the  male  swine.  The  do- 
mestic hog  and  the  wild  boar  of  Europe,  Afri- 
ca, and  Asia  are,  generally  speaking,  of  the 
same  species,  and  will  breed  together  and  pro- 
duce young  capable  of  propagating  their  kind. 
It  appears  that  the  most  improved  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  domesticated  breeds  are, 
for  the  most  part,  largely  crossed  and  inter- 
mixed with  the  Chinese  and  perhaps  the  Turk- 
ish varieties.  In  America,  Australia,  and  the 
Polynesian  group,  the  hog  was  unknown  origi- 


764 


BOAE 


BOARDMAN 


nally  in  a  natural  condition ;  but  having  been 
turned  out  everywhere  by  the  early  navigators 
who  discovered  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  he  has  propagated  his  species  so  rapid- 
ly that  he  is  now  everywhere  abundant,  both 
in  confinement  and  in  a  state  of  nature.  The 
South  American  forests  in  particular  are  in- 
habited by  vast  droves,  which  have  relapsed 
into  primitive  wildness;  while  in  the  more 
woody  parts  of  Virginia,  the  western  states, 
and  Canada,  the  domestic  hog  has  become 
about  half  wild.  The  characteristics  of  the 
boar  are  the  formidable  recurved  tusks  or  ca- 
nine teeth,  two  of  which  proceed  from  the 
upper  and  two  of  yet  more  formidable  dimen- 
sions from  the  lower  jaw,  with  which  it  inflicts 
wounds  of  the  most  terrible  description,  ripping 
in  an  upward  direction,  and  aiming  especially 
at  the  soft  parts,  as  the  belly,  flanks,  and  groin 
of  the  horse,  dog,  or  man,  which  comes  in  his 
way  with  hostile  intentions. — A  singular  va- 
riety of  the  boar  is  the  babyroussa  of  the  East 
Indian  archipelago.  (See  BABYROUSSA.)  The 


Wild  Boor  (Sus  aper). 

peccary  of  South  America,  which  was  formerly 
classed  with  the  wild  boar,  has  been  lately 
distinguished  as  an  entirely  separate  animal. — 
The  boar,  whether  wild  or  domestic,  has  far 
coarser  bristles  than  the  sow,  and  the  wild  ani- 
mal as  far  exceeds  the  tame  in  that  particular 
as  in  his  strength,  size,  ferocity,  and  the  large- 
ness of  his  tusks.  Where  the  domestic  animal 
has  the  free  range  of  forest  lands,  in  which.it 
can  feed  on  acorns,  beech  mast,  and  the  fruit 
of  the  sweet  chestnut,  the  flesh  is  proportional- 
ly valued ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  the 
pork  of  Virginia  has  obtained  a  celebrity  in 
America  equal  to  that  of  Westphalia  in  Europe. 
No  other  reason  tends  so  materially  to  give  its 
superior  excellence  to  the  flesh  of  the  wild  over 
that  of  the  tame  hog,  which  has  been  admitted 
in  all  ages.  It  is  singular,  however,  that  the 
flesh  of  the  boar  in  its  wild  state  is  much  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  sow ;  while  in  the  domestica- 
ted animal  that  of  the  male,  unless  castrated,  is 
so  rank  as  to  be  uneatable. — During  the  middle 
ages  the  wild  boar  abounded  both  in  England 
and  France,  and  hunting  the  boar  was  the  most 


esteemed  of  all  field  sports.  The  boar  goes  to 
run,  as  it  is  called,  in  December,  after  which 
time  his  flesh  is  uneatable ;  the  season  for  hunt- 
ing him  commences  in  September,  when  he  is 
in  his  most  perfect  condition.  A  wild  boar  in 
his  first  year  is  called  a  pig  of  the  saunder ;  the 
next  year,  a  hog  of  the  second ;  then,  a  hog- 
steer  ;  in  the  fourth  year,  when  he  leaves  the 
saunder,  a  boar ;  and  after  that  a  sanglier.  A 
boar  is  farrowed  with  his  full  number  of  teeth, 
which  only  increase  in  size,  especially  the  tusks 
of  the  lower  jaws,  which  are  those  with  which 
he  strikes,  those  of  the  upper  jaws  being  used 
only  to  whet  the  others.  Boars  were  hunted 
in  Europe  in  two  ways,  either  by  tracking 
them  into  their  holts  or  dens,  which  were 
then  surrounded  by  nets  or  toils,  and  the  boars 
driven  into  them,  or  what  was  called  at  force 
with  dogs,  when  the  beast  was  roused  from  his 
lair,  and  hunted  with  relays  of  hounds,  until  he 
turned  to  bay,  when  he  was  despatched  with 
the  boar  spear  or  hunting  sword.  In  England 
the  wild  boar  has  long  been  entirely  extinct; 
in  France  it  is  still  found  in  parts  of  Brittany 
and  Normandy;  and  in  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Holstein,  in  Italy  (especially  in  the  Pontine 
marshes),  and  in  many  parts  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  it  is  still  abundant.  While  boar  hunting 
was  in  its  palmy  force,  a  particular  dog  was 
cultivated  for  the  sport,  which  was  of  great 
rarity  and  value.  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
half-bred  dog,  between  the  bloodhound  and  the 
mastiff.  There  was,  however,  a  dog  more  or 
less  homogeneous,  known  as  the  boar  hound ; 
the  best  came  from  Pomerania,  and  were  one 
of  the  choicest  gifts  presented  to  crowned 
heads.  Boar  hunting,  or  pig  sticking,  as  it  is 
there  called,  is  still  a  favorite  sport  in  British 
India,  especially  in  the  Deccan,  where  hogs 
abound  in  the  reedy  jungles  of  the  plains.  The 
hunters  are  mounted  on  Arab  coursers,  and 
pursue  their  game  without  the  aid  of  dogs,  run- 
ning him  to  bay  by  the  mere  speed  of  their 
horses.  It  is  said  that  a  hog,  if  he  gets  a  mod- 
erately good  start,  can  maintain  a  pace  for  20 
or  25  minutes  equal  to  the  fastest  horse  with 
fox-hounds.  The  weapon  is  a  lance  of  tough 
bamboo  about  10  ft.  long,  with  a  steel  head 
shaped  like  a  laurel  leaf,  and  as  keen  as  a  razor. 
This  is  grasped  usually  at  about  18  inches  from 
the  butt,  overhandedly,  so  that  the  shaft  ex- 
tends nearly  horizontally  backward,  but  with 
a  downward  inclination,  the  head,  or  blade, 
being  in  the  rear  of  the  horse's  croup.  When 
the  boar  charges,  which  he  does  right  at  the 
horse's  fore  legs,  often  cutting  his  shanks  to 
the  bone  with  his  terrible  tusks,  and,  if  he  do 
not  wheel  off  in  time,  ripping  out  his  intestines, 
the  horseman,  rising  in  his  stirrups,  strikes  him 
an  overhanded  stab,  delivered  perpendicularly 
downward,  between  the  shoulders,  making  his 
horse  pivot  to  the  left,  on  his  hind  legs. 

BOARDMAN.  I.  George  Dana,  an  American 
missionary,  born  in  Livermore,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 
1801,  died  in  Burmah,  Feb.  11, 1831.  In  1819 
he  entered  the  Waterville  academy,  which  was 


BOARDMAN 


BOATBILL 


765 


organized  as  a  college  in  1820,  and  graduated 
in  1822.  He  was  immediately  elected  tutor, 
and  his  friends  hoped  that  he  would  remain  as 
a  professor ;  but  after  about  a  year  he  deter- 
mined to  devote  himself  to  the  work  of  Chris- 
tian missions.  For  a  time  he  thought  of  labor- 
ing among  the  American  Indians ;  but  intelli- 
gence of  the  death  of  James  Ooleman  of  the 
Aracan  mission  induced  him  to  offer  himself 
to  the  Baptist  board  of  foreign  missions  in  1823, 
and  the  same  year  he  entered  Andover  theo- 
logical seminary.  He  was  ordained  at  W.  Yar- 
mouth, Me.,  Feb.  16, 1825,  was  married  to  Miss 
Sarah  Hall  July  4,  and  on  July  16  sailed  for 
Calcutta.  Arriving  there  Dec.  2,  he  found 
several  missioparies  who  had  been  driven  from 
Burmah,  and  learned  that  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson 
were  in  a  Burman  prison.  It  being  necessary 
to  wait  until  Burmah  should  be  reopened  to 
missionary  labor,  he  spent  the  interval  in  ac- 
quiring the  language,  and  in  April,  1827,  joined 
Mr.  Judson  at  Amherst.  Maulmain,  the  new 
seat  of  the  English  government,  was  chosen 
for  the  location  of  a  mission,  and  Mr.  Board- 
man  was  selected  to  superintend  it.  This  mis- 
sion was  planted  the  same  year,  and  became 
ultimately  the  radiating  point  of  influence  for 
the  Baptist  missions  in  Burmah.  To  his  pru- 
dence, piety,  and  organizing  force  is  largely 
due  this  success.  In  a  few  months  the  station 
at  Amherst  was  abandoned,  and  the  whole 
missionary  force  concentrated  at  Maulmain.  It 
was  then  decided  to  establish  another  station 
at  Tavoy,  about  150  miles  down  the  coast,  and 
Mr.  Boardman  was  unanimously  chosen  for 
this  difficult  work.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Ko  Tha-byoo,  a  Karen  convert  and  candidate 
for  baptism,  a  Siamese  lately  baptized,  and  a 
few  boys  from  his  school  at  Maulmain.  He 
reached  Tavoy  early  in  April,  1828,  and  bap- 
tized Ko  Tha-byoo — a  man  whose  labors  and 
success  among  his  countrymen  have  become 
historic.  Through  his  influence  a  few  persons 
were  brought  under  the  instructions  of  Mr. 
Boardman.  These  carried  into  the  jungles  the 
news  that  a  white  teacher  had  brought  from 
beyond  the  sea  the  knowledge  of  the  true 
God,  and  companies  began  to  come  from  a  dis- 
tance to  see  and  hear  for  themselves.  Mr. 
Boardman  now  matured  plans  for  the  system- 
atic instruction  of  the  Burman  population  of 
Tavoy,  by  means  of  schools  and  other  instru- 
mentalities ;  and  having  been  urgently  invited, 
he  set  out  Feb.  5,  1828,  on  a  first  missionary 
tour  among  the  Karen  villages.  He  was  absent 
ten  days,  meeting  with  such  success  that  he 
entered  upon  a  systematic  course  of  itinerary 
labors.  Usually  accompanied  by  Ko  Tha- 
byoo  or  some  other  convert,  and  some  of  the 
boys  from  the  school,  he  would  visit  three  or 
four  villages  in  a  week,  preaching  in  zayats, 
going  from  house  to  house,  and  conversing  with 
those  whom  he  met  by  the  wayside.  Some- 
times he  made  boat  trips  on  the  river.  During 
three  years  he  maintained  an  almost  incredible 
activity,  in  spite  of  interruptions  occasioned  by 


frequent  sickness  and  repeated  deaths  in  his 
family,  and  while  he  was  sinking  under  con- 
sumption. The  only  cessation  of  his  labors 
was  on  the  occasion  of  his  wife's  visit  to  Maul- 
main after  her  recovery  from  a  dangerous  ill- 
ness. He  remained  with  her  about  seven 
months,  but  this  seeming  respite  was  only  a 
change  in  the  form  of  his  work,  as  he  preached 
twice  a  week  in  English  and  once  in  Burmese, 
attended  catechetical  exercises  three  evenings 
in  a  week,  and  daily  corrected  proofs  for  the 
press.  Before  leaving  Tavoy  for  Maulmain  he 
promised  the  Karens  that  he  would  visit  them 
again  in  the  jungle  on  his  return.  On  Jan.  31, 
1831,  he  left  Tavoy  in  a  litter  to  fulfil  that 
promise,  and  reached  his  destination,  but  was 
too  ill  to  accomplish  more  than  part  of  the  task. 
He  set  out  to  return  to  Tavoy,  but  died  before 
reaching  there.  Though  only  30  years  of  age 
when  he  died,  he  had  accomplished  what  few 
men  attain  in  a  long  life.  He  left  TO  members 
of  the  mission  church  at  Tavoy,  and  within  a 
few  years  thousands  of  Karens  were  converted 
through  the  agencies  which  he  had  organized 
and  set  in  motion.  See  "  Memoir  of  George 
Dana  Boardman,"  by  the  Rev.  A.  King  (new 
ed.,  Boston,  1856).  II.  George  Dana,  D.  D.,  a 
Baptist  clergyman  and  scholar,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Tavoy,  Burmah,  Aug.  18,  1828. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  university  in  1852,  and 
at  Newton  theological  institution  in  1855,  and 
was  ordained  the  same  year  at  Barnwell,  S.  C. 
The  state  of  public  sentiment  on  the  slavery 
question  led  him  to  remove  in  1856  to  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  pastor  of  the 
second  Baptist  church  till  1864.  He  was  then 
called  to  the  first  Baptist  church  in  Philadel- 
phia, his  present  charge  (1873).  His  publica- 
tions have  been  numerous  but  fragmentary, 
comprising  sermons,  addresses,  and  articles  in 
quarterly  reviews.  He  has  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe  and  the  East. 

BOATBILL  (cancroma,  cochlearia,  Linn.),  a 
bird  of  the  order  grallce,  family  ardeidee,  so 
called  from  the  peculiar  form  and  breadth  of 
the  bill,  which  is  much  depressed,  very  broad 
toward  the  middle,  with  the  sides  gradually 
compressed  at  the  end ;  the  culmen  has  a 
prominent  keel,  with  a  deep  lateral  groove 
extending  to  the  tip,  which  is  hooked.  The 
wings  are  moderate ;  the  tail  short  and  round- 
ed ;  the  tarsi  rather  longer  than  the  middle 
toe,  slender,  and  covered  in  front  with  large 
irregular  scales;  the  hind  toe  long,  and  the 
claws  short,  curved,  and  acute ;  the  length  of 
the  bill  is  about  four  inches,  and  of  the  bird 
two  feet.  The  general  color  is  whitish,  with 
a  grayish  back,  the  belly  rufous ;  the  forehead 
white,  behind  which  is  a  black  cap,  furnished 
in  the  male  with  a  long  crest.  This  bird  is 
nearly  allied  to  the  herons,  and  is  found  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  South  America ;  until  recently 
it  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  only  species  of 
the  genus.  It  frequents  marshy  places  and 
the  banks  of  rivers  where  the  tides  do  not 
ascend ;  it  perches  on  the  trees  overhanging 


766 


BOAVISTA 


BOBOLINK 


fresh  water,  darting  thence  on  fishes  which 
happen  to  swim  beneath  it ;  from  its  generic 
name,  it  is  supposed  to  feed  also  on  crahs, 


Boatbill. 

which  it  could  readily  crush  in  its  powerful 
hill ;  on  the  ground  it  has  very  much  the  gait, 
attitudes,  and  air  of  the  herons.  It  is  some- 
times called  "  savacou." 

BOAVIST1,  or  Bonayista,  an  island  of  Africa, 
the  easternmost  of  the  Cape  Verd  islands,  in  lat. 
16°  13'  N.,  Ion.  22°  56'  W. ;  pop.  about  3,000. 
The  island  is  pentagonal  in  form,  about  20  m.  in 
length,  and  has  two  basaltic  peaks  in  the  centre. 
The  manufacture  of  salt  is  the  chief  occupation 
of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  three  ports  for 
large  vessels,  Porto  Sal  Key,  Porto  do  Norte, 
and  Porto  Curralinho.  Kabil  is  the  capital. 

BOBADILLA,  Francisco  de,  a  Spanish  governor 
of  Hispaniola  or  Santo  Domingo,  died  June  29, 
1502.  Owing  to  the  complaints  of  maladmin- 
istration against  Columbus  made  by  the  colo- 
nists of  Santo  Domingo,  it  was  determined  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  despatch  a  commis- 
sioner to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  that 
colony ;  and  Bobadilla,  a  knight  of  Calatrava, 
and  an  arrogant,  incompetent  person,  was  se- 
lected for  this  office  in  1500.  He  was  intrusted 
with  unlimited  powers,  which  upon  his  arrival 
at  Santo  Domingo  he  immediately  exerted  by 
arresting  Columbus,  putting  him  in  chains,  and 
sending  him  to  Spain.  The  outrage  excited 
general  indignation  in  Spain,  and  was  regarded 
as  a  national  dishonor.  Columbus  was  rein- 
stated in  his  honors  and  emoluments,  and  be- 
fore his  departure  upon  his  fourth  voyage  or- 
ders had  already  been  sent  for  the  recall  of 
Bobadilla,  under  whose  administration  disor- 
ders had  multiplied  to  an  alarming  extent. 
Columbus  landed  again  in  the  harbor  of  His- 
paniola on  the  day  when  the  fleet  bearing 
Bobadilla  and  other  enemies  of  Columbus 
started  for  Spain.  This  fleet  was  hardly  out 
of  sight  when  it  was  wrecked  by  a  hurricane 
and  Bobadilla  perished. 


BOBOLINK,  or  Rite  Banting  (tmberiza  oryzi- 
vora,  Linn. ;  doliehonyx  oryzivorw,  Swains.), 
the  rice  bird  or  ortolan  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina, the  reed  bird  of  the  middle  states,  and 
the  bobolink  of  the  north  and  northwest,  mi- 
gratory through  the  whole  length  of  the  North 
American  continent  and  islands,  from  Labra- 
dor to  Mexico  and  the  Antilles.  The  plumage 
of  the  male  bird  is  entirely  different  at  various 
seasons.  The  bobolink  winters  mainly  in  the 
western  isles,  and  not  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
this  continent.  Early  in  spring  the  birds  he- 
gin  to  appear  in  the  southern  states  in  small 
parties,  the  females  often  preceding  the  males, 
tarrying  only  a  few  days,  seen  only  in  small 
companies,  and  for  the  most  part  making  their 
journeyings  by  night.  In  the  first  days  of  May 
they  appear  in  Massachusetts,  gayly  clad  in 
full  dress,  and  in  full  song,  and  at  this  period 
are  neither  gregarious  nor  predatory,  though 
on  their  northern  voyage  they  damage  the 
crops  of  young  grain.  The  length  of  the  bobo- 
link is  about  7y  inches;  the  male,  in  his  spring 
dress,  has  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  shoul- 
ders, wings,  tail,  and  the  whole  of  the  under 
plumage  black ;  lower  part  of  the  back  blu- 
ish white ;  scapulars,  rump,  and  tail  coverts 
white ;  there  is  a  large  patch  of  brownish  yel- 
low on  the  nape  and  back  of  the  neck  ;  bill 
bluish  black,  which  in  the  female,  young  male, 
and  adult,  after  the  month  of  June,  is  pale 
flesh  color ;  the  feathers  of  the  tail  formed  like 
a  woodpecker's ;  legs  brown.  The  female, 
whose  plumage  the  adult  male  assumes  after 
the  breeding  season,  has  the  back  streaked 
with  brownish  black ;  the  whole  lower  parts 
of  a  dull  yellow.  The  young  birds  have  the 
dress  of  the  female.  During  the  breeding  sea- 
son they  frequent  cool,  grassy  meadows,  which 


Bobolink  (Doliehonyx  oryzivorus). 

they  render  vocal  with  their  quick,  merry  song, 
the  male  singing  to  the  female  while  she  is  sit- 
ting. "  He  chants  out,"  says  Wilson,  "such  a 


BOBRUISK 

jingling  medley  of  short  variable  notes,  ut- 
tered with  such  seeming  confusion  and  rapid- 
ity, and  continued  for  a  considerable  time,  that 
it  appears  as  if  half  a  dozen  birds  of  diiferent 
kinds  were  singing  all  together.  Many  of  the 
tones  are  in  themselves  charming,  but  they 
succeed  each  other  so  rapidly  that  the  ear 
can  hardly  separate  them.  Nevertheless  the 
general  effect  is  good,  and  when  10  or  12  are 
all  singing  in  the  same  tree,  the  concert  is 
singularly  pleasing."  The  female  makes  an 
inartificial  nest  of  withered  grass,  in  some  de- 
pressed place  in  the  meadows,  and  lays  five  or 
six  eggs  of  purplish  white,  blotched  all  over 
with  purplish  stains,  and  spotted  with  brown  at 
the  larger  end.  During  April,  May,  and  June 
the  males  are  constantly  singing,  and  they  nei- 
ther congregate  nor  damage  any  crops ;  but 
toward  the  end  of  June  they  become  silent, 
and  gradually  assume  the  coloring  of  the  fe- 
males, so  that  by  the  beginning  of  August  the 
change  is  complete.  They  now  assemble  in 
vast  flocks,  mute  with  the  exception  of  a  short, 
sharp  chirrup,  and  do  some  mischief  to  the 
latest  crops  of  oats  and  barley ;  chiefly,  how- 
ever, they  congregate  in  throngs  along  the 
river  beds  and  lake  margins,  wherever  the 
wild  rice  (zizania  aquatiea)  grows  abundantly. 
Along  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  as  also  on 
the  borders  of  the  New  Jersey  and  many  of 
the  Virginia  streams,  they  are  much  pursued 
by  sportsmen.  As  the  cool  nights  draw  on,  late 
in  September  and  early  in  October,  they  quit 
their  northern  summering  places  for  the  south- 
ern rice  fields,  which  they  at  times  glean  so 
completely  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  ga- 
ther the  grain.  Here  they  become  so  fat  and 
sluggish  that  they  can  scarcely  fly,  and  when 
shot  are  frequently  known  to  burst  open  on 
striking  the  ground.  Before  the  rice  crop  is 
fully  gathered,  they  have  already  made  their 
appearance  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  where  they 
repeat  the  same  ravages  on  the  seeds  of  the 
guinea  grass  (sorghum),  and  grow  so  fat  that 
they  receive  the  name  of  "  butter  birds." 

BOBRIISK,  a  fortified  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  and  87  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Minsk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Beresina;  pop. 
in  1867,  24,681,  nearly  one  half  of  whom  are 
Jews.  The  town  is  a  station  for  packets  navi- 
gating the  Beresina,  and  carries  on  a  brisk 
trade  in  corn  and  wood.  It  was  first  fortified 
by  Alexander  I.,  successfully  resisted  a  siege 
by  the  French  in  1812,  and  was  raised  by 
Nicholas  to  a  fortress  of  the  first  class. 

BOCA  TIGRIS,  or  the  Bogoe,  the  entrance  to 
the  Canton  river,  China.  It  is  a  comparative- 
ly narrow  passage,  about  40  m.  from  Canton, 
and  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Hu  Mun,  or  "The 
Tiger's  Mouth,"  of  which  Boca  Tigris  is  the 
Portuguese  translation.  There  are  two  rocky 
islands  in  its  centre,  which  were  carefully  for- 
tified by  the  Chinese,  and  were  considered  by 
them  impregnable.  But  since  1830  British 
squadrons  have  silenced  them  three  times,  and 
these  once  famous  batteries  are  now  dismantled. 
101  VOL.  n. — 49 


BOCCACCIO 


767 


Boca  Tigris. 

All  that  part  of  the  estuary  of  Canton  river 
which  lies  southward  of  the  Bogue  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  "  Outer  Water." 

BOCCACCIO,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  novelist,  born 
in  Paris  in  1313,  died  at  Certaldo,  Dec.  21, 
1375.  His  father  was  originally  of  Certaldo, 
but  removed  to  Florence,  where  he  amassed 
wealth,  and  filled  several  public  offices.  His 
mother  was  a  French  woman  with  whom  his 
father  formed  an  illicit  connection  while  visit- 
ing Paris.  Having  determined  on  a  commer- 
cial career  for  his  son,  his  father  removed  him 
from  his  tutor,  Giovanni  da  Strada,  before  his 
Lathi  course  was  completed,  and  as  soon  as  he 
had  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  arith- 
metic apprenticed  him  to  a  merchant  in  Paris, 
with  whom  he  remained  six  years.  His  mas- 
ter, finding  that  he  profited  nothing,  finally 
sent  him  back  to  his  father,  who  had  sufficient 
penetration  to  discover  that  his  son  would 
never  make  a  merchant,  but  thought  that  his 
studious  habits  might  serve  him  in  the  legal 
profession.  But  the  law  proved  as  distasteful 
as  commerce,  and  led  to  altercations  between 
the  youth  and  his  father.  After  a  while  he  again 
returned  to  commerce  and  fixed  his  residence 
in  Naples.  The  king,  Robert  of  Anjou,  a 
friend  and  patron  of  Petrarch,  was  devoted  to 
literature,  and  drew  to  his  court  the  most  emi- 
nent scholars  of  Italy.  Boccaccio  was  well 
acquainted  with  Giovanni  Barili,  a  man  of 
erudition,  and  Paolo  of  Perugia,  the  king's  li- 
brarian ;  and  encouraged  by  them  he  entirely 
abandoned  trade  and  gave  himself  up  to  the  pur- 
suit of  learning.  His  father  having  consented 
to  this  on  the  condition  that  he  should  study  the 
canon  law,  he  applied  himself  to  it  for  some 
time,  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  after  that 
found  himself  more  at  liberty  to  indulge  his 
passion  for  poetry.  In  1341,  while  at  Naples, 
where  he  resided  eight  years,  Boccaccio  became 
acquainted  with  the  princess  Mary,  the  ille- 
gitimate daughter  of  King  Robert.  She  was 
married,  but  became  the  avowed  mistress  of 
Boccaccio.  At  her  instance  he  composed  his 
romance  of  II  Filocopo  and  V  Amoroso,  Fiam- 
metta,  in  the  latter  of  which  his  lady,  under 
the  name  of  Fiammetta,  bewails  the  loss  of 


768 


BOCCACCIO 


Pamfilo,  supposed  to  represent  himself.  The 
Filocopo  is  not  skilfully  constructed,  and  is  filled 
with  spectres,  visions,  and  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness ;  yet  it  contains  passages  of  grace  and  vi- 
vacity, and  touches  of  human  nature  in  which 
the  whole  character  is  pictured  in  a  single  sen- 
tence. In  1342,  while  thus  employed  at  Na- 
ples, he  was  summoned  to  Florence  by  the  ill- 
ness of  his  father.  During  his  separation  from 
the  princess  Mary  he  consoled  himself  by  the 
composition  of  the  romance  of  Ameto.  On 
the  completion  of  this  work  his  father's  re- 
covery and  marriage  allowed  him  to  return  to 
Naples.  The  king  died  during  his  two  years' 
stay  in  Florence,  and  his  granddaughter  Jo- 
anna ascended  the  throne  amid  great  political 
disturbances.  Boccaccio  found  his  position 
more  enviable  than  it  had  been  before.  He 
was  not  only  happy  from  his  connection  with 
the  princess,  but  possessed  the  favor  of  Accia- 
juoli,  who  had  great  power  in  Naples,  and 
even  the  regard  of  Joanna  herself.  Boccaccio 
is  said  to  have  written  many  of  the  most  licen- 
tious passages  in  his  Decamerone  in  conformity 
with  the  queen's  expressed  desire.  His  father 
died  in  1350,  leaving  a  son  by  his  wife,  Bice 
de'  Bosticchi,  who  was  also  dead,  to  the  care 
of  Boccaccio.  The  poet  faithfully  attended  to 
his  trust,  and  when  in  his  paternal  city  became 
acquainted  with  Petrarch,  whose  example  had 
a  strong  influence  upon  him,  and  turned  his 
thoughts  more  from  licentious  pleasures  to 
purer  fame.  Being  now  permanently  settled 
in  Florence,  Boccaccio  by  Petrarch's  advice 
began  to  take  interest  in  affairs  of  state.  He 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Padua,  to  invite 
Petrarch  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the  uni- 
versity. Several  other  missions  followed,  not 
very  clearly  described  as  to  dates,  and  in  April, 
1353,  he  took  part  in  one  to  Pope  Innocent 
VI.  at  Avignon.  In  the  same  year  was  pub- 
lished his  Decamerone  or  "Ten  Days'  Enter- 
tainment," a  collection  of  100  stories  supposed 
to  have  been  told  by  a  party  of  ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen at  a  country  house  near  Florence  while 
the  plague  was  raging  in  that  city.  This  work 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  purest  specimens  of 
Italian  prose,  and  as  an  inexhaustible  repository 
of  wit,  beauty,  and  eloquence,  although  de- 
formed with  licentious  thoughts  and  descrip- 
tions. Like  Petrarch,  Boccaccio  was  a  de- 
voted collector  of  ancient  manuscripts,  and  a 
diligent  student  of  the  classics.  Both  were 
travellers,  and  both  employed  much  of  their 
time  and  money  in  rescuing  from  destruction 
the  precious  memorials  of  antiquity.  In  1359 
Boccaccio  visited  Petrarch  at  Milan,  conversed 
with  him,  as  he  informs  us,  at  great  length  on 
the  subjects  of  morality  and  religion,  and  de- 
termined to  devote  himself  more  seriously  to 
holy  studies.  His  resolution  was  confirmed  by 
a  warning  sent  him  from  Fra  Petroni,  who  upon 
his  deathbed  declared,  although  he  never  had 
met  Boccaccio,  that  he  knew  him  in  spirit,  and 
are  for  death.  The 
rote  afterward  in  a 


that  he  must  repent  and  prepare  for  death.  Tl 
converted  man  accordingly  wrote  afterward  ii 


strain  altogether  free  from  his  former  licentious 
vein,  while  he  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  habit 
and  applied  himself  to  theology.  He  was  not 
wealthy,  and  a  large  part  of  his  means  had 
been  spent  in  the  collection  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts, his  emissaries  visiting  many  parts  of 
Europe  to  procure  them.  Toward  the  decline 
of  life  he  found  himself  poor  and  deserted  by 
all  his  friends  except  Petrarch.  That  great 
poet  wished  his  friend  to  take  up  his  abode 
with  him,  but  Boccaccio  declined  the  offer,  al- 
though he  visited  Petrarch  whenever  he  found 
an  opportunity.  In  1362  he  was  invited  to 
Naples  by  the  grand  seneschal  Acciajuoli,  but 
was  so  hurt  by  his  cold  reception  that  he  soon 
left  and  went  to  Venice  to  meet  Petrarch.  On 
returning  to  Florence  he  took  up  his  abode  in 
a  little  cottage  in  Certaldo,  in  the  vale  of  Elsa, 
dear  to  him  as  the  birthplace  of  his  family. 
From  this  retreat  he  was  soon  summoned  by 
the  chief  citizens  of  Florence,  to  undertake  an 
embassy  to  Urban  V.  at  Avignon,  and  repair- 
ing to  the  papal  court  he  experienced  the  most 
flattering  reception.  He  was  again  sent  to 
Urban  in  1367,  after  the  pontiff  had  removed 
to  Rome;  and  the  character  of  Boccaccio  had 
now  so  completely  changed  from  his  former 
looseness  that  he  was  characterized  by  the 
bishop  of  Florence  as  one  in  whose  purity  of 
faith  he  had  the  utmost  confidence.  In  1368 
he  again  visited  Venice  for  a  short  time,  and 
subsequently  Naples,  where  Queen  Joanna  en- 
deavored to  persuade  him  to  fix  his  abode. 
But  the  life  at  Naples  had  no  attractions  for  him 
now,  and  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he 
was  honored  by  the  magistrates  with  a  profes- 
sorship founded  in  memory  of  Dante,  for  the 
better  explication  of  the  Dinna  Commedia. 
His  lectures  commenced  in  October,  1373,  and 
continued  till  his  death,  which  was  doubtless 
hastened  by  the  demise  of  Petrarch  17  months 
before  his  own.  He  bequeathed  the  little  pro- 
perty remaining  to  him  to  his  two  nephews, 
and  his  library  and  collections  to  Fra  Martini, 
an  Augustinian  monk. — Boccaccio  wrote  nu- 
merous works  in  Italian  and  Latin,  and  both 
in  prose  and  poetry,  few  of  which  are  referred 
to  at  the  present  day;  his  great  fame  rests 
upon  the  Decameron.  The  author's  fondness 
for  involving  friars  in  every  imaginable  scene 
of  mischief  and  ludicrous  mishap  created  great 
scandal  to  the  church,  and  his  famous  romance, 
the  tenth  novel  of  the  sixth  day,  in  which 
"Friar  Onion  promises  some  country  people 
to  show  them  a  feather  from  the  wing  of  the 
angel  Gabriel,  instead  of  which  he  finds  only 
some  coals,  which  he  tells  them  are  the  same 
that  roasted  St.  Lawrence,"  drew  down  the 
solemn  anathema  of  the  council  of  Trent.  The 
editions  of  the  Decameron  are  almost  innu- 
merable, and  translations  exist  in  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  The  earliest  editions  are 
extremely  rare,  and  of  that  of  Valdarfer  in 
1471  only  one  copy  is  known.  This  was  pur- 
chased, not  many  years  since,  at  the  sale  of  the 
duke  of  Koxburghe's  collection,  by  the  marquis 


BOCCAGE 


BOCHOLT 


769 


of  Blandford,  for  the  enormous  sum  of  £2,260. 
His  works  in  the  Italian  language  have  been 
carefully  collected  and  published  in  17  vols. 
8vo  (Florence,  1827-'34).  Boccaccio's  La,  Te- 
seide  is  written  in  the  ottava  rima,  of  which  he 
is  usually  considered  as  the  inventor,  and  is  the 
first  Italian  poem  which  presents  a  specimen 
of  the  epopee.  Chaucer  borrowed  from  this 
poem  his  "  Knight's  Tale,"  and  Shakespeare  a 
part  of  his  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream."  The 
great  English  dramatist  also  availed  himself  of 
Boccaccio's  Decamerone  in  "Cymholine"  and 
"All's  Well  that  Ends  Well." 

BOCCAGE,  or  Boeagc,  Manoel  Maria  Bnrbosa  tin. 
a  Portuguese  poet  of  French  descent,  born  at 
Setubal,  Sept.  17,  1766,  died  in  1805  or  1806. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  marines  and  banish- 
ed to  India  for  a  sarcasm  on  the  minister  of  the 
navy,  and  also  driven  from  Macao  for  a  similar 
offence  against  the  governor  general.  A  Goa 
merchant  enabled  him  to  return  to  Lisbon.  In 
1797  and  1798  he  was  arrested  for  sympathiz- 
ing with  French  revolutionary  ideas.  He  trans- 
lated into  Portuguese  the  Colombiade  of  his 
relative  Mme.  du  Boccage,  Le  Sage's  Gil  Bias, 
Delille's  poems,  several  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 
phoses, and  other  works.  His  poems,  being 
melodious  and  characteristic  of  popular  feeling, 
though  without  depth  of  thought,  were  imitated 
by  several  poets  who  were  called,  after  his  as- 
sumed name  of  Elmano,  the  Elmanistas,  and 
were  the  forerunners  of  the  present  national 
school  of  Portuguese  poetry.  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  poems  was  published  after  his  death 
(5  vols.,  Lisbon,  1806-'14). 

BOCCAGE,  Marie  Anne  Le  Page,  a  French  poet- 
ess, born  in  Rouen,  Oct.  22,  1710,  died  Aug.  8, 
1802.  She  married  a  literary  man  of  the  name 
of  Fiquet  du  Boccage.  At  the  age  of  36  she 
wrote  a  poem  which  obtained  the  first  prize 
from  the  Eouen  academy.  She  afterward  pub- 
lished a  French  "  Paradise  Lost "  (Paris,  1748), 
an  imitation  of  Gessner's  "Death  of  Abel,"  an 
epic  poem  called  La  Colombiade  (1756),  a 
tragedy,  and  minor  pieces.  Her  collected  works 
ran  through  four  editions  and  were  translated 
into  several  languages.  She  also  wrote  letters 
of  travel  through  England,  Holland,  and  Italy. 

BOCCANERA.  I.  Simone,  a  nobleman  of  Genoa, 
first  doge  of  that  republic,  born  about  1300,  poi- 
soned in  1363.  Weary  of  the  quarrels  and  vio- 
lence of  the  great  noble  families,  Guelphic  and 
Ghibelline,  the  people  in  1339  made  Boccanera 
doge  by  acclamation.  He  carried  on  war  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Turks,  Tartars,  and  Moors ; 
but  the  Guelphic  nobles,  suspending  their  mu- 
tual animosities,  combined  against  him  and  laid 
siege  to  Genoa.  Compelled  to  treat  with  them, 
Boceanera  abdicated  in  1344,  and  lived  in  exile 
in  Pisa  for  12  years,  when  he  returned  and 
freed  Genoa  from  Milanese  domination.  He  was 
anew  made  doge  Nov.  14,  1356,  and  remained 
such  for  several  years,  until  he  was  poisoned 
in  Genoa  at  a  banquet  given  to  the  king  of 
Cyprus.  II.  Gille,  a  Genoese  sailor,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  died  in  1373.  He  distinguish- 


ed himself  as  admiral  of  the  Castilian  fleet 
against  the  Moors  under  Alfonso  XL,  defeated 
the  king  of  Morocco  in  two  naval  battles,  par- 
ticipated in  1344  in  the  capture  of  Algeciras, 
and  was  made  count  of  Palma.  Under  Hen- 
ry II.  of  Castile  he  defeated  the  Portuguese 
fleet  in  1371 ;  and  aided  the  French  by  achiev- 
ing a  brilliant  victory  over  the  English  fleet 
sent  for  the  relief  of  La  Rochello  in  1372,  cap- 
turing its  admiral,  the  earl  of  Pembroke. 

BOCCHERINI,  Lnigl,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
at  Lucca,  Jan.  14, 1740,  died  in  Madrid  in  1806. 
He  wrote  93  quintets  for  two  violins,  viola,  and 
two  violoncellos,  in  which  he  commonly  as- 
signed the  principal  part  to  the  first  violon- 
cello. His  Stabat  Mater  is  his  only  church 
composition. 

BOCCONE,  Paolo,  afterward  Silvio,  a  Sicilian 
naturalist,  born  at  Palermo,  April  24,  1633, 
died  Dec.  22, 1704.  He  was  a  Cistercian  monk, 
and  to  study  natural  history  visited  Italy, 
France,  England,  Germany,  and  many  other 
countries.  He  left  a  great  number  of  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  his  leones  et 
Descriptiones  variarum  Plantarum  Sicilia, 
Melitce,  Gallice,  et  Italiie  (4to,  Lyons  and  Ox- 
ford, 1674). 

BOCHART,  Samnel,  a  French  oriental  and 
Biblical  scholar,  born  in  Rouen,  May  30,  1599, 
died  at  Caen,  May  16,  1667.  He  belonged  to 
a  Huguenot  family,  and  became  like  his  father 
and  his  uncle,  the  famous  Pierre  du  Moulin,  a 
Calvinistic  minister.  At  14  years  of  age  he 
wrote  freely  in  Greek  verse,  specimens  of  which 
were  published  by  Dempster  in  the  preface  to 
his  "Roman  Antiquities"  (1615).  He  studied 
philosophy  at  Sedan,  and  followed  Cameron 
into  England  in  the  civil  troubles  of  1620.  He 
next  went  to  Leyden,  where  he  studied  Arabic. 
Returning  to  France,  he  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Caen,  and  here  in  1628  he  held  a  public 
disputation  with  the  Jesuit  Veron,  which  was 
interrupted  by  Bochart's  sickness,  but  was 
continued  in  epistolary  essays  for  nearly  three 
years,  upon  the  principal  topics  of  controversy 
between  the  Protestant  and  Eoman  Catholic 
churches.  In  1646  he  published  his  celebrated 
Oeographia  Sacra.  Next  followed  his  Hiero- 
zoicon,  or  treatise  on  the  animals  of  the  Bible ; 
and  he  was  collecting  materials  for  similar 
treatises  on  the  minerals  and  plants  of  the  Bi- 
ble, when  he  died  while  speaking  at  Caen. 

BOCHNIA,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Galicia,  on  the 
TTswica,  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  21  m.  E.  S. 
E.  of  Cracow ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,480.  The  town 
is  chiefly  built  of  wood,  and  it  has  celebrated 
salt  mines,  adjoining  those  of  Wieliczka.  They 
yield  annually  about  300,000  quintals  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  salt,  and  have  been  worked  since 
the  13th  century.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town 
are  extensive  quarries  of  gypsum. 

BOCHOLT,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Aa,  44  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Mflnster ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,125.  It  has  a  castle 
belonging  to  the  prince  of  Salm-Salm,  and  in 
the  vicinity  is  a  large  iron  mine. 


770 


BOCHSA 


BOCIISA,  Robert  Nicolas  Charles,  a  harpist  and 
composer,  born  at  Montm6dy,  France,  Aug.  8, 
1789,  died  in  Australia  in  June,  1856.  When 
7  years  old  he  performed  in  public  on  the  piano- 
forte, and  at  12  had  composed  symphonies, 
concertos,  overtures,  and  a  quartet.  At  the 
age  of  16  he  began  to  study  the  harp,  and  was 
placed  in  the  conservatoire  at  Paris,  where  he 
was  instructed  by  Mehul  in  composition.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  year  he  obtained  the  prin- 
cipal prize  in  harmony.  He  soon  acquired 
eminence  as  a  performer  on  the  harp,  and  his 
published  compositions  for  it  amount  to  150, 
exclusive  of  50  studies  and  two  methods  for 
pupils.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  by  Napoleon 
first  harpist  at  his  private  concerts ;  and  he  filled 
the  same  office  under  Louis  XVIII.  He  com- 
posed a  number  of  operas  for  the  French  stage, 
successful  in  their  day,  but  now  nearly  forgot- 
ten. In  1817  he  went  to  England,  where  his 
professional  career  lasted  30  years.  In  1822  he 
became  professor  of  the  harp  at  the  royal 
academy  of  music,  of  which  institution  he  was 
also  appointed  a  lite  governor.  From  1847  he 
made  musical  tours  in  North  America,  Australia, 
&c.,  with  Madame  Anna  Bishop. 

BOCHOI,  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  an  ex- 
tensive and  densely  populated  circle,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Arnsberg,  province  of  Westphalia,  40 
m.  8.  W.  of  Munster;  pop.  in  1871,  21,193.  It 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  region  on  the  coal  field 
of  the  lower  Kuhr,  and  contains  a  school  of 
trades  and  a  chamber  of  commerce.  Bochurn 
is  the  seat  of  the  mineralogical  administration 
of  the  county  of  Mark,  and  has  important  man- 
ufactories of  cast  iron,  cast  steel,  and  other  ar- 
ticles. The  production  of  coal  and  the  trade 
in  grain  are  considerable.  The  population  has 
more  than  doubled  since  1861,  and  is  still 
rapidly  increasing. 

BOCK.,  Cornelius  Peter,  a  German  archaeologist, 
born  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  June  8,  1804,  died  at 
Freiburg,  Baden,  Oct.  18,  1870.  While  study- 
ing at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg  he  published 
poems  under  the  name  of  Christodor,  showing 
his  devotion  to  the  Roman  Catholic  creed. 
After  spending  several  years  in  Italy  he  was 
for  a  short  time  professor  at  the  university  of 
Marburg,  and  subsequently  resided  for  many 
years  in  Brussels.  During  about  11  years  pre- 
ceding his  death  he  was  honorary  professor  at 
Freiburg.  He  wrote  chiefly  on  archaeological 
subjects,  and  published  in  1856  inedited  frag- 
ments of  Boethius. 

BOCK,  Franz,  a  German  theologian  and  ar- 
chaeologist, born  at  Burtscheid  in  1 823.  He  was 
educated  at  Bonn,  became  chaplain  at  Crefeld 
in  1850,  then  founded  in  1852  the  first  large 
exhibition  of  ancient  masterpieces  of  Christian 
art,  and  established  a  manufactory  of  silks  after 
the  models  of  the  middle  ages,  for  use  in 
churches,  and  model  schools  for  instruction  in 
the  manufacture  of  church  vessels.  He  col- 
lected in  various  parts  of  Europe  materials  for 
his  Oeschichte  der  liturgischen  Gewilnder  dea 
Mittelalters  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1859),  and  was  one 


BOCKH 

of  the  founders  of  the  episcopal  museums  at  Co- 
logne and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  was  appointed 
honorary  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  has  also  been  pastor  at  Cologne 
since  1857.  He  spent  eight  years  in  preparing 
his  principal  work,  Die  Kleinodicn  den  heili- 
gen  romischen  Reichs  deuUcher  Nation  nebst 
den  Kroninsignien  Bdhmew,  Ungarns  und  der 
Lombardei,  with  58  chromo-lithographic  plates 
(Vienna,  1864),  and  has  published  many  other 
works  relative  to  Christian  art  and  antiquities. 

BOCK.  I.  Karl  August,  a  German  anatomist, 
born  in  Magdeburg,  March  25,  1782,  died  in 
Leipsic,  Jan.  30,  1833.  He  was  assistant  pro- 
sector of  Rosenmtiller,  and  from  1814  till  his 
death  prosector  in  the  anatomical  theatre  of 
Leipsic,  and  did  much  to  improve  that  institu- 
tion. He  wrote  Handbuch  der  praktitchen 
Anatomie  des  menschlichen  Eorpers  (2  vols., 
Meissen.  1819-'22),  and  other  medical  works. 
II.  Karl  Ernst,  a  German  anatomist  and  author, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Leipsic,  Feb.  21, 
1809.  He  studied  under  the  direction  of  hia 
father  at  the  schools  and  the  university  of  Leip- 
sic, graduating  in  1831.  In  the  same  year  he 
practised  for  a  short  time  in  the  hospitals  of 
Warsaw.  On  his  return  to  Leipsic  he  became 
adjunct  professor  at  the  university,  and  subse- 
quently professor  and  director  of  a  part  of  the 
clinical  department ;  and  he  also  presided  over 
post-mortem  examinations.  His  Handliuch 
der  Anatomie  des  Memchen,  &c.  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
sic, 1838;  4th  ed.,  1864),  and  Anatomisches 
Taschenbuch  (1839;  5th  ed.,  1864),  have  been 
translated  into  Russian  and  Danish,  and  his 
Lehrbuch  der  pathologi&chen-  Anatomie  und 
Diagnostics  (4th  ed.,  1864)  is  very  popular. 
His  other  works  include  Handatlas  der  Anato- 
mie des  Mentehen  (5th  ed.,  1864)  and  £au, 
Leben  und  Pflege  des  menschlichen  Kurpers  in 
Wort  und  Bild  (1868);  and  he  completed  the 
Chirurguch-anatorniiche  Tafeln  of  his  father. 

BOCKENHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  about  1  m. 
N.  W.  of  Frankfort,  on  the  Main  and  Weser 
railway;  pop.  in  1871,  8,476.  It  has  many 
manufactories,  and  its  population  is  increasing. 

BOCKELSON,  or  lion-old,  Johann.  See  JOHN 
OF  LEYDEN. 

!!(')(  k  II,  August,  a  German  philologist  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Carlsruhe,  Nov.  24, 1785,  died  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  3, 1867.  He  was  the  son  of  a  func- 
tionary and  the  brother  of  Friedrich  von  Bockh 
(1777-1855),  who  was  for  a  time  prime  min- 
ister of  Baden.  He  prepared  himself  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Carlsruhe  for  a  course  of  theo- 
logical studies  at  Halle,  when  Wolf  directed 
his  attention  to  philology,  to  which  science  he 
continued  to  apply  himself  at  Berlin.  He  was 
professor  at  Heidelberg  from  1807  to  1809,  and 
afterward,  for  over  40  years,  of  rhetoric  and 
ancient  literature  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 
He  was  made  member  of  the  academy  in  1814 
and  privy  councillor  in  1830.  He  opened  a  new 
era  in  philology  and  archaeology,  by  abandon- 
ing the  old  system  of  mere  linguistic  research, 


BOOKING 


BODENSTEDT 


771 


and  extending  his  inquiries  to  all  material, 
mental,  social,  religious,  and  general  vestiges 
and  aspects  of  civilization.  His  conception  of 
philology  as  an  organically  constructed  whole 
excited  considerable  opposition,  but  led  to  a 
more  exhaustive  study  of  classical  history  and 
civilization ;  and  he  trained  many  renowned 
scholars,  including  Karl  Otfried  Muller.  His 
remarkable  knowledge  of  classical  poetry  is 
revealed  in  his  Graces  Tragixdm  Principum, 
jEschyli,  Sophoclis,  Euripidw  (Heidelberg, 
1808),  and  especially  in  his  edition  of  Pindar  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1811-'22).  The  greatest  monu- 
ment of  his  genius  for  minute  investigation  of 
political,  economical,  and  social  conditions  is  his 
Die  Staatshawhaltung  der  Athener  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1817;  enlarged  edition,  1851),  which 
was  followed  by  related  works  entitled  Metro- 
logische  Untersuchungen  uber  Gewiehte,  Miim- 
fusse  und  Home  des  Alterthums  (1838),  and 
Urkunden  uber  das  Seeweesen  des  attischen 
Staats  (1840).  Of  the  first  named  work,  an 
English  translation  was  made  by  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis 
("Public  Economy  of  Athens,"  1828;  2d  ed., 
1841),  and  one  of  the  second  edition  by  An- 
thony Lamb  (Boston  and  London,  1857).  Un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  academy  of  sciences  he 
published  the  Corpus  Inscriptionurn  Gfrceearum 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  1824-' 62 ;  since  continued  by 
his  pupil  Franz  and  afterward  by  Kirchhoff), 
designed  to  contain  every  known  Greek  printed 
and  MS.  inscription.  He  also  presided  over  the 
academical  committee  appointed  for  the  super- 
vision of  a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great.  His  later  publications  include 
EpigrapJiisch-chronologwche  Studien  (Leipsic, 
1856) ;  his  lectures  and  public  orations,  edited 
by  Aseherson  (2  vols.,  1856-'9);  and  Ueberdie 
nierjahrigen  Sonnenkreise  der  Alien  (Berlin, 
1863).  His  Gesammelte  Icleinere  Schriften  have 
been  published  in  6  vols.  (1858-'72),  and  a  bi- 
ography of  Bockh  is  in  preparation  (1873)  by 
Prof.  Stark. 

BOOKING,  Ednard,  a  German  jurist,  born  at 
Trarbach,  May  20,  1802,  died  in  Bonn,  May  3, 
1870.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Bonn,  Berlin, 
and  Gottingen,  and  was  for  40  years  the  prin- 
cipal teacher  of  Roman  law  at  the  university  of 
Bonn.  Besides  annotated  editions  of  the  frag- 
ments of  Ulpiaa,  the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  and 
other  classical  authorities  on  ancient  law,  he 
published  Pandekten  des  romisehen  Privat- 
rechts  (2  vols.,  Bonn  and  Leipsic,  1843-'55); 
Der  Grundriss  der  Pandekten  (5th  ed.,  Bonn, 
1861) ;  Romischeg  Privatreeht,  Institutionen 
des  romischen  Ciuilrechts(2d  ed.,  Bonn,  1862); 
and,  after  many  years'  preparatory  labors,  the 
highly  esteemed  Notitia  Dignitatum  utriuggue 
Imperil  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1839-'50).  He  also 
published  an  edition  of  A.  W.  von  Schlegel's 
works  in  18  vols.,  and  collected  Ulrich  von 
Hutten's  Latin  writings,  with  a  bibliographical 
inde_x,  in  7  vols. 

BOCKLIN,  Arnold,  a  Swiss  painter,  born  in 
Basel  in  1 827.  He  studied  in  Dusseldorf,  Paris, 
and  Rome,  was  professor  of  landscape  painting 


at  the  Weimar  academy  in  1860-'62,  and  has 
since  resided  in  Rome.  His  principal  works, 
remarkable  for  their  powerful  though  ideal  de- 
lineation of  scenery,  are  in  Munich,  Berlin,  and 
Basel.  Among  them  are  "  Pan,"  "  Amazons 
Hunting  in  the  Forest,"  and  "A  Panic." 

BOCKSBERGER,  or  Bocksperg.fr,  Hans  or  Micro- 
ii)  mils,  a  German  painter,  born  in  Salzburg  in 
1540,  died  at  the  end  of  the  16th  or  early  in 
the  17th  century.  He  excelled  in  battles  and 
hunting  scenes,  illustrated  in  the  ducal  palace 
of  Augsburg  the  history  of  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa,  and  in  1579  executed  frescoes  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Trausnitz,  which  are  still  pointed  out, 
together  with  his  portraits  of  court  jesters. 

BODE,  Johann  Elert,  a  German  astronomer, 
born  in  Hamburg,  Jan.  19, 1747,  died  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  23,  1826.  While  a  boy  he  made  a  tele- 
scope for  himself,  and  converted  his  father's 
garret  into  an  observatory.  He  published  in 
early  life  a  paper  on  a  solar  eclipse,  and  a  pop- 
ular introduction  to  astronomy.  In  1772  he 
was  chosen  astronomer  to  the  Berlin  academy 
of  sciences.  His  "Astronomical  Almanac" 
(Astranomische  Jahrbucher),  of  which  54  vol- 
umes appeared  at  Berlin  from  1776  to  1829,  was 
continued  by  Encke.  His  Uranographia  con- 
tarns  observations  on  17,240  stars,  12,000  more 
than  were  contained  in  any  previous  chart. — 
The  name  of  Bode's  law  has  been  given  to  a 
symmetrical  relation  or  progression  in  the  dis- 
tances of  the  planets  from  the  sun.  To  4  add 
3  multiplied  by  2  once,  twice,  thrice,  &c.,  and 
the  sums  multiplied  by  9,500,000  will  give  the 
distances  of  the  successive  planets  from  the  sun. 
The  progression  is  merely  that  of  the  numbers 
4,  4+3,  4+6,  4+12,  &c.  This  rule  fails  in  the 
case  of  Neptune,  the  interval  between  its  orbit 
and  that  of  Mercury  being  but  little  more  than 
one  half  larger  than  that  between  Uranus  and 
Mercury.  A  similar  progression  is  observed  in 
the  distances  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  from  those  planets.  The  merit  of  dis- 
covering this  law  is  not  wholly  Bode's.  It  is 
a  modification  of  one  previously  announced  by 
Kepler. 

BODENSTEDT,  Friedrieh  Martin,  a  German  au- 
thor, born  at  Peine  in  Hanover,  April  22,1819. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  and 
in  1840  became  private  tutor  at  Moscow,  in  the 
family  of  Prince  Galitzin.  While  in  this  posi- 
tion, which  he  retained  until  1844,  he  publish- 
ed two  volumes  of  poetry.  He  was  next  for  a 
short  time  at  Tiflis  in  charge  of  a  school  and 
professor  in  the  gymnasium,  and  in  1845  set  out 
upon  travels  through  the  Crimea,  the  Caucasus, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece.  The  result  of  his  ob- 
servations was  published  in  Volker  de»  Kaukasus 
(2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1848, 1855)  and  Tamendund 
ein  Tag  im  Orient  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1850 ;  4th  ed., 
1864).  These  two  works  were  the  foundation 
of  his  reputation.  He  was  afterward  engaged 
for  several  years  in  journalism,  and  in  1854 
took  up  his  residence  at  Munich  and  lectured 
as  professor  in  the  university,  at  first  upon  the 
Slavic  languages  and  literatures,  and  from  1858 


772 


BODICHON 


BODLEIAN  LIBRARY 


upon  the  old  English  literature.  He  has  trans- 
lated from  the  Russian  the  poems  of  Lermontoff 
(2  vols.)  and  Pushkin  (3  vols.),  and  from  the 
English  Shakespeare's  sonnets  (1802),  and 
written  Shakspeare'a  Zeitgenossen  mid  ihre 
Werke  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1858-'60).  The  most 
brilliant  of  his  original  compositions  was  the 
Lieder  des  Mirza  Schaffy  (Berlin,  1851;  30th 
ed.,  1870).  These  songs  were  long  erroneously 
supposed  to  he  translations  from  the  Persian, 
and  have  been  rendered  into  almost  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  Among  his  other  publica- 
tions are  Demetrius  (1856),  Gedichte  (3d  ed., 
Berlin,  1859),  EpiscJie  Dichtungen  (1862),  and 
Konig  Autharfs  Brautfahrt  (1860).  The  last 
two  are  dramas.  He  is  now  (1873)  engaged 
with  others  in  making  a  complete  translation 
of  Shakespeare. 

BODICHOIV.  I.  Eugene,  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Nantes  about  1810.  He  received  his 
diploma  in  Paris  in  1835,  and  has  since  prac- 
tised his  profession  in 
Algiers,  and  published 
several  works,  includ- 
ing fitude  sur  VAlgerie 
et  TAfrique  (Paris  and 
Algiers,  1847).  II.  Bar- 
bara Leigh,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Eng- 
land, April  8, 1827.  She 
is  the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  late  Mr.  Benja- 
min Smith,  who  was 
member  of  parliament 
for  Norwich.  She  pro- 
moted reforms  in  the 
English  laws  of  mar- 
riage and  divorce,  es- 
tablished a  school  in 
London  for  daughters 
of  respectable  artisans, 
and  in  1857  married 
Dr.  Bodichon,  whom 
she  aided  in  some  of 
his  works.  She  has 

also  successfully  devoted  herself  to  landscape 
painting. 

BODIN,  Jean,  a  French  publicist,  born  at  An- 
gers in  1530,  died  at  Laon  in  1596.  After 
studying  law  at  Toulouse,  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
and  devoted  himself  to  politics.  His  first  work 
was  a  Methodus  ad  facilem  ffistoriarum  Cog- 
nitionem  (Paris,  1566).  In  1576  he  published 
his  Six  litres  de  la  republique,  which  gained 
for  him  a  great  reputation,  and  the  esteem  of 
Henry  III. ;  but  having  suffered  in  the  king's 
mind  by  the  calumnies  of  some  courtiers,  he 
transferred  his  services  to  the  duke  of  Alencon, 
then  the  chief  of  the  party  called  lea  politiyties, 
and  went  with  that  prince  to  England  in  1580. 
His  Demonomanie,  ou  traite  des  sorciers,  was 
printed  at  Paris  in  1580.  After  the  death  of 
his  protector,  in  1584,  he  retired  to  Laon, 
where  he  married,  and  held  the  office  of  pro- 
eureur.  He  was  subsequently  sent  as  deputy 
for  the  tiers  etat  of  Vermandois  to  the  states 


general  at  Blois,  where  he  supported  several 
democratic  measures.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
III.  Bodin  joined  the  party  of  the  league,  but  a 
little  later  went  over  to  the  side  of  Henry  IV. 
He  died  of  the  plague.  His  biography  has 
been  written  by  Baudrillart  (Paris,  1853). 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY,  the  public  library  of  the 
university  of  Oxford,  so  called  from  Sir  Thomas 
Bodley,  who  restored  it  toward  the  close  of  the 
16th  century,  many  of  the  previous  collections 
of  books  and  MSS.  having  been  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  Besides  restoring 
the  building  and  providing  a  fund  of  £2,000 
for  the  purchase  of  books,  he  also  presented 
a  collection  which  he  had  made  on  the  conti- 
nent valued  at  £10,000,  and  left  an  estate  for 
the  maintenance  of  officers  and  for  keeping  the 
library  in  repair.  For  the  government  of  the 
library  he  drew  up  statutes,  which  were  after- 
ward incorporated  with  those  of  the  university. 
The  library  was  first  opened  to  the  public  Nov. 


8,  1602.  The  example  of  Bodley  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  earl  of  Essex,  who  presented  part 
of  the  library  of  the  Portuguese  bishop  Oso- 
rius,  which  had  been  captured  by  him  in  1596, 
shortly  after  the  expedition  against  Cadiz. 
After  the  death  of  Bodley,  the  earl  of  Pem- 
broke added  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek 
MSS.,  procured  by  Baroccio,  a  Venetian.  At 
later  dates  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  Sir  Kenelm  Difiby, 
Selden,  Gough  the  antiquary,  and  Archbishop 
Laud  made  donations  of  valuable  Greek,  ori- 
ental, and  German  MSS.  The  rabbinical  col- 
lections of  the  Hebrew  scholar  Oppenheim,  a 
great  collection  of  eastern  MSS.,  of  early  edi- 
tions of  the  Bible,  original  editions  of  ancient 
and  classic  authors,  together  with  50,000  dis- 
sertations by  members  of  foreign  universities, 
and  an  extensive  collection  of  medals,  coins, 
prints,  &c.,  were  also  subsequently  deposited 
in  this  library.  In  1809  the  traveller  Clarke 
gave  to  it  some  rare  Greek  and  Latin  MSS., 


BODLEY 

Including  a  Plato  from  the  isle  of  Patmos.  In 
1818  an  exceedingly  valuable  collection  of  He- 
brew, Greek,  and  Arabic  MSS.,  procured  from 
Venice,  was  added,  together  with  a  portion  of 
the  famed  library  of  Richard  Heber  (1834) ;  and 
lastly,  the  rare  books,  MSS.,  and  coins  of  Fran- 
cis Douce.  The  library  is  constantly  increasing 
by  donations,  by  copies  of  every  work  printed 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  to  which  it  is  entitled 
by  the  copyright  law,  as  well  as  the  books 
purchased  from  the  fund  left  by  Bodley,  by 
fees  received  at  matriculation,  and  by  an  annual 
payment  of  all  persons  (servitors  excepted)  who 
have  the  right  of  admission  to  the  library.  The 
library  now  contains  about  300,000  printed 
volumes. 

BODLEY,  Sir  Thomas,  the  founder  of  the  Bod- 
leian library,  born  in  Exeter,  March  2,  1544, 
died  in  Oxford,  Jan.  28,  1612.  At  the  age  of 
12  he  went  to  Geneva  with  his  father,  and 
studied  the  ancient  languages  and  divinity  at 
the  then  newly  founded  university  of  that 
city.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
in  1558  he  returned  to  England,  entered  the 
university  of  Oxford,  became  fellow  of  Merton 
college  in  1564,  and  filled  various  offices  in  the 
university  till  1576,  when  he  commenced  four 
years'  foreign  travel,  After  his  return  he  was 
made  gentleman  usher  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  in  1585  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  marriage. 
Queen  Elizabeth  employed  him  after  this  in 
various  embassies — to  Denmark,  Brunswick, 
Hesse,  France,  and  the  Hague.  At  the  Hague, 
where  he  was  admitted  one  of  the  council  of 
state,  he  remained  five  years,  but  was  again 
sent  thither,  not  finally  quitting  Holland  till 
1597.  From  this  time  he  abandoned  the  pub- 
lic service,  and  set  about  restoring  the  public 
library  at  Oxford.  He  was  knighted  on  the 
accession  of  James  I.  His  autobiography  was 
published  at  Oxford  in  1647. 

BOOMER,  Georg,  a  Swiss  mechanic,  born  at 
Zurich  in  December,  1786,  died  in  June,  1864. 
Being  apprenticed  to  a  mechanic  in  Thurgau, 
he  invented  screw  or  cross  wheels  in  1803,  and 
made  important  improvements  in  the  ma- 
chinery for  wool-spinning  in  1805.  He  estab- 
lished himself  at  Kussnacht,  where  in  1808  he 
invented  a  cannon  for  firing  bombs  which  ex- 
ploded when  they  struck.  He  settled  in  1809 
at  St.  Blasien  in  Baden,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  manufacture  and  improvement  of 
firearms  and  industrial  machinery.  In  1824 
he  went  to  Manchester,  England,  where  he 
applied  many  of  his  mechanical  improvements. 
He  constructed  at  Bolton  an  immense  water 
wheel  61  feet  in  diameter,  perfected  locomo- 
tives, and  during  20  years  received  more  than 
80  patents  for  machinery.  In  1847  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  Austria  and  engaged  in  build- 
ing railroads. 

BOOMER,  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  scholar  and 
literary  reformer,  born  at  Greiffensee,  Switz- 
erland, July  9,  1698,  died  in  Zurich,  Jan.  2, 
1783.  In  union  with  some  other  literary 
young  men,  he  issued  in  1721  a  periodical  en- 


BODONI 


773 


titled  Digkurse  der  Jfaler,  in  which  many  Ger- 
man poets  were  severely  criticised  for  their  ser- 
vility to  French  models.  He  formed  a  Ger- 
man literary  school  based  on  national  and  an- 
cient standards,  in  opposition  to  the  French 
school  of  Gottsched,  with  whom  he  carried 
on  a  protracted  contest.  He  wrote  poems 
and  dramas,  translated  "Paradise  Lost"  and 
the  "  Dunciad,"  and  published  valuable  editions 
of  older  German  poets.  He  was  for  50  years 
professor  of  history  at  Zurich. 

BODJIIX,  the  county  town  of  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, 26  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Plymouth ;  pop.  of  the 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  in  1871, 
6,956.  The  town  is  built  partly  in  a  valley 
and  partly  on  a  hillside,  and  the  streets  are 
well  paved  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  princi- 
pal church,  rebuilt  in  1472,  has  a  massive  tower. 
Adjoining  the  town  are  a  race  course  and  the 
ruins  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Lawrence.  A  great 
fair  for  sheep  and  cattle,  which  was  among  the 
privileges  granted  to  the  hospital  by  Elizabeth, 
is  still  held  here  annually ;  and  there  are  several 
other  fairs  for  cattle  and  horses.  The  com- 
merce in  wool  is  considerable.  The  origin  of 
Bodmin  (Cornish,  Sostenna  or  Bosuenna,  "  the 
houses  on  the  hill,"  also  called  Bosmana  and 
Bodminian,  "  the  abode  of  the  monks  ")  is  as- 
sociated with  St.  Petroc,  who  lived  here  and 
died  in  564.  His  hermitage  was  occupied  by 
Benedictine  monks  till  936,  when  King  Athel- 
stan  founded  a  priory  near  its  site.  Some  por- 
tions of  the  priory  still  remain,  and  are  used 
for  secular  purposes.  In  981  the  town  was 
sacked  by  the  Danes.  In  1497  Perkin  War- 
beck  gathered  here  armed  bands  against  Exe- 
ter. During  the  civil  war  it  was  taken  by 
Fairfax  in  1646. 

ISO  1 10 M,  Glambattista,  an  Italian  printer,  born 
at  Saluzzo,  Feb.  16,  1740,  died  in  Padua,  Nov. 
20,  1813.  He  learned  the  trade  of  printer  with 
his  father,  and  practised  drawing  and  engrav- 
ing upon  wood.  At  the  age  of  18  he  was  em- 
ployed as  a  compositor  in  the  printing  office  of 
the  propaganda  at  Rome,  and  there  learned 
Hebrew  and  Arabic,  and  engraved  punches  for 
a  new  set  of  oriental  types.  In  1768  he  took 
charge  of  the  ducal  printing  establishment  at 
Parma,  and  engraved  a  new  series  of  Greek 
types,  in  imitation  of  those  employed  by  the 
Italian  printers  of  the  15th  century.  To  these 
alphabets  he  soon  added  others,  and  in  1775 
printed  the  Epithalamia  Exotieu  Linguii  red- 
dita,  a  folio  of  500  pages  containing  the  alpha- 
bets of  100  languages,  nine  of  which  now  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time.  In  1789  he  printed 
the  first  edition  of  his  Manuale  tipografico, 
in  folio,  which  contained  descriptions  of  100 
cities,  each  printed  in  a  different  kind  of  type, 
and  also  specimens  of  Greek  type,  of  which  he 
then  had  28  kinds,  a  number  afterward  in- 
creased to  45.  An  enlarged  edition,  partly 
prepared  before  his  death,  and  continued  by 
Luigi  Orsi,  appeared  in  1818,  in  two  large  folio 
volumes,  containing  specimens  of  more  than 
250  alphabets,  and  is  esteemed  the  most  mag- 


774 


BOEHM 


BCEOTIA 


nificent  work  of  the  kind.  The  Bodonian  foun- 
dery  and  printing  office  came  to  be  the  finest  in 
Europe,  furnishing  type  to  prominent  printers 
in  all  countries.  Bodoni  gained  a  considerable 
fortune  and  bought  a  fine  estate,  and  his  name 
was  inscribed  in  the  "golden  book"  of  the 
nobility  ;  but  he  continued  to  exercise  his  pro- 
fession to  the  last.  In  1806  he  commenced  the 
printing  of  a  superb  edition  of  the  Iliad,  which 
appeared  in  1808,  in  3  vols.  folio.  The  Bo- 
donian editions  of  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and 
French  classics  are  notable  rather  for  beauty 
than  accuracy.  Lama  published  his  biography 
and  a  catalogue  of  his  editions  (2  vols.  fol., 
Parma,  1816). 

BOEHM,  Bohm,  or  Boehme,  Jakob  (often  called 
by  English  writers  Jacob  Behmen),  a  German 
my.stic,  born  at  Altseidenberg,  near  Gorlitz,  in 
Silesia,  in  1575,  died  at  Gorlitz,  Nov.  27,  1624. 
The  son  of  a  peasant,  his  education  was  very 
deficient.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
travelled  for  many  years  as  a  journeyman,  and 
by  unceasing  eiforts  made  himself  familiar  with 
the  current  theological  literature.  Having  re- 
turned from  his  travels,  he  set  up  a  shoemaker's 
shop  at  Gorlitz  in  1594,  and  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  butcher.  He  was  subject  to  hallucina- 
tions, during  which  he  imagined  that  he  convers- 
ed with  God,  and  obtained  knowledge  of  nature 
and  grace,  which  he  considered  it  necessary  he 
should  make  known  to  his  fellow  men.  Accord- 
ingly, in  1612  he  published  his  first  book,  Au- 
rora, oder  die  Morgenrothe  im  Aiifgang,  in 
which  he  proposed  "  to  light  a  torch  for  all  who 
are  longing  for  truth."  This  book,  which  con- 
tains very  deep  and  obscure  philosophical  sen- 
timents on  God,  nature,  and  mankind,  couched 
in  crude  figurative  language,  was  violently  de- 
nounced. In  1619  he  published  other  writings, 
among  which  were  £esehreibung  der  drei  Prin- 
cipien  gottlichen  Wes&M  and  Von  wahrer  Busse 
und  wahrer  Gelassenheit.  The  consequence 
was  his  banishment  from  the  city.  He  went 
to  Dresden,  where  he  defended  his  opinions 
in  a  public  discussion  with  eminent  theologians. 
He  next  went  to  Silesia,  and  obtained  the  abro- 
gation of  the  decree  of  banishment  just  in  time 
to  return  home  and  die.  His  theological  ad- 
versaries refused  to  allow  his  remains  a  Chris- 
tian burial,  but  were  compelled  to  do  so  by  the 
civil  authorities. — Boehm's  writings,  notwith- 
standing their  obscurity,  found  many  admirers, 
not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  England,  where  a 
religious  sect  was  built  upon  them.  In  1697 
Jane  Leade,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Boehm, 
founded  a  society  for  the  true  interpretation  of 
his  works  (Philadelphists).  John  Pordage  was 
the  profoundest  expounder  of  Boehm.  A  new 
edition  of  Boehm's  works  was  published  by 
Schiebler  (Leipsic,  1831-'46).  The  best  Eng- 
lish translation  of  them  is  that  of  William  Law 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1764). 

BflJOTIA  (Gr.  BO«JT«I),  a  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  bounded  N.  by  Phocis  and  Opuntian 
Locris,  E.  by  the  Euboean  sea,  S.  by  Attica  and 
Megaris,  and  W.  by  the  Corinthian  gulf  and 


Phocis.  The  mountain  ranges  of  Cithreron 
and  Parnes  in  the  south,  Helicon  in  the  west, 
Parnassus  on  the  northwest,  and  the  Opuntian 
range  on  the  north  and  east,  make  one  large 
basin,  which  includes  the  whole  of  Bceotia 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  coast  district 
on  the  Crissffian  sea.  This  large  basin  is  divi- 
ded by  the  mountains  Ptoum  and  Pheenicium, 
which  reach  from  the  Eubcean  sea  to  Mt.  Heli- 
con, into  the  northern  basin  of  Lake  Copals 
(now  Topolias),  into  which  flows  the  river  Ce- 
phissus  (Mavronero),  and  a  basin  which  com- 
prises the  plain  of  Thebes  and  the  valley  of 
the  Asopus  (Oropo).  Lake  Copais,  47  miles  in 
circumference,  is  formed  by  the  overflowing 
waters  of  the  Cephissus,  which  coming  from 
Phocis  enters  Bceotia  from  the  north  at 
Chaaronea,  and  is  prevented  by  the  moun- 
tains on  the  coast  from  flowing  directly  in- 
to the  Euboean  sea.  It  with  difficulty  finds 
its  outlets  through  underground  channels, 
called  in  modern  Greek  KarafiWpa,  in  the 
limestone  formation  of  those  mountains.  In 
summer  the  lake  is  nearly  dry  and  is  little 
more  than  a  marsh,  but  the  whole  district  is 
subject  to  inundations.  The  Minyaa  of  Oreho- 
menus,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  region, 
constructed  two  tunnels  or  underground  chan- 
nels to  the  sea  for  the  surplus  waters  of  the 
lake.  One  of  these,  leading  from  the  N.  E. 
part  of  the  lake  toward  upper  Larymna,  was 
nearly  four  miles  in  length,  and  penetrated  at 
intervals  by  vertical  shafts  from  100  to  150  feet 
in  depth.  The  other  was  shorter,  and  con- 
nected Lake  Copais  with  Lake  Hylica  toward 
the  east.  Nearly  all  Bceotia  .has  a  fertile  soil, 
but  the  lake  district  in  the  north  is  especially 
productive,  and  celebrated  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times  for  its  abundant  crops  of  corn. 
The  climate  of  the  country,  however,  is  more 
severe  than  that  of  the  rest  of  Greece.  The 
leading  city  of  Bceotia  was  Thebes;  the  other 
principal  towns  were  Platsea,  Orchomenus, 
Chseronea,  Coronea,  Lebadea,  Thespia?,  Haliar- 
tus,  Tanagra,  and  Aulis. — Bceotia  was  the  scene 
of  many  of  the  legends  upon  which  were 
founded  the  plays  of  the  Greek  tragedians.  It 
was  originally  inhabited  by  various  barbarous 
tribes,  of  which  the  two  most  powerful  were 
the  Hinya3  of  Orchomenus  and  the  Cadmeans 
of  Thebes.  About  60  years  after  the  Trojan 
war,  according  to  Thucydides,  the  supremacy 
of  these  two  tribes  was  overthrown,  and  the 
latter  expelled  from  their  city  by  the  Boao- 
tians,  an  yEolian  people  who  immigrated  from 
Thessaly.  Early  in  the  historic  age  the  country 
was  governed  by  a  confederacy  of  the  fourteen 
most  important  cities  under  the  presidency  of 
Thebes,  and  in  all  these  cities  the  Boeotian  was 
the  prevailing  race.  The  chief  magistrates  of 
the  confederacy  were  called  Boeotarchs,  and 
were  elected  annually.  Most  of  the  cities  were 
ruled  by  oligarchies,  which  were  naturally  hos- 
tile to  the  democratic  state  of  Attica.  In  507 
B.  C.  the  Boeotians,  with  the  Peloponnesians  and 
Chalcidians,  made  war  on  Athens,  and  in  the 


BOERHAAVE 


BOERS 


775 


Persian  wars  they  sided  for  the  most  part  with 
the  Persians.  Plateea,  however,  was  demo- 
cratic in  its  government,  and  a  faithful  ally  of 
Athens.  (See  PLAT^EA.)  During  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  the  Boeotians  were  allies  of  Sparta 
and  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of  Athens.  In 
395  B.  0.,  however,  they  joined  the  league 
against  Sparta,  which  was  overcome  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  Agesilaus  at  Coronea.  In  382 
another  war  between  Boeotia  and  Sparta  began, 
in  which  the  Theban  Epaminondas  gained  the 
battles  of  Leuctra  and  Mantinea,  and  broke  the 
power  of  Sparta.  At  this  time  Boeotia  was  the 
leading  state  and  Thebes  the  ruling  city  of 
Greece.  This  supremacy  was  taken  away  by 
the  Macedonians  under  Philip  at  Chasronea  in 
338,  and  three  years  later  Thebes  was  razed 
to  the  ground  by  Alexander,  but  was  restored 
by  Cassander  and  the  Athenians  in  316.  (See 
THEBES.)  From  this  epoch  dates  the  utter 
decline  of  Boeotia,  which  was  finally  ruined 
by  the  rapacity  of  Sylla,  who  defeated  at  Ch»- 
ronea  the  army  of  Mithridates.  Insignificant 
under  the  Romans,  daring  the  middle  ages,  and 
under  the  Turks,  it  became  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  sharpest  fighting  in  the  war  of  Greek 
liberation. — In  the  present  kingdom  of  Greece, 
it  forms  two  eparchies,  Thebes  and  Livadia,  in 
the  nomarchy  of  Attica  and  Boeotia.  (See 
ATTICA.)  Boeotia  is  still  famous  for  its  heavy 
atmosphere,  to  which  the  Athenians  attributed 
the  proverbial  dulness  of  its  people. 

BOERHAAVE,  Hermann,  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  at  Voorhout,  near  Leyden,  Dec.  81, 
1668,  died  in  Leyden,  Sept.  23,  1738.  His 
father  was  a  clergyman,  and  he  was  des- 
tined for  the  same  calling.  He  studied  at  Ley- 
den under  Gronovius,  Ryckius,  and  Trigland, 
and  obtained  the  highest  academical  honors. 
In  1689  he  received  his  degree  in  philosophy, 
the  subject  of  his  thesis  being  the  distinction 
between  mind  and  matter,  in  which  he  con- 
demned the  doctrines  of  Epicurus,  Hobbes, 
and  Spinoza,  and  maintained  that  the  doctrines 
of  Epicurus  had  been  completely  analyzed  and 
refuted  by  Cicero.  For  this  dissertation  a  gold 
medal  was  given  to  him  by  the  city.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  Boerhaave  supported 
himself  for  a  while  by  teaching  mathematics, 
and  then  engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine. 
In  1 693  he  obtained  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medi- 
cine at  Harderwyck,  and  immediately  entered 
on  the  duties  of  his  profession.  In  1T01  he 
was  appointed  by  the  university  of  Leyden  to 
supply  the  place  of  Drelincourt  as  lecturer  on 
the  institutes  of  medicine.  His  inaugural  dis- 
course was  entitled  De  commendando  Hippocra- 
tii  Studio,  in  which  he  recommended  to  his 
pupils  the  study  of  the  works  of  that  writer  as 
the  best  source  of  instruction.  He  was  fond 
of  chemistry,  botany,  and  mathematics,  and 
these  sciences  were  much  consulted  in  his  med- 
ical investigations.  In  1708  he  published  at 
Leyden  the  Institutiones  Medica  in  Usus  An- 
num Exercitationis  Domesticos,  a  comprehensive 
work  on  the  study  and  practice  of  medicine, 


the  functions  of  the  body,  health,  disease,  and 
the  means  of  prolonging  life.  The  next  year 
appeared  his  Aphorismi  de  Cognoseendis  et 
Curandu  Mortis,  a  classification  of  diseases, 
with  explanations  of  their  causes,  symptoms, 
and  treatment.  These  two  works,  which  show 
immense  learning  and  are  models  of  style, 
passed  through  numerous  editions,  were  co- 
piously annotated,  and  translated  into  many 
languages.  In  1709  he  was  appointed  succes- 
sor to  Hotton  in  the  chair  of  botany  and  medi- 
cine. Under  his  influence  additions  were  made 
to  the  botanical  garden  of  Leyden,  and  he  pub- 
lished numerous  works  descriptive  of  new  spe- 
cies of  plants.  In  1714  he  was  appointed  rec- 
tor of  the  university,  and  in  the  same  year  suc- 
ceeded Bidloo  in  the  chair  of  practical  medicine. 
In  this  position  he  had  the  merit  of  reviving 
the  ancient  system  of  clinical  instruction.  In 
1718  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  chem- 
istry, and  the  fruit  of  his  labors  in  this  position 
appeared  some  years  later  in  his  Elementa 
OhemicB  (best  ed.,  4to,  Leyden,  1732).  In  1729 
declining  health  induced  him  to  resign  the 
chairs  of  chemistry  and  botany,  and  in  1731  he 
resigned  the  rectorship  of  the  university,  deliv- 
ering a  discourse  De  Honore  Medici  Semitute. 
Besides  attending  to  his  active  duties  as  rector 
of  the  university  and  professor  of  chemistry, 
botany,  and  medicine,  Boerhaave  was  always 
much  consulted  as  a  practical  physician.  He 
was  simple  and  economical  in  his  habits,  and 
when  he  died  he  left  a  fortune  of  2,000,000 
florins  to  his  only  surviving  daughter. — The 
genius  of  Boerhaave  attracted  students  to  the 
university  of  Leyden  from  all  parts  of  Europe ; 
and  when  Peter  the  Great  revisited  Holland  in 
1716,  he  had  recourse  to  him  for  instruction. 
From  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  no  physician  had 
excited  so  much  admiration  as  Boerhaave.  His 
personal  appearance  was  simple  and  venerable ; 
to  uncommon  intellectual  powers  he  united  gen- 
tleness, benevolence,  and  amiable  manners.  In 
lecturing,  his  style  was  eloquent  and  graceful, 
his  ideas  clear,  and  his  delivery  perfect.  He 
possessed  an  excellent  memory,  and  was  an 
accomplished  linguist  and  fond  of  music.  He 
was  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind,  and  usually 
devoted  an  hour  early  in  the  morning  to  read- 
ing the  Scriptures  and  pious  meditations,  to 
which  habit  he  attributed  his  faculty  of  endur- 
ing with  cheerfulness  his  immense  labors.  The 
city  of  Leyden  raised  a  monument  to  his  mem- 
ory in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  inscribed  "  To  the 
health-giving  skill  of  Boerhaave  "  {Salutifero 
Boerhaavii  genio  sacrum),  and  on  which  was 
engraved  his  motto,  Simplex  sigillum  veri. 

BOERS  (Dutch,  boer,  a  peasant),  the  Dutch 
colonists  of  southern  Africa.  The  first  Dutch 
settlements  there  were  established  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  century,  and  grew  rapidly 
while  the  Netherlands  were  a  ruling  maritime 
power;  but  during  the  18th  century  the  ad- 
venturous spirit  of  the  Dutch  died  away,  and  as 
the  influx  of  fresh  elements  from  Europe  di- 
minished, the  original  settlers  of  Cape  Colony 


776 


BOERS 


developed  a  peculiar  character  of  their  own,  sin- 
gularly blending  the  steadiness  and  deliberation 
of  the  Dutch  with  recklessness  and  energy.  The 
Boers  could  never  be  reconciled  to  the  transfer 
of  the  colony  to  Great  Britain  in  1814,  and 
maintained  a  secret  but  constant  opposition 
against  all  efforts  to  Anglicize  the  colony.  The 
lenient  policy  which  the  British  adopted  toward 
the  Caffres,  and  finally  the  emancipation  of 
the  negro  slaves  (1833),  which  threatened  to 
overthrow  the  entire  domestic  system  of  the 
Boers,  and  the  retrocession  by  government  of 
the  neutral  eastern  frontier  district  to  the  Caf- 
fres  in  1835,  determined  them  to  emigrate  and 
to  establish  in  the  interior  an  independent  com- 
munity. As  early  as  1835  the  first  bands,  led  by 
Triechard  of  Albany,  crossed  the  Orange  river, 
and  settled,  one  part  near  the  Zoutpansberg 
(Salt-pan  mountain)  and  another  part,  led  by 
Orich,  near  Delagoa  bay,  where  they  were  soon 
destroyed  by  malignant  coast  fevers.  A  third 
band,  which  followed  in  August,  1835,  was 
attacked  by  the  Matabelee  Caffres,  and  obliged 
to  fall  back  on  the  Modder  river.  Having 
been  reenforced  by  other  emigrants,  they  again 
advanced  under  the  leadership  of  Gen-it  Ma- 
ritz,  repulsed  the  Matabelees,  Jan.  17, 1836,  and 
finally  settled  in  the  Orange  river  district,  where 
they  organized  a  patriarchal  commonwealth 
under  Pieter  Retief.  Meanwhile  a  small  Brit- 
ish colony  had  been  established  at  Port  Natal 
by  Capt.  Gardner,  who  abandoned  it  as  hope- 
less in  1836.  The  remaining  colonists  called 
on  the  Boers  to  unite  with  them,  and  in  1837 
Retief  with  his  followers  crossed  the  Quath- 
lamba  mountain ;  but  at  an  interview  with  the 
chief  of  the  Zooloo  Caffres  he  and  his  compan- 
ions were  treacherously  slam.  The  remnant  of 
his  followers  turned  in  a  southerly  direction, 
founded  the  settlement  of  Pieter-Maritzburg, 
and  under  the  lead  of  Pretorius  defeated  the 
Zooloos,  Feb.  1, 1838.  In  1840  Gov.  Napier  by 
proclamation  denied  their  right  to  form  an  inde- 
pendent community,  even  beyond  the  bounda- 
ries of  the  British  possessions.  In  1842  a  small 
British  force  was  landed,  which  compelled  the 
Boers  to  retire  from  the  coast  and  to  accept  the 
amnesty  offered  them  in  exchange  for  their 
recognizing  the  British  sovereignty.  Many  of 
them,  unwilling  to  submit,  recrossed  the  moun- 
tains and  settled  in  the  Vaal  region.  The  Brit- 
ish, having  possession  of  Natal,  at  once  began 
to  disturb  the  traditionary  rights  of  the  Boers. 
The  consequence  was,  that  again  a  large  por- 
tion of  them  migrated  northward  beyond  the 
Klipp  river,  then  the  northern  boundary  of 
Natal,  where  for  three  years,  unprotected  by 
the  government,  they  struggled  against  the  Zoo- 
loos.  When  at  length,  in  1845,  they  had  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  Caffres  by  their  un- 
aided efforts,  the  colonial  government  immedi- 
ately proclaimed  the  Buffalo  river  as  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Natal,  thus  once  more  sub- 
jecting the  Boers  to  British  rule.  After  some 
resistance  the  Boers  determined  to  emigrate  to 
the  Vaal  country.  Smith,  the  governor  gen- 


eral, attempted  to  retain  them  by  promising 
full  redress  of  their  grievances,  but  it  was  too 
late.  Similar  events  followed  beyond  the 
Quathlamba.  The  bands,  led  by  Pretorius,  had 
settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Griquas  and  Be- 
chuanas;  but  on  Feb.  3,  1848,  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment annexed  by  proclamation  the  Orange 
river  sovereignty  to  the  Cape  Colony,  under 
the  pretext  of  protecting  the  savage  Griquas 
against  encroachments  on  their  territory.  The 
Boers  took  to  arms,  and  on  June  17  Pretorius 
drove  the  British  garrison  from  Bloemfontein. 
But  Gov.  Smith  crossed  the  Orange  river  with 
a  large  force,  and  on  Aug.  29  defeated  the  Boers 
near  Boomplaats,  after  a  long  and  obstinate 
resistance.  Pretorius  and  the  majority  of  his 
followers,  unwilling  to  submit  to  the  British, 
migrated  to  the  north,  beyond  the  Vaal  river, 
and  there  founded  the  Transvaal  Republic. 
Some  12,000  Boers  remained  in  the  Orange 
river  country,  but,  although  subdued  by  force, 
they  preserved  their  hostile  feeling  against  their 
conquerors.  The  attempt  to  introduce  convicts 
into  the  colony  was  so  energetically  resisted 
that  the  government  was  obliged  to  desist. 
The  Caffre  wars,  begun  in  1850,  made  it  evident 
that  united  action  by  the  Europeans  was  neces- 
sary for  safety,  and  in  1853  the  relinquishment 
of  the  Orange  river  country  to  the  Boers  was 
resolved  upon  by  the  government.  On  Feb. 
23,  1854,  this  act  was  consummated,  and  the 
Orange  River  Republic  was  recognized  as  an 
independent  state  by  England,  since  which  time 
the  two  republics  of  Orange  River  and  Trans- 
vaal have  rapidly  gained  strength  and  power. 
— THE  ORANGE  RIVEB  REPUBLIC,  or  ORANGE 
FREE  STATE,  is  bounded  S.  by  the  Orange  river, 
W.  and  N.  by  the  Vaal  river,  E.  by  the  Basuto 
territory  and  the  Quathlamba  or  Drakenberg 
mountains,  and  extends  from  lat.  27°  to  31 
S. ;  area,  48,049  sq.  m. ;  pop.  50,000,  of  whom 
15,000  are  white.  The  country  is  a  high  table 
land,  its  average  elevation  above  the  level 
of  the  ocean  being  about  5,000  feet,  excel- 
lent for  grazing  purposes,  and  abundantly 
watered.  The  Boers,  being  principally  cattle 
breeders,  have  not  developed  the  agricultural 
resources  of  the  country  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Coal  and  iron  have  been  found  in 
many  places,  and  gold  was  discovered  in  1854 
on  the  Caledon  river.  The  climate  is  dry,  tem- 
perate, and  salubrious.  Excellent  roads  com- 
municate with  Cape  Colony  and  Port  Natal. 
The  republic  is  divided  into  five  districts,  viz., 
Fauresmith,  Caledon  or  Smithfield,  Bloemfon- 
tein, Winburg,  and  Harrysmith  or  Vnal  River 
district.  The  principal  towns  are  Bloemfon- 
tein, the  seat  of  government ;  Smithfield,  on  the 
Orange  river;  Winburg,  the  former  capital; 
and  Harrysmith,  the  key  of  the  Port  Natal 
road,  and  the  centre  of  the  principal  agricul- 
tural district.  The  political  organization  is 
democratic.  An  elective  president  is  the  chief 
magistrate,  but  the  congress  (volksrad)  has  all 
legislative  powers.  On  the  same  principle  the 
districts  are  governed  by  landdrosts  (govern- 


BOERS 


BOETHIUS 


777 


ors)  and  heemraden.  In  May,  1870,  diamonds 
were  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Vaal  river,  near 
the  missionary  station  of  Pniel  in  the  district 
of  Winburg,  and  also  north  of  the  river  in  ter- 
ritory claimed  by  the  Transvaal  Republic.  A 
large  population  was  at  once  attracted  to  these 
diamond  fields,  and  although  the  region  was 
claimed  by  both  republics,  the  miners  organ- 
ized a  government  of  their  own.  Their  prin- 
cipal settlement  is  Du  Toil's  Pan,  said  to  con- 
tain in  1872  a  population  of  16,000.  By  a 
proclamation  promulgated  in  Capetown  in 
October,  1871,  the  British  government  annex- 
ed the  diamond  fields  to  Cape  Colony,  in  spite 
of  the  protest  of  the  Free  State  authorities. 
The  territory  was  divided  into  the  districts 
of  Klipdrift,  Pniel,  and  Griqua  Town.— THE 
TRAXSVAAL  REPUBLIC,  between  hit.  22°  30' 
"  and  28°  S.,  is  bounded  E.  by  the  Quathlam- 
ba  mountains,  S.  by  the  Vaal  river,  W.  by  the 
Hart  river,  and  N.  W.  and  N.  by  the  Limpopo 
river;  area,  77,964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  140,000.  The 
physiognomy  of  the  country  is  nearly  the  same, 
viz.,  an  elevated  table  land,  intersected  by 
parallel  mountain  ranges  in  the  east.  The  soil, 
consisting  of  sand,  clay,  and  loam,  is  more  fer- 
tile than  that  of  the  Orange  river  country.  Its 
rolling  prairies  are  covered  with  excellent  tall 
grass,  interspersed  with  shrubs  and  magnificent 
trees.  In  the  mountainous  region  there  are 
primeval  forests.  The  climate  is  similar  to 
that  of  southern  Europe,  and  all  European  and 
many  tropical  vegetables  are  raised  without 
difficulty.  The  rivers,  of  which  the  country 
has  a  good  number,  are  not  navigable,  and 
communication  with  the  seashore  is  difficult. 
Grasshoppers  are  a  constant  plague  to  the 
farmer,  while  flies  and  other  venomous  in- 
sects often  destroy  hundreds  of  cattle.  The 
form  of  government  is  a  pure  democracy.  A 
volksrad,  elected  by  ballot  (every  white  man 
of  21  years  being  entitled  to  vote),  meets  four 
times  every  year  at  different  places.  This 
body  unites  all  legislative  and  executive  pow- 
ers. It  appoints  for  each  district  or  church 
parish  military  and  civil  officers,  viz.,  com- 
manders-in-chief,  commanders,  field  cornets 
(colonels,  majors,  and  captains),  landdrosts, 
and  heemraden.  The  landdrosts  have  admin- 
istrative as  well  as  judicial  powers ;  they  and 
their  messengers  are  the  only  salaried  officers. 
Every  white  man  is  entitled  to  a  homestead 
of  3,000  acres  from  the  public  lands.  Slavery, 
properly  speaking,  has  no  legal  existence,  but 
the  Boers  keep  a  number  of  semi-civilized 
Hottentots  as  laborers  and  herdsmen.  The 
principal  settlements  are  Potchefstrom,  con- 
taining 1,500  inhabitants,  Rustenburg,  Orich- 
stadt,  and  Zoutpansberg.  These  towns  are 
laid  out  very  regularly,  and  are  well  supplied 
with  water. — The  Boers  are  represented  by 
those  who  have  sojourned  among  them  as 
plain,  honest,  straightforward,  pious,  and  hos- 
pitable, but  distrustful  of  foreigners,  especially 
Englishmen.  They  live  in  the  most  patriarchal 
way  on  their  plants  or  cattle  farms,  in  comfort- 


able and  spacious,  though  unpretending  dwell- 
ings. Besides  cattle  breeding,  their  favorite  oc- 
cupation is  hunting.  Inns  are  unknown,  and 
no  Boer  ever  denies  hospitality  to  a  stranger. 

BOErHUS,  Anidus  Dlanlins  Torquatus  Severinns, 
a  Roman  philosopher,  born  between  A.  D.  470 
and  475,  executed  at  Pavia  about  525.  His 
grandfather  Flavius,  prefect  of  the  pratorians, 
was  murdered  by  order  of  Valentinian  III.,  in 
455.  His  father  was  consul  in  487,  but  died 
while  the  son  was  yet  a  child,  and  Boethius 
was  brought  up  by  some  of  the  principal  men 
in  Rome,  among  whom  were  Festus  and  Sym- 
machus.  He  attained  the  rank  of  patrician 
while  under  the  legal  age,  was  consul  in  510, 
and  subsequently princeps  senatus.  In  the  mean 
time  he  had  married  Rusticiana,  the  daughter 
of  his  guardian  Symmachus,  who  bore  him  two 
sons,  Aurelius  Anicius  Symmachus  and  Anicius 
Mahlius  Severinus,  both  of  whom  were  after- 
ward consuls.  Amid  his  public  duties  he 
found  leisure  to  translate  several  mathematical 
and  philosophical  works  from  the  Greek,  to  in- 
dulge his  talent  for  the  construction  of  curious 
machines,  and  to  bestow  charity  upon  the  poor 
of  Rome.  His  reputation  attracted  the  atten* 
tion  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who 
appointed  him  rnagister  officiorum  at  his  court. 
For  some  years  Boethius  enjoyed  the  friendship 
of  this  monarch,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  in- 
auguration of  his  two  sons  in  the  consulate  in 
522,  he  pronounced  a  glowing  panegyric  on  his 
patron.  His  bold  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  the 
weak  had  raised  him  up  many  enemies  at  the 
court  of  Theodoric,  who  eagerly  watched  for 
an  opportunity  to  effect  his  ruin.  At  length 
Albinus,  a  noble  Roman,  having  been  accused 
of  treason  by  the  dictator  Cyprianus,  Boethius 
undertook  his  defence  with  such  zeal  that  he 
was  accused  of  plotting  with  Symmachus  to 
free  Rome  from  the  barbarians.  He  was  ac- 
cordingly by  command  of  Theodoric  arrested 
with  Symmachus,  and,  without  being  allowed 
to  defend  themselves,  they  were  stripped  of 
their  property  and  sentenced  to  death.  Boe- 
thius was  taken  to  Pavia,  imprisoned  for  some 
time  in  the  baptistery,  and  executed.  In  722 
a  cenotaph  was  erected  in  his  honor,  in  the 
church  of  San  Pietro  Cielo  d'Oro,  by  Liutprand, 
king  of  the  Lombards ;  and  in  990  a  still  more 
magnificent  one,  with  an  epitaph  by  Pope  Syl- 
vester II.,  was  raised  to  his  memory  by  the 
emperor  Otho  III.  He  was  long  regarded  as 
a  saint  and  a  martyr,  and  in  after  times  many 
traditions  were  current  about  his  intimacy  with 
St.  Benedict,  and  the  miracles  which  he  had 
wrought  during  his  life  and  at  his  death.  It  is, 
however,  now  considered  an  established  fact 
that  he  was  not  a  Christian  at  all,  and  that  the 
theological  compilations  ascribed  to  him  were 
written  by  another  person  of  the  same  name. 
The  greatest  of  his  works  is  that  which  he 
composed  in  'prison  at  Pavia  while  awaiting 
execution,  and  entitled  De  Consolatione  Phi- 
losophic. It  is  an  imaginary  dialogue,  alter- 
nately in  prose  and  verse,  between  the  author 


778 


BOETIIIUS 


BOG 


and  philosophy.  Its  tone  is  moral  and  elevated, 
its  style  eloquent,  perspicuous,  and  pure,  and 
its  arguments  are  ingenious.  It  had  great 
fame  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  central  and  western 
Europe,  and  also  into  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Arabic.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  transla- 
tions was  that  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  King 
Alfred  (new  ed.  by  Fox,  London,  1864),  which 
has  a  peculiar  interest,  both  as  being  one  of 
the  earliest  specimens  of  English  literature  and 
one  of  the  chief  literary  relics  of  Alfred.  Edi- 
tions of  the  works  of  Boethius  were  published 
at  Venice  in  1491  (the  earliest  full  collection), 
at  Basel  in  folio  in  1570,  and  at  Glasgow  in 
4to  in  1751.  There  is  an  edition  of  De  Gon- 
solatione  Philosophic,  with  notes  and  English 
translation  by  J.  8.  Oardale  (London,  1829). 

KOKTIIII'S,  or  Boece,  Hector,  a  Scottish  his- 
torian, born  at  Dundee  about  1465,  died  about 
1535.  He  was  educated  at  Dundee  and  at 
Paris,  where  in  1497  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  philosophy  in  the  college  of  Montaigu, 
and  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Erasmus, 
who  afterward  dedicated  to  him  a  catalogue 
of  his  works.  In  1500  he  was  called  by 
Bishop  Elphinstone  to  the  first  presidency  of 
Aberdeen  college,  and  was  made  canon  of  the 
cathedral  and  chaplain  of  the  chantry  of  St. 
Ninian.  His  two  most  important  works  were 
a  biography  of  the  bishops  of  Aberdeen  (Paris, 
1522),  and  his  "  History  of  Scotland  "  (Scotorum 
Histories  a  prima  Gentis  Origine,  1526).  The 
latter  work  contains  much  that  is  fabulous, 
and  its  author  has  been  charged  with  plagiarism 
and  with  inventing  materials  and  imagining 
authors  for  them.  It  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  John  Bellenden  in  1536  (new  edition, 
2  vols.  4to,  Edinburgh,  1821). 

IJOKTIK,  Etlenne  de  la,  a  French  author,  born 
at  Sarlat,  Nov.  1,  1530,  died  Aug.  18,  1563. 
He  was  celebrated  in  childhood  for  his  trans- 
lations, and  became  a  prominent  counsellor  of 
the  parliament  of  Bordeaux,  but  is  now  chief- 
ly remembered  because  Montaigne  published 
some  of  his  works,  and  recorded  in  a  few 
touching  pages  the  friendship  which  existed  be- 
tween them.  His  discourse  on  voluntary  ser- 
vitude, a  violent  philippic  against  royalty,  was 
written  in  his  18th  year.  He  died  in  the  arms 
of  Montaigne. 

BOO,  an  Irish  word,  literally  meaning  soft, 
applied  in  Great  Britain  to  extensive  districts 
of  marshy  land.  In  Europe  these  tracts  consist 
so  generally  of  peat,  that  this  substance  is  there 
regarded  as  essential  to  a  bog.  True  bogs  are 
most  commonly  found  in  northern  latitudes, 
and  in  districts  where  great  humidity  prevails. 
Their  situation  is  not  necessarily  low,  nor 
their  surface  level,  some  of  the  great  Irish 
bogs  presenting  even  a  hilly  appearance.  In 
places  naturally  moist,  by  the  abundance  of 
springs,  or  around  shallow  ponds,  the  mosses, 
lichens,  heaths,  and  grasses  flourish,  which  by 
their  spread  produce  the  great  peat  bogs,  or 
mosses.  They  encroach  upon  the  ponds  and 


fill  them  up  with  luxuriant  living  vegetation 
and  the  accumulations  of  decayed  matter.  The 
moss  called  sphagnum  palwtre  grows  most 
abundantly,  and,  like  the  coral  in  the  ocean, 
the  new  growth  above  leaves  the  lower  por- 
tion below  dead  and  buried.  The  famous 
levels  of  Hatfield  Chase  in  Yorkshire,  which 
were  stripped  of  their  forests  by  the  Romans, 
were  cleared  up  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  when  vast  quantities  of  excellent 
timber  were  found  buried  beneath  the  morass. 
Many  of  the  trees  were  of  extraordinary  size, 
some  larger  than  any  now  known  in  Great 
Britain.  Many  of  them  retained  the  marks 
of  the  axe,  and  some  still  held  the  wooden 
wedges  used  to  rend  them.  Broken  axe  heads 
were  discovered,  links  of  chains,  and  coins  of 
Vespasian  and  other  Roman  emperors.  The 
great  cedar  swamps  in  the  southern  part  of 
New  Jersey  also  retain  in  their  peaty  soil 
much  valuable  timber,  the  relics  of  forests  of 
unknown  age.  An  extensive  business  has 
long  been  carried  on  in  extracting  this  ancient 
timber  and  converting  it  into  shingles.  The 
logs  are  discovered  by  thrusting  an  iron  rod 
down  through  the  mud,  till  one  is  struck  and 
traced  along  its  length.  Some  have  been 
found  30  ft.  long,  and  4,  5,  and  6  ft.  in  di- 
ameter, and  one  of  7  ft.  They  retain  their 
buoyancy,  and  float  with  the  side  uppermost 
which  was  in  the  swamp  the  under  one.  Bogs 
covered  with  living  forests,  like  these  cedar 
swamps,  receive  new  accumulations  of  vegeta- 
ble matters  from  the  continual  waste  of  their 
foliage  and  of  the  smaller  shrubs,  which  grow 
among  the  trees.  The  forests,  once  swept  oft' 
by  fire  or  other  cause,  are  seldom  restored. 
The  waters,  obstructed  by  the  trunks  and 
branches,  stagnate ;  the  mosses  then  take  pos- 
session of  the  surface,  and  unless  this  is  drained, 
the  spongy  covering  increases  in  the  manner 
already  described. — In  most  northern  countries 
bogs  are  met  with  of  vast  extent  and  in  great 
numbers.  They  cover  such  large  districts,  that 
they  possess  a  geographical  importance,  while 
the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  give 
them  no  little  geological  interest,  from  the  light 
they  shed  upon  the  mode  of  formation  of  the 
more  ancient  carboniferous  deposits  of  the  coal 
measures.  The  great  peat  marsh  of  Montoire 
in  France,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  is  said 
to  have  a  circumference  of  50  leagues.  This  is 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Great  Dismal  swamp 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  but  little 
inferior  to  the  area  covered  b"y  the  swamps 
that  make  up  the  Okefinokee  in  Georgia,  said 
to  be  about  180  miles  in  circumference.  But 
the  central  portion  of  Ireland  is  the  great  re- 
gion of  bogs.  Upon  a  map  of  the  island  is 
seen,  between  Sligo  and  Galway  bay,  a  portion 
on  the  western  coast,  projecting  into  the  ocean 
from  the  main  body  of  the  island.  A  strip  of 
this  width,  extended  in  an  easterly  direction 
across  the  country,  includes  about  one  fourth 
of  the  area  of  the  island,  and  in  this  portion 
are  found  about  six  sevenths  of  its  bogs,  leav- 


BOG 


BOG  ORE 


7T9 


ing  out  of  the  account  the  small  ones  not  ex- 
ceeding about  800  acres  each.  The  whole 
amount  of  bog  surface  is  2,831,000  acres, 
nearly  all  of  which  forms  one  almost  connected 
mass.  The  great  bog  of  Allen,  E.  of  the  Shan- 
non, extends  50  m.  in  length  by  2  to  3  in 
breadth.  This  is  divided  by  occasional  high 
lands  into  several  bogs.  They  all  consist  of 
peat,  averaging  about  25  ft.  in  thickness,  never 
less  than  12  nor  more  than  42.  The  upper  10 
ft.  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  the  fibres  of  the 
mosses,  more  or  less  decomposed,  and  a  light 
turf  of  blackish  brown  color  underlies  this,  in 
which  the  fibres  of  moss  may  still  be  perceived. 
This  variety  may  extend  10  ft.  deeper.  "  At 
a  greater  depth  the  fibres  of  vegetable  matter 
cease  to  be  visible,  the  color  of  the  turf  be- 
comes blacker,  and  the  substance  much  more 
compact,  its  properties  as  fuel  more  valuable, 
and  gradually  increasing  in  the  degree  of 
blackness  and  compactness  proportionate  to  its 
deptli ;  near  the  bottom  of  the  bog  it  forms  a 
black  mass,  which  when  dry  has  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  pitch  or  bituminous  coal,  having 
a  conchoidal  fracture  in  every  direction,  with 
a  black,  shining  lustre,  and  susceptible  of  re- 
ceiving a  considerable  polish."  (Report  of 
surveyors  appointed  by  parliament,  1810.) 
In  England  the  largest  lowland  bog  is  Chat- 
moss  in  Lancashire.  It  is  8m.  long,  3  m.  in 
greatest  breadth,  and  contains  7,000  acres.  It 
is  a  mass  of  pure  vegetable  matter,  without 
any  mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  or  other  material, 
from  10  to  30  ft.  in  depth.  It  is  noted  for  the 
engineering  difficulties  it  offered  to  the  passage 
of  the  first  great  English  railway.  George 
Stephenson  carried  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester railway  over  it  when  all  other  engi- 
neers considered  the  task  impossible. — In  the 
Great  Dismal  swamp  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina,  the  extent  of  which  is  about  40  m.  N. 
and  S.  and  25  m.  E.  and  W.,  little  true  peat 
appears  to  be  found.  The  soil  is  perfectly 
black,  consisting  wholly  of  vegetable  matter  to 
the  depth  of  about  15  ft.  When  dug  up  and 
exposed  at  the  surface,  it  rapidly  decomposes. 
The  surface  is  covered  with  mosses,  reeds, 
ferns,  and  aquatic  trees  and  shrubs.  The 
white  cedar  is  abundant  as  in  all  our  swamps, 
and  they  and  the  tall  cypress  furnish  timber 
of  such  value,  that  the  inmost  recesses  of  this 
tangled  morass  have  been  penetrated  by  canals 
in  search  of  it.  In  its  central  portion  the  sur- 
face is  found  to  be  12  ft.  higher  than  the  rest, 
and  the  general  level  of  the  swamp  is  above 
that  of  the  adjoining  country.  Throughout 
the  country,  along  the  seaboard  to  the  gulf 
of  Mexico,  swamps  of  this  character  are  of 
frequent  occurrence.  The  outer  portions  are 
sometimes  wooded  swamps,  while  within  they 
present  moss-covered  heaths,  stretching,  like 
the  western  prairies,  further  than  the  eye  can 
see,  and  dotted  occasionally  with  clumps  or 
little  islands  of  trees.  In  New  England,  the 
northwestern  states,  and  Canada,  the  bogs 
furnish  genuine  peat,  and  some  of  those  bor- 


dering the  great  lakes  are  of  great  extent. 
Over  one  of  these  the  traveller  is  carried 
upon  the  Great  Western  railroad  in  Canada, 
between  Chatham  and  Lake  St.  Clair.  Upon 
Long  Island,  near  New  York  city,  the  bogs 
present  a  marked  feature  along  the  sandy  coast, 
and  their  structure  was  finely  exposed  in  the 
excavations  made  for  the  Brooklyn  aqueduct. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  they  are  found  to  be  the 
repositories  of  the  remains  of  the  mastodon. 
(See  ALLUVIUM,  and  PEAT.) 

BOG,  a  river  of  Russia.     See  BUG. 

BOG  ORE,  Meadow  Ore,  or  Llmonlte  (Gr.  /(•///«>>. 
meadow),  a  variety  of  iron  ore,  which  collects 
in  low  places,  being  washed  down  in  a  soluble 
form  in  the  waters  which  flow  over  rocks  or 
sands  containing  oxide  of  iron,  and  precipitated 
in  a  solid  form  as  the  waters  evaporate.  It  is 
deposited  in  the  bottoms  of  ponds  as  well  as 
swamps,  and  is  found  in  beds  now  dry,  above 
the  level  at  which  it  must  originally  have  been 
collected,  or  else  these  are  the  product  of 
springs  which  have  now  disappeared.  The 
roots  of  trees  appear  to  have  an  influence  in 
reducing  the  peroxide  of  iron  in  the  sands  they 
come  in  contact  with  to  the  protoxide,  by  the 
action  of  some  organic  acid.  By  this  action 
the  ore  is  rendered  soluble,  and  is  liable  to  be 
precipitated  by  change  to  an  insoluble  salt,  in- 
duced by  the  influence  of  the  air  or  other 
causes.  As  the  waters  run  among  deposits  of 
vegetable  matters,  and  this  change  slowly  takes 
place,  the  oxide  of  iron  replaces  the  woody 
fibre,  retaining  in  its  more  solid  material  the 
exact  form  of  the  branches  of  trees,  of  the 
small  twigs,  and  even  of  the  leaves,  with  their 
delicate  reticulations.  Deposits  of  bright  red 
peroxide  of  iron,  made  up  entirely  of  masses 
of  these  forms,  which  are  true  ferruginous 
petrifactions,  are  worked  as  iron  ore.  Exten- 
sive beds  exist  at  Salisbury  and  Kent,  Conn. ; 
also  in  the  neighboring  towns  of  Beekman, 
Fishkill,  Dover,  and  Amenia,  N.  Y. ;  at  Rich- 
mond and  Lenox,  Mass.  ;  at  Bennington, 
Monkton,  Putney,  and  Ripton,  Vt. ;  and  at 
numerous  other  localities  in  the  United  States. 
The  bog  ore  deposits  of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J., 
contain  them,  among  other  varieties  of  the 
ore.  In  Piscataquis  co.,  Me.,  a  very  remark- 
able and  productive  bed  of  these  petrifactions 
has  furnished  the  supplies  of  ore  to  the  Katah- 
din  iron  works.  In  the  ponds  of  Plymouth 
co.,  Mass.,  bog  ores  were  found  so  abundantly, 
that  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  10  small 
blast  furnaces  were  kept  in  operation  by  them. 
As  the  supplies  became  exhausted,  more  ores 
of  the  same  class  were  for  a  time  brought  from 
Egg  Harbor,  N.  J.  From  the  bottoms  of  the 
ponds  the  ore  was  raised  into  boats,  as  oysters 
are  gathered,  with  long  tongs.  It  was  found 
in  lumps  of  various  sizes,  some  weighing  even 
500  Ibs. ;  but  usually  it  occurs  in  small,  ir- 
regular-shaped pieces,  or  in  the  form  of  shot. 
When  taken  from  swamps,  the  workmen  were 
careful  to  cover  the  cavities  with  loose  earth, 
leaves,  bushes,  &c.,  calculating  upon  another 


780 


BOGARDUS 


growth  in  10  or  15  years ;  but  their  expecta- 
tions were  sometimes  realized  in  seven  years. 
Ehrenberg  has  detected  in  the  ochreous  mat- 
ters that  form  bog  iron  ore  immense  numbers 
of  organic  bodies,  which  indeed  make  up  the 
substance  of  the  ochre.  They  consist  of  slender 
articulated  plates  or  threads,  partly  silicious 
and  partly  ferruginous,  of  what  he  considered 
an  animalcule,  but  which  are  now  commonly 
regarded  by  naturalists  as  belonging  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  are  referred  to  dia- 
tomacece  and  desmidieas.  Bog  ore  contains 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  and  other  impurities, 
which  greatly  impair  its  qualities  for  pro- 
ducing strong  iron.  The  pig  metal  obtained 
from  it,  called  cold  short,  is  so  brittle  that  it 
breaks  to  pieces  by  falling  upon  the  hard 
ground ;  but  the  foreign  matters  which  weaken 
it  also  give  to  the  melted  cast  iron  great  fluid- 
ity, which  causes  it  to  be  in  demand  for  the 
manufacture  of  fine  castings,  the  metal  flowing 
into  the  minutest  cavities  of  the  mould,  and 
retaining  the  sharp  outlines  desired.  The  iron 
made  from  the  bog  ores  of  Snowhill,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  notwithstanding  its 
great  brittleness,  brings  a  high  price  at  the 
great  stove  founderies  of  Albany  and  Troy,  to 
be  mixed  with  other  qualities  of  metal  for  pro- 
ducing the  best  material  for  their  excellent 
castings.  Bog  ores  are  very  easily  converted 
into  iron,  and  when  they  can  be  procured  to 
mix  with  other  kinds  of  ore,  they  produce  a 
very  beneficial  effect,  both  in  the  running  of 
the  furnace  and  in  the  quality  of  the  iron.  For 
these  reasons,  as  also  for  the  cheapness  with 
which  they  are  obtained,  it  is  an  object  to  have 
them  at  hand,  though  they  seldom  yield  more 
than  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  cast  iron. 

BOCARDUS,  Everardns,  a  Dutch- American 
clergyman,  born  in  Holland,  died  Sept.  27, 
1647.  In  1633  he  came  to  New  Amsterdam 
(New  York),  and  became  the  second  minister 
there,  residing  in  what  is  now  Broad  street.  In 
1638  he  married  Annetje,  widow  of  Koelof 
Jansen,  who  had  obtained  a  grant  of  a  farm  of 
62  acres  in  what  is  now  the  heart  of  the  city 
of  New  York;  this  farm,  long  known  as  the 
"dominie's  Bouwery,"  in  time  became  vested 
in  Trinity  church,  and  forms  the  foundation  of 
the  wealth  of  that  corporation.  Dominie  Bo- 
gardus  had  sharp  disputes  with  the  successive 
directors,  Van  Twiller,  Kieft,  and  Stuyvesant, 
was  complained  of  by  his  congregation,  and  in 
1647  resigned  his  charge,  and  sailed  for  Europe 
to  answer  to  his  ecclesiastical  superiors  in 
Holland.  The  vessel  ran  by  mistake  into  Bristol 
channel,  struck  on  a  rock,  was  wrecked,  and 
80  persons,  among  whom  were  Bogardus  and 
Kieft,  were  drowned,  only  20  escaping. 

BOGARDl'S,  James,  an  American  inventor, 
born  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  March  14,  1800.  At 
the  age  of  14  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  watch- 
maker, and  soon  became  not  only  an  expert  in 
that  art,  but  a  good  die-sinker  and  engraver.  He 
invented  an  eight-day,  three-wheeled  chronom- 
eter clock,  for  which  he  received  the  highest 


premium  at  the  first  fair  of  the  American  in- 
stitute ;  and  another  with  three  wheels  and  a 
segment  of  a  wheel,  which  struck  the  hours, 
and,  without  dial  wheels,  marked  the  hours, 
minutes,  and  seconds.  In  1828  he  invented  a 
"  ring-flyer  "  for  spinning  cotton,  now  in  gen- 
eral use,  and  known  as  the  "  ring-spinner." 
In  1829  he  invented  the  eccentric  mill,  differ- 
ing from  all  other  mills  in  having  both  the 
grinding  surfaces  running  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, with  nearly  equal  speed.  In  1831  he  in- 
vented an  engraving  machine,  with  which  he 
made  gold  watch  dials,  turning  imitation  fili- 
gree work,  rays  from  the  centre,  and  the  figures 
in  relief,  all  by  one  operation.  With  this  same 
machine  he  made  the  steel  die  for  the  first  gold 
medal  of  the  American  institute,  and  also  many 
beautiful  medallions.  He  invented  the  trans- 
fer machine  for  producing  bank-note  plates 
from  separate  dies,  which  is  now  in  general 
use.  In  1832  he  patented  the  first  dry  gas  me- 
ter, for  which  he  was  awarded  a  gold  medal 
by  the  American  institute ;  and  in  1833  the 
first  pencil  case  without  a  slot.  In  1836  he 
greatly  improved  his  meter  by  giving  a  rotary 
motion  to  the  machinery,  and  made  it  applica- 
ble to  all  current  fluids.  It  is  the  parent  of  all 
diaphragm  meters,  this  word  having  been  first 
so  used  by  Mr.  Bogardus.  At  this  time  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  made  the  celebrat- 
ed medallion-engraving  machine,  which,  among 
other  portraits,  engraved  that  of  the  queen, 
dedicated  to  her  at  her  request.  He  made  a 
machine  for  engine-turning,  which  not  only 
copied  all  known  kinds  of  machine  engraving, 
but  engraved  what  it  could  not  itself  repro- 
duce. In  1839  a  reward  was  offered  for  the 
best  plan  of  carrying  out  the  penny-postage 
system  by  the  use  of  stamps,  and  from  2,600 
competitors  his  plan  was  selected,  and  is  still 
in  use.  After  visiting  France  and  Italy,  he 
returned  to  New  York  in  1840.  He  then  in- 
Tented  a  machine  for  pressing  glass,  now  in 
common  use ;  also,  a  machine  for  shirring  in- 
dia-rubber fabrics,  and  another  for  cutting  in- 
dia-rubber into  fine  threads.  He  invented  the 
"  sun-and-planet  horse  power,"  and  a  dyna- 
mometer for  measuring  the  speed  and  power 
of  machinery  in  motion.  In  1847  he  put  in 
execution  his  long-cherished  idea  of  iron  build- 
ings, by  constructing  his  factory,  of  five  sto- 
ries, 25  ft.  by  90,  entirely  of  cast  iron.  This 
was  undoubtedly  the  first  complete  cast-iron 
building  in  the  world,  and  was  the  first  to  be 
represented  in  the  "  Illustrated  London  News." 
Mr.  Bogardus  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  con- 
struction of  wrought-iron  beams ;  and  it  was 
from  a  pattern  designed  by  him  that  the  first 
were  made,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. He  claims  also  to  have  introduced  a 
new  style  of  architecture,  column  over  column, 
which  he  calls  the  Roman,  from  the  fact  that 
he  had  never  seen  it  elsewhere  than  in  Italy. 
After  erecting  many  buildings  in  New  York, 
in  other  states,  and  in  the  West  India  islands, 
he  was  compelled  by  ill  health  to  relinquish 


BOGDANOVITCH 


BOGOTA 


781 


this  business.  Some  of  his  inventions  are  of  j 
scientific  interest.  His  pyrometer,  used  to  as-  I 
certain  the  expansion  of  metals  and  stones,  is 
remarkable  for  delicacy  and  accuracy ;  and  he 
claims  for  his  deep-sea  sounding  machine  that 
it  will  measure  a  depth  of  10  or  15  miles,  if 
necessary,  with  absolute  accuracy,  whatever 
currents  it  may  encounter ;  in  its  use  he  was 
the  first  in  100  years  to  revive  the  plan  of 
sounding  without  a  line.  His  improvements 
of  tools  have  also  been  numerous. 

BOGDASOVITCH,  Ippolit  Fedoroviteh,  a  Russian 
poet,  born  in  Little  Russia  in  1743  or  1744, 
died  near  Kursk,  Jan.  18,  1803.  He  was  sent 
at  the  age  of  11  by  his  father  to  Moscow  to  be 
educated  as  a  surveyor.  Four  years  afterward 
he  applied  to  KheraskofF,  the  manager  of  the 
theatre  there,  to  receive  him  into  the  company. 
Kheraskoff  refused  his  application,  but  enabled 
him  to  enter  the  university,  where  in  1761  he 
was  made  inspector.  He  found  protectors  among 
the  influential  nobility,  and  was  sent  some  years 
afterward  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Dresden, 
where  he  commenced  his  beautiful  romantic 
poem  Dmhenka,  which  was  not  published  till 
1775.  Besides  this,  his  chief  work,  he  pub- 
lished songs,  minor  poems,  and  many  transla- 
tions, and  edited  various  periodicals.  He  was 
patronized  by  Catharine  II.,  and  after  her  death 
retired  from  the  public  service,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  days  at  a  country  seat  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Russia. 

BOGGS,  Charles  Stnart,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
28,  1811.  He  is  a  nephew  of  James  Lawrence, 
commander  of  the  Chesapeake,  who  fell  in  the 
action  with  the  Shannon.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1826,  and  served  on  the  Mediterranean  sta- 
tion, in  the  West  Indies,  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the  Pacific,  be- 
coming lieutenant  in  1837.  In  1855  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  as- 
signed to  the  mail  steamer  Illinois,  and  in  1858 
was  appointed  lighthouse  inspector  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  gunboat 
Varuna,  of  Farragut's  gulf  squadron.  In  the 
attack  upon  the  Confederate  forts  and  squadron 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  April  24,  1862, 
the  Varnna  destroyed  six  of  the  enemy's  gun- 
boats, but  was  finally  disabled,  after  driving 
her  last  antagonist  ashore  in  flames..  When 
Boggs  found  his  vessel  sinking,  he  tied  her  to 
trees  on  the  bank,  and  fought  the  guns  until 
the  water  was  above  the  gun  tracks.  He  was 
soon  placed  in  command  of  the  sloop  of  war 
Juniata,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  He  became 
commodore  in  1866 ;  in  1867-'8,  commanded 
the  steamer  De  Soto,  of  the  Atlantic  squadron  ; 
in  July,  1870,  was  commissioned  rear  admiral ; 
and  in  1871  commanded  the  European  fleet. 

BOGLIPOOR,  or  Bhansnlpore.  I.  A  district  of 
Bengal,  in  the  Lower  Provinces,  bordering  on 
Nepaul,  between  lat.  24°  15'  and  20°  30'  N., 
and  Ion.  86°  15'  and  88°  10'  E. ;  area,  5,806  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  2,000,000,  one  third  of  whom 


are  Mohammedans,  and  the  rest  Hindoos  and 
mountain  tribes.  The  district  is  traversed  by 
the  Ganges  and  several  of  its  tributaries.  It  is 
exceedingly  hilly,  especially  in  the  southwest, 
and  so  stony  that  only  a  small  portion  even  of 
the  comparatively  level  land  is  fit  for  the  plough. 
II.  The  capital  of  the  district,  200  m.  N.  N.  W. 
of  Calcutta,  on  the  river  Ganges ;  pop.  about 
30,000,  the  greater  part  Mohammedans.  The 
city  is  of  modern  erection,  has  a  small  Catholic 
church,  a  seminary  where  English  is  taught, 
and  a  Mohammedan  college  now  in  a  state  of 
decay.  In  the  neighborhood  are  two  round 
towers  of  ancient  structure,  the  objects  of  pil- 
grimage. 

BOGODUKHOT,  a  fortified  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  and  30  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  the 
city  of  Kharkov ;  pop.  in  1867,  10,069.  The 
chief  industry  of  the  town  is  leather  dressing 
and  boot  making.  It  also  carries  on  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  cattle  and  hides. 

BOG03IILES.  See  BASIL,  a  Bulgarian  phy- 
sician. 

BOGOTA,  Santa  Fe  de,  an  inland  city  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  capital  of  the  state 
of  Cundinamarca  and  of  the  republic,  on  the 
picturesque  and  fertile  plateau  of  Bogota,  8,671 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  lat.  4°  35'  48"  N.  and 
Ion.  74°  12'  W. ;  pop.  about  46,000.  Viewed 
from  a  distance  the  city,  slightly  elevated  above 
the  plain  and  rising  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, presents  a  pleasing  aspect.  Two  lofty 
mountains,  the  Guadalupe  and  Monserrate, 
rise  on  the  east  and  send  down  a  copious 
supply  of  water  to  be  distributed  through  the 
town  by  means  of  numerous  public  and  private 
fountains.  The  streets  are  regular  and  bisect 
each  other  at  right  angles,  but  are  narrow,  ill- 
paved,  badly  lighted,  and  in  many  parts  cover- 
ed with  grass,  the  city  traffic  being  exclusively 
carried  on  by  mules.  Streams  of  water  running 
down  the  middle  of  many  of  the  thoroughfares 
are  made  the  receptacle  of  filth.  Two  of  these 
streams,  more  voluminous  than  the  rest,  are 
called  rivers,  and  are  crossed  by  several  neat 
and  well  built  stone  bridges.  The  Calle  Real 
or  principal  street  runs  the  entire  length  of  the 
city,  is  well  paved,  and  terminates  in  a  spa- 
cious square,  embellished  with  a  statue  of 
Bolivar,  and  bordered  by  an  arcade,  where  a 
market  is  held  weekly.  The  private  houses 
are  of  sun-dried  bricks  (adobes),  whitewashed, 
covered  with  red  tiles,  and  usually  built  low 
on  account  of  the  liability  to  earthquakes.  In 
consequence  of  the  influx  of  foreigners,  the 
interior  arrangement  of  dwellings  has  mate- 
rially improved  of  late  years,  as  has  also  the 
style  of  building;  the  old-fashioned  grating 
has  very  generally  been  superseded  by  glass  in 
the  windows;  walls  are  painted,  and  carpets 
and  other  furniture  are  imported  from  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  There  are  few  chimneys, 
stoves  alone  being  in  use.  The  stores  are  for 
the  most  part  badly  kept  and  dingy,  the  only 
admission  for  light  being  through  the  door. 
Of  the  public  edifices  the  most  noteworthy  are 


782 


BOGOTA 


BogotA. 


the  government  mansion,  luxuriously  appoint- 
ed, and  occupied  by  the  president  and  the  va- 
rious officers  of  the  ministerial  departments ; 
the  house  of  congress ;  and  the  observatory, 
octagonal  in  form  and  comprising  three  sepa- 
rate piles.  Bogota  has  a  mint,  a  theatre,  a 
university,  a  national  academy,  four  colleges, 
t\vo  of  which  date  from  the  17th  century,  and 
medical,  law,  normal,  and  infant  schools.  There 
is  a  museum  in  which  are  preserved  petrified 
bones  of  mastodons  from  Tunja,  the  robe  or 
aero  of  Atahuallpa's  wife,  Pizarro's  standard, 
portraits  of  the  Spanish  viceroys,  &c.  Attached 
to  it  are  a  school  of  mines  and  a  botanical 
school.  The  cathedral,  erected  in  1814,  is  rich- 
ly decorated  within.  There  are  30  churches 
(inclusive  of  9  monasteries  and  5  nunneries),  22 
of  which  are  in  the  Oalle  Real  alone.  Some 
are  of  handsome  and  all  of  solid  architecture. 
There  are  a  foundling,  a  general,  and  a  military 
hospital ;  a  house  of  refuge  for  the  relief  and 
education  of  orphans  and  the  children  of  the 
poor ;  and  other  benevolent  establishments,  as 
also  several  barracks  and  an  artillery  depot, 
where  military  equipments  are  made  and  re- 
paired. There  are  a  custom  house  and  some 
good  hotels,  and  two  newspapers  are  published. 
The  inhabitants  of  Bogota  are  chiefly  Creoles, 
with  half-breed  Indians  who  are  exclusively 
servants ;  of  mulattoes  there  are  few,  and  ne- 
groes are  rarely  seen.  The  Bogotefios  are  in- 
telligent, sprightly,  and  urbane;  the  women 
have  a  remarkably  clear  complexion,  and  are 
in  general  handsome  and  fond  of  dress.  Near 
the  river  Funza,  here  an  inconsiderable  stream, 
and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city,  is  the 
alameda,  tastefully  disposed  with  walks,  fringed 
with  trees  and  rose  bushes  and  other  fragrant 
flowers  of  luxuriant  growth.  Owing  to  the 


great  elevation  of  the  table  land  of  Bogota,  the 
temperature  is  mild  and  equable ;  the  climate, 
though  humid,  is  not  insalubrious,  and  epidem- 
ics are  altogether  unknown.  The  thermometer 
ranges  from  45°  to  65°  F.  There  are  two  wet 
seasons,  March  to  May  and  September  to  No- 
vember, when  rains  are  at  times  so  violent  as 
to  deluge  the  city  with  the  floods  which  rush 
down  from  the  mountains,  if  suitable  ditches 
were  not  prepared  to  receive  them.  The  man- 
ufactures of  Bogota  are  limited  to  cotton  and 
woollen  cloths,  soap,  leather,  and  precious 
metal.  The  fine  arts  have  been  cultivated 
here  to  an  extent  altogether  uncommon  in 
South  America ;  and  in  one  of  the  convents  are 
preserved  paintings  of  high  merit  by  Vasquez, 
a  native  artist.  Communication  with  the  sea  is 
carried  on  by  steamers  and  barges  through  the 
river  Magdalena,  from  the  town  of  Honda 
(reached  in  about  seven  hours)  to  Cartagena, 
and  to  Barranquilla  and  Sabanilla,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  that  river.  The  total  distance  is 
600  m.,  and  the  journey  may  be  performed  in 
from  10  to  15  days;  but  the  trip  up  stream 
sometimes  occupies  twice  and  even  thrice  that 
space  of  time.  The  river  Meta,  in  the  valley 
E.  of  the  mountains  behind  Bogota,  and  com- 
municating with  the  Orinoco,  affords  easy  and 
commodious  communication  with  the  E.  prov- 
inces of  Venezuela  and  the  N.  E.  shores  of  the 
Atlantic. — The  plain  of  Bogota  is  60  m.  long 
from  N.  to  S.  and  30  m.  wide  from  E.  to  W. ; 
it  is  intersected  by  verdant  prairies  and  dense 
woods,  affording  some  ornamental  and  many 
useful  species  of  timber.  The  river  Funza, 
formed  by  numerous  mountain  streams  which 
take  their  rise  100  m.  N.  of  the  city,  traverses 
the  plain  in  a  S.  W.  direction  to  Teqnendama, 
where,  through  a  gap  not  over  36  ft.  in  width, 


BOGUE 


BOHEMIA 


783 


it  leaps  over  a  rocky  ledge  upward  of  600  ft. 
high,  forming  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cat- 
aracts on  the  globe,  and  thence  rushes  down 
to  join  the  Magdalena.  There  are  besides  sev- 
eral lakes  and  morasses  on  the  plateau,  a  num- 
ber of  thermal  springs,  and  many  villages  and 
hamlets  still  known  by  their  primitive  Indian 
names.  Coal,  iron,  and  copper  mines  yield  in 
abundance ;  there  are  salt  mines,  which  at 
an  earlier  period  were  leased  for  280,000  pe- 
sos annually,  and  still  supply  the  surrounding 
states;  and  the  celebrated  emeralds  of  Muzo 
have  long  met  the  constant  demand  for  that 
gem  in  Europe.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are 
raised,  and  horses  and  mules  are  exported  to  a 
considerable  extent.  The  vegetation  is  ex- 
tremely luxuriant,  hut  the  cultivated  grounds 
are  mostly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  pro- 
ducing twice  yearly  the  various  European 
cereals,  fruits,  and  vegetables.  The  potato  is 
said  to  have  been  first  carried  to  Europe  from 
the  plain  of  Bogota  by  Sir  John  Hawkins. —  Bo- 
gota, called  Santa  F6  by  the  Spaniards,  was 
founded  in  1538  by  Gonzalo  Ximenes  de  Que- 
sada,  who  built  12  houses  there  in  honor  of  the 
12  apostles.  In  1548  it  became  a  bishopric. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
New  Granada  till  1811,  when  the  republic  was 
proclaimed  by  the  congress  assembled  here,  in 
imitation  of  Venezuela,  on  Nov.  12.  In  1816 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  under  Mo- 
rillo;  but  it  was  relieved  by  Bolivar  in  the 
battle  of  Boyaca,  August,  1819.  It  then  be- 
came the  capital  of  Colombia;  and  since  the 
establishment  of  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  as 
separate  states,  it  has  been  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  New  Granada  (now  United  States 
of  Colombia),  and  an  archiepiscopal  see. 

BOGIE,  David,  a  Scottish  preacher  and  au- 
thor, born  in  Berwickshire,  March  1,  1750, 
died  at  Brighton,  Oct.  25,  1825.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  licensed 
as  a  preacher  in  the  church  of  Scotland,  and 
in  1771  went  to  London,  and  kept  a  school  at 
Chelsea  for  some  years.  After  a  visit  to  Am- 
sterdam in  1776,  he  became  pastor  of  an  Inde- 
pendent congregation  at  Gosport,  Hampshire, 
and  principal  of  an  academy  for  ministerial 
education.  In  1791  he  commenced  an  agita- 
tion through  the  pulpit  and  the  press,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  London  missionary 
society  in  1795.  He  became  head  of  a  semi- 
nary founded  by  that  body,  and  wrote  the  first 
tract  for  the  religious  tract  society,  which 
chiefly  originated  with  him.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  projectors  and  first  editor  of  the 
"Evangelical  Magazine,"  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  British  and  foreign 
Bible  society.  Besides  various  pamphlets,  he 
wrote  an  "  Essay  on  the  Divine  Authority  of 
the  New  Testament"  (1802),  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages;  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  James  Bennett,  his  pupil,  friend,  and 
biographer,  a  "  History  of  the  Dissenters  "  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1809;  4  vols.,  1812),  intended  as  a 
continuation  of  Neal's  "History  of  the  Puri- 
102  VOL.  ii.— 50 


tans;"  and  "Discourses  on  the  Millennium" 
(2  vols.,  1813-'16). 

BOGUSLAWSKI,  Adalbert  (Pol.  WojciecK),  a 
Polish  actor  and  dramatist,  born  at  Glinna, 
near  Posen,  in  1752,  died  in  Warsaw,  July  23, 
1829.  He  went  upon  the  stage  in  Warsaw  in 
1778,  and  from  that  epoch  to  1809,  at  which 
time  he  was  finally  settled  as  the  manager  of 
the  theatre  in  Warsaw,  he  wandered  through 
Poland,  establishing  theatres  in  various  cities. 
He  translated  plays  and  operas  from  the  French, 
English,  and  Italian,  and  composed  many  origi- 
nal dramas  of  a  national  character.  His  plays 
were  published  at  Warsaw  in  1820-'25,  in  9 
vols. ;  and  his  original  works  were  collected  in 
3  vols.,  1849-'54. 

BOHA-EDDIK,  or  Bohaddin,  Abnl-Mohassen  Tnsnf 
ibn  Shnlad.  an  Arabian  scholar  and  historian, 
born  in  Mosul  in  1145,  died  in  Aleppo  about 
1233.  Having  attained  proficiency  in  Moslem 
law,  he  became  at  the  age  of  27  a  lecturer  at 
Bagdad.  In  1186  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  returned  through  the  Holy  Land, 
visiting  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  and  other  sacred 
cities.  While  in  Damascus,  being  summoned 
to  the  Moslem  camp  by  Saladin,  he  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  "Laws  and  Discipline  of  Sacred 
War,"  praising  Saladin's  policy.  Saladin  ap- 
pointed him  cadi  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  army, 
and  a  strong  attachment  subsisted  between 
them.  On  the  death  of  Saladin  he  transferred 
his  attachment  to  his  son  Malek  Dhaher,  whom 
he  was  instrumental  in  establishing  on  the 
throne  of  Aleppo.  In  return,  Malek  appointed 
Boha-eddin  cadi  of  that  city,  which  brought 
him  constantly  to  reside  in  the  royal  court. 
Aleppo  now  became  the  resort  for  men  of  sci- 
ence and  learning,  and  Boha-eddin  founded  a 
college,  where  he  continued  to  give  lectures 
till  his  death.  His  great  work,  the  "Life  of 
Saladin,"  was  published  by  Schultens  at  Ley- 
den  in  1732,  with  notes,  maps,  and  a  Latin 
translation.  » 

BOHEMIA  (Boh.  Cechy ;  Ger.  JSdhmen),  a 
country  of  central  Europe,  now  forming  a  po- 
litical division  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy, between  lat.  48°  33'  and  51°  5'  N.,  and 
Ion.  12°  5'  and  16°  46' E.,  and  bounded  N.  W. 
by  Saxony,  N.  E.  by  Prussian  Silesia,  S.  E.  by 
Moravia  and  Lower  Austria,  and  S.  W.  by  Up- 
per Austria  and  Bavaria ;  length  E.  and  W.,  200 
m. ;  breadth  N.  and  S.,  170  m. ;  area,  20,064  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871  (estimated),  5,173,041.  The 
capital  is  Prague,  on  the  Moldau.  The  boun- 
dary line  follows  the  high  mountain  ranges  of 
the  Erzgebirge  (Ore  mountains),  Riesengebirge 
(Giant  mountains),  Moravian  mountains,  and 
Bohemian  Forest,  which  separate  it  from  Sax- 
ony, Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Bavaria,  respective- 
ly. These  ranges  make  Bohemia  an  elevated 
quadrangular  basin,  with  a  waterslope  toward 
the  centre  and  north,  and  drained  by  the  river 
Elbe  and  its  affluents.  The  Erzgebirge,  run- 
ning N.  E.  and  S.  W.,  are  a  wooded  range 
with  a  more  gentle  declivity  toward  Saxony 
than  toward  Bohemia.  At  the  southwest  this 


784 


BOHEMIA 


range  touches  the  Bavarian  Fichtelgebirge 
(Pine  mountains) ;  and  from  near  this  group 
stretches  southeasterly  to  the  extreme  south 
of  the  country  the  range  of  the  Bohemian 


Bohemian  Peasants. 

Forest,  wild  and  precipitous,  and  intersected 
with  deep  ravines.  The  slope  of  these  moun- 
tains is  abrupt  toward  Bohemia ;  they  are  cov- 
ered with  forests  and  swamps,  infested  with 
bears  and  wolves,  and  are  a  part  of  what  was 
known  to  ancient  geographers  as  the  Hercy- 
nian  forest.  Their  geological  formation  is  the 
primitive  granite  and  gneiss,  and  they  furnish 
gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  coal,  zinc,  black  lead, 
cobalt,  and  antimony.  The  Moravian  moun- 
tains run  N.  E.  from  the  southern  to  the 
eastern  portions  of  Bohemia,  and  form  the 
watershed  between  the  Elbe  and  Moldau  flow- 
ing N.,  and  the  Danube  and  March  flowing  E. 
and  S.  The  Riesengebirge,  running  from  the  E. 
extremity  of  Bohemia  toward  the  Erzgebirge 
in  the  north,  present  their  broken  and  abrupt 
descent  toward  Bohemia,  and  their  higher  sum- 
mits are  bleak  and  naked.  The  interior  is  un- 
dulating with  hills,  sometimes  steep,  but  rising 
gradually  to  no  greater  height  than  600  ft. — 
The  river  system  comprises  only  the  Elbe  and 
its  tributaries.  The  Elbe  from  the  mountains  in 
the  northeast,  the  Sazawa  from  the  southeast, 
the  Moldau  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Bohemian  Forest  and  the  pond  and  marsh  dis- 
trict around  Budweis  in  the  south,  and  the  Be- 
raun  and  Eger  from  the  western  mountains, 
converge  toward  the  centre  of  Bohemia,  and 
joining  at  no  great  distance  from  Prague  flow 
north  in  one  stream,  the  Elbe,  which  passes 
into  Saxony  through  a  channel  which  it  has 
cut  in  the  sandstone  formation  of  the  eastern 
Erzgebirge.  The  Elbe  and  the  Moldau  are 
to  a  great  extent  navigable.  Bohemia  has  no 


large  lakes,  but  has  numerous  ponds,  accord- 
ing to  some  statements  as  many  as  20,000, 
and  as  many  as  160  mineral  springs  which 
are  visited.  Of  these  the  saline  chalybeate  at 
Franzensbad  and  Marienbad,  the  warm  alka- 
line at  Carlsbad  and  at  Teplitz,  and  the  bitter 
and  cathartic  waters  at  Seidlitz,  Saidschitz, 
and  Pilllna,  are  the  most  celebrated.  —  The 
whole  mountain  system  which  encircles  Bo- 
hemia is  of  primitive  formation,  characterized 
by  granite  and  gneiss,  with  the  exception  of 
a  small  section  where  the  Elbe  cuts  through 
the  Erzgebirge  and  a  point  on  the  north- 
west near  Braunau.  There  are  several  sand- 
stone masses  in  the  centre  of  the  country,  and 
in  many  parts  hills  of  basalt.  The  mineral 
products  are  more  varied  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  same  size.  The  lead  mines  in 
1870  produced  22,125  cwt.  of  lead  and  30,780 
Ibs.  (Munzpfunde)  of  silver.  The  product  of 
iron  in  1870  was  1,277,943  cwt.,  and  of  coal 
88,281,013  cwt.  There  are  also  mines  of  tin, 
copper,  zinc,  cinnabar,  arsenic,  and  cobalt,  and 
quarries  of  marble,  alabaster,  quartz,  granite, 
freestone,  and  sandstone.  A  large  variety  of 
precious  stones  are  found,  of  which  the  finest 
are  the  Bohemian  garnets.  —  The  climate  is 
healthy ;  the  atmosphere  clear  and  salubrious, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  48°  F.  at  Prague, 
but  much  lower  in  the  mountain  districts,  where 
the  snow  frequently  lies  12  ft.  deep,  and  often 
does  not  disappear  until  the  middle  of  April,  and 
in  some  localities  stays  through  the  year. — The 
soil  is  mostly  a  clayey  loam,  and  except  on  the 
high  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  in  some  sandy 
tracts  of  the  Elbe  valley,  is  generally  very  fer- 
tile. The  productive  land  is  estimated  at  12,- 
259,362  acres,  of  which  nearly  one  half  is  under 
the  plough,  the  remainder  being  vineyards,  or- 
chards, meadows,  pastures,  and  forests.  Rye, 
oats,  wheat,  and  barley  are  raised  in  large  crops. 


Braunau,  Bohemia. 

Flax  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  hemp,  tobac- 
co, and  hops  are  also  staple  products.  There 
is  an  annual  manufacture  of  about  250,000  gal- 
lons of  inferior  wine,  and  an  annual  yield  from 


BOHEMIA 


785 


the  forests,  which  cover  one  fourth  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  country,  of  3,000,000  cords  of 
wood,  besides  timber.  The  horses  of  Bohemia 
are  of  a  superior  breed,  but  the  horned  cattle 
are  small.  According  to  the  census  of  1869, 
there  were  189,327  horses,  1,002,015  cattle, 
1,106,290  sheep,  194,273  goats,  and  228,180 
hogs. — In  manufactures  Bohemia  is  by  far  the 
most  important  of  the  provinces  of  Austria. 
The  production  of  linen  goods,  partly  of  the 
finest  description,  employed  in  1871  about  50,- 
000  persons,  and  the  aggregate  value  of  the 
linen  goods  was  30,000,000  florins.  Lace  mak- 
ing by  hand  formerly  supported  over  40,000 
persons  at  the  north,  but  has  greatly  decreased 
since  the  invention  of  machine  lace,  and  is  now 
limited  to  the  region  between  Waldstein  and 
Catharinaberg  in  the  Erzgebirge.  Cotton  manu- 
factories are  increasing ;  in  1871  there  were  over 
540,000  spindles,  producing  about  112,000  cwt. 
of  yarn ;  nearly  60,000  looms  were  employed 
on  calicoes.  These  manufactories  are  in  the 
northern  region,  next  the  Erzgebirge,  but  the 
woollen  factories,  of  which  in  1871  there  were 
350,  are  more  numerous  in  the  northeast,  near 
'  Reichenberg.  There  are  over  50  leather  fac- 
tories, and  the  gloves  of  Prague  are  much  in 
demand.  The  paper  mills,  of  which  there  were 
in  1871  more  than  70,  are  particularly  numer- 
ous in  the  district  of  the  Eger  and  in  the 
Riesengebirge.  The  Bohemian  glass  factories, 
about  120  in  number,  producing  annually  about 
6,000,000  florins  and  employing  24,000  persons, 
are  renowned  all  over  the  world,  and  work 
mostly  for  export,  particularly  to  America ;  the 
imitation  gems,  the  looking-glass,  and  fine  orna- 
mental glass  ware  are  unsurpassed.  The  china, 
earthen,  and  stone  ware  produced  in  1871 
(about  one  half  in  the  circle  of  Eger)  were 
valued  at  2,500,000  florins.  The  iron  industry 
has  its  centre  in  the  region  of  Pilsen,  Pribram, 
Horzowitz,  and  Purglitz ;  the  value  of  the  raw 
and  cast  iron  produced  in  1871  was  1,500,000 
florins.  The  machine  factories,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  were  in  and  near  Prague,  produced 
machines  and  tools  to  the  value  of  4,500,000  fl. 
The  value  of  the  products  of  the  entire  metal  in- 
dustry amounted  to  about  16,000,000  fl.  There 
are  also  more  than  100  factories  of  chemicals, 
mostly  in  the  regions  of  Pilsen,  Aussig-Tetschen, 
and  Falkenau.  The  factories  of  beet  sugar, 
more  than  130  in  number,  produced  in  1871, 
3,400,000  cwt.  The  total  industrial  products 
of  Bohemia  are  valued  at  218,000,000  florins. 
Its  commerce  is  also  rapidly  developing,  owing 
to  the  favorable  situation  of  the  country.  The 
exports  in  1871  amounted  to  22,000,000  fl.,  the 
imports  to  20,000,000.  The  number  of  brew- 
eries in  1808  was  968,  of  distilleries  324.— Of 
the  population  the  Germans  constitute  about 
37  per  cent.,  the  Czechs  61,  and  the  Jews  2, 
the  latter  using  generally  the  German  language. 
The  Germans  inhabit  in  compact  masses  the 
northernmost  quarter  of  the  country,  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  and  form  a  great  part  of 
every  city  and  town  population,  being  more 


given  to  industrial  pursuits ;  while  the  Czechs, 
belonging  to  the  same  tribe  as  the  Moravians, 
are  the  more  agricultural  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  of  all  Slavic  tribes  in  many  respects 
the  most  gifted  and  cultivated.  They  are  pre- 
eminently a  musical  people,  and  are  fond  of 
song  and  poetry.  With  the  exception  of  45,331 
Lutherans,  58,720  Reformed,  and  89,539  Jews, 
nearly  all  are  Roman  Catholics.  There  were 
4,008  public  schools  in  1868,  of  which  1,762 
were  German,  2,165  Czech,  and  81  mixed. 
There  were  46  high  schools  of  difterent  grades, 
11  agricultural  schools,  2  mining  schools,  1 
military  school,  and  4  theological  institutions. 
The  capital,  Prague,  has  2  polytechnic  institu- 
tions, one  for  the  Germans  and  one  for  the 
Czechs,  and  a  university.  The  majority  of  the 
professors  of  the  university  are  Germans,  but 
most  of  the  students  are  Czechs.  The  conflict 
between  the  German  and  Czech  nationalities 
has  become  very  animated,  and  is  from  year  to 
year  assuming  larger  dimensions.  The  Czechs 
chiefly  act  through  the  secretaries  of  the  dis- 
trict and  communal  authorities,  while  the  Ger- 
mans have  established  throughout  the  country 
political  associations.  The  leaders  of  the  Ger- 
man party  from  1862  to  1872  were  Herbst,  Has- 
ner,  Schmeikal,  and  Pickert.  The  Czechs, 
though  united  in  the  conflict  against  the  Ger- 
mans, have  in  political  questions  split  into  the 
conservative  old  Czechs,  headed  by  Palacky 
and  Rieger,  and  the  democratic  young  Czechs, 
whose  foremost  leader  is  Sladkowsky.  The 
diet  of  Bohemia  has  241  members,  consisting 
of  the  archbishop  of  Prague,  the  three  bish- 
ops of  Budweis,  Leitmeritz,  and  Koniggratz, 
the  rector  of  the  university  of  Prague,  70  dele- 
gates of  the  Grossgrundbesitz  (large  landed  es- 
tates), 72  delegates  of  the  towns  and  industrial 
places,  15  delegates  of  the  chambers  of  com- 
merce and  industry,  and  79  delegates  of  rural 
communities.  The  diet  elects  54  delegates  to 
the  Reichsrath  of  Vienna,  and  also  a  standing 
committee,  the  Landesaiuschius,  which  is  pre- 
sided over  by  an  Oberst-Landmarschall  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor.  For  administrative 
purposes  Bohemia  is  now  (1873)  divided  into 
89  districts  and  2  independent  communes. — 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Bohemia  were  the 
Boii,  a  people  supposed  to  have  been  of  Celtic 
race,  from  whom  the  country  received  its 
name.  In  the  1st  century  B.  C.  they  were 
driven  out  by  the  Germanic  Marcomanni, 
whose  realm  flourished  for  a  time  under  Mar- 
bod,  the  rival  of  Armmius.  This  people,  how- 
ever, subsequently  emigrated  or  were  driven 
into  Bavaria,  and  Bohemia  was  occupied  in 
the  6th  century  by  the  Slavic  Czechs,  who  also 
established  themselves  in  Moravia.  Portions 
of  the  country  were  about  the  same  time  col- 
onized by  Germans.  The  Czechs  maintained 
their  independence,  under  national  chiefs,  be- 
tween the  Avars  and  the  Frankish  empire, 
though  often  harassed  by  invasions.  The 
house  of  Premysl  (Przemysl)  became  preemi- 
nent in  the  nation.  Christianity  was  intro- 


786 


BOHEMIA 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN 


duced  from  various  quarters,  but  chiefly  in  its 
Slavic  form  by  the  converts  of  Methodius  about 
890,  when  the  king  of  Moravia,  S  \vatopluk, 
ruled  Bohemia.  When  the  Magyars  destroyed 
his  Moravian  kingdom,  the  Bohemians  volun- 
tarily sought  annexation  to  the  German  em- 
pire, with  which  they  remained  connected,  in 
spite  of  the  endeavors  for  independence  of 
Duke  Boleslas  I.  (936-'67),  the  murderer  of 
his  brother  and  predecessor  St.  Wenceslas. 
Under  his  successor,  Boleslas  II.,  the  bounda- 
ries of  the  country  were  extended  to  the  Vis- 
tula, but  subsequently  it  succumbed  for  a  time 
to  Poland.  Wars  with  this  country  were  often 
renewed,  Silesia  being  the  main  object  of  con- 
tention, and  ultimately  kept  by  Bohemia. 
About  1035  Bretislas  I.  annexed  Moravia. 
The  native  dukes  in  1158  received  the  kingly 
dignity  from  Frederick  I.  Wars  of  succession 
convulsed  the  country  until  Ottocar  I.  (1197- 
1230),  a  truly  great  monarch,  made  the  royalty 
hereditary.  By  conquest  he  and  his  son  Otto- 
car  II.  (1253-'78)  extended  their  dominion  over 
a  part  of  Poland,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  where 
the  latter,  on  a  crusade  against  the  heathen 
Borussians,  founded  the  city  of  Konigsberg. 
After  a  short  struggle  against  the  emperor 
Kudolph  I.,  in  which  Ottocar  II.  perished  (see 
OTTOCAR),  the  Bohemian  monarchs  acquired 
Poland  and  Hungary  by  election ;  but  with 
the  assassination  of  Wenceslas  II.  (1305)  the 
native  ruling  house  was  extinguished,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  until 
that  line  in  1526  was  superseded  by  Austrian 
monarchs.  Charles  (1346-'78),  who  as  Ger- 
man emperor  was  insignificant,  was  a  great 
king  for  Bohemia,  which  he  augmented  by 
Lusatia  and  other  acquisitions,  which  were 
soon  lost.  Under  his  reign  the  country  flour- 
ished. Prague,  then  containing  the  only  Ger- 
man university,  numbered  30,000  students; 
«cience  and  art  were  fostered,  and  manufac- 
ture#,  particularly  those  of  glass  and  linen, 
were  founded.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century,  when  Charles's  profligate  son 
Wenceslas  occupied  both  the  imperial  and  the 
royal  throne,  ideas  b/..reformation  began  to 
spread  by  the  teachings^>sf  Huss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague,  whose  death  at  &!pnstance  in  1415 
and  1416,  and  the  interventions  of  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  the  brother  of  Wenceslas,  caused 
the  outbreak  of  the  Hussite  waK  (see  HUS- 
SITES). Under  the  sway  of  the  iSussites  the 
throne  of  Bohemia  was  filled  by  election,  for  a 
time  from  the  Luxemburg  line,  once\  (1458-'71) 
by  a  native  nobleman,  George  PodAebrad  (see 
PODIEBRAD),  and  subsequently  fromj  the  Polish 
line  of  the  Jagiellos.  When  the  second  Bohe- 
mian king  of  this  line,  Louis,  whVo  was  also 
king  of  Hungary,  perished  at  Moflacs  (1526), 
his  brother-in-law  Ferdinand  of  (Austria,  the 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  was  crowned  king,  and 
in  1547  made  the  crown  hereditary  in  his 
house.  (See  AUSTRIA.)  In  1618  the  Bohe- 
mians, nnder  Protestant  lead,  rose  for  fche  res- 
toration of  their  liberties,  and  this  revolt  open- 


ed the  thirty  years'  war.  In  1619  they  chose 
the  elector  palatine  Frederick  V.  as  their  king, 
but  succumbed  in  the  battle  at  the  White 
mountain,  near  Prague,  in  1620.  The  most 
cruel  persecution  commenced ;  the  Protestants 
were  executed,  imprisoned,  and  banished,  and 
their  estates  confiscated.  The  constitution  was 
abolished,  the  Czech  literature,  school  system, 
and  nationality  proscribed,  and  the  native  state 
with  its  civilization  annihilated.  No  fewer  than 
36,000  families  were  forced  to  seek  refuge  in 
Saxony,  Sweden,  Poland,  Holland,  Branden- 
burg, and  elsewhere.  This,  and  the  sufferings 
of  the  thirty  years'  war,  devastated  the  land. 
German  Catholics  were  introduced  as  colonists, 
and  everything  German  was  favored  and  pre- 
ferred to  such  an  extent,  that  the  Germans  of 
Bohemia  for  more  than  a  century  furnished 
more  than  half  of  all  the  officers  in  the  Aus- 
trian provinces.  The  country  became  intense- 
ly Catholic,  but  the  spirit  of  Czech  nationality 
reawoke  after  the  French  wars.  The  revolu- 
tion of  1848  inverted  the  position  of  the  par- 
ties toward  the  Austrian  government:  the 
Germans  of  Bohemia,  in  common  with  a  ma- 
jority of  the  Austrian  Germans,  opposed  their 
government ;  the  Czechs  in  Bohemia,  together 
with  the  other  Slavic  populations  of  the  em- 
pire, looked  for  a  great  Slavic  empire  in  Aus- 
tria, and,  in  spite  of  the  bombardment  of 
Prague,  where  a  Slavic  congress  was  assem- 
bled in  June,  1848,  supported  the  imperial  au- 
thorities. Since  that  time  the  political  strug- 
gles of  the  Czechs  for  renewed  national  auton- 
omy have  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
history  of  the  Austrian  empire,  while  Bohemia 
itself,  which  witnessed  some  of  the  principal 
contests  in  the  Hussite,  thirty  years',  and  seven 
years'  wars,  once  more  became  a  great  theatre 
of  war  in  1866  (battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3). 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  Christian  society 
which  originated  in  the  Hussite  movements  of 
the  15th  century,  and  rejected  the  mass,  pur- 
gatory, transubstantiation,  prayers  for  the 
dead,  and  the  adoration  of  images,  and  con- 
tended for  the  communion  in  both  kinds.  The 
origin  of  this  sect  is  traced  to  Peter  of  Chel- 
cic,  who  about  1420  protested  against  any  in- 
terference of  the  secular  power  in  matters  of 
faith,  and  demanded  a  return  of  the  church  to 
the  institutions  of  the  apostolic  age.  About 
1450  an  ecclesiastical  organization  was  in  exist- 
ence, composed  mainly  of  remnants  of  the  Ta- 
borites  (see  HUSSITES),  and  called  the  "  Chelcic 
Brethren,"  who  lived  retired  from  the  world, 
regarded  oaths  and  military  service  as  mor- 
tal sins,  and  denounced  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  as  the  church  of  Antichrist.  They 
were  favored  by  the  Calixtine  archbishop  Roki- 
tzana,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Gregory,  a 
nephew  of  Rokitzana,  a  considerable  number  of 
adherents  of  these  doctrines  settled  on  an  es- 
tate belonging  to  George  Podiebrad,  then  re- 
gent of  Bohemia,  and  known  as  the  barony  of 
Liticz.  The  Calixtine  priest  Bradacz  became 
their  spiritual  head.  In  1460  the  first  synod 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE 


787 


of  the  Brethren  was  held  at  Liticz,  which  sev- 
ered their  connection  with  the  Calixtines  and 
adopted  the  doctrine  of  the  merely  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist.  Hence- 
forth Rokitzana  and  Podiebrad,  who  had  been 
raised  to  the  throne,  were  outspoken  enemies 
of  the  Brethren,  who  sought  refuge  from  per- 
secution in  the  caves,  and  thus  received  the 
name  of  cave-dwellers  (Grubenheimer).  The' 
Brethren  themselves  adopted  for  their  organi- 
zation the  name  of  the  Unity  of  Brethren 
( Unitas  Fratrum).  The  organization  increased 
rapidly  amid  persecution ;  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Lutheran  reformation  it  numbered  400 
congregations  with  200,000  members.  The 
great  persecution  under  Ferdinand  I.,  in  1547, 
drove  a  number  of  the  Brethren  into  Poland 
and  Prussia.  In  Poland  the  organization  be- 
came so  flourishing  that  the  Polish  congrega- 
tions were  received  into  the  communion  of  the 
Brethren  as  a  separate  province.  These  con- 
gregations united  with  the  Lutherans  and  Re- 
formed in  the  Consensus  Sandomiriensis  (1570), 
while  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  they  presented 
conjointly  with  these  two  Protestant  denomina- 
tions the  Confessio  Bohemica  to  the  emperor 
Maximilian  II.  (1575).  After  Rudolph  II.  had 
granted  religious  toleration,  the  Brethren  were 
represented  in  the  evangelical  consistory  of 
Prague  by  one  of  their  bishops.  Under  Ferdi- 
nand II.  they  were  compelled  either  to  join  out- 
wardly the  Roman  Catholic  church  or  go  into 
exile  (1620).  By  those  who  preferred  exile  a 
number  of  congregations  were  established  in 
Prussia,  Poland,  and  Hungary,  which  main- 
tained themselves  until  the  death  of  their  bishop 
Amos  Comenius  (1671),  when  they  became 
merged  in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  congre- 
gations. The  Brethren  in  Poland  ultimately 
united  with  the  Reformed  church,  and  contin- 
ued the  consecration  of  bishops  in  the  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum.  The 
same  hope  was  entertained  by  the  remainder 
of  the  Brethren  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  who 
kept  up  secret  meetings.  Their  hopes  were 
fulfilled  by  the  new  organization  which  owes  its 
origin  to  Count  Zinzendorf.  (See  MORAVIANS.) 
The  relation  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  to  the 
Waldenses  has  not  yet  been  fully  cleared  up  by 
historical  investigators. — At  the  head  of  the 
church  were  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  as 
assistants  of  the  priests.  The  bishops  had  the 
exclusive  right  to  ordain.  Each  of  the  bishops 
had  a  diocese ;  conjointly  they  formed  the 
supreme  church  council,  which  was  presided 
over  by  the  primate.  This  council,  which  also 
embraced  from  six  to  eight  assistant  bishops, 
appointed  all  the  preachers,  but  was  itself  re- 
sponsible to  the  synod,  which  met  every  third 
or  fourth  year.  The  church  was  divided  into 
three  provinces,  the  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and 
Polish.  The  discipline  of  the  church  consisted 
of  three  degrees :  first,  private  admonition  and 
censure;  secondly,  public  censure  and  exclu- 
sion from  the  Lord's  supper ;  lastly,  exclusion 
from  the  communion  of  the  church.  The 


Brethren  were  noted  for  their  literary  activity 
and  their  schools ;  their  most  celebrated  work 
was  the  Kralitz  translation  of  the  Bible  in  the 
Bohemian  language.  The  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  the  Brethren  was  greatly  promoted 
by  the  discovery  in  1862  at  Lissa  of  a  part  of 
the  old  archives  of  the  church,  and  a  number 
of  able  historical  works  have  since  been  written 
on  the  subject.  The  most  important  sources 
of  information  are:  Gindely,  Geschichte  der 
Buhmischen  Bruder  (Prague,  1857) ;  Croger, 
Geachichte  der  alten  Britderkirche  (Gnadau, 
1865);  De  Schweinitz,  "The  Moravian  Epis- 
copate" (Bethlehem,  Penn.,  1865);  Benham, 
"Origin  and  Episcopate  of  the  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren" (London,  1867). 

liollKlim  LiKGtiGE  \ M)  LITERATI  RE.  The 
word  Bohemian  is  improperly  applied  to  the 
principal  nation  of  the  western  Slavs.  The 
true  name  of  the  people  is  Czechs  (ftechi,  pro- 
nounced Tchekhi),  from  eeti,  to  begin,  as  they 
believe  themselves  to  be  the  first  of  the  family. 
The  language  is  the  harshest,  strongest,  most 
abounding  in  consonants,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  richest  and  most  developed  of  the  many 
dialects  of  the  Slavic  family,  which  itself  is  the 
northernmost  relative  of  the  Sanskrit,  the  cul- 
minating tongue  of  the  Aryan  stock.  Nearest 
to  the  Czech  are  the  Moravian  and  the  Slovak 
of  N.  W.  Hungary,  both  sub-dialects,  and  the 
Sorabo-Wendic  of  Lusatia,  a  cognate  dialect. 
The  southern  and  southwestern  Slavs  had  ob- 
tained letters  from  CyriUus  who  modified  the 
Greek  alphabet,  and  the  Glagolitic  characters, 
wrongly  ascribed  to  St.  Jerome,  before  the 
Latin  mode  of  writing  was  adopted  by  the  other 
branches  of  the  family,  in  the  form  of  the  black 
letter,  and  recently  in  the  Italian  shape.  In 
this  language  there  are  the  five  Italian  vowels 
(both  short  and  long — when  long,  marked  by 
an  accent),  with  an  additional  y  (short  and 
long),  which  is  duller  and  heavier  than  i;  one 
diphthong,  ou  (pronounced  as  in  our) ;  the 
pseudo-diphthongs  of  all  the  vowels  with  a 
closing  y,  and  the  diphthong  <f,  pronounced  ye. 
B,  d,  f,  i,  I,  m,  n,  -p,  D,  sound  as  in  English ; 
but  c  is  pronounced  as  if  written  ts  in  English ; 
g  before  «,  i,  y,  like  y  in  yes;  h  harsher  than 
in  hen  ;  r  trembling  and  rolling,  and  not  slurred 
over  as  in  the  English  marsh,  park;  s  always 
as  in  sap ;  t  always  as  in  tin;  w  like  the  Eng- 
lish v;  z  always  as  in  zeal.  The  following  let- 
ters with  the  diacritic  sign  (")  are  pronounced 
— c  like  English  ch  in  chat ;  s  like  sh  in  shall; 
z  like  the  French  j,  or  the  English  zi  in  gla- 
zier ;  r  like  the  Polish  rz,  almost  like  rzh,  as 
much  as  possible  in  one  utterance ;  d  like  the 
Magyar  ay  (dy  in  one  utterance);  t  like  the 
Magyar  ty  ;  n  like  the  Italian  gn  in  tignore,  or 
Magyar  ny.  There  is  also  a  peculiar  letter  I, 
with  a  cross  bar  as  in  Polish,  having  a  heavy 
and  dull  sound  unknown  to  the  English.  The 
letter  x  occurs  only  in  foreign  words.  The 
combination  ch  is  pronounced  as  in  German, 
being  the  most  strongly  aspirated  guttural 
sound;  the  trigranima  sch  represents  two 


788 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


sounds,  viz.,  «  and  cA,  as  in  the  German  word 
(rliischen.  Cz  was  formerly  used  for  c,  rz  for 
»•,  and  sz  for  $. — The  Czech  language  has  no 
article,  but  has  declinable  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns. It  has  three  genders,  eight  declen- 
sions, seven  cases  (nominative,  genitive,  da- 
tive, accusative,  vocative,  instrumental  or  so- 
ciative,  and  locative) ;  three  numbers  (a  dual 
only  in  nouns  and  pronouns) ;  two  kinds  of 
adjectives,  determinate  and  indeterminate; 
organic  and  periphrastic  degrees  of  compari- 
son; declinable  numerals;  six  forms  of  the 
verb  (with  but  one  inflection),  six  modes 
(indicative,  imperative,  conjunctive,  optative, 
conditional,  and  transgressive  or  participial). 
The  passive  voice  and  the  future  tenses  are 
made  by  means  of  auxiliaries ;  but  the  termi- 
nations of  persons  and  numbers  are  not  less 
developed  than  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Great 
liberty  in  the  sequence  of  words  characterizes 
the  syntax,  which  is  analogous  to  the  Greek 
and  Latin.  Metre  predominates  over  the 
tones  in  the  vocalism  of  words,  so  that  the 
•  Czech  language  can  vie  with  the  Magyar  in 
rendering  Greek  and  Latin  poetic  rhythm. 
Great  variety,  force,  and  phonetic  symbolism 
in  the  derivating  affixes,  enrich  the  language 
with  a  great  number  of  expressions,  and  make 
up  for  its  scantiness  of  metaphony. — Joseph 
Dobrovsky,  the  great  Slavic  linguist,  divides 
the  history  of  the  Czech  language  and  litera- 
ture into  six  periods,  commencing  respectively 
with  the  following  epochs:  1,  the  immigration 
of  the  Czechs;  2,  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, A.  D.  845;  3,  King  John  of  Luxem- 
burg, 1310;  4,  John  Huss,  who  introduced  a 
precise  orthography,  1410 ;  5,  the  extension  of 
printing,  and  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  I.  of 
Hapsburg,  1526;  6,  the  battle  at  the  White 
Mountain,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  non-Catho- 
lics, 1620.  The  discovery  in  1817  of  a  part  of 
the  Bukopis  vralodleorsky  (manuscript  of  K6- 
niginhof),  by  Hanka,  in  a  church  steeple, 
brought  to  light  a  collection  of  14  lyric  and 
epic  poems,  alleged  to  have  been  written  be- 
tween the  years  1290  and  1310,  and  supe- 
rior to  most  of  the  contemporary  productions 
of  other  European  nations.  There  are  about 
20  poetic  and  50  prose  works  extant  belonging 
to  the  epoch  before  Huss,  such  as  Dalimil's 
chronicle  in  verse,  of  1314;  a  song  of  1346,  on 
the  battle  of  Crecy,  where  King  John  fell,  and 
other  liistpric  legends ;  Thomas  Stitny's  book 
for  his  children,  1376 ;  Baron  Duha's  judicial 
constitution  of  Bohemia,  1402 ;  a  politico-di- 
dactic poem,  by  S.  Flaska  of  Richenburg ;  and 
various  allegoric,  dramatic,  and  elegiac  compo- 
sitions, besides  translations  of  foreign  works. 
Charles  I.  of  Bohemia,  known  as  Charles  IV., 
emperor  of  Germany,  founded  in  1347  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Emails,  in  the  Neu- 
stadt  of  Prague,  for  monks  who  had  fled  hither 
from  Croatia  and  in  1348  the  university  of 
Prague.  John  Huss  revised  the  translation  of 
the  Bible,  wrote  tracts  and  hexameter  poetry, 
and  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  activity  of  the 


Czech  mind.  Notwithstanding  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  the  Hussite  writings,  there  yet 
remain,  hidden  in  archives  and  libraries,  many 
productions  of  the  Calixtines,  Taborites,  Ho- 
rebites,  Orphanites,  and  other  Hussite  sects, 
some  of  them  by  mechanics,  peasants,  and  wo- 
men. Many  of  these  works  were  carried  off 
by  the  Swedes,  and  are  now  in  the  library  of 
Stockholm.  Mere  rhyming,  however,  prevailed 
over  poetic  inspiration  in  most  of  the  verse  of 
those  times.  But  the  prose  works  of  the  15th 
century,  especially  the  state  papers,  are  models 
of  composition :  concise,  clear,  and  emphatic  in 
style ;  so  much  so,  that  the  Czech  language 
was  about  to  become  a  general  means  of  civ- 
ilization for  all  Slavs,  and  was  even  used  in 
Lithuanian  official  documents.  John  Ziska, 
the  leader  of  the  Hussites  (1419-'24),  composed 
war  songs,  and  a  system  of  tactics  for  his 
troops.  The  work  of  Hayek  de  Hodetin,  and 
especially  that  of  Wenceslas  Vlcek  de  Cenow, 
on  Hussite  strategy,  are  more  important.  The 
accounts  of  the  travels  of  Albert  Kostka  de 
Postupitz  to  France  (1464),  of  Leo  de  Ros- 
mital  through  Europe  (1465),  of  the  Bohe- 
miaa  Brother  Martin  Kabatnik  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Egypt  (1491),  of  John  de  Lobko\vitz  to 
Palestine  (1493),  &c. ;  the  spirited  and  elegant 
political  work  of  Ctibor  de  Cimburg,  the  clas- 
sic production  of  the  same  sort  by  V.  C.  de 
Wszehod,  "The  Art  of  Governing,"  and  the 
great  encyclopcedia  of  the  canon  Paul  Zidek, 
with  many  works  on  economy,  popular  medi- 
cine, &c.,  are  monuments  of  the  Czech  intel- 
lect in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century. 
After  1490  the  kings  ceased  to  reside  in  Bo- 
hemia, and  German  Catholics  began  to  pour 
into  the  country.  Nevertheless,  Czech  litera- 
ture attained  its  golden  age  between  1526  and 
1620,  especially  under  Rudolph  (II.  as  em- 
peror of  Germany,  1576-1612),  when  the  sci- 
ences and  arts  were  zealously  cultivated  by 
all  classes  of  society.  Kepler  (though  a  Ger- 
man) presided  over  the  astronomic  observatory 
at  Prague,  which  then  had  two  universities  and 
16  other  literary  institutions,  including  schools 
for  females  as  well  as  males.  The  Czech 
tongue  was  now  more  developed  even  than  the 
German,  and  was  used  in  all  transactions ;  in 
point  of  style  the  works  of  this  period  are  in- 
ferior to  those  of  earlier  times,  but  the  political 
and  legal  literature  is  superior  to  the  rest.  The 
following  works  are  worthy  of  mention :  George 
Streyc's  psalms;  Lomnicky's  poems;  Charles 
de  Zerotin's  memoirs  and  letters;  Wenceslas 
Hayek  de  Liboczan's  romantic  chronicle  of  Bo- 
hemia ;  Barto's  work  on  the  religious  troubles 
of  1524;  Sixtus  de  Ottendorfs  work  on  the 
diet  of  1547 ;  John  Blahoslav's  history  of  the 
Bohemian  and  Moravian  brethren,  perhaps 
wrongly  ascribed  to  him ;  a  universal  history, 
now  at  Stockholm,  by  an  anonymous  author, 
but  rich,  clear,  and  trustworthy;  genealogies 
and  biographies  by  Brzezan ;  an  excellent  his- 
tory by  Veleslavin ;  the  travels  and  fortunes 
of  Ulric  de  Wlkanowa,  Wenceslas  Vratislas  de 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


789 


Mitrowitz,  and  Christopher  Harant  de  Polzitz, 
&c.  Matthew  Benesovsky's  glossololgy,  and 
Abraham  de  Ginterrod's  classic  archaeology, 
are  also  memorable.  There  are  several  good 
works  on  judicial  affairs  and  on  religious  sub- 
jects ;  for  instance,  that  of  Augusta,  a  bishop 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  The  translation 
of  the  Bible  published  by  this  society  reached 
eight  editions.  It  is  in  pure  and  elegant  Czech, 
and  was  translated  from  the  original  in  the 
castle  of  Kralitz  in  Moravia,  by  a  society  which 
Joseph  Zerotin  had  collected  and  maintained 
there  from  1579  to  1593.  Count  Slavata,  one 
of  the  imperial  Catholic  party,  who  was  thrown 
from  a  window  of  the  castle  of  Prague  by 
Count  Thurn's  associates  in  1618,  left  a  detailed 
documentary  history  of  his  times,  in  15  vols. 
folio.  That  act  of  violence  opened  the  thirty 
years'  war,  and  brought  about  the  sudden  fall 
and  decay  of  Czech  civilization,  which  then 
sank  to  a  low  degree  of  debasement.  The  best 
men  of  the  country  perished  by  the  sword  and 
pestilence ;  others  emigrated ;  German,  Italian, 
Netherlandish,  Spanish,  and  Irish  adventurers 
took  their  place  in  all  offices,  dignities,  and  emol- 
uments. Ferdinand  II.  imported  Benedictines 
from  Montserrat  hi  1624;  and  the  Jesuits,  es- 
corted by  the  soldiery,  ransacked  every  house 
for  Bohemian  books,  burning  all  those  publish- 
ed after  1414  as  heretical.  This  state  of  things 
lasted  far  into  the  18th  century.  While  it 
prevailed,  many  of  the  sc-called  Bohemian 
heretics  and  rebels  Germanized  their  very 
names.  The  Jesuit  Anton  Konias,  who  died  in 
1760,  boasted  of  having  burnt  60,000  books. 
The  exiles,  however,  continued  to  cherish  their 
native  literature,  and  printed  several  books  in 
Poland,  Saxony,  Holland,  &c.  The  Hungarian 
Protestant  Slovaks  did  very  much  in  preserving 
Bohemian  letters.  In  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
there  appeared  but  few  works,  among  them 
Bezovsky's  chronicle,  the  lays  of  Volney,  and 
the  hexameter  essays  of  Rosa.  John  Amos 
Comenius,  the  bast  bishop  of  the  Bohemian 
Brethren,  wrote  an  Orbis  Pietus  in  several 
languages,  and  although  his  Latinity  is  barba- 
rous, his  native  style  is  pure,  lively,  and  forcible. 
The  Swedes,  who  were  expelled  from  Bohemia 
in  1640,  carried  many  literary  treasures  home, 
among  others  the  Azbukividarium  or  Alpha- 
letum  Slavorum,  in  Glagolitic  characters,  on 
parchment,  now  in  the  great  book  at  Stock- 
holm; also  the  Alphabet  urn  Rutenum  in  Cy- 
rillic characters.  The  empress  Maria  Theresa 
decreed,  Dec.  6,  1774,  the  cessation  of  perse- 
cutions against  the  Protestants,  and  remodelled 
the  system  of  education,  introducing  normal 
and  other  schools.  Joseph  II.  ordered  that 
German  should  be  the  language  in  the  high 
schools  and  in  all  public  affairs.  But,  thanks 
to  the  exertions  of  Count  Francis  Kinsky,  and 
of  the  historian  Pelzel,  the  Czech  language  was 
introduced  into  the  higher  military  institutions, 
and  the  sciences  were  freed  from  German 
trammels..  The  Czech  culture  soon  rose  from 
its  long  lethargy,  and  writers  appeared  in  all 


branches  of  literature,  among  whom  the  fol- 
lowing must  be  particularly  mentioned :  Pelzel, 
Prochazka,  Kramerius,  Parizek,  an  author  of 
good  school  books,  and  Tomsa,  a  linguist.  The 
father  of  modern  Bohemian  poetry  was  Anton 
Puchmayer,  a  clergyman  (1795-1820),  who  was 
also  well  versed  in  Polish  and  Russian.  He  was 
followed  by  the  brothers  A.  and-T.  Negedly, 
Rautenkranz,  Stepniczka,  Hnievkovsky,  who 
was  also  a  good  prose  writer,  Svoboda,  and 
especially  Jungmann,  and  Chmelensky,  a  lyric 
poet.  The  higher  classes,  however,  continued 
to  be  estranged  from  native  letters  until  lately, 
although  since  1776  a  chair  for  the  Czech  lan- 
guage has  existed  even  in  the  university  of 
Vienna.  Printing  had  been  introduced  into 
Bohemia  in  1476,  and  Vrtatko  lately  even 
claimed  a  share  in  its  invention  in  favor  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  ground  that  Gutenberg  was 
originally  from  that  country,  and  that  the  press 
was  freely  developed  in  it,  without  the  aid 
of  Germans.  The  above-mentioned  discovery 
of  Hanka,  the  introduction  of  the  Czech  tongue 
in  the  high  schools,  the  efforts  of  the  supreme 
burggraf  Kolowrat  in  the  foundation  of  a  na- 
tional museum  (1822),  and  other  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, have  more  recently  produced  a 
sudden  rise  of  Bohemian  literature.  We  must 
be  content  with  notices  of  its  more  prominent 
writers  and  productions.  Schafarik  and  Pa- 
lacky  first  recommended  the  old  metres  in 
verse.  A  committee  on  the  language  was 
formed  in  the  museum  in  1831.  Langer  wrote 
lyric,  didactic,  and  satiric  poems;  Roko,  an 
epic;  Holly,  an  epic,  Svatopluk,  and  a  "  Cyrillo- 
Methodiad ;  "  Kollar,  elegies ;  Schneider,  songs 
and  popular  ballads ;  Stiepanek,  Klicpera,  Ma- 
hacek,  Vocel,  and  Turinsky,  dramas.  Opera 
libretti  were  produced  by  the  last  named,  by 
Svoboda,  and  by  Chmelensky.  Prizes  were 
offered  for  the  best  dramatic  works,  and  a  na- 
tional theatre  was  founded  by  subscription. 
The  foremost  of  the  modern  poets  are  Kollar, 
whose  masterpiece  is  the  Slavy  deem  ("Daugh- 
ter of  Glory  "),  arid  the  song-writer  Celakov- 
sky.  In  tales  the  favorite  author  is  Erben; 
and  the  songs  and  ballads  of  Schneider  are  in 
the  mouths  of  all.  Among  the  properly  ro- 
mantic poets  we  find  Macha,  Halek,  Neruda, 
Fric,  and  Barak,  most  of  them  living.  Czech 
fictitious  literature  is  comparatively  poor.  We 
must  also  mention  Jungmann's  "History  of 
Bohemian  Literature,"  Schafarik's  "History 
of  Slavic  Literature,"  and  the  latter's  transla- 
lations  from  Aristophanes,  Schiller,  Burger, 
and  others.  A  new  scientific  glossology  was 
produced  by  Presl,  professor  and  director  of 
the  cabinet,  and  author  of  many  works  on  nat- 
ural history.  Palacky  is  at  the  head  of  the 
historical  school,  and  is  a  writer  on  aesthetic 
and  critical  subjects.  So  was  Schafarik,  who 
also  wrote  an  eminent  work  on  "  Slavic  An- 
tiquities" (3d  ed.,  1863-'4).  Philosophy,  the- 
ology, the  natural  sciences,  and  mathematics 
have  found  numerous  votaries.  Of  late,  owing 
to  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  the  all-absorbing 


790 


BOHEMOND 


BOHOL 


nationality  struggle,  Czech  literature  has  taken 
a  more  political  turn,  the  periodical  press  be- 
ing particularly  active.  Czech  grammars  and 
dictionaries  are  numerous,  some  of  them,  like 
the  works  of  Dohrovsky,  Celakovsky,  and 
Jungmann,  of  great  philological  value. 

BUIIEMOND,  Mire,  a  Norman  crusader,  born 
about  1060, -died  in  1111.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Robert  Guiscard,  the  conqueror  of  Apu- 
lia and  Calabria,  and  commanded  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  wars  of  his  father  against  the  By- 
zantine emperor  Alexis,  1081-'5.  After  his 
father's  death  he  was  excluded  from  the  throne 
of  Apulia  by  his  younger  brother  Roger,  and 
obtained  as  his  inheritance  the  city  of  Taranto. 
Desirous  of  conquest  and  new  glory,  he  joined 
the  crusaders  in  Epirus  with  a  large  army 
(1096),  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Antioch  in  1098.  Ho  retained  posses- 
sion of  this  city,  and,  taking  no  part  in  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  endeavored  to  found  an  inde- 
pendent principality  in  Syria.  After  various 
adventures  he  returned  to  Europe,  leaving  his 
kinsman  Tancred  in  Antioch,  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  king  of  France,  and  beginning  a  new 
war  against  Alexis,  crossed  the  Adriatic  with 
6,000  horse  and  40,000  foot,  assembled  from 
various  parts  of  Europe,  and  laid  siege  to  Du- 
razzo.  The  war,  however,  was  disastrous  to 
the  Normans.  Bohemond  was  compelled  to 
conclude  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  soon  after  died. 
His  son,  Bohemond  II.,  succeeded  to  the  prin- 
cipality of  Antioch,  which  fell  under  Bohe- 
mond VI.  in  1268. 

BOHL  FIBER,  Cecilia,  a  Spanish  authoress, 
known  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Fernan  Ca- 
ballero,  born  at  Morget,  Switzerland,  in  1797. 
Her  mother  was  a  Spaniard,  and  her  father, 
Nikolas  Bohl  von  Faber,  the  son  of  a  Hamburg 
merchant  established  in  Spain,  and  the  author 
of  Floresta  de  rimas  antiguas  caitellanas  (3 
vols.,  Hamburg,  1821-'5)  and  Tentro  espaTiol 
anterior  d  Lope  de  Vega,  (1832).  The  daughter 
was  educated  in  Germany,  and  went  with  her 
father  to  Spain  in  1817.  She  was  married  suc- 
cessively to  Col.  Planells,  the  marquis  of  Arco 
Hermoso,  and  Antonio  de  Arron,  Spanish  con- 
sul in  Australia.  After  the  death  of  the  last, 
in  1863,  she  was  enabled,  through  the  patron- 
age of  the  duke  de  Montpensier,  to  reside  in 
the  royal  palace  at  Seville.  She  has  written 
on  the  traditions,  customs,  and  social  character- 
istics of  Spain,  especially  of  Andalusia,  a  series 
of  novels,  fairy  tales,  and  ballads.  A  collection 
of  her  works  appeared  at  Madrid  in  13  vols., 
1860-'61,  an  additional  volume  at  Cadiz  in  1862, 
and  in  1865  appeared  her  Novelas  originales. 
Her  principal  productions  have  been  translated 
into  French,  and  some  of  them  into  English. 
In  Germany  translations  of  her  works  appeared 
at  Paderborn  in  17  vols.,  1859-'64. 

ISOHLKV,  Peter  von,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  at  Wuppels,  Oldenburg,  March  13,  1796, 
died  in  Halle,  Feb.  6, 1840.  He  was  of  humble 
origin  and  had  to  struggle  with  adversity  till 
1817,  when  the  freemasons  of  Hamburg  enabled 


him  to  study  at  the  gymnasium  of  that  city, 
and  he  perfected  his  knowledge  of  oriental  lan- 
guages in  Halle  and  Bonn.  In  1822  he  became 
adjunct  professor  at  Bonn,  and  in  1825  profes- 
sor extraordinary  of  oriental  languages  in  Ko- 
nigsberg, and  in  1830  ordinary  professor.  He 
visited  England  in  1831  and  1837,  and  for  the 
improvement  of  his  health  he  spent  some  time 
in  southern  France,  whence  he  removed  in  1839 
to  Halle.  His  principal  works :  are  Das  alte  In- 
dien(2  vols.,  Konigsberg,  1830-'31);  his  edition 
of  Bhartrihari's  SprOche  (Berlin,  1833,  with  a 
German  translation,  Hamburg,  1835);  Die  Oene- 
sis,  historisch-kritisch  erluutert  (Konigsberg, 
1835) ;  his  edition  of  Kalidasa's  Bitusanhdra, 
(Leipsic,  1840) ;  and  his  Autobiographic,  edited 
by  Voigt  (Konigsberg,  1841 ;  2d  ed.  with  his 
correspondence,  1843). 

l;<imi.  Theobald,  a  German  flutist,  born  in  Ba- 
varia in  1802.  In  1834  he  went  to  London,  and 
in  1849  returned  to  his  native  country,  where 
he  entered  the  private  service  of  the  king.  He 
was  considered  almost  without  a  rival  as  a 
flute  player,  and  also  set  himself  the  task  of 
perfecting  the  mechanism  of  flutes  and  other 
reed  instruments.  His  efforts  resulted  in  the 
construction  of  what  has  since  been  known  as 
the  Bohm  flute,  which  has,  by  reason  of  the 
greater  accuracy  and  equality  of  its  scale  and 
the  superior  facility  of  the  fingering,  gradually 
superseded  the  old  models.  Bohm  also  made 
several  universally  accepted  improvements  in 
the  oboe  and  the  bassoon.  As  a  composer  he 
has  acquired  a  considerable  celebrity.  He  has 
written  several  concertos  for  flute  and  or- 
chestra, and  has  published  a  treatise  on  the 
construction  of  the  flute. 

ISOll V,  Henry  George,  an  English  publisher,  of 
German  parentage,  born  in  London,  Jan.  4, 
1796.  He  commenced  in  1845  the  republica- 
tion  of  rare  standard  works,  selected  from  all 
the  national  literatures  of  Europe,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  in  a  cheap  form.  For  many 
years  he  issued  in  a  uniform  shape  series  enti- 
tled "Standard  Library,"  "Scientific Library," 
"Illustrated  Library,"  "  Library  of  French  Me- 
moirs," Library  of  Extra  Volumes,"  "  Classical 
Library  "  (consisting  of  translations  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics),  "Antiquarian  Library," 
"Philosophical  Library,"  "Philological  Libra- 
ry," "Library  of  British  Classics,"  "Ecclesi- 
astical Library,"  "Miniature  Library,"  and 
"Cheap  Series,"  amounting  in  all  to  between 
600  and  TOO  volumes.  Mr.  Bohn  translated 
for  these  series  some  of  the  works  of  Schiller, 
Goethe,  and  Hnmboldt,  assisted  in  several  of 
the  classical  translations,  and  compiled  a 
"  Handbook  of  Pottery  and  Porcelain,"  "  Hand- 
book of  Proverbs,"  "  Polyglot  of  Foreign  Prov- 
erbs," &c.  He  edited  the  works  of  Addison 
and  Lowndes's  " Bibliographer's  Manual,"  and 
prepared  for  the  Philobiblon  society  a  "  Life 
of  Shakespeare"  and  "Dictionary  of  English 
Poetical  Quotations." 

BOHOL,  or  Bool,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands, 
situated  between  Cebu  and  Leyte,  and  N.  of 


BOHTLINGK 


BOII 


791 


Mindanao,  lat.  9°  54'  K,  Ion.  124°  21'  E.,  dis- 
covered by  Magellan  in  1521.  It  is  46  m.  in 
length  from  E.  to  W.  and  32  m.  in  breadth; 
area  estimated  at  1,354  sq.  m.  It  is  watered 
by  several  small  rivers,  one  of  which  has  its 
rise  in  a  lake  in  the  interior.  Gold  is  found  in 
the  river  sands.  The  chief  vegetable  products 
are  rice,  cocoanuts,  and  cotton.  Cattle-raising 
and  the  manufacture  of  cocoanut  oil  and  of  silk 
and  coarse  cotton  fabrics  are  the  principal  oc- 
cupations of  the  inhabitants. 

liitllTU.M.k,  Otto,  a  Russian  orientalist,  of 
German  descent,  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  May 
80,  1815.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  St.  Petersburg  acad- 
emy of  sciences  and  councillor  of  state.  He 
edited  Vopadeva's  grammar  (St.  Petersburg, 
1846),  Kalidasa's  Sakuntala  (with  translation, 
Bonn,  1842),  and  Hematchandra's  lexicon  (S,t. 
Petersburg,  1847),  and  published  a  grammar 
and  lexicon  of  the  Yakut  language  (3  vols., 
1849-'51),  and  "Indian  Aphorisms"  (Indische 
Spriiche,  2  vols.,  1863-'4).  His  principal  work 
is  the  great  Sanskrit  dictionary  (Sanskrit-  W<)r- 
terbuch),  prepared  conjointly  with  Prof.  Ru- 
dolph Rotli  of  Tubingen  and  published  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  academy  (7  vols.,  1853-'67). 

ItOIII  \,  Edmnnd,  an  English  writer  of  the 
17th  century,  born  at  Ringsfield,  Suffolk.  He 
was  a  descendant  of  the  lords  of  the  manor  of 
Westhall,  and  was  educated  at  Queen's  college, 
Cambridge,  which  he  entered  in  1663.  He 
edited  Filmer's  treatise  on  the  origin  of  gov- 
ernment, wrote  an  answer  to  the  paper  which 
Algernon  Sidney  had  delivered  to  the  sheriffs 
on  the  scaffold,  and  subsequently  published  a 
geographical  dictionary  and  other  works.  He 
swore  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  though 
he  was  a  stanch  tory  and  had  been  a  persecu- 
tor of  nonconformists  and  a  champion  of  the 
doctrine  of  passive  obedience  ;  and  in  1692  he 
was  appointed  by  the  earl  of  Nottingham  as 
licenser,  in  place  of  Fraser.  He  at  once  op- 
posed the  publication  of  "A  History  of  the 
Bloody  Assizes,"  and  of  other  writings  which 
he  considered  schismatic  and  revolutionary, 
but  sanctioned  that  of  an  anonymous  volume 
entitled  "  King  William  and  Queen  Mary  Con- 
querors," which  reflected  his  own  peculiar 
views,  but  which  roused  public  indignation 
chiefly  by  its  title,  and  led  in  January,  1693, 
to  his  removal  from  office,  to  his  arrest,  and  to 
the  public  burning  of  the  obnoxious  treatise. 
It  was  alleged  that  Charles  Blount,  an  extreme 
whig,  had  written  this  book  in  order  to  lay  a 
trap  for  the  ruin  of  Bohun,  whose  censorship 
he  had  bitterly  denounced.  See  "  Autobiog- 
raphy of  Edmund  Bohnn  "  in  Dunton's  "  Life 
and  Errors  "  (privately  printed,  London,  1853). 

BOI.4RUO,  or  Bojardo,  Matteo  Maria,  count  of 
Scandiano,  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Scandiano 
in  1430  or  1434,  died  in  Reggio  in  December, 
1494.  After  finishing  his  studies  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Ferrara,  he  was  received  with  dis- 
tinction at  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Este  in  that 
city,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Reggio 


in  1478,  of  Modena  in  1481,  and  again  of  Reg- 
gio in  1487.  His  great  chivalrous  poem,  which 
was  left  unfinished,  Orlando  innamorato,  is 
divided  into  three  books,  containing  69  cantos. 
In  1545  this  work  had  already  passed  through 
16  editions,  but  the  entire  work  was  first 
printed  in  1495.  It  was  translated  into  French 
by  Vincent  in  1544,  and  subsequently  by  Rosset 
and  Tressan,  and  Le  Sage  made  an  imitation 
of  it.  Boinrdo  wrote  his  poem  in  the  Italian 
spoken  in  his  time  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  and 
it  was  therefore  very  much  criticised  at  Flor- 
ence. After  various  attempts  to  purify  the 
style,  it  was  more  than  once  entirely  rewrit- 
ten ;  the  best  rifaccimento  is  that  of  Berni. 
This  brought  the  poem  into  disuse,  and  Panizzi 
first  published  the  primitive  text,  with  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  poem  (London,  1830). 
Ariosto's  Orlando  furioso  is  a  continuation  of 
Boiardo's  poem.  Boiardo  was  the  author  of 
many  other  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
are  his  Sonnetti  e  camoni  (3  vols.,  Reggio, 
1499),  almost  all  addressed  to  his  mistress, 
Antonia  Capraca.  Among  the  others  is  II 
Timone,  a  drama  in  five  acts. 

BOIELDIEU,  Francois  Adrlen,  a  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Rouen,  Dec.  15,  1775,  died  at 
Grosbois,  near  Bordeaux,  Oct.  8,  1834.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  distinguished  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  for  which  he  composed  his  first 
musical  pieces.  These  were  succeeded  by  duets 
for  the  harp  and  piano,  and  romances,  remark- 
able for  their  simple  and  graceful  melodies, 
several  of  which,  as  the  Menestral  and  <S'«7  est 
vrai  que  d'etre  deux,  became  very  popular.  In 
1797,  two  years  after  his  arrival  in  Paris,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  piano  at  the 
conservatoire,  and  produced  at  the  opera  co- 
mique  Lafamille  suisse,  which  was  succeeded 
by  Le  calife  de  Bagdad,  Ma  tante  Aurore,  and 
other  works,  revealing  fertility  of  invention, 
and  a  freshness  and  vivacity  in  the  melodies 
which  have  never  been  surpassed  on  the  French 
stage.  In  1803,  at  the  invitation  of  the  czar 
Alexander  I.,  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg  to  fill 
the  place  of  imperial  chapelmaster.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1811,  and  soon  after  brought 
out  a  number  of  works,  among  which  were 
Jean  de  Paris,  Let  deux  nuits,  Le  nouveau  sei- 
gneur du  milage,  &c.  In  1817  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  institute,  soon  after  which  ap- 
peared his  Chaperon  roiige,  the  gay  and  bril- 
liant music  of  which  fully  justified  the  honor 
thus  conferred  upon  him.  In  1825  he  produced 
La  dame  blanche,  esteemed  his  chef -d?  (enure, 
which  is  still  familiar  to  the  English  and  Amer- 
ican stage.  An  affection  of  the  throat  now 
compelled  him  to  resign  his  professorship,  but 
he  was  enabled  to  live  comfortably  on  a  pen- 
sion from  the  conservatoire  and  an  annual 
present  from  Charles  X.,  until  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  deprived  him  of  these  sources  of 
income.  He  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral. 

BOII,  a  Celtic  people  whose  original  seat  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  that  region  now  forming 
the  French  departments  of  Haute-Marne  and 


792 


BOIL 


BOILEAU-DESPREAUX 


Haute-Saone,  but  who  passed  over  into  Cis- 
alpine Gaul,  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard  or  the 
pass  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  probably  with  the 
current  of  Celtic  immigration  which  began  to 
set  thither  as  early  as  the  5th  century  B.  C. 
(See  CELTS.)  They  crossed  the  Po,  and  estab- 
lished themselves  south  of  that  river,  in  the  re- 
gion forming  the  modern  provinces  of  Modena, 
Bologna,  and  Ferrara.  In  the  half-tradition- 
ary accounts  of  the  period  subsequent  to  this 
settlement,  they  are  represented  as  aiding  the 
Insubres  and  Senones  in  the  sack  of  Melpum 
(probably  about  396  B.  C.).  Their  first  con- 
flict with  the  Romans  appears  to  have  been  in 
283,  when  they  acted  as  allies  of  the  Etrus- 
cans at  their  defeat  near  Lake  Vaclimonis.  In 
282  they  were  again  defeated,  and  now  kept  a 
truce  with  Rome  for  45  years.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  they  again  took  up  arms  to  resist 
Roman  encroachments,  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Gallic  war  of  225,  in  which  they 
suffered  severe  defeat,  in  the  second  Punic  war 
(218),  in  which  they  were  efficient  allies  of 
Hannibal,  and  in  the  revolt  of  the  Gauls  under 
Hamilcar  (200).  They  did  not  cease  hostili- 
ties, waged  with  or  without  the  assistance  of 
other  tribes,  until  191,  when  they  were  finally 
entirely  subdued  by  Scipio  Nasica,  who  punished 
them  with  the  utmost  severity,  slaughtering 
nearly  half  their  number.  As  a  further  means 
of  putting  an  end  to  their  power,  the  Romans 
established  colonies  in  their  territory,  and 
finally  compelled  the  remaining  Boii  to  re- 
cross  the  Alps,  and  take  refuge  with  the  Celtic 
tribes  of  Pannonia.  Near  the  W.  border  of  this 
country  they  again  established  themselves,  in 
the  regions  which  took  from  them  the  names 
of  Boioaria  or  Bavaria  and  Boiohemum  or 
Bohemia.  They  remained  here  for  more  than 
a  century,  but  their  power  had  been  broken, 
and  they  were  at  last  entirely  exterminated 
by  the  Dacian  tribes.  Little  is  known  of  their 
customs  and  political  condition,  but  from  the  al- 
lusions of  Livy  they  appear  to  have  had  towns 
and  fortifications  of  some  consequence,  and  to 
have  known  something  of  the  mechanic  arts. 

BOIL,  an  inflamed  tumor,  which  begins  as 
a  pimple  in  the  skin,  and  continues  to  in- 
crease until  it  becomes  as  large  as  a  walnut,  or 
even  larger.  It  is  of  a  conical  shape,  some- 
what red  or  dusky,  and  hard,  with  burning 
heat  and  pain.  Between  the  fourth  and  eighth 
day  it  becomes  very  prominent,  and  begins 
to  "  point ;  "  a  speck  of  matter  may  be  seen  on 
the  summit,  which  gradually  softens ;  the  skin 
at  lasts  bursts  at  that  point,  and  matter  mixed 
with  blood  is  discharged  through  a  small  open- 
ing. A  day  or  two  after  this,  the  core,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  a  portion  of  dead  connective 
tissue,  finds  its  way  out,  or  may  be  forced  out 
by  gentle  pressure,  leaving  an  open  cavity 
which  soon  fills  up,  and  heals  about  the  12th 
or  14th  day.  Boils  may  appear  on  any  part  of 
the  body,  but  they  commonly  form  on  the  face 
or  on  the  neck,  in  the  armpits  or  inside  of  the 
thighs,  on  the  hips  or  in  the  groin ;  and  there 


are  generally  several,  either  at  the  same  time  or 
following  one  another.  They  seem  to  be  caus- 
ed by  fatigue  in  some  form,  anxiety  of  mind, 
fatigue  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  general  fa- 
tigue of  body  or  of  mind,  or  both.  By  lancing 
the  pimple  on  its  first  appearance,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  boil  is  often  prevented.  If  allowed 
to  mature  and  go  on  to  suppuration,  the  pain 
may  be  relieved  and  the  process  hastened  by  the 
application  of  warm  poultices.  The  period  of 
suppuration  may  be  distinguished  by  the  pain, 
which  becomes  more  severe  and  throbbing  in 
character,  by  an  cedematous  condition  of  the 
skin  over  its  most  prominent  portion,  and  by  a 
sense  of  deep-seated  fluctuation  communicated 
to  the  fingers,  when  the  tumor  is  compressed 
alternately  from  side  to  side.  As  soon  as  the 
formation  of  pus  is  indicated  by  the  above 
signs,  the  most  effectual  treatment,  both  for 
the  relief  of  pain  and  for  the  rapidity  of  cure, 
is  to  make  a  free  incision  into  the  substance  of 
the  boil,  deep  enough  to  reach  its  central  cavity 
and  allow  the  evacuations  of  the  pus.  "When 
the  boil  is  allowed  to  burst  of  itself,  the  open- 
ing is  usually  small,  and  the  core  remains  some 
time  before  it  is  discharged,  unless  it  be  drawn 
out.  The  cavity  soon  heals  after  the  core  is 
discharged,  and  nothing  is  usually  required  but 
simple  dressing. 

iwil.i:  U  -l>i;si>KK  U  X,  Nltolas,  a  French  didac- 
tic and  satirical  poet  and  critic,  born  in  or  near 
Paris,  Nov.  1, 1636,  died  there,  March  13,  1711. 
His  mother,  Anne  de  Nielle,  who  died  in  his 
infancy,  was  the  second  wife  of  Grilles  Boileau, 
an  esteemed  greffier  of  the  Paris  parliament, 
who  claimed  descent  from  Etienne  Boileau  or 
Boilesve,  a  provost  of  the  13th  century.  Young 
Boileau,  whose  surname  of  Desprdanx  is  ascrib- 
ed by  some  authorities  to  a  small  patch  of 
land  which  he  owned,  studied  law  and  the- 
ology, was  admitted  as  an  advocate,  and  re- 
ceived the  tonsure;  but,  despite  the  remon- 
strances of  his  relatives  and  the  limited  means 
bequeathed  to  him  by  his  father,  who  died  in 
1651,  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits, 
and  especially  to  satirical  poems,  in  which  he 
took  Horace  as  his  model.  Some  of  them 
were  circulated  in  MS.  in  1660,  and  gained  for 
him  access  to  the  h&tel  de  Rambouillet,  where 
the  prevailing  pedantry  confirmed  his  purpose 
of  refining  literary  taste.  His  Di&couw  an  roi 
and  other  satires,  first  published  in  1666,  estab- 
lished his  reputation,  and  he  became  the  high- 
est literary  authority,  whose  decisions  made 
all  pretentious  mediocrities  wince,  while  Cor- 
neille  found  in  him  a  judicious  admirer,  and 
Molicire,  Lafontaine,  and  Racine  a  discrimi- 
nating mentor.  His  numerous  enemies  pre- 
vented his  presentation  at  court  till  1669  ;  but 
thenceforward  he  was  the  principal  literary 
favorite  of  Louis  XIV.,  whom  with  Racine  he 
accompanied  in  his  campaigns  nominally  as  his- 
toriographer, receiving  a  large  salary  without 
performing  any  duty  beyond  the  composition 
of  complimentary  verses.  With  his  increasing 
prestige,  his  writings  became  more  serene  and 


BOILING  POINT 


793 


philosophical,  although  he  continued  to  use 
satire  as  a  potential  engine  of  reform.  The 
French  academy,  though  incensed  at  his  bold 
criticisms,  could  not  exclude  him  beyond  1684 ; 
and  with  Racine  he  also  became  one  of  the 
earliest  members  of  the  academy  of  medals 
(afterward  of  inscriptions).  Louis  XIV.  pre- 
sented him  with  a  fine  residence  at  Auteuil, 
where  the  choicest  spirits  of  France  delighted 
in  Boileau's  conversation,  the  sting  of  his  satire 
being  smoothed  over  by  his  kindly  nature. 
According  to  Mine,  de  Sevigne,  he  was  cruel 
only  in  writing.  He  was  tenderly  devoted  to 
Moliere,  Racine,  and  Lafontaine,  though  often 
unsparing  in  his  criticism  of  their  works,  and 
successfully  exerted  his  influence  with  Louis 
XIV.  for  restoring  a  pension  to  the  aged  Cor- 
neille.  At  a  later  period  Mme.  de  Maintenon 
took  umbrage  at  his  disparaging  remarks  on 
Scarron  in  the  presence  of  Louis  XIV. ;  and  ul- 
tramontane influence  also  working  against  him, 
he  forfeited  the  favor  of  the  monarch  and  his 
court,  which  he  ceased  to  frequent  after  the 
death  of  Racine  (1699),  the  king  having  re- 
ceived him  on  his  announcement  of  this  event 
with  marked  coldness.  Subsequently  he  was 
prohibited  from  publishing  his  12th  satire,  De 
^equivoque.  In  his  disappointment  he  sold  his 
house  at  Auteuil  and  ended  his  life  in  Paris  in 
sadness,  which  was  increased  by  his  infirmities. 
He  iirst  resided  in  a  cloister  of  Notre  Dame, 
and  finally,  according  to  the  latest  researches, 
in  the  rue  de  Jerusalem,  and  not  as  previously 
stated  in  a  village  near  Paris. — His  greatest 
work  is  Uart  poetique  (1674),  a  didactic  poem, 
establishing  a  new  system  of  poetical  and  dra- 
matic composition ;  and  the  first  four  cantos  of 
Le  lutrin  (1674),  a  heroico-comicpoem,  were  ad- 
mired as  gems  of  fancy  and  humor.  Many  of  his 
didactic  Epitre*  also  acquired  celebrity,  and  his 
other  productions  include  Satires,  jUpigrammeg, 
Dialogua  de  lapodsie,  de  la  mutique  et  des  heros 
de  roman,  and  an  annotated  translation  of  the 
treatise  on  the  sublime  by  Longinus.  Guided 
solely  by  his  judgment  and  his  fine  perceptions 
of  the  true  and  the  beautiful,  he  was  wrongly 
represented  by  those  whose  pedantry  he  de- 
nounced as  destitute  of  all  emotional  powers. 
Voltaire  characterized  him  as  the  legislator  of 
Parnassus,  and  his  reputation  as  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  criticism  and  composition  has 
survived  all  the  changes  in  French  literature, 
as  attested  by  Sainte-Beuve  and  other  recent 
authorities.  Among  the  best  editions  of  his 
works  are  those  by  Daunou  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1809 ;  4  vols.,  1825) ;  by  Saint-Surin,  with 
copious  notes  (4  vols.,  1824) ;  and  by  Berriat 
Saint-Prix  (4  vols.,  1830  ;  new  ed.,  1860,  with 
an  essay  by  Sainte-Beuve).  Auguste  Laverdet 
has  published  a  complete  edition  of  Boileau's 
Correspondance  (2  vols.,  1856). 

BOILING  POINT,  the  temperature  at  which 
a  liquid  is  converted  into  vapor  with  ebullition. 
It  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  liquid  and  with 
the  degree  of  pressure  upon  it,  but  it  is  ordi- 
narily understood  to  mean  that  temperature 


at  which  the  boiling  occurs  when  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  is  exposed  to  an  atmospheric 
pressure  equal  to  maintaining  a  column  of 
mercury  29-922  inches  in  height.  It  is,  conse- 
quently, the  point  at  which  the  tension  of  the 
vapor  is  equal  to  the  pressure  upon  the  liquid. 
During  the  boiling  of  a  liquid  in  the  open  air, 
therefore,  the  temperature  remains  constant, 
even  when  the  amount  of  heat  supplied  to  the 
liquid  is  increased.  The  additional  heat,  in- 
stead of  being  retained,  is  expended  in  con- 
verting an  increased  quantity  of  the  liquid  into 
vapor.  If  pure  water  is  boiled  in  an  open 
metallic  vessel  when  the  barometer  stands  at 
29-922  inches,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
ebullition  takes  place  and  continues,  for  along 
time  at  least,  at  212°  F.  If  we  substitute  al- 
cohol for  water,  ebullition  will  commence  at 
173° ;  and  if  sulphuric  ether  is  used,  its  boiling 
point  will  be  found  at  95°,  a  temperature  below 
that  of  the  human  body.  There  are  several 
bodies  which  at  ordinary  temperatures  are 
gases,  but  which  by  the  abstraction  of  heat  or 
subjection  to  pressure,  or  both,  may  be  reduced 
to  liquids,  whose  boiling  points  are  therefore 
below  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  following  table  gives  the  boiling 
points  of  several  of  both  these  classes  of  bodies, 
and  also  the  atmospheric  pressure  at  which  the 
observations  were  made,  and  the  authority : 


NAME. 

Boiling 
point,  F. 

Height  of 
barometer. 

OBSERVER. 

126-22° 

29-^2 

—  108-76 

80-209  ' 

—  28-66 

29-498 

Sulphurous  acid  
Chloride  of  ethyl  
Aldehyde 

18-10 
61-80 
67-64 

29-291 
29-843 
28-898 

Pierre. 

98-56 

29-214 

Sulphide  of  carbon  

118-22 
145-40 

29-756 
29-922 

Pierre. 

Alcohol 

178-82 

29-922 

212-00 

29-922 

242-42 

29-528 

640-00 

29-922 

Mercury  

662-00 

29-922 

Kegnault. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  four  of  the 
bodies  in  the  above  table  are  gases  at  tem- 
peratures below  the  freezing  point  of  water, 
one  of  them  passing  into  the  liquid  state  only  at 
126-22°  F.  below  zero. — The  following  method 
for  ascertaining  the  boiling  points  of  liquids 
is  recommended  by  Prof.  Kopp,  and  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  cases  where  the  liquid 
is  expensive,  or  where  only  a  small  quantity 
can  be  obtained.  A  small  test  tube  is  fitted 
with  a  cork  through  which  are  bored  two  small 
holes.  Through  one  of  these  a  delicate  ther- 
mometer is  passed,  and  through  the  other  a 
bent  glass  tube,  open  at  both  ends.  A  few 
scraps  of  recently  heated  platinum  foil  are 
placed  in  the  test  tube,  and  then  the  liquid, 
only  a  small  quantity  of  which  is  required,  is 
poured  in.  The  scraps  of  platinum  foil  are 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  starting  points 
for  the  formation  of  the  steam  bubbles.  The 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  usually  placed  in 


794 


BOILING  POINT 


Fio.  1. 


the  vapor  immediately  above  the  liquid.  A 
spirit  lamp  will  quickly  cause  ebullition,  the 
steam  passing  off  through  the  open  glass  into 
a  cooled  receiver. 
(See  fig.  1.)— Wa- 
ter has  been  the 
subject  of  very 
careful  experi- 
ments with  regard 
to  its  boiling  point. 
In  consequence  of 
the  diminution  of 
the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere  as  we 
ascend  to  high 
mountain  alti- 
tudes, the  boiling 
point  of  water  be- 
comes so  low  that 
food  cannot  be  cooked  in  it.  Darwin,  who  as- 
cended one  of  the  mountains  of  Patagonia,  was 
unable  to  cook  potatoes  by  boiling,  and  various 
travellers  have  ascended  heights  where  it  was 
impossible  to  boil  eggs.  At  the  city  of  Mexico, 
which  is  7,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
water  boils  at  200°  F. ;  at  Quito,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  9,000  ft,  it  boils  at  194°;  and  at 
a  height  of  18,000  ft.  in  the  Himalaya  moun- 
tains Dr.  Hooker  found  the  boiling  point  to  be 
180°.  In  mines  below  the  level  of  the  sea 
water  will  not  boil  till  it  is  raised  to  a  tem- 
perature above  212°  F.  When  the  barometer 
marks  28-2  inches  ebullition  commences  at 
209°,  so  that  the  time  required  to  cook  food 
by  boiling,  even  in  the  same  locality,  will  often 
vary  considerably.  The  boiling  point  of  water 
under  various  degrees  of  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  consequently  at  various  mountain  alti- 
tudes, may  be  readily  obtained  by  placing  a 
vessel  of  warm  water  containing  a  ther- 
mometer under  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump, 
through  the  top  of  which  has  been  introduced 
a  barometer.  (See  fig.  2.)  If  the  water  in  the 
vessel  has  been  raised  to 
212°  just  before  beingplaced 
under  the  receiver,  it  will 
require  but  a  stroke  of  the 
piston  of  the  air  pump  to 
produce  ebullition.  By  con- 
tinuing the  exhaustion  the 
boiling  may  be  rendered 
very  violent,  and  then  the 
mercury  in  the  thermom- 
eter will  be  observed  to 
fall  very  rapidly.  The  con- 
version 'of  the  water  into 
vapor  causes  the  conversion 
of  sensible  into  latent  heat, 
a  term  which  is  still  re- 
tained, although  modern 
theory  regards  it  as  being 
converted  into  mechanical 
force.  When  the  water  boils  at  186°  F.,  the 
column  of  mercury  in  the  barometer  will  stand 
at  about  17'5  inches,  or  about  the  same  as  at 
the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  at  an  altitude  of 


FIG.  2. 


Fio.  3. 


about  15,700  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
By  using  a  large  pump  and  a  small  receiver, 
which  may  be  quickly  exhausted,  and  also  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  placed  in  a  test  tube 
or  a  vessel  of  that  form,  and  some  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  or  chloride  of  calcium,  for  absorb- 
ing moisture,  ebullition  may  be  produced  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  45°  F.,  or  even  lower. 
If  it  were  possible  to  produce  a  perfect  vacuum, 
it  could  be  continued  till  the  freezing  point 
is  reached ;  but  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  pre- 
vent it.  An  apparatus  like 
that  represented  in  fig.  3 
will  serve  to  exhibit  the 
effect  of  increased  pressure 
on  the  boiling  point.  A 
small  iron  boiler,  a,  having 
a  thermometer,  6,  tightly 
adjusted,  with  the  bulb 
passing  to  the  interior,  and 
furnished  with  a  stopcock, 
c,  receives  at  its  mouth,  d, 
a  strong  glass  tube  open  at 
both  ends,  and  sufficiently 
long  to  contain  a  column  of 
mercury  equal  to  the  pres- 
sure it  may  be  desired  to 
produce.  To  the  mouth  a 
screw,  through  which  the  tube  passes  to  near 
the  bottom,  is  securely  fitted.  To  make  the 
experiment  some  mercury  is  poured  into  the 
boiler,  and  then  it  is  about  half  filled  with  wa- 
ter, the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  being  left 
a  little  above  the  level.  If  now  heat  be  ap- 
plied while  the  stopcock  is  left  open,  the  wa- 
ter will  commence  and  continue  to  boil  at  212° 
F. ;  but  when  the  stopcock  is  closed  the  in- 
creased pressure  produced  by  the  confined 
steam  will  prevent  ebullition  unless  the  temper- 
ature is  raised.  When  the  mercury  has  been 
forced  up  the  tube  to  a  height  of  30  inches, 
there  will  of  course  be  a  pressure  of  two  at- 
mospheres upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  the 
boiling  point  of  which  will  be  raised  to  249°. 
If  the  heat  be  increased  until  the  column  at- 
tains a  height  of  90  inches,  the  pressure  will  be 
equal  to  four  atmospheres,  and  the  boiling  point 
will  be  raised  to  291°.  Eegnault,  in  his  cele- 
brated experiments,  used  a  stronger  and  more 
complex  apparatus  than  this,  and  found  that  at 
a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres  the  boiling  point 
of  water  was  415 '4°  F.  From  the  foregoing 
considerations  it  will  be  seen  that  a  perpendic- 
ular column  of  water  will  have  various  boiling 
points  at  different  depths.  Thus,  if  a  column 
of  water  is  34  ft.  in  height,  the  particles  at  the 
bottom  will  sustain  a  pressure  of  two  atmos- 
pheres, and  it  will  require  the  application  of 
249°  of  heat  to  produce  ebullition  at  that  point, 
and  of  234°  at  half  the  depth.  When  steam 
bubbles,  having  a  temperature  much  above 
212°,  ascend  through  a  column  of  liquid  in  a 
tall  cylinder,  they  impart  their  excess  of  heat 
to  it,  and  violent  bursts  of  steam  and  boiling 
water  are  thrown  from  the  mouth  of  the  vei- 


BOILING  POINT 


795 


sel.  If  a  basin  is  placed  about  the  orifice  to 
catch  the  falling  liquid,  which  in  the  presence 
of  the  expanding  vapor  has  parted  with  much 
of  its  heat,  and  convey  it  back  again  to  the 
cylinder,  a  period  of  comparative  quiet  will 
follow.  During  this  time  the  temperature  of 
the  column  will  increase,  and  bubbles  of  steam 
will  rise  higher  and  higher,  until  at  last,  when 
they  have  attained  sufficient  force,  the  violent 
expulsion  of  steam  and  water  will  be  repeated. 
The  geysers  in  Iceland,  and  the  great  Ameri- 
can geysers  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Missouri 
river,  are  examples  in  nature  of  the  boiling  of 
water  in  vertical  tubes. — There  are  some  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  boiling  of  water  be- 
sides external  pressure  which  must  he  taken 
into  consideration  in  making  experiments,  or 
correct  results  will  not  be  reached.  If  water 
is  boiled  in  a  well  cleaned  glass  flask  which  is 
perfectly  smooth  inside,  it  will,  when  the  barom- 
eter stands  at  29'922  inches,  reach  a  tempera- 
ture of  214°.  If  the  flask  had  been  rinsed  with 
a  solution  of  potash,  the  boiling  might  not  have 
occurred  below  215°  or  216°.  The  reason  as- 
signed for  these  phenomena  is  that  the  perfect 
cleaning  of  the  glass  in  one  case,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  a  small  quantity  of  potash  in  the  other, 
increases  the  cohesion  of  the  water  and  glass 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  demand  an  increase  of 
heat  to  effect  a  separation  between  them.  If 
water  be  boiled  for  a  long  time  in  a  flask,  and 
not  in  a  vessel  where  the  surface  is  freely  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  will  be  observed,  especially 
if  the  heat  is  moderately  applied  to  the  centre 
of  the  bottom,  that  the  ebullition  becomes 
more  or  less  irregular  or  jerking.  If  the  water 
is  allowed  to  cease  boiling  for  a  few  moments, 
and  the  heat  is  carefully  applied,  the  tempera- 
ture may  be  raised  as  high  as  220°  before  any 
bubbles  of  steam  will  be  formed,  when  the  boil- 
ing will  take  place  with  a  sudden  leap,  accom- 
panied by  a  rapid  decrease  of  temperature ; 
then  there  will  be  another  period  of  quietude, 
succeeded  by  another  violent  evolution  of  va- 
por. These  effects  are  heightened,  if  instead 
of  using  an  open  flask  the  water  is  boiled  in  a 
partial  vacuum  of  its  own  vapor.  This  may  be 
done  by  removing  the  lamp  and  corking  the 
neck  of  the  flask  after  the  air  has  been  as  far 
as  possible  expelled.  If  we  now  turn  cold  water 
over  the  flask,  the  vapor  within  will  be  partially 
condensed,  and  the  boiling  will  recommence  and 
will  continue  even  if  the  flask  be  plunged  into 
cold  water,  until  its  temperature  is  reduced 
much  below  blood  heat,  and  indeed  as  long  as 
the  tension  of  the  vapor  above  the  water  can 
be  kept  below  the  tension  of  the  vapor  which 
the  water  is  capable  of  yielding.  Near  the  con- 
clusion the  ebullition  becomes  very  irregular 
and  jerking ;  and  if  the  flask  is  placed  in  a  re- 
tort stand  and  gently  heated  at  the  bottom,  the 
bursts  of  vapor  will  be  more  explosive  than 
during  the  cooling  process,  and  sometimes  the 
flask  will  be  thrown  from  the  stand.  The  ex- 
planation which  is  generally  received  is  this : 
Water  in  its  natural  state  contains  a  consider- 


able quantity  of  atmospheric  air.  Boiling  ex- 
pels a  portion,  but  not  all  of  it,  unless  it  has  con- 
tinued a  long  time.  While  this  expulsion  of 
air  is  taking  place,  if  only  in  exceedingly  small 
quantities,  little  bubbles  of  it  are  formed  into 
which  the  steam  can  enter  and  expand ;  but 
when  the  air  is  all  expelled,  the  molecules  of 
water  will  not  separate  from  each  other  as 
readily  as  they  passed  into  the  air  chambers. 
It  seems  as  if  there  needed  to  be  an  opening 
or  a  point  of  diminished  pressure  somewhere 
in  order  that  the  particles  of  water  at  212°  F. 
may  expand  into  vapor.  Dufour  has  very  care- 
fully studied  this  subject.  In  experimenting 
with  water  he  used  a  mixture  of  oil  of  cloves 
and  linseed  oil,  which  had  been  previously 
heated  to  390°  F.  and  allowed  to  cool.  The 
water,  heated  to  170°,  was  carefully  dropped 
in  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  film  of  oil  which 
coated  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  the  temper- 
ature was  gradually  raised.  The  boiling  point 
would  invariably  be  passed  and  a  heat  of  230" 
or  236°  reached  before  any  manifestation  of 
ebullition  could  take  place.  Then  an  explosion 
would  occur  and  the  remainder  of  the  globule 
of  water  would  be  violently  driven  to  one  side. 
He  succeeded  in  raising  some  small  globules  to 
347°  F.,  a  temperature  which  would  cause  wa- 
ter with  an  exposed  surface  to  boil  under  a 
pressure  of  more  than  eight  atmospheres.  The 
passage  of  sparks  from  a  Leyden  jar  would 
produce  violent  explosions ;  so  also  would  a 
weak  galvanic  current,  but  in  a  less  degree. 
In  the  latter  case  Dufour  attributed  the  eft'ect 
to  the  production  of  bubbles  of  gas  at  the  ends 
of  the  conducting  wires.  He  also  found  that 
when  the  surface  of  water  was  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  oil  its  temperature  could  be  raised 
considerably  above  the  boiling  point.  The  in- 
vestigations of  Prof.  Donny  of  Ghent,  who  has 
succeeded  in  raising  water  far  above  its  boiling 
point  when  not  enclosed  in  oil  or  other  sub- 
stances, have  added  much  to  the  stock  of 
knowledge  on  the  subject.  Prof.  Kopp  and 
others  have  extended  researches  to  various 
other  liquids,  and  have  found  that  many  of 
them  also  possess  the  property  of  being  raised 
under  certain  circumstances  several  degrees 
above  their  boiling  points.  Tims,  methylic 
alcohol,  whose  boiling  point  is  141-8°  F.,  may 
be  raised  by  changing  the  nature  of  the  vessel 
to  152°.  In  estimating  the  boiling  point  of  a 
liquid  Dufour  very  sensibly  suggests  that  we 
should  take  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  a 
liquid  can  be  made  to  boil  under  the  proper 
conditions.  That  an  examination  of  this  sub- 
ject in  relation  to  the  cause  of  steam-boiler  ex- 
plosions would  lead  to  important  improvements 
is  most  probable.  That  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  boiler  of  a  steam  engine  may  be 
raised  considerably  above  the  boiling  point  is 
very  possible,  as  for  instance  when  the  engine 
has  been  standing  quiet  for  some  time,  and  the 
water  has  been  deprived  of  most  of  its  air. 
Under  such  circumstances  a  disturbance  of  rest 
would  cause  an  explosive  burst  of  vapor,  pro- 


796 


BOISARD 


BOISE  CITY 


portional  to  the  temperature  the  water  had  at- 
tained. The  presence  of  various  salts  in  solu- 
tion affects  the  boiling  to  a  very  great  degree, 
but  there  has  not  been  found  much  accordance 
between  the  solubility  of  the  salts  and  the  ex- 
tent of  their  influence. 

TABLE  OF  BOILING  POINTS  OF  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS. 


NAME  OF  SALT. 

Parts  111  100 
of  water. 

Boiling 
point,  F. 

792-2 

886-2' 

862-2 

803-8 

836-1 

»40-6 

224-8 

249-8 

209-0 

265-9 

205-0 

275-0 

S8-9 

287-6 

296-2 

238-5 

41-2 

223-5 

Carbonate  of  sodium  

48-5 

220-3 

It  has  been  a  subject  of  controversy  whether 
the  vapors  which  issue  from  boiling  aqueous 
solutions  are  of  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
boiling  point  of  pure  water.  According  to 
the  recent  experiments  of  Prof.  Magnus  of  Ber- 
lin the  bubbles  have  at  the  moment  of  issuing 
a  temperature  equal  to  that  of  the  highest 
stratum  of  the  liquid ;  but  it  is  almost  instan- 


taneously reduced  by  the  absorption  of  heat 
occasioned  by  the  expansion  of  the  vapor. — All 
the  observations  that  have  been  made  fail  to  es- 
tablish any  relation  between  the  boiling  points 
of  liquids  and  their  specific  gravities.  Thus, 
bromine,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  3-1862, 
boils  at  145-4°  F.,  while  bromide  of  silicon, 
witli  a  specific  gravity  of  2-8128,  has  a  boiling 
point  of  308°;  and  formic  ether,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  -9357,  boils  at  127-7°,  while  fusel  oil, 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  only  -8271,  does  not 
boil  below  a  temperature  of  269-8.  The  chem- 
ical constitution  of  many  liquids,  however,  ac-1 
cording  to  the  investigations  of  Prof.  Kopp, 
bears  a  very  striking  relation  to  their  respec- 
tive boiling  points.  He  found  that  analogous 
compounds,  having  the  same  differences  of 
composition,  often  have  the  same  differences  in 
their  boiling  points.  Thus,  in  the  series  of  ho- 
mologous acids  which  differ  in  composition  by 
one  molecule  of  CHS,  and  the  alcohols  from 
which  they  are  derived  by  oxidation,  he  found 
that  there  was  a  difference  of  very  nearly  34-2° 
F.  in  the  boiling  points.  In  the  following  table, 
which  exhibits  some  of  Kopp's  results,  it  will 
moreover  be  observed  that  the  difference  in 
boiling  points  between  each  alcohol  and  its  de- 
rived acid  is  very  nearly  72°  F. 


BOILING  POINTS  OP  ALCOHOLS. 


ALCOHOL. 

Formal*. 

Calculated 
boiling  point,  F. 

Observed  boiling  point,  F. 

CH.O 
C,H,0 
C,H8O 
C^H.oO 
C.H.,,0 

188-2° 
172-4 
206-6 
240-8 
275-0 

Kane,  140'  ;  Kopp,  149°  ;  Pierre,  150-8°. 
Dumas.  16S-S'  ;  Gay-Lussac,  Kopp,  172-4°. 
Chancel,  204-8°. 
Wurtz,  228-2'. 
Pierre,  Kopp,  269-6'  ;  Eelckher,  275'. 

Ethyfic  alcohol  

Trltyllc  alcohol.        ... 

Tetrylic  alcohol 

Amylic  alcohol  

BOILING  POINTS  OF  ACIDS. 


ACID. 

Formula. 

Calculated 
boiling  point,  F. 

Observed  boiling  point,  F. 

Formic  acid  

CHjO. 

C,H4Oi 
CsH6Oa 
C,HBOJ 
C.H.A 

210-2' 
244-4 
278-6 
812-8 
847-0 

Liebifc,  210-2'  ;  Kopp,  221'. 
Kopp,  242-6'  ;  Sebille,  Auger,  246-2'. 
Dumas.  Leblanc,  284'  ;  Kopp,  287-6'. 
Kopp,  Delffs,  812-8';  Pierre,  825-4°. 
Dumas,  Delffs,  847°  ;  Kopp,  848-8°. 

Acetic  acid  

Butyric  acid  

Valeric  acid  

It  was  found  that  in  the  series  of  hydrocarbons 
homologous  with  benzole,  C«H,,  a  difference 
of  CHa  in  chemical  composition  is  accompanied 
with  an  average  difference  of  about  43°  F.  in 
the  boiling  point ;  and  in  the  series  of  alcohol 
radicles  homologous  with  ethyl  the  difference 
in  the  corresponding  boiling  points  was  ob- 
served to  be  about  the  same. 

BOISARD.  I.  Jean  Jaeqnes  Francois  Marie,  a 
French  fabulist,  born  at  Caen  in  1743,  died 
there  in  1831.  He  was  secretary  to  the  count 
de  Provence,  afterward  Louis  XVIII.  Losing 
his  pension  at  the  revolution,  and  unable  to 
find  employment  in  Paris,  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  at  Caen,  in  great  poverty.  His  Mille  et 
unefalles  (2  vols.,  1777)  are  regarded  as  equal 
to  those  of  Florian,  and  in  some  respects  to  those 
of  Lafontaine.  A  new  edition  of  them  was 
published  at  Caen  in  1806.  II.  Jaeqnes  Francois, 


a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Caen  about 
1762,  died  in  the  first  half  of  this  century.  He 
was  not  successful  as  a  painter,  and  not  much 
more  so  as  a  fabulist,  though  he  wrote  many 
volumes,  some  of  which  (Fables,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
1817-'22)  he  dedicated  to  Louis  XVIII.  He 
was  sentenced  to  be  guillotined  in  1793,  but 
escaped.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  poverty. 

BOISE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Idaho,  watered  by 
the  Little  Salmon  river  and  affluents  of  the 
Saptin  or  Snake  river ;  area,  about  2,500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,834,  of  whom  1,754  were 
Chinese.  The  county  contains  5  quartz  mills 
for  the  production  of  gold,  8  saw  mills,  and  a 
weekly^newspaper.  Capital,  Idaho  City. 

BOISE  CITY,  the  capital  of  Idaho  territory 
and  of  Ada  county,  situated  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Boisd  river,  about  520  in.  N.  E.  of  San 
Francisco,  and  285  m.  N.  W.  of  Salt  Lake  City, 


BOIS-LE-DUC 


BOIVIN 


797 


in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  county;  pop.  in  1870, 
995.  It  contains  a  penitentiary,  a  U.  S.  assay 
office,  a  national  bank,  3  grist  mills,  and  3  news- 
papers. It  is  reached  in  two  days  by  stage 
from  Indian  Creek,  Utah,  on  the  Central  Pa- 
cific railroad.  The  place  was  formerly  a  trad- 
ing post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  fur  company ; 
it  now  commands  the  trade  of  the  miners 
on  the  W.  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and 
of  the  surrounding  agricultural  country. 

Bills -LI-;- DIC  (Dutch,  'iffertoyenbosch,  the 
duke's  wood,  or  Den  BoscK),  a  fortified  city 
of  Holland,  capital  of  North  Brabant,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Dommel  and  the  Aa,  which 
here  form  the  Dieze,  27  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Utrecht ; 
pop.  in  1868,  25,038.  The  town  is  5  m.  in 
circumference,  handsome  and  well  built,  and 
traversed  by  several  canals,  crossed  by  upward 
of  80  bridges.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic bishop,  and  has  a  handsome  town  hall, 
eight  churches,  including  a  fine  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, an  orphan  asylum,  prison,  two  hospitals, 
a  citadel,  two  forts,  barracks  for  3,000  men, 
an  academy  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture, and  manufactures  of  thread,  ribbons, 
cutlery,  and  glass.  Bois-le-Duc  was  founded 
by  Godfrey  III.,  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1184,  on 
the  site  of  a  hunting  seat,  whence  the  name. 
The  city  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by 
Prince  Frederick  Henry  of  Orange,  after  a  se- 
vere siege,  in  1629,  by  the  French  under  Piche- 
gru  in  1794,  and  by  the  Prussians  in  1814. 

BOISSIEr,  Jean  Jatqnes  de,  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Lyons,  Nov.  29, 1736,  died  there,  March 
1, 1810.  He  first  devoted  himself  to  painting; 
but  his  health  having  suffered  by  the  prepara- 
tion of  colors,  he  turned  to  engraving  and  etch- 
ing. He  was  a  friend  of  Joseph  Vernet,  and 
in  his  own  line  had  no  rival.  His  etchings, 
which  are  either  original  compositions  or  copies 
of  Flemish  pictures,  may  be  ranked  next  to 
those  of  Rembrandt. 

BOISSY,  Hllalre  Etienne  Octave  Rouille,  marquis 
de,  a  French  politician,  born  in  Paris,  March 
4,  1798,  died  there,  Sept.  26,  1866.  He  was 
a  member  of  an  ancient  and  opulent  family, 
served  as  secretary  of  legation  in  London  un- 
der Chateaubriand,  and  in  1839  entered  the 
chamber  of  peers,  where  his  continued  alterca- 
tions with  its  president,  the  duke  de  Pasquier, 
and  his  eccentric  invectives,  acquired  for  him 
much  notoriety.  His  exposure  of  political  scan- 
dals caused  him  to  be  invited  to  the  political 
banquet  in  Paris  which  preceded  the  downfall 
of  Louis  Philippe ;  but  by  opposing  the  ex- 
treme revolutionists  he  lost  his  chance  for  an 
election  to  the  constituent  and  legislative  as- 
semblies. In  1853  he  became  a  member  of  the 
imperial  senate,  where  he  became  conspicuous 
for  his  bitter  and  occasionally  brilliant  speeches, 
and  his  animosity  against  the  ultra  liberals  of 
1848.  He  married  in  1851  Lord  Byron's  former 
mistress,  the  countess  Guiccioli. 

BOISST  D'ANGLIS,  Franfols  Antolne  de,  a  French 
statesman,  born  at  St.  Jean  Chambre,  Dec.  8, 
1756,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  20,  1826.  His  family 


were  Protestant,  and  had  destined  him  to  the 
bar ;  but  having  purchased  the  place  of  stew- 
ard to  the  count  of  Provence,  afterward.  Louis 
XVIIL,  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  literary  pur- 
suits. He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  states 
general  and  of  the  convention.  In  the  latter 
he  for  the  most  part  sided  with  the  Girondists. 
He  voted  for  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.,  for  his 
captivity,  and  for  his  deportation,  and,  when 
extreme  measures  were  determiner1  upon,  for 
an  appeal  to  the  people  in  his  behalf,  and  for 
the  postponement  of  his  execution.  These 
evidences  of  moderation  rendered  him  ob- 
noxious to  the  committee  of  public  safety,  and 
throughout  the  reign  of  terror  he  kept  himself 
in  the  background;  but  on  the  downfall  of 
Robespierre  he  reappeared  at  the  tribune.  He 
was  chosen  secretary  of  the  convention,  Oct. 
7,  1794,  and  two  months  later  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  public  safety.  While  super- 
intending the  provisioning  of  Paris,  he  was  de- 
nounced by  the  populace  as  having  caused  the 
scarcity  of  bread  which  prevailed.  In  the 
dreadful  insurrections  of  April  1  and  May  20, 
1795,  his  situation  was  exceedingly  difficult  and 
dangerous,  yet  he  acted  with  firmness  and  judg- 
ment. He  presided  over  the  tumultuous  delib- 
erations of  the  convention  with  like  intrepidity. 
After  the  convention  passed  away,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  council  of  500,  and  subsequently 
president.  Being  hostile  to  the  directory,  he 
he  was  accused,  Sept.  5, 1797,  of  corresponding 
with  the  royalist  club  of  Clichy,  and  condemned 
to  deportation.  For  two  years  he  was  con- 
cealed, but  at  last  surrendered  himself  a  pris- 
oner at  the  island  of  O16ron.  Bonaparte  re- 
leased him,  and  in  1800  named  him  to  the 
tribunate,  where  he  was  chosen  president  in 
1803.  The  following  year  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  senate,  with  the  title  of  count.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814,  he 
gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  new  government, 
and  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  Essai  sur  la  vie,  lea  ecrits  et  les 
opinions  de  M.  de  Jfalesherles  (2  vols.  8vo, 
Paris,  1819-'21),  and  of  fitvdei  litteraires  et 
poetiques  d'un  vieillard  (5  vols.  12mo,  1825). 

BOISTE,  Pierre  Claude  Vlrtoire,  a  French  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  Paris  in  1765,  died  at  Ivry, 
April  24,  1824.  He  was  successively  an  advo- 
cate, printer,  and  man  of  letters,  and  composed 
a  Dictionnaire  univenel  de  la  langue  fran- 
caise,  a  work  of  great  merit,  and  deserving  the 
popularity  which  it  immediately  obtained.  It 
appeared  in  1800,  and  passed  through  six  edi- 
tions during  the  lifetime  of  the  author.  To  each 
edition  the  author  added  some  new  feature, 
first  the  etymologies,  then  the  original  authori- 
ties, finally  sentences  and  maxims,  or  select 
thoughts,  where  each  word  is  employed.  He 
published  also  a  Dictionnaire  de  geographie 
universelle  aneienne  et  moderne  (1806),  and 
several  works  on  the  principles  of  grammar  and 
literature. 

BOIVIN,  Marie  Anne  Vlrtoire  Gillaln,  a  French 
midwife,  born  near  Paris,  April  9,  1773,  died 


798 


BOJADOR 


BOKHARA 


May  16,  1841.  She  was  educated  in  a  nunnery, 
where  by  her  talents  she  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  sister  of  Louis  XVI.,  Madame  Elisa- 
beth. The  nunnery  was  destroyed  in  the  revo- 
lution, and  she  then  spent  three  years  in  the 
study  of  anatomy  and  midwifery.  In  1797  she 
married  an  employee  at  Versailles  named  Boi- 
vin,  and  on  being  left  after  a  short  time  a 
widow  with  a  child  and  without  fortune,  she 
undertook  the  office  of  midwife  at  the  Mater- 
nite  hospital,  and  in  1801  was  appointed  chief 
superintendent  of  the  institution,  to  which  at 
her  suggestion  a  special  school  of  accouchement 
was  added  by  Chaptal.  The  order  of  civil 
merit  was  conferred  upon  her  by  the  king  of 
Prussia  in  1814,  and  she  received  the  degree 
of  M.  D.  from  the  university  of  Marburg.  Her 
Memorial  de  Vart  des  accouchements,  published 
in  1824,  passed  through  many  editions. 

BOJADOR,  Cape,  a  lofty  headland  of  W.  Afri- 
ca, in  lat.  26°  7'  N.,  Ion.  14°  23'  W.  This  cape 
is  mountainous  and  rocky,  being  the  western 
termination  of  the  Black  mountains,  which  ex- 
tend eastward  into  the  interior  of  Sahara, 
and  as  far  northward  as  Cape  Nun.  The  coast 
is  very  dangerous,  being  perpetually  shrouded 
in  mists,  and  strong  currents  setting  in  toward 
the  land.  For  many  years  it  interrupted  the 
progress  of  the  early  Portuguese  navigators, 
but  was  finally  passed  by  Gilianes  in  1433. 

BOKER,  George  Henry,  an  American  dramatist 
and  poet,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1824.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1842,  studied 
law,  but  did  not  pursue  the  profession,  and  in 
1847  published  the  "  Lesson  of  Life  and  other 
Poems."  Next  he  wrote  "Oalaynos,  a  Trage- 
dy," which  at  once  extended  his  reputation, 
and  was  successfully  played  in  London.  His 
next  production  was  "Anne  Boleyn,"  which 
was  succeeded  by  the  tragedies  of  "  Leonor  de 
Guzman"  and  "Francesca  da  Kimini."  He 
published  two  volumes  of  "  Plays  and  Poems" 
at  Boston  in  1856,  and  during  the  civil  war 
produced  many  patriotic  poems,  which  were 
collected  in  one  volume  entitled  "Poems  of 
the  War  "  (Boston,  1864).  He  was  appointed 
minister  resident  at  Constantinople  in  1871. 

BOKHARA.  I.  A  khanate  of  Independent 
Tnrkistan,  central  Asia,  between  lat.  36°  and 
43°  K,  and  Ion.  62°  30'  and  69°  30'  E. ;  bounded 
N.  by  the  desert  of  Kizil  Koom,  N.  E.  and  E. 
by  Russian  Turkistan,  Khokan,  and  Koondooz, 
S.  by  Balkh,  Maimana,  and  Afghanistan,  and 
W.  by  Khiva ;  area,  about  100,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
roughly  estimated  at  2,500,000.  The  western 
parts,  with  the  exception  of  the  banks  of  the 
Jihoon,  which  are  lined  with  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion, present  the  appearance  of  a  vast  desert 
similar  to  those  of  Arabia,  devoid  of  all  ani- 
mals, and  subject  to  the  tebbad,  a  hot  dry 
wind,  which  sweeps  swiftly  across  the  arid 
plains,  and  if  overtaking  a  caravan  overwhelms 
both  men  and  animals,  and  not  unfrequently 
proves  fatal.  The  eastern  part  of  the  khanate, 
which  is  hilly  and  watered  by  affluents  of  the 
Jihoon  and  the  Zerafshan  or  Kohik,  is  more 


fertile.  Spurs  of  the  Paropamisan  range  in  the 
southeast  give  rise  to  a  number  of  streams. 
The  three  principal  rivers,  along  which  lies 
nearly  all  the  cultivated  land,  are  the  Jihoon 
or  Amoo  Darya  (the  ancient  Oxus),  which 
tiows  N.  W.  through  the  centre  of  the  coun- 
try ;  the  Zerafshan,  flowing  W.  from  the 
now  Russian  territory  of  Samarcand  to  and 
past  the  city  of  Bokhara,  and  dividing  into  sev- 
eral channels,  which  with  artificial  irrigating 
canals  form  a  network  of  streams  rendering  the 
district  exceedingly  fertile;  and  the  Shehri- 
zebz,  between  the  Zerafshan  and  the  Jihoon. 
The  last  two  terminate  in  small  salt  lakes  or 
are  lost  in  the  sand.  The  cultivated  land  is  di- 
vided into  squares  with  boundaries  marked  by 
ridges  of  turf  raised  slightly  above  the  level 
of  the  plain.  The  water  from  the  rivers  and 
canals  flows  through  trenches,  which,  as  well 


Lady  and  Gentleman  of  Bokhara. 

as  the  narrow  roads  of  the  farm  lands,  are 
lined  with  trees.  The  climate  is  temper- 
ate, the  summer  beginning  in  March  and  last- 
ing till  October.  During  this  season  no  rain 
falls,  and  the  thermometer  rises  to  90°  in  the 
day,  but  the  nights  are  cool.  October  and 
February  are  the  rainy  seasons.  The  winters 
are  open,  though  sometimes  the  snow  covers 
the  ground  for  a  fortnight,  and  in  January,  the 
coldest  month,  the  mercury  falls  as  low  as  6°. 
The  more  violent  storms  come  usually  from  the 
northwest.  They  are  often  accompanied  with 
clouds  of  sand  and  dust  which  render  ophthal- 
mia frequent,  but  otherwise  the  climatic  influ- 
ences are  health}'.  The  principal  vegetable 
productions  are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  rice, 
sesame,  hemp,  tobacco,  pulse,  tropical  fruits 
and  vegetables,  a  species  of  indigo  plant,  manna, 
cotton,  and  silk.  Bang,  an  intoxicating  drug, 
is  made  from  hemp  seeds.  Gold  is  found  in 


BOKHARA 


799 


the  rivers,  salt  is  obtained  from  the  small  lakes, 
and  sulphur  and  sal  ammoniac  are  also  found. 
Timber  is  brought  from  the  mountains,  but 
on  the  plains  only  willow  and  poplar  are  found. 
The  wild  animals  of  Bokhara  are  bears,  wolves, 
foxes,  jackals,  wild  asses,  hares,  and  antelopes. 
The  domestic  animals  are  horses,  camels,  drome- 
daries, asses,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats.  The 
sheep  are  of  the  fat-tailed  breed,  and  there  is 
a  peculiar  species  with  a  jet-black  curly  fleece; 
lamb  skins  are  exported  to  Persia.  The  goats 
of  Bokhara  are  a  variety  of  the  Thibetan  and 
Cashmere  breed,  and  yield  a  fine  shawl  hair. 
The  population  of  Bokhara  is  composed  of  dif- 
ferent nations,  Uzbecks,  Tajiks,  Turkomans, 
Afghans,  Kirghiz,  Arabs  (the  descendants  of 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors),  Kalmucks,  Hin- 
doos, and  Jews.  The  Tajiks  are  supposed  to 
be  the  most  ancient  inhabitants,  and  are  said 
to  resemble  the  Caucasian  type  most  nearly ; 
they  have  a  large  portion  of  the  trade  and  manu- 
factures in  their  hands.  The  Uzbecks  lead 
mostly  a  nomadic  life,  and  are  noted  for  their 
hospitality  to  strangers.  The  Persians  are 
nearly  all  either  slaves  who  have  been  kid- 
napped by  the  Turkomans  and  sold  here,  or 
such  as  have  purchased  their  freedom  ;  they 
enliven  trade,  enter  the  government  service, 
and  several  of  them  occupy  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  state.  The  Jews  here  as  in  the 
adjoining  countries  are  the  persecuted  race, 
emigration  even  being  forbidden  them.  The 
Turkomans  roam  over  the  country  with  their 
flocks  and  herds,  plundering  and  kidnapping 
persons  on  the  frontiers  and  selling  them  into 
slavery  in  the  interior.  Turkic  dialects  are 
spoken  by  most  of  the  inhabitants.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  the  Mohammedan.  A  con- 
siderable trade  is  carried  on  with  foreign  coun- 
tries by  means  of  caravans,  though  the  extor- 
tionate customs  dues  in  Bokhara,  as  in  the 
neighboring  states  traversed  by  the  caravans, 
and  the  predatory  habits  of  the  Turkomans 
tend  to  cripple  it.  The  imports  from  Rus- 
sia  are  muslins,  leather,  metals,  dyes,  and 
paper;  from  Afghanistan  and  India,  English 
manufactures,  Cashmere  shawls,  and  sugar ; 
from  China,  tea  and  porcelain.  The  exports 
are  rhubarb,  cotton,  skins,  raw  and  manufac- 
tured silk,  camel's  and  goat's  hair,  fresh  and 
preserved  fruits,  and  shawl  goods. — The  gov- 
ernment is  a  military  despotism.  At  its  head 
stands  the  emir  as  commander-in-chief,  prince, 
and  chief  of  religion.  Under  him  are  the 
vizier,  the  mehter  desturlehanje  (steward),  and 
eekiultchi  (receiver  of  customs).  The  military 
and  other  civil  dignitaries  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  the  Tcette  sipahi  (higher  function- 
aries, comprising  the  secretary  of  state),  the 
orta  sipahi  (the  middle  functionaries),  and  the 
a&haghi  sipahi  (subalterns).  The  administrative 
divisions  of  the  country  are  based  upon  the 
larger  cities,  and  include  at  present  Karakul, 
Bokhara,  Karshi,  Tchardyui,  and  Shehrizebz. 
The  last  named,  owing  to  its  continual  struggles 
with  the  khan,  is  not  at  all  times  wholly  sub- 
103  VOL.  ii.— 61 


ject  to  him.  Each  division  has  a  governor,  who 
is  allowed  as  his  salary  a  fixed  share  of  the  rev- 
enue of  the  district. — The  country  was  little 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  greater  part  of 
it  was  included  under  the  general  name  of 
Transoxiana  or  Sogdiana.  The  conquests  of 
the  Mohammedans  extended  to  the  foot  of  the 
Bolor  Tagh,  and  to  them  Bokhara,  in  its  former 
and  wider  extent,  was  known  as  the  Mawar-al- 
Nahr,  and  became  famous  for  its  great  semina- 
ries of  learning  at  Samarcand,  Balkh,  and  Bo- 
khara. Even  in  modern  times  these  cities,  of 
which  only  the  last  now  belongs  to  the  khan- 
ate, enjoy  a  considerable  reputation  for  their 
schools.  For  several  centuries  before  the  con- 
quest by  Genghis  Khan,  about  1220,  Bokhara 
was  regarded  as  belonging  to  Persia ;  but  sub- 
sequently, and  chiefly  after  the  invasion  by  the 
Mongols  under  Tamerlane  in  1370,  the  Persian 
element  gave  way  to  that  of  the  Uzbecks,  and 
Tamerlane  intended  to  make  Samarcand  his 
capital.  At  the  close  of  the  15th  century  his 
descendants  were  driven  from  power  by  the 
house  of  the  Sheibani.  The  ablest  of  these 
was  Abdullah  Khan,  born  in  1533,  who  con- 
quered Badakhshan,  Herat,  and  Meshed.  His 
son  was  unable  to  maintain  his  throne,  and 
was  assassinated  in  1597.  The  overthrown 
dynasty  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Astra- 
khanides  (descendants  of  Genghis  Khan),  who 
remained  in  power  till  1737.  Ebul  Feiz,  the 
last  of  this  dynasty,  was  murdered  by  Rehim 
Khan,  who  ruled  with  independent  -authority, 
but  under  the  title  of  vizier.  Upon  his  death 
the  government  was  seized  by  Daniel  Beg,  to 
whom  succeeded  the  emirs  Shah  Murad,  Said 
Khan,  and  Nasrullah  Khan.  The  last  of  these 
is  known  by  the  wars  which  he  waged  with 
Khokan,  and  by  his  barbarous  treatment  of 
several  European  travellers.  In  1838  the  Brit- 
ish ambassador  to  Persia  sent  Col.  Stoddart  to 
Bokhara,  to  assure  the  emir  of  the  friendly 
feeling  entertained  toward  him  by  England. 
N asrullah,  enraged  at  receiving  no  reply  to  let- 
ters which  he  had  sent  to  fhe  qneen,  threw 
Stoddart  into  prison.  Capt.  Conolly,  who  was 
sent  on  a  like  errand,  met  the  same  fate,  and 
both  were  put  to  death  in  1842  on  charge  of 
being  spies.  Since  then  few  Europeans  have 
visited  Bokhara.  The  missionary  Wolff  went 
there  in  1843,  and  brought  back  tidings  of  the 
fate  of  Stoddart  and  Conolly.  In  1841  a  Rus- 
sian expedition,  consisting  of  Col.  BatenefF, 
Lieut.  Bogoslovsky,  the  geographer  Khani- 
koif,  and  the  naturalist  Lehmann,  visited  Bo- 
khara at  the  request  of  the  emir ;  the  last  two 
published  accounts  of  their  journey  (Khani- 
koff,  "Description  of  the  Khanate  of  Bo- 
khara," in  Russian,  St.  Petersburg,  1843 ;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Bode,  London,  1845 ; 
Lehmann,  Retee  nach  Bokhara  und  Samar- 
kand, St.  Petersburg,  1855).  In  1863  three 
Italians,  Gavazzi,  Litta,  and  Meazza,  went  there 
in  order  to  procure  eggs  of  the  silkworm. 
They  were  imprisoned,  but  were  released  after 
a  year  through  the  intervention  of  the  Russian 


800 


BOKHARA 


BOL 


government.  In  the  same  year  Vamb6ry,  a 
Hungarian  scholar,  disguised  as  a  wander- 
ing derviflh,  traversed  a  great  part  of  Turkistan. 
His  two  works,  "Travels  in  Central  Asia" 
(London  and  New  York,  1865),  and  "Sketches 
from  Central  Asia "  (1867),  furnish  the  most 
valuable  information  respecting  Bokhara,  and 
its  relations  to  the  other  khanates.  (See  Kno- 
KAN.)  In  1850  the  Russians  established  them- 
selves at  the  mouth  of  the  Sir  Darya,  on  the 
sea  of  Aral,  and  began  to  push  southeastward 
along  the  course  of  that  river.  They  overran 
Khokan,  and  in  1865  annexed  the  northern 
part,  while  the  remainder  was  formed  into  an 
independent  khanate  under  the  protection  of 
Russia.  Mozaffar  Eddin,  who  had  succeeded 
Nasrullah,  attacked  this  khanate  in  1866,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Russians,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  region  of  the  Sir  Darya.  A 
treaty  was  entered  into  in  November,  1867 ;  but 
hostilities  broke  out  again  in  the  following 
spring.  The  Russians  took  Samarcand,  and 
moved  toward  the  city  of  Bokhara.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  emir  raised  an  insurrection 
against  his  father,  and  Mozaffar  Eddin  threw 
himself  upon  the  protection  of  the  Russians, 
ceded  to  them  Samarcand  and  the  adjacent  terri- 
tory, promised  to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  and 
virtually  became  a  dependant  of  Russia.  In 
1868  the  emir  became  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
Cabool,  and  by  Russian  aid  gained  the  region 
as  far  south  as  the  Jihoon,  which  in  1869  was 
established  as  the  boundary  between  Bokhara 
and  Afghanistan.  In  1870  the  fanatical  princes 
of  Shehrizebz  made  an  incursion  into  the  Rus- 
sian territory,  but  were  defeated.  Instead  of  tak- 
ing possession  of  Shehrizebz,  the  Russians  made 
it  over  to  the  emir  of  Bokhara.  The  emir  has  a 
standing  army  of  40,000  cavalry,  which  in  case 
of  need  can  be  increased  to  60,000.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  khanate,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Zerafshan,  in  lat.  39°  45'  N.,  Ion.  64°  25'  E.,  430 
m.  N.  W.  of  Cabool ;  pop.  about  70,000.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  pierced  by  1 1  gates,  and  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  inner  and  the  outer 
city,  which  again  are  subdivided  into  quarters. 
It  contains  upward  of  100  mosques,  and  about 
80  medreses  or  colleges.  The  instruction  given 
in  these  institutions  is  npon  the  Koran  and 
religious  casuistry,  and  there  are  a  few  books  on 


logic  and  philosophy.  Poetry  and  history  are 
regarded  as  frivolous  subjects  of  study,  and 
even  disgraceful.  The  number  of  students  is 
represented  at  5,000  from  different  parts  of  the 
khanate  and  the  bordering  states,  India,  China, 
and  Russia.  The  poorer  students  have  a  yearly 
pension  from  the  emir.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  tortuous,  and  the  houses  built  chiefly  of 
brick  or  mud  with  flat  roofs ;  glass  is  unknown 
except  in  the  form  of  beads  or  other  orna- 
ments, and  the  windows  are  furnished  only 
with  wooden  shutters.  The  bazaars  are  mostly 
of  wood,  with  mats  stretched  across ;  very  few 
are  of  stone.  The  emir  resides  in  the  citadel, 
which  is  defended  by  a  few  old  brass  pieces. 
The  supply  of  water  is  scanty.  A  disease 
called  the  rishte  is  peculiar  to  Bokhara,  and  is 
attributed  to  the  bad  quality  of  the  water.  It 
consists  of  a  boil  from  which  issues  a  long 
worm  like  a  thread.  This  is  carefully  extracted, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  infected  place  is  cut 
out.  In  either  case  it  leaves  a  hideous  scar, 
completely  disfiguring  the  person  if  attacked  in 
the  face.  The  favorite  and  universal  beverage 
is  tea,  of  which  there  are  several  excellent 
kinds  superior  in  flavor  and  quality  to  those  in 
western  markets.  European  cotton  and  wool- 
len stuffs,  cutlery,  beads,  &c.,  find  their  way 
into  Bokhara  through  the  medium  of  Persian 
traders  and  dervishes.  Coarse  woollen  and 
cotton  goods,  as  also  the  finest  silks,  and  leather 
boots,  are  manufactured. — Bokhara  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Trybactra  of  the  ancients.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  successively  the  capital  of 
Turkistan,  of  the  Samanides,  and  of  various 
Mongol  rulers.  In  1219  it  was  captured  and 
burned  by  Genghis  Khan,  but  was  rebuilt  soon 
after.  In  1370  it  was  captured  by  Tamerlane, 
whose  dynasty  reigned  there  till  1498.  Since 
that  time  the  history  of  the  city  is  merged  in 
that  of  the  khanate. — See  "Bokhara,  its  His- 
tory and  Conquest,"  by  Prof.  Arminius  Vam- 
bery  (London,  1873). 

BOL,  Ferdinand,  a  Dutch  painter  and  etcher, 
born  at  Dort  in  1611,  died  in  Amsterdam  in 
1681  or  in  1686.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Rem- 
brandt, and  is  best  known  by  his  admirable 
portraits  in  the  style  of  that  master,  though  he 
likewise  executed  historical  paintings.  Many 
of  his  works  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Amsterdam. 


END   OF   VOLUME    SECOND. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  II 


PAGE 

Ashes 6 

Ashes,  Shower  of. 5 

Ashford 6 

Ashland  co.,  Ohio 6 

Ashland  co.,  Wis 6 

Ashley  co 6 

Ashmole,  Ellas 6 

Ashmun.  Jehudi 6 

Ashtabula  co 7 

Ashton-under-Lyne 7 

Ashtoreth 7 

Ash  Wednesday 7 

Asia 7 

Asiago 16 

Asia  Minor 16 

Asinais 17 

Aflkew,  Anne 17 

Asmaunshausen 17 

Asmodffius 17 

Asmoneans 17 

Asnieres 18 

Asopus.  rivers 18 

Asopus,  a  river  god 18 


Asp 


18 

Asparagus 18 

Aspasia 19 

Aspen.    See  Poplar. 

Aspern  and  Essling 19 

Asphaltites  Lacus.    See  Dead  Sea. 

Asphaltum 19 

Asphaltum,  Artificial 20 

Asphodel 21 

Asphyxia 21 

Aspinwall 21 

Aspland,  Robert 21 

Aspromonte 22 

Aspropotamo.    See  Achelous. 

ABS 22 

Assab 28 

Assam 28 

Assassins 24 

Assault 26 

Assaye 26 

Assaying 26 

Asselyn,  Jan *  29 

Assemani,  Joseph  Simon 29 

Assemani,  Stepnan  Evodius 29 

Assemani,  Joseph  Aloysius 29 

Assemani,  Simon 80 

Assen 80 

Asser 80 

Assiento 30 

Asstgnats 80 

Assignations 80 

Assignment 81 

Assing,  Rosa  Maria 81 

Assing,  LudmiUa 81 

Assiniboin 81 

Assiniboins 81 

Assist 82 

Assize 82 

Assize  of  Bread 82 

Assizes  of  Jerusalem 82 

Assuay.    See  Asuay. 

Assumpsit 82 

Assumption,  a  festival 88 

Assumption,  La 88 

Assumption,  a  city  of  South  Amer- 
ica.   See  Asuncion. 


PAGE 

Assumption,  an  island 88 

Assurance.    See  Insurance. 

Asswan 88 

Assyria 88 

Astarte.    See  Ashtoreth. 

Aster 87 

Aster,  Ernst  Ludwig 88 

Aster,  Karl  Heinrich  von 88 

Asterabad.    See  Astrabad. 
Asterias.    See  Star  Fish. 

Asteroids 88 

Asthma 89 

Asti 89 

Astie,  Jean  Frederic 89 

Astley,  Philip 89 

Astolphus 40 

Astor,  John  Jacob 40 

Astorga 40 

Astorga,  Emmanuele  d' 40 

Astoria 40 

Astor  Library 41 

Astrabad 41 

Astnea 42 

Astrakhan 42 

Astringents 42 

Astrology 42 

Astronomy 48 

Astruc,  Jean 47 

Asturias 47 

Astyages 48 

Asuay 48 

Asuncion 48 

Asylum 49 

Asymptote 49 

Atacama,  Bolivia 49 

Atacama,  Chili 49 

Atahuallpa 60 

Atalanta 60 

Atascosa  co 60 

Ataui,  Hawaiian  Islands.  See  Eanai. 

Ataulphus 60 

Atbara 61 

Atchafalaya 61 

Atchison  co.,  Mo 61 

Atchison  co.,  Kan. 61 

Atchison,  a  city 61 

Atchison,  David  E 61 

Ate 61 

Atella 61 

Ath 61 

Atha  ben  Hakem 61 

Atha  Melik,  Ala  ed-Din 62 

Athabasca,  a  lake 62 

Athabasca,  a  river 62 

Athabascas 62 

Athaliah 62 

Athamas 62 

Athanasian  Creed 62 

Athanasius.  Saint 58 

Atheling.    See  Anglo-Saxons. 

Athelney,  Isle  of 63 

Athelstan 68 

Athena.    See  Minerva. 

Athenseus 64 

Athenagoras 64 

Athens 64 

Athens  co 66 

Athens,  Ga 66 

Atherton,  Charles  G 66 


PAGE 

Athias,  Joseph 66 

Athlone 67 

Athol 67 

Athos 67 

Atitlan 67 

Atkinson,  Thomas  Witlam 67 

Atlanta 68 

Atlantic  co 68 

Atlantic  Ocean 68 

Atlantis 80 

Atlas 80 

Atlas,  mountains 80 

Atmosphere 81 

Atmospheric  Engine 84 

Atnahs 85 

Atoll 85 

AtomicTheory 85 

Atrato 88 

Atrebates 89 

Atreus 89 

Atrium 90 

Atropatene.    See  Azerbijan. 

Atrophy 90 

Atropia 90 

Atropos 90 

Attachment 90 

Attainder 91 

Attakapas,  La 92 

Attakapas,  a  tribe 92 

Attala  co ^  92 

Attains,  a  general 92 

Attains,  King  (three) 92 

Attains,  Flavius  Prisons,  Emperor.  92 

Attaman 98 

Attar  of  Roses 98 

Atterbom,  Peter  Daniel  Amadeus. .  98 

Atterbury,  Francis 98 

Attica 94 

Atticus,  Titus  Pomponius 94 

Attieus  Herodes,  Tiberius  Claudius.  95 

Attifcamegues 95 

Attila 95 

Attiret,  Jean  Denis 95 

Attiwandaronk 96 

Attleborough 96 

Attack 96 

Attorney.    See  Lawyer. 

Attorney  General 96 

Attorney,  Power  of 97 

Attraction.  See  Adhesion,  Cohesion, 

Gravity,  and  Magnetism. 

Attucks,  Crispus 98 

Attwood,  Thomas 9S 

Atys 98 

Aubagne 98 

Aubaine,  Eight  of.    See  Alien. 

Aube 9S 

Anbenas 98 

Aubcr,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit 98 

Aubert,  Constance.    See  Abrantes. 

Aubervilliers 99 

AubignS,  J.  H.  Merle  d'.    See  Merle 

d'Aubigne. 

Aubign6,  Theodore  Agrippa  d' 99 

Aubin ...... 99 

Aublet,  Jean    Baptiste  Christophe 

Fusge '. 99 

Auburn $9 

Aubusson 100 


11 


CONTENTS 


PAQE 

Aubusson,  Pierre  d' 100 

Auch 101 

Auchmuty,  Robert  (two) 1"! 

Auchmuty,  Samuel 101 

Auchmuty,  Sir  Samuel 101 

Auckland,  William  Eden,  Earl  of. ..  101 
Auckland,  George  Eden,  Earl  of. . ..  101 

Auckland 101 

Auckland  Islands 102 

Auction 102 

Aude 103 

Audebert,  Jean  Baptiste 103 

Audley,  Thomas 108 

Audouard.  Olympe 108 

Audouin,  Jean  Victor 108 

Audrain  co 104 

Audran,  family  of 104 

Audubon  co 104 

Audubon,  John  James 104 

Auenbrugger  von  Auenbrug,  Leo- 
pold    105 

Auerbach,  Berthold 105 

Auerbach,  Hemrich 105 

Auersperg,  Anton  Alexander,  Count  105 

Auersperg,  Carlos,  Prince 106 

Auerstadt 106 

Augeas 106 

Auger.    See  Boring. 

Augereau,  Pierre  Francois  Charles.  106 

Augier,  Gutllaume  Victor  Emile  ...  106 

Augite 107 

Auglaize  co 10T 

Augsburg 107 

Augsburg  Confession 108 

Augur,  llezekiah 10S 

Augurs 108 

August 109 

August  Friedrich  Eberhard,  Prince.  109 

August  Wilhelm,  Prince 109 

Augusta  co 109 

Augusta,  Maine 109 

Augusta.  Georgia 110 

Augusta,  John 110 

Augusta  Historia Ill 

Augusta.  Maria  Louisa  Catharine, 

Empress Ill 

Augustan  Age Ill 

Augustenburg Ill 

August),  Johanu  Christian  Wilhelin.  Ill 

Augustin,  Saint  Ill 

Augustine.  Saint 112 

Augustinians 118 

Augustowo 113 

Augustulus.  liomulus 114 

Augustus,  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Oc- 

tavianus.  Emperor 114 

Augustus  I.  Frederick 116 

Augustus  1 1.  Frederick 116 

Augustus  Frederick,  Prince 116 

Auk 116 

Aulaf 117 

Aulic  Council 118 

Aulis 118 

Aulnay    do    Charnis6,    Charles    de 

Meriou,  Seigneur  d' 118 

Aumale 118 

Aumale,  Duke  of 118 

Aungervyle,  Richard 119 

Aurelian,  Emperor 119 

Aurelius,  Marcus.    See  Antoninus. 

Aurelle  de  Paladines 119 

Aurich 120 

Aurifaber 120 

Aurillac 120 

Auriol 120 

Aurivillius,  Karl 120 

Aurochs 120 

Aurora 120 

Aurora,  111 121 

Aurora  Borealis 121 

Aurungabad 124 

Aurungzebe 125 

Auschwitz 125 

Auscultation 125 

Ausones 126 

Ausonius,  Decimus  Magnus 126 

Aussig 126 

Austen.  Jane 126 

Austerlitz 126 

Austin  co 127 

Austin,  Texas 127 

Austin,  Jonathan  Loring 127 


PAGE 

Austin.  Moses 127 

Austin,  Samuel,  D.  D 127 

Austin,  Sarah 127 

Austin,  Stephen  F 127 

Austin,  William 128 

Australasia 128 

Australia 128 

Austrasia 135 

Austria,  Empire  of 135 

Austria,  Archduchy  of 154 

Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy.    See 
Austria. 

Autauga  co 154 

Authentics 154 

Auto  da  Fe 154 

Autolycus  (two) 154 

Automaton 155 

Autoplasty 156 

Autumn 156 

Autun 156 

Auvergne 157 

Aux  Cayes 157 

Auxerre : 157 

Auxonne 157 

Auzout,  Adrien 157 

Auzoux,  Theodore  Louis 157 

Ava 158 

Ava,  Kingdom  of.    See  Burmah. 

Avalanche 158 

Avallon 168 

Avalos,  Ferdinando  Francesco  d'  . .  158 
Avaris.    See  Hyksos. 

Avars 158 

Avatar 159 

Avatcha,  Mount 159 

Avebury 159 

Aveiro lf>9 

Avellaneda,  Alonso  Ferdinando  de..  159 
Avcllancda,  Gertrudis  Gomes  de. . .  159 

Avcllino 160 

Ave  Maria 160 

Avenbrugger,  Leopold.    See  Auen- 
brugger. 
Aventinus,  Mons.    See  Home. 

Aventurine 160 

Avenzoar,  Abu  Merwan 100 

Average,  General 160 

Average,  Particular 161 

Averages,  Petty 161 

Averno,  Lake 161 

Averroes 161 

Avorsa 161 

Avesnes , 161 

Aveyron 162 

Avezac.    See  D'Avezac. 
Avicebron.  See  Solomon  ben  Gabirol. 

Avicenna 162 

Avigliano 162 

Avignon 162 

Avila 163 

Avlona 168 

Avocet 168 

Avoirdupois 168 

Avola 164 

Avon 164 

Avon  Springs 164 

Avoyelles 164 

Avranches 164 

Awe,  Loch 164 

Ax 164 

Axayacatl 164 

Axe 165 

Axel.    See  Absalon. 

Axim 166 

Axinite 165 

Axle 165 

Axminster 166 

Axolotl 166 

Axum 167 

Ayacucho 167 

Ayala,  Pedro  Lopez  de 168 

Ayainonte 168 

Aye-aye 168 

Ayasalook.    See  Ephesus. 

Ayesha 168 

Aylesbury 169 

Aylmer,  John 169 

Aymaras 169 

Aymar-Vernay,  Jacques 169 

Ayr 170 

Ayrer,  Jakob 170 

Ayrshire    170 


PAGE 

Ayseue,  Sir  George 171 

Ayton.  Sir  Robert 171 

Aytoun,  William  Edmondstoune ...  171 

Ayuntamiento 171 

Azais,  Pierre  llyacinthe 172 

Azalea 172 

Azara,  Felix  de 173 

Azariah 178 

Azeglio,  Massimo    Taparelli,  Mar- 
quis d' 173 

Azcrbijan 174 

Azevedo   Coutinho,  Joz6  Joaquim 

da  Cunha 174 

Azevedo  y  Zuliiga,  Gaspard  de 174 

Azincourt.    See  Agincourt. 
Azkar  Tuarlk.    See  Tuariks. 
Azof.    See  Azov. 

Azoic  Age 174 

Azores 174 

Azote.    See  Nitrogen. 

Azov,  a  town 175 

Azov,  Sea  of 175 

A/.t<rs 175 

Azurara,  Gomez  Eanues  de 177 

Azymites 177 


B 


B 177 

Baader,  Franz  Xaver  von 177 

Baal 177 

Baalbek 178 

Baan.  Jan  van 179 

B.ibadagh 179 

Babbage,  Charles 180 

Babcock,  Rufus,  D.  D 190 

Babel ISO 

Bab-el-Mandeb 181 

Baber,  Zahir  ed-Din  Mohammed...  181 

Babeuf,  Francois  Noel 1S2 

Babinet,  Jacques 182 

Babington,  Anthony 182 

Dnbington,  William 182 

Babism 182 

Babo,  Franz  Marius  von 188 

Baboon 188 

Babylon 1 85 

Babylonia 189 

Babylonish  Captivity 190 

Babyroussa : 191 

Baccara 192 

Baccarat 192 

Bacchanalia 192 

Bacchantes 198 

Bacchiglione 193 

Bacchus 198 

Bacchylides 198 

Baccio  della  Porta.    See  Bartolom- 

meo. 

Bacciochi,  Napoleone  Elisa. 198 

Bach,  family  of 194 

Bach,  Veit 194 

Bach,  Hans  (Johannes) 194 

Bach,  Heinrich 194 

Bach,  Johann^Egidius 194 

Bach,  Georg  Christoph 194 

Bach,  Johann  Ambrosius 194 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph 194 

Bach,  Johann  Michael 194 

Bach,  Johann  Bernard 194 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian 195 

Bach,  Johann  Ernst 196 

Bach,  Wilhelm  Friedemann 196 

Bach,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuul 197 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich. .  197 

Bach,  Johann  Christian 198 

Bach.  Alexander 198 

Bacharach 198 

Bachaumont,  Francois  le  Coigneux 

de 198 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas 198 

Bache,  Benjamin  Franklin 1!)9 

Bache,  Richard 199 

Bache,  Sarah 199 

Bachelet,  Jean  Louis  Theodore 199 

Bachman,  John 200 

Back,  Sir  George 200 

Backgammon 200 

Backhuysen,  Ludolf. 201 

Backus.  Isaac 201 

Baclerd'Albe,  Louis  Albert  Ghielain, 

Baron  de 201 


CONTENTS 


in 


PAGE 

Bacolor 201 

Bacon,  Anne 201 

Bacon,  Francis SOI 

Bacon,  John 205 

Bacon,  Leonard,  D.  D 206 

Bacon,  Delia 206 

Bacon,  Nathaniel 206 

Bacon.  Sir  Nicholas 206 

Bacon,  Roger 206 

Bacs 207 

Bacsanyi,  Janos 207 

Bacterium 207 

Bactria 208 

Baczko,  Ludwig  von 208 

Badajoz 208 

Bada'khshan 209 

Baden,  grand  duchy 210 

Baden,  Lower  Austria 210 

Baden,  Switzerland 211 

Baden-Baden 211 

Baden-Baden,  Ludwig  Wilhelm  I., 

Margrave  of 211 

Badger 212 

Badia  y  Lcblich,  Domingo 218 

Badius,  Jodocus 218 

Baena 213 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von 213 

Baerle.  Gaspard  van 213 

Baez,  Buenaventura 214 

Baeza 214 

Batiin,  William 214 

Baffin  Bay 214 

Baltb 214 

Bagaudae 214 

Bagdad 215 

Bage,  Robert 216 

B:iggesen,  Jons  Immanuel 216 

Baghc-ria 216 

Baghirmi 216 

Bagneres-de-Bigorre 216 

res-de-Luchon 216 

Bagnoles 216 

Bagoas 216 

Bagot,  Sir  Charles 216 

Bagpipe 217 

Bagradas.    See  Mejerda. 

Bagratides,  family  of 217 

Bagration,  Peter 217 

Bagul 217 

Bahamas 217 

Bahar.    See  Behar. 
Bahawalpoor.    See  Bhawalpoor. 

Bahia 218 

Bahr,  Johann  Christian  Felix 219 

Bahrdt,  Karl  Friedrich 219 

Bahrein  Islands 219 

Baue 2-20 

Baikal 220 

Bail 220 

Bailey,  Gamaliel 221 

Bailey,  Jacob  Whitman 221 

Bailey,  Nathan 221 

Bailey,  Philip  James 221 

Bailey,  Samuel 221 

Bailev,  Theodorus 222 

Bailiff 222 

Baillet,  Adrlen 222 

Bailleul 222 

Bailllago 222 

Baillie,  Joanna 222 

Baillie,  Matthew 228 

Baillie,  Robert 228 

Baillot,  Pierre  Marie   Francois  de 

Sales 228 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain 228 

Bailment 224 

Baily,  Kdward  Hodges 224 

Baily,  Francis. 224 

Bain,  Alexander 224 

Bainbridge,  William 224 

Bairam 225 

Baird,  Sir  David 225 

Baird,  Robert,  D.  D 225 

Baird.  Spencer  Fullerton 226 

Baireuth 226 

Baius.  Michael 227 

Bajazet  (two) 227 

Bajazid 227 

Bakacs,  Tamas 227 

Bakalahari 2-28 

Baker  CO.,  Ala 228 

Bakerco.,FIa 228 


PAGE 

Baker  co.,  G» 228 

Baker  co..  Oregon 228 

Baker,  Edward  Dickinson 2-28 

Baker,  Henry 228 

Baker,  Osmon  Oleander,  D.  D 228 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White 229 

Bakewell 22'.) 

Bakewell,  Robert 229 

Bakhmut 229 

Bakhtchiserai 229 

Bakhtegan 230 

Bakhtislrwa,  family  of 230 

Bakony,  Forest  of 2:30 

Baku 280 

Bakunin,  Mikhail 281 

Balaam 281 

Balaklava .  281 

Balalaika 282 

Balance 232 

Balanguini 234 

Balard,  Autoine  Jerome 235 

Balaruc 285 

Balasore 285 

Balassa-Gyarmath 285 

Balaton,  Lake 285 

Balbt,  Adriano 235 

Balbi,  Giovanni  de  Janua 235 

Balbl,  Countess  de 285 

Balblnus,  Decimus  Cwlius 285 

Balbo,  Cesare 236 

Balboa,  Vaaco  Nunez  de 236 

Balbriggan 236 

Balbuena.  Bernardo  de 286 

Balbus,  Lucius  Cornelius 286 

Balbus,  Lucius  Cornelius  (Minor) . .  236 

Balbus,  Quintus  Lucilius 287 

Balbus,  Lucius  Octavius 237 

Balbus,  Titus  Ampins 287 

Balde,  Jakob 287 

Baldi,  Bernardino 287 

Baldur 287 

Baldwin  co.,  Ga 28T 

Baldwin  co.,  Ala 287 

Baldwin,  Counts  of  Flanders 288 

Baldwin  I.,  Emperor 238 

Baldwin  II.,  Emperor  288 

Baldwin,  kings  of  Jerusalem 288 

Baldwin,  John  Dennison 239 

Balearic  Islands 289 

Balechon,  Jean  Jacques  Nicolas 289 

Balen,  Hendrik  van 289 

Balcstra,  Antonio 289 

Balfe,  Michael  William 289 

Balfour,  Alexander 240 

Balfour,  Sir  James 240 

Balfour,  Walter 240 

Balfrush 240 

Bali 240 

Baliol.    See  Balliol. 

Balize 241 

Balkan  Mountains 241 

Balkash 241 

Balkh 241 

Ball,  Game  of.    See  Base  Ball. 

Ball,  John 242 

Ball,  Thomas 242 

BaUanche,  Pierre  Simon 242 

Ballantyne,  James 242 

Battantyne,  John 248 

Ballnrat 243 

Ballard  co 248 

Ballenstedt 248 

Ballet 248 

Ballina 244 

BaUinasloe 244 

Balling,  Karl  Joseph  Napoleon 244 

Balliol,  John 244 

BallicJ,  Edward 244 

Ballista 245 

Balloon.    See  Aeronautics. 

Ballot 245 

Ballon,  Hosea  (two) 246 

Bailou,  Maturin  Murray 248 

Ballston  Spa 246 

Ballymena 246 

Balm  of  Gilead 247 

Balmes,  Jaime  Lucio 247 

Balmoral 247 

Balnaves,  Henry 247 

Balsam 247 

Balsams 248 

Balta 250 


PAGE 

Baltacrhini.  Snvorio 250 

Baltacchini,  Michele 250 

Balta  Liman 250 

Baltard.  Louis  Pierre 250 

Baltard,  Victor 250 

Baltard,  Prosper 251 

Baltard,  Jules 251 

Baltic  Sea 251 

Baltimore  co 252 

Baltimore 252 

Baltimore,  Lord.    Bee  Calvcrt. 

Baltimore  Bird 257 

Baltzer,  Johann  Baptist 258 

Baltzer,  Wilhelm  Eduard 258 

Balue.  Jean  de  la 258 

Baluffl,  Gaetono 253 

Baluze,  Etienne 258 

Balzac,  Honore  de 253 

Balzac,  Laure  de 259 

Balzac,  Jean  Louis  Guez,  Seigneur  d'  259 

Bambarra 260 

Bamberg 260 

Bamboccio 260 

Bamboo 261 

Bambook 262 

Bamian 262 

Bampton  Lectures 262 

Ban,  a  title 262 

Ban,  a  proclamation 262 

Banana 263 

Banana  Islands 264 

Bananal 264 

Banat 264 

Banbury 264 

Banca 264 

Bancroft,  Aaron 265 

Bancroft,  Edward 265 

Bancroft,  George 265 

Bancroft,  Richard 267 

Banda  Islands 267 

Banda  Oriental.    See  Uruguay. 

Bandarra,  Gonzalo  Annes 267 

Bandel,  Joseph  Ernst  von 267 

Bandello,  Matteo 268 

Bandera  co 268 

Bandettini,  Teresa 268 

Bandicoot 263 

Bandiera,  Attilio  and  Emilio 268 

Bandinelli,  Baccio 269 

Bandon,  a  river 269 

Bandon,  a  town 269 

Bandtke,  Jerzy  Samuel 260 

Bandtke,  Jan  Wincenty 269 

Baner,  Johan 269 

Banff 269 

Banffshtre 269 

Bang 269 

Bangalore 269 

Bangkok 270 

Baneor,  Maine 270 

Bangor,  Wales 271 

Bangor,  Ireland 271 

Bangs,  Nathan,  D.  D 271 

Banialuka 271 

Banian 271 

Banim,  John 272 

Banim,  Michael 272 

Banister,  Va 272 

Banjermassin 272 

Banjo 272 

Bank 278 

Bank  Ban 283 

Bankrupt 283 

Banks  co 285 

Banks,  John 285 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph 285 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prenttss 286 

Banks,  Thomas 286 

Banksia 286 

Bannocks 287 

Banncker,  Benjamin 287 

Banneret 287 

Bannockburn 287 

Banns  of  Matrimony 288 

Banquo 288 

Banshee 288 

Bantam 288 

Banting,  William 288 

BantryBay 289 

Banz 289 

Baobab 289 

Bapaumd 290 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Baphomet 290 

liaptism 290 

Baptistery 291 

r,:iptistB 292 

Bar.  See  Bar-le-Duc,  Bar-sur-Aube, 
and  Bar-sur-Seine. 

Bar,  a  town 294 

Bar,  an  enclosure 294 

Bar,  a  partition 294 

Baraba 294 

Baracoa 294 

Barada 29S 

Baraga,  Frederick,  D.  D 295 

Baraguey  d'Hilliers,  Louis 295 

Baraguey  d'Hilliers,  Achille 295 

Baranoff,  Nikolai 295 

Baranoff,  Alexander  Andreyevitch .  295 
Barante,  Amable  Guillaume  Prosper.  295 

Baranya 296 

Baratier,  Johann  Philipp 296 

Baratynskl,  Tevgeni  Abramovitch.  296 

Barb 296 

Barbadoes 296 

Barbara,  Saint...., 297 

Barbarelll,  Giorgio.    See  Giorgionc. 

Barbarossa,  Arudj 29T 

Barbarossa,  Khair-cd-Din 297 

Barbarossa,  Frederick.    See  Frede- 
rick I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Barbaroux,  Charles  Jean  Marie 298 

Barbary  States 298 

Barbastro 298 

Barbauld,  Anna  La>tHui 298 

Barbel 298 

Barbg-Marbois,  Francois  de 299 

Barber,  Francis 299 

Barber,  Col.  Francis ' 299 

Barberini,  family  of 299 

Barberry 800 

Barbes,  Armand 801 

Barbeyrac,  Jean 801 

Barbie  du  Bocagc,  Jean  Denis 801 

Barbier,  Antoine  Alexandre 801 

Barbier,  Edrnond  Jean  Francois 801 

Barbier,  Henri  Auguste 801 

Barbier,  Paul  Jules 801 

Barbieri,  Giovanni  Francesco.    See 
Guercino. 

Barbou,  family  of 801 

Barbour  co.,  W.  Va 802 

Barbour  co.,  Ala 802 

Barbour  co.,  Kansas 802 

Barbour,  James 802 

Barbour,  John 802 

Barby 302 

Barca 802 

Barca,  a  city 808 

Barca,  an  epithet 808 

Barcelona,  Spain 808 

Barcelona,  Venezuela 804 

Barckhausen,  Johann  Konrad 805 

Barclay,  Alexander 805 

Barclay,  John 805 

Barclay,  Capt.  Robert 805 

Barclay,  Robert,  of  Ury 806 

Barclay,  William 806 

Barclay  do  Tolly,  Michael 806 

Bar-Cokheba 806 

Bard 806 

Bard,  John 807 

Bard,  Samuel 808 

Bardas : 808 

Bardesanes 808 

Bardili,  Christoph  Gottfried 808 

Bardin,  Jean 808 

Bardings.    See  Armor. 

Bardstown 808 

Barebone,  Praise  God 808 

Barefooted  Friars  and  Nuns 808 

Bareges 809 

Bareille,  Jean  Francois 809 

Bareily 809 

Barentz,  Willem 809 

Bardre  de  Vieuzac,  Bertrand 809 

Baretti,  Giuseppe 810 

Bargain  and  Sale 810 

Barge 810 

Barham,  Richard  Harris 810 

Bari,  a  seaport 811 

Bari,  a  negro  tribe 811 

Bari.  Terra  di 811 

Barilla 811 


FASE 

Barima 311 

Barinas 812 

Baring,  family  of 812 

Baring,  Sir  Francis 812 

Baring,  Sir  Thomas 812 

Baring,  Francis  Tbornhill 312 

Baring,  Thomas  George 312 

Baring,  Charles 812 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine 812 

Barium 312 

Bark 818 

Barker,  Fordyce,  M.  D 314 

Barker,  Jacob 814 

Barking 814 

Barlseus,  Caspar.    See  Baerle. 

Bar-le-Duc 815 

Barietta 815 

Barletta,  Gabriello 815 

Barley 815 

Barlow,  Joel 816 

Barlow,  William 816 

Barmecides 817 

Barmen 817 

Barnabas,  Epistle  of. 817 

Barnabas,  Saint 818 

Barnabites 818 

Barnacle 319 

Barnard,  Frederick  Augustus  Por- 
ter, LL.  D 819 

Barnard,  Henry,  LL.  D 820 

Barnard,  John  Gross 820 

Barnard,  Sir  John 320 

Barnaul 820 

Barnave,   Antoine    Pierre   Joseph 

Marie 821 

Barnegat 821 

Barnegat,  Bay  of 821 

Barnes,  Albert 821 

Barnes,  Thomas 822 

Barnes,  William 322 

Barneveldt,  Jan  van  Olden 822 

Barney,  Joshua 822 

Barni,  Jules  Romain 828 

Barnsley 828 

Barnstaple  CO.,  Mass 823 

Barnstable,  a  town 828 

Barnstaple 828 

Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor 828 

Barnwell  co 824 

Baroach.    See  Broach. 

Baroccio,  Fieri  Federigo 324 

Baroche,  Pierre  Jules 824 

Baroda 824 

Barometer 825 

Barometrical  Measurement 880 

Baron 881 

Baron  and  Feme 882 

Baronet 882 

Baronius,  Cesare 882 

Barony 882 

Barotse 832 

Barozzio  da  Vignola.    See  Vignola. 

Barquisimeto 882 

Ban- 833 

Barr,  or  Barra 883 

Barra  Islands 838 

Barrackpoor 833 

Barral,  Jean  Augustin 884 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicolas.  834 

Barratry 834 

Barre,  Antoine  Joseph  le  F6vre  de  la  834 

Barre,  Isaac 885 

Barr6ges.    See  Bareres. 

Barrel 885 

Barrclier,  Jacques 886 

Barren  co 886 

Barreto,  Francisco  de 886 

Barretry 886 

Barrett,  Benjamin  Fisk 886 

Barrett,  George  Horton 886 

Ban-head 887 

Barrier  Reefs 887 

Barrington,  John  Shute 837 

Barrington,  William  Wildman 837 

Barrinirton,  Daines 887 

Barrington,  Samuel 887 

Barringtou,  Shute 887 

Barrington,  Sir  Jonah 887 

Barren  co 887 

Barron,  James 837 

Barren,  Samuel  (two) 888 

Barros,  Joao  de 839 


PARK 

Barrut,  Camillc  Hyacinthe  Odilon..  83!) 

Bui-rot.  Victorin  Ferdinand 889 

1  iaiTuw 839 

Barrow,  a  river 840 

Barrow,  Isaac 840 

Barrow,  Sir  John 840 

BaiTow,  John 841 

Barrow-in-Furness 341 

Barrow  Strait 841 

Barrundia,  Jose  Francisco 841 

Barry  co.,  Mo 841 

Barry  co.,  Mich 841 

Barry,  Sir  Charles 841 

Barry,  Edward  Middleton 341 

Barry,  Gerald 842 

Barry,  James 342 

Barry,  John 842 

Barry,  Marie   Jeanne  Gomard  de 

Vaubernier,  Countess  du 842 

Barry,  Martin 848 

Bars 848 

Barsac 848 

Barsuma  (two) 848 

Bar-sur-Aube 843 

Bar-sur-Seine 848 

Bart,  Jean 843 

Bartas,  Guillaume  de  Salluste  dn. . .  848 

Jiartfeld 848 

Barth 844 

Earth,  Christian  Gottlob 844 

Barth,  Ileinrich 844 

Barthelemy,  Auguste  Marseille  ....  845 
Biirthulcmy,  Francois,  Marquis  de. .  845 

Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques 846 

liarthelemy-Saint-Hilaire,  Jules. ...  846 

Barthez,  Paul  Joseph 846 

Barthez,  Antoine  Charles  Ernest  de.  846 

Barthold,  Friedrich  Wilhelm 846 

Bartholdy,  Jakob  Salomon 846 

Bartholin,  Kaspar 847 

Bartholin,  Thomas 847 

Bartholomew  co 847 

Bartholomew  Bayou 847 

Bartholomew,  Valentine 847 

Bartholomew,  Anne  Charlotte 847 

Bartholomew,  Saint 347 

Bartholomew,  Saint,  Massacre  of. . .  847 

Bartlett,  Elisha 849 

Bartlett,  Ichabob 849 

Bartlett,  John  Russell 849 

Bartlett,  Joseph 850 

Bartlett,  Josiah,  M.  D 850 

Bartlett,  William 850 

Bartlett,  William  Henry 850 

Bartol,  Cyrus  Augustus 850 

Bartoli,  Danicle 851 

Bartoli,  Pietro  Santl 8nl 

Bartoli ni,  Lorenzo 851 

Bartolo,  Taddeo  di 851 

Bartolo,  Domenico  di 351 

Bartolommeo,  Fra 351 

Bartolozzi,  Francesco 852 

Barton  co.,  Ga 852 

Barton  co.,  Mo 852 

Barton  co.,  Kan 852 

Barton,  Benjamin  Smith 852 

Barton,  Bernard 852 

Barton,  Elizabeth 352 

Barton,  William 858 

Bartram,  John 8.W 

Bartram,  William 858 

Bartsch,  Johann  Adam    Bernhard 

von 858 

Bartsch,  Karl  Friedrich 853 

Baruch 358 

Bary,  Hendrik 854 

Barye,  Antoine  Louis 854 

Baryta.    See  Barium. 

Bo. 854 

Basalt 854 

Basarjik 854 

Bascki,  Matteo 855 

Bascom,  Henry  Bidleman.  D.  D —  855 

Bascom,  John 3f>5 

Base 8a5 

Base  Ball 855 

Basedow,  Johann  Bernhard 356 

Basel 857 

Basel,  Council  of 85S 

Basevi,  George 859 

Bashan , 859 

Bashaw.    See  Pasha. 


CONTENTS 


366 
867 
867 

8«9 
869 
870 


PAGE 

Bashkirs  .........................  360 

Basil  .............................  360 

Basil,  a  monk  .....................  360 

Basil.  Emperor  (two)  ..............  861 

Basil  the  Great,  Saint  ..............  362 

Basilan  ..........................  368 

i:a.-i,ian  Monks  ...................  368 

Basilica  ..........................  363 

Basilicata  .........................  868 

Basilides  .........................  863 

Basiliscus  ........................  864 

Basilisk  ..........................  364 

Basilosaurus.    See  Zeuglodon. 
Baskerville,  John  .................  365 

Basket  ...........................  865 

Basnage  de  Beauval,  Jacques  ......  866 

Basque  Provinces.    See  Basques. 

Basques 

Bas-Rhin 

Bass 

Bass,  or  Basswood.    See  Linden. 

Bass,  George  A 

Bassano 

Bassano,  Francesco  da  Ponte 

Bassano,  Giacomo  da  Poute  .......  870 

Bassano,  Francesco  ...............  870 

Bassano.  Hugues  Bernard  Maret, 
Duke  of.  .......................  370 

Bassantin,  James  .................  370 

Bassanville,  Anais  Lebrun  de  ......  871 

B:issein  (two)  .................  _____  371 

Basselin,  Olivier  ...................  871 

Basses-Alpes  .....................  871 

Basses-Pyrenees  ............  .  .....  371 

Basse-Terre,  St.  Christopher  .......  871 

Basse-Terre,  Guadeloupe  ..........  871 

Bassi,  Laura  Maria  Catarina  .......  871 

Bassompierre,  Francois,  Baron  de  .  .  371 
Bassoon  ..........................  372 

Bassorah  .........................  872 

Bass  Kock  ........................  872 

Bass  Strait  ........................  872 

Bassntos  .........................  872 

Bassville,  Nicolas  Jean  Hugou  de..  .  872 
Bast  .............................  872 

Bastard  ..........................  878 

Bastia  ...........................  874 

Bastian,  Adolph  ...................  874 

Bastian,  H.  Charlton  ..............  874 

Bastiat,  Frederic  ..................  875 

Bastide,  Jules  ....................  375 

Bastile  ...........................  375 

Bastion.    See  Fortification. 
Bastropco  ........................  876 

Bat  .............................  876 

Batak  ............................  879 

Batantea.    See  Bashan. 

Batangas  .........................  879 

Batatas.    See  Potato,  and  Yam. 
Batavi  ............................  879 

Batavia  ...........................  880 

Batavia,N.  Y  .....................  831 

Batavian  Republic  ................  881 

Batehian  .........................  881 

Bateman,  Kate  Josephine  ..........  881 

Batenites.    See  Assassins. 

Bates  co  ..........................  881 

Bates,  Barnabas  ...................  8bl 

Bates,  Edward,  LL.  D  .............  8S1 

Bates,  Joshua.  ....................  881 

Bath  .............................  882 

Bath  CO.,  Va  ......................  397 

Bath  co.,  Ky  .....................  887 

Bath,  Me  .........................  887 

Bath,N.  Y  .......................  888 

Bath,  En*  ........................  888 

Bath,  Earl  of.  See  Pulteney,  William. 
Bath,  Knights  of  the  ..............  888 

Bathori,  family  of  .................  889 

Bathory,  Stephen  (three)  ..........  889 

Bathory,  Christopher  ..............  889 

Bathory,  Sigismund  ...............  889 

Biithory,  Gabriel  ..................  889 

Bathory,  Elizabeth  ................  889 

Bathurst,  N.  B  ....................  889 

Bathurst,  Australia  ...............  8S9 

Bathurst,  Africa  ..................  890 

Bathurst,  family  of  ................  890 

Bathurst,  Ralph  ...................  890 

Bathurst,  Allen,  first  Earl  ..........  890 

Bathurst,  Henry  (three)  ...........  890 

Bathurst  Inlet  ....................  890 


PAGE 
Bathyanyi.    See  Batthyanyi. 

Bathybius 890 

Bathyllus  of  Alexandria 891 

Batoka 891 

Baton!,  Pompeo  Girolamo 891 

Baton  Eouge 891 

Baton  Rouge,  East  and  West.    See 

East   Baton   Rouge,   and   West 

Baton  Rouge. 

Batrachians.    See  Amphibia. 
Batshian.    See  Batehian. 
Batta.    See  Batak. 

Battering  Ram 891 

Battersea 892 

Battery,  Galvanic.    See  Galvanism. 

Battery, 892 

Batteux,  Charles 898 

Batthyanyi,  Kazmer. ...  . .  893 

Batthyanyi,  Lajos 898 

Battle 898 

Battle  Axe 898 

Battle  Creek 894 

Batu  Khan 894 

Batuta,  Ibn 894 

Batyushkoff,  Constantin  Nikolaye- 

vitch 894 

Baucher,  Francois 894 

Baucis 894 

Baudelocque,  Jean  Louis 894 

Baudens,  Jean  Baptiste  Lueien 894 

Baudin,  Nicolas 895 

Baudin  des  Ardennes,  Charles 895 

Baudrais,  Jean 895 

Baudrillart,  Henri  Joseph  Leon 895 

Bauer,  Anton 895 

Bauer,  Bernard 895 

Bauer,  Bruno 896 

Bauer,  Edgar. 896 

Bauer,  Georg  Lorenz 896 

Baugi 896 

Bauhin,  Jean 897 

Baumannshdhle 897 

Baume,  Antoine 897 

Baumgarten,  Alexander  Gottlieb. . .  897 

Baumgarten,  Michael 897 

Baumgarten,  Sigmund  Jakob. 897 

Baumgarten  -  Crusius,  Detlev  Karl 

Wilhclm 89T 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  Ludwig  Fried- 
rich  Otto 897 

Baumgartner,  Andreas  von 898 

Baumgartner,  Gallus  Jakob 898 

Baumgartner,  Karl  Heinrich 898 

Baur,  Ferdinand  Christian 898 

Bausset,  Louis  Francois  de 899 

Bautain,  Louis  Eug6ne  Marie 899 

Bautzen 899 

Bauxite.    See  Alumina. 
Bavai.    See  Bavay. 

Bavaria 899 

Bavay 408 

Bawian 408 

Bawr,  Alexandrine  Sophie  Coury  de 

Champgrand,  Baroness  de 403 

Baxter,  Andrew 403 

Baxter,  Richard 408 

Baxter,  William 404 

Bay  co 404 

Bayadeer 404 

Bayagoulas 405 

Bayamo 405 

Bayard,  James  Asheton  (two) 405 

Bayard,  Richard  Bassett 405 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis.-. 405 

Bayard,  Jean  Francois  Alfred 405 

Bayard,  Pierre  duTerrail,  Chevalier 

de..l 406 

Bayberry 406 

Bay  City 407 

Bayer,  Johann 407 

Bayeujc 407 

Bayeux  Tapestry 407 

Bavneld  co 408 

Bayle,  Pierre 403 

Baylen 408 

Bayley,  James  Roosevelt 408 

Bayley,  Richard 408 

Baylor  co 409 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes 4(l9 

Bayne,  Peter 409 

Bayonet 409 

Bayonne 409 


PACK 

Bayou  Sara 410 

Bayrhofl'er.  Karl  Theodor 410 

Baza 410 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille 411 

Bazalgette,  Joseph  William 411 

Bazancourt,  Cesar  de,  Baron 411 

Hazard,  Amaud 411 

Bazdlles 412 

Bdellium 412 

Beach,  Moses  Yale 412 

Beaconsfield 412 

Bead 412 

Beagle 413 

Beale,  Lionels 418 

Beale,  Mary 413 

Beam 418 

Bean 416 

Bean  Goose.    See  Goose. 

Bear 417 

Bear,  Great  and  Lesser 420 

Beard 420 

Beard.  James  H 421 

Beard,  William  H 421 

Bear  Lake,  Great 422 

Bear  Lake  River 422 

Bear  Mountain 422 

Beam 422 

Bear  River  (two) 422 

Beas 422 

Beasley,  Frederick 422 

Beatification 422 

Beaton,  David 422 

Beatrice  Portinari 423 

Bcattie,  James 423 

Beaucaire 428 

Beauce  co 428 

Beauchesne,  Alcide  Hyacmthe  du 

Boisde 424 

Beanclerk,  Topham 424 

Beaufort  CO.,  N.  C 424 

Beaufort  co.,  B.C 424 

Beaufort,  N.  C 424 

Beaufort,  S.  C 424 

Beaufort,  France 424 

Beaufort,  French  Dukes  of. 424 

Beaufort,  Belgian  Dukes  of 424 

Beaufort,  Sir  Francis 424 

Beaufort,   Francois   de   Vendflme, 

Duke  of 425 

Beaufort,  Henry  of 425 

Beaufort,   Henry   Charles   Fitzroy 

Somerset,  Duke  of. 425 

Beaufort,  Margaret 425 

Beaugency 426 

Beauharnats,  Alexandre,Yicomte  de.  426 

Beauharnais.  Eugene  de 426 

Beauharnais,  Fanny 427 

Beauharnais,  Francois,  Marquis  de .  427 

Beauharnais,  Hortense  Eugenie 427 

Beauharnois  co 427 

Beaujolais 427 

Beaunianoir,  Jean,  Sire  de 427 

Beaumanolr,  Philippe  de 427 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin  Ca- 

ron  de 428 

Beaumelle,  Laurent  Angliviel  de  la.  429 

Beaumont 480 

Beaumont,  fllie  de.     See  Klir  de 

Beaumont 
Beaumont,  Sir  George  Howland . . .  430 

Beaumont,  Sir  John 480 

Beaumont,  William 480 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher 430 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  Gustavo 

Auguste  de 431 

Beaune 431 

Beaune-la-Rolande  431 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant  481 

Beaurepatre-Rohan,  Henri  de 432 

Beausobre,  Isaac  de 432 

Beautemps-Beaupr6,  Charles  Fran- 
cois...:   482 

Beauty.    See  ^Esthetics. 

Beauvais 488 

Beauvais,  Charles  Theodore 488 

Beauvau,  de,  family  of. 438 

Beauvois,  Ambroise  Marie  Francois 

Joseph  Palisot  de.    See  Palisot. 

IVau/.v.  Ni.'ohs 483 

Beaver 483 

Beaver  CO.,  Pa 435 

Beaver  co.,  Utah 485 


Yl 


CONTENTS 


FAOE 

Beaver,  Philip 485 

Beaver  Head  co 486 

Beaver  Indians 486 

B'-:'.vr  Islands 486 

Beazley,  Samuel 436 

BebeartM 486 

Bebi.in,  Roeh  Ambroise  Auguste. . .  486 

Bebutoff,  Vasili  Osipovltch 486 

Beccafico 4-i" 

Beccafuini,  Domenlco 48T 

Becc.-iria,  Ccsare  Bonesana,  Marquis 


of.. 


437 


Beccaria.  Gtainbattista 487 

Beovrra,  Gaspnr 437 

Becher.  Johann  Joachim 438 

Beehstein,  Johann  Matthaus 488 

Bccliuana 438 

Beck.  David 438 

Beck.  Knrl 488 

Beck.  Tlieodoric  Eomeyn 489 

Beck,  John  Brodhead 489 

Beck,  Lewis  C 489 

Becker  co 489 

Becker,  Gottfried  Wilhelm 489 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand  (two) 489 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrich 440 

Becker,  Rudolf  Zacharias 440 

Becker,  Wilhelm  Gottlieb 440 

Becker,  Wilhelm  Adolf 440 

Becket,  Thomas  a 440 

Beckford,  William  (two) 442 

Beckmann,  Johann 448 

Bockx,  Pierre  Jean 448 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Cesar 448 

Becquerel,  Alexandre  Edmond 444 

Becquerel,  Louis  Alfred 444 

Becse,  Old 444 

Becse,  New 444 

Becskerek,  Great 444 

Becskcrek,  Little 444 

Bed  and  Bedstead 444 

Bed  of  Justice 446 

Bedarieux 446 

Bedbug.    See  Epizoa. 

Beddoes,  Thomas 445 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell 446 

Bede.  Venerable 446 

Bedeau,  Marie  Alphonse 446 

Bedell,  Gregory  Townsend,  D.  D. . .  447 
Bedell,  Gregory  Thurston,  D.  D. . . .  447 

Bedell,  William 447 

Bedford  co.,  Pa 447 

Bedford  co.,  Ta 447 

Bedford  co.,  Tenn 447 

Bedford,  Pa 443 

Bedford,  England 448 

Bedford,  Gunning  8 448 

Bedford,  John,  Duke  of. 448 

Bedford  Level 449 

Bedfordshire 449 

Bedlam 449 

Bedouins 450 

Bee 451 

Bee  co 459 

Beech 459 

Beecher,  Lyman.  D.  D 460 

Beecher,  Catharine  Esther 461 

Beecher,  Edward,  D.  D 461 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward 4li2 

Beecher,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Stowe).  462 

Beecher,  Charles 468 

Beecher,  Thomas  Kennicutt 4C8 

Beechey,  Frederick  William 468 

Beechey,  Sir  William 468 

Bee-eater 463 

Bee-keeping 464 

Beelzebub 469 

Beemster 469 

Beer 469 

Beer,  Wilhelm 470 

Beer.  Michael 470 

Beer-sheba 470 

Beet 471 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van  (two) 472 

Beetle 476 

Befana 478 

Beg 478 

Begas,  Karl 478 

Beg  hards  (two) 478 

Begharmi.    Bee  Baghirmi. 

Begonia 478 

Begsheher 479 


PAGE 

Begu.lrrts.    Sec  Bognlnes. 

Begnines 479 

Bchaim,  Martin 479 

Beham,  Hans  Sebald 479 

Belm  r 479 

Behlstun 479 

Behn,  Aphara 480 

Bchring,  Vitus 430 

Behring  Island 4SO 

Behring  Sea 480 

Behring  Strait 481 

Beira 4S1 

Beirut.    See  Beyront. 
Beisan.    See  Scythopolis. 

Beissel,  Johann  Conrad 481 

Beit-el-Fakih 481 

Beja 481 

Bejapoor 481 

Beke,  Charles  Tilstone 482 

Bekes -482 

Bekker,  Immanuel 4S2 

Bel.    See  Belus. 

Bela.  kings  of  Hungary 482 

Belbeis 488 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward 488 

Belcher,  Jonathan  (two) 488 

Belcher,  Tom 483 

Beled-ul-Jerid 4S8 

Belcm,  Portugal 483 

Bclern,  Brazil 4S4 

Belemnites 484 

Belesta 485 

Belfast,  Me 485 

Belfast,  Ireland 485 

Belfort 486 

Belgre 487 

Belgard 487 

Belgaum 487 

Belgiojoso,  Cristina 48T 

Belgium 48T 

Belgorod 498 

Belgrade 498 

Belial 498 

Belidor,  Bernard  Forest  de 498 

Bclisarius 494 

Belize.    See  Balize. 

Belknap  co 495 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.  D 495 

Bell 496 

Bell  co 498 

Bell,  Andrew 498 

Bell,  Sir  Charles 498 

Bell,  George  Joseph 499 

Bell,  Henry 499 

Bell,  John  (three) 499 

Bell,  John 600 

Bell,  Luther  V.,  M.  D.,  LL.  D 600 

Bell,  Thomas 600 

Belladonna 500 

Bellamont,  Eichard  Coote,  Earl  of. .  601 

Bellamy,  Mrs.  George  Ann 602 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.  D 602 

Bellarmin,  Robert. 502 

Bellary 602 

Bellay,  Guillaume  du 502 

Bellay,  Jean  du 508 

Bellay,  Joachim  du 508 

Belle,  Jean  Francois  Joseph  de 608 

Bellcchasse  co 608 

Belle-Isle,  Charles  Louis  Auguste 

Fouquet,  Duke  de 508 

Belle-Isle,  Louis  Charles  Armand 

Fouquet.  Chevalier  de 504 

Belle  Isle,  North 604 

Belle  Isle,  South 504 

Belle  Isle,  Strait  of 604 

Belle-Isle-en-Mer 504 

Bellenden,  William 604 

Bellcrophon 604 

Bellcval,  Pierre  Richer  de 504 

Belleville,  Illinois 604 

Belleville,  Canada 605 

Belley 606 

Belliard,  Augustin  Daniel 605 

Belling,  Wilhelm  Sebastian  von. ...  505 

Bellingham,  Richard 505 

Bellini,  Jacopo 505 

Bellini,  Gentile 506 

Bellini,  Giovanni 506 

Bellini,  Laarentio 506 

Bellini,  Vincenzo 606 

BelUnzona 506 


PAGC 

Bellman,  Karl  Mickel 5nt5 

Bellona 507 

Bellot,  Joseph  Rene 6117 

Bellows 507 

Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  D.D. . 

Bellows  Falls 508 

Bellows  Fish ti >•• 

Belloy,  Pierre  Laurent  Buirette  de.  5nS 

Belluno 509 

Bel-Merodach.    See  Merodach. 

Belmont  co 509 

Belmont.  Mo 

Belmontet,  Louis 51)9 

Beloe,  William 509 

Beloit 510 

Belon,  Pierre 510 

Beloochistan 510 

Belper 511 

Belgium,  Thomas 511 

Belsham,  William 511 

Belshazzar.    See  Babylon. 
Belsunce,  Henri  Francois   Xavier 

de 511 

Belt,  Great  and  Little 511 

Beltane 611 

Beltis 511 

Beltraml  co 511 

Belur  Tagh.    See  Bolor  Tagh. 

Belus 612 

Belus,  Temple  of.    See  Babel,  and 

Babylon. 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  Battista 512 

Bern,  J6zef 612 

Beman,  Nathaniel  S.  S 518 

Bembo,  Bonifazio 518 

Bembo,  Giovanni  Francesco 513 

Bembo,  Pietro r,]:< 

Ben 514 

Benalcazar,  Sebastian  de 514 

Benares 514 

Benbow,  John 515 

Bencoolen 516 

Benda,  Franz 516 


Benda,  Georg 516 

Bendavid,  Lazarus 51fi 

Bendemann,  Eduard 516 

Bender 517 

Bendish,  Bridget 517 

Benedek,  Ludwlgvon 517 

Benedetti,  Vincent,  Count 517 

Benedict,  Popes 518 

Benedict  Biscop 618 

Benedict,  Abbot  of  Peterborough..  519 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius M  !i 

Benedict.  Saint 519 

Benedict  of  Aniane 519 

Benedictines 519 

Benedictine  Nuns 520 

Benedix,  Julius  Koderich 520 

Benefit  of  Clergy 520 

Beneke,  Friedrich  Eduard 521 

Benevente 521 

Benevento 521 

Benevolence 522 

Benezet,  Anthony 522 

Benfey,  Theodor 523 

Bengal 523 

Bengal,  Bay  of. 526 

Bengel,  Johann  Albrecht 526 

Benger,  Elizabeth  Ogilvy 62li 

Benghazi 5-26 

Benguela 526 

Benguela,  Sao  Felipe  de 527 

Beni,  a  department 527 

Beni,  a  river 627 

Baiicarlo 527 

Bcnicia 627 

Benin,  a  kingdom 527 

Benin,  a  town 528 

Benin,  Bight  of 528 

Beniowsky,  Moritz  August 528 

Benjamin 528 

Benjamin.  Judah  Peter 528 

Benjamin,  Park 529 

Benjamin  of  Tudela 529 

Ben  Lomond 529 

Bennet,  Henry 529 

Bennet,  Thomas 629 

Bennett,  James  Gordon 580 

Bennett,  John  Hughes 581 

Bennett,  Sir  William  Sterndale 681 

Ben  Nevis 581 


CONTENTS 


vn 


PAGE 

Benninsrsen.  Alexander  Levin,  Count  582 

Benningaen,  Kudolf  von -^ 

Bennington  co 532 

Bcnnington,  Vt 682 

Benno,  Saint 532 

Benoowe 532 

Benson,  George 532 

Unison,  Joseph 538 

Bent  co 583 

lii-ntham,  Jeremy 583 

Beuthani,  Thomas 588 

Bimtinck,  family  of 58!) 

1','iitinck,  William 539 

Bentinck,  Henry 539 

Bentinck,  Lord  William  Henry  Cav- 
endish    589 

Bentinck,    Lord    William    Charles 

Cavendish 539 

Bentinck,  Lord  George 539 

Bentivoglio,  family  of 541 1 

Bentivoglio,  Ercolo 540 

Benttvoglio,  Guido 540 

Bentivoglio.  Cornelio 540 

Bentley,  Bichard 540 

Bentley,  Robert 541 

Benton  co.,  Miss 541 

Benton  co.,  Ark 641 

Benton  co.,  Tonn 541 

Benton  co.,  Ind 542 

Benton  co.,  Minn 542 

Beaton  co.,  Iowa 542 

Benton  CO.,  Mo 542 

Benton  CO..  Oregon 542 

Benton,  Wis 542 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart 642 

Bentzel-Steraau,    Christian    Ernst, 

Count 543 

Benzie  co 543 

Benzine 544 

Benzole  Add 544 

Benzoin 545 

Benzole 546 

Beowulf,  Tale  of.  See  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, Language  and  Literature  of 
the. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de 546 

Berar 648 

Berard,  Joseph  Frederic 548 

Berard,  Pierre  Honore 549 

Berard,  Auguste 549 

Berat 549 

Berber 549 

Berbera 549 

Berberina 549 

Berbers 549 

Berbice,  a  river 550 

Berbice  co 550 

Berchtesgaden 550 

Bercy 650 

Berdiansk 550 

Berditchev 550 

Bereg 551 

Berengarius 651 

Berenger,  kings  of  Italy 552 

Berenice,  queens 652 

Berenice,  a  city  (two) 553 

Beresford,  James 553 

Beresford,  William  Carr,  Viscount..  558 

Beregina 553 

Berezov  (two) 554 

Berg 554 

Berg.  Friedrich  von,  Count 554 

Bergama 554 

Bergami,  Bartolomraeo 554 

Bergamo 554 

Bergamot 555 

Bergen  co 555 

Bergen,  Norway 656 

Bergen-op-Zoom 556 

Bergenroth,  Gustav 657 

Bergerac 557 

Bergerac,  Savinien  Cyrano  de 557 

Berghaus,  Heinrich 557 

Berghem,  Nikolaas 557 

Bergman,  Torbern  Olof. 558 

Bergonzi,  family  of. 558 

Bergonzi,  Carlo 558 

Bergonzi,  Michel  Angelo 559 

Bergonzi,  Nicold 559 

Bergues 559 

Berington,  Joseph 559 

Buriut,  Charles  Auguste  de 559 


PAGE 

Berkeley  co 559 

Berkeley,  England 559 

Berkeley,  George 569 

Berkeley.  George  Charles  Grantley 

Fitz-Uardinge 560 

Berkeley,  Sir  William 561 

Berkeley  Springs 661 

Berkhey,  Jan  Lefrancq  van 561 

Berks  co 661 

Berkshire  CO 561 

Berkshire,  England 562 

Berlichingen,  Gotz  von 562 

Berlin 563 

Berlinghieri,  Andrea  Vacca 567 

Berlioz,  Hector 568 

Bt-rmcjo 668 

Bermondsey 568 

Bermudas 568 

Bermudez,  Geronimo 569 

Bern,  a  canton 569 

Bern,  a  city 570 

Bernadotte,  Jean  liaptiste  Jules —  571 

Bernalillo  co 572 

Bernard,  Saint 572 

Bernard,  Claude 574 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis 675 

Bernard,  Jacques 675 

Bernard,  John 675 

Bernard,  William  Bayle 675 

Bernard,  Simon  675 

Bernard,  Saint,  Great  and  Little. 

See  Saint  Bernard. 

Bernard  of  Treviso 575 

Bernardin  of  Siena.  Saint 675 

Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre.    See  Saint 

Pierre. 

Bernardines 676 

Bernardo  del  Carpio 576 

Bernau 676 

Bernauer,  Agnes 576 

Bernay 676 

Bernburg 576 

Berners,  Lady  Juliana 677 

Berners,  John  Bourchier 577 

Bernetti,  Tommaso 577 

Bernhard,  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar..  577 

Bernhard,  Karl 577 

Berni,  Francesco 577 

Bernier,  Francois 578 

Bernina 578 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 678 

Bernis,  Francois  Joachim  de  Pierre 

de 678 

Bernoulli,  family  of. 678 

Bernoulli,  James 578 

Bernoulli,  John  (three) 679 

Bernoulli,  Daniel 679 

Bernoulli,  Nicholas  (two) 579 

Bernoulli,  James 679 

Bernoulli,  Jerome 580 

Bernoulli,  Christopher. 580 

Bernstorff,  Johann  Hartwig  Ernst, 

Count 680 

Bernstorff,  Andreas  Peter,  Count..  5SO 

Beroea 680 

Berosus 680 

Berquin,  Arnaud 680 

Berrien  co.,  Ga 581 

Berrien  co.,  Mich 581 

Berrien,  John  Macpherson 681 

Berry 581 

Berry,  Marie  Louise  Elisabeth,  Duch- 
ess of 581 

Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Duke  of.  531 
Berry,  Marie  Caroline  Ferdinaude 

Louise,  Duchess  of. 681 

Berry,  Mary 582 

Berryer,  Antoine  Pierre 682 

Berserkers 588 

Berthelot,  Pierre  Eugene  Marcellin.  688 

Berthelsdorf. 688 

Berthier  co 688 

Berthier,  Jean  Ferdinand 588 

Berthier,  Louis  Alexandra 588 

Berthold  of  Eatisbon 684 

Berthollet,  Claude  Louis 584 

Berthollet,  Amedee 585 

Bertie  co 585 

Berlin,  Louis  Francois 585 

Berlin,  Louis  Marie  Armand 585 

Berlin,  Edouari  Francois 685 

Bertin,  Louise  Angelique 685 


PAGE 

Bertini,  Henri 585 

Bertrand  de  Born.    See  Born. 

Bertrand,  Henri  Gratien 586 

Berulle,  Pierre  de 586 

Berwick,  James  Fitz-James,  Duke 

of 586 

Berwick-on-Tweed 536 

Berwickshire 687 

Beryl 688 

Berytus.    Sec  Beyrout. 

Berzelius,  Johan  Jakob 5S8 

Berzseuyi,  Daniel 589 

Besancon 6UO 

Besborodko,    Alexander    Andreye- 

vitch,  Prince 590 

Bescherelle,  Louis  Nicolas 590 

Besitun.    See  Behistun. 

Bessaraba,  family  of 590 

Bessarabia 591 

Bessarion.  John C91 

Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm 591 

Bessemer,  Henry 692 

Bessieres,  Jean  Baptiste 592 

Bestuzheff,  Alexander 592 

Bestuzheff-Kiumin,  family  of 692 

Betanros,  Domingo  de 593 

Betel  Nut .598 

Betham,  Sir  William 693 

Bethany 598 

Bethany,  W.  Va. 694 

Bethel 594 

Bethel,  Me 594 

Kc-thcncourt,  Jean,  Seigneur  de 694 

Bethesda 594 

Beth-Horon,  Upper  and  Lower. . . .  594 

Bethlehem 594 

Bethlehem,  Pa 595 

Bcthlehemites , 596 

Bethlen,  Gabor 596 

Bethphage 596 

Bethsaida 596 

Bethune 697 

Bethune,  George  Washingon,  D.  D.  597 

Betlis 597 

Betrothment 597 

Bettcrton,  Thomas 598 

Bettinelli,  Saverio 598 

Betty,  William  Henry  West 593 

Betwah 698 

Beukcls,  Willem 693 

Beule,  Charles  Ernest 598 

Beurnonville,  Pierre  de  Euel,  Mar- 
quis de  599 

Beust,    Friedrich   Ferdinand    von, 

Count 599 

Beuthen  (two) 600 

Beveland,  North  and  South 600 

Bevercn 600 

Beverldge,  William 600 

Beverley 600 

Beverley,  John  of 600 

Beverly,  Mass 600 

Bewick,  Thomas 601 

Bexar  co 601 

Bexar  District,  Texas 601 

Bexley,    Lord.       See   Vansittart, 
Nicholas. 

Beyle,  Marie  Henri 601 

Beyrout 601 

Beza,  Theodore  de 603 

Beza's  Codex 603 

Beziers 603 

Bezoar 604 

Bhadrinath 604 

Bhagavnt  Gita.    See  Sanskrit  Lan- 
guage and  Literature. 

Bhamo 604 

Bhartrihari 604 

Bhatgan 605 

Bhawalpoor 605 

Bheels 605 

Bhooj 60S 

Bhopaul 605 

Bhotan.    See  Bootan 606 

Bhurtpoor 606 

Biafra 606 

Biafra,  Bight  of 606 

Bialystok 606 

Bianchini,  Francesco 606 

Biard,  Auguste  Francois 607 

Biarritz 607 

Bias  (two) 607 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Bibb  CO.,  Oft COT 

Bibb  CO.,  Ala 609 

Bibbiena,  Ferdtaando  Galli  da 608 

Biber,  George  Everard 608 

Biberach 608 

Bibesco,  George  Demetrius,  Prince  603 

Bible 608 

Bible  Societies 614 

Bibliography 618 

Bibliomania 621 

Blbra,  Ernst  TOD 622 

Bibracte.    See  Autun. 

Bicetre 622 

Bichat,  Marie  Francois  Xavier 628 

Biche  de  Mar.    See  Sea  Cucumber. 

Bickanoer 628 

Bickerstaff,  Isaac 624 

Btckersteth,  Edward  (two) 624 

Bickersteth,  Henry 624 

Bickersteth,  Robert 624 

Bickersteth,  Edward  Henry 624 

Bidassoa 624 

Biddcford 624 

Biddlo,  Clement 625 

Biddle,  Clement  Cornell 625 

Biddle,  James 625 

Biddle,  John 625 

Biddle,  Nicholas  (two) 626 

Biddle,  Eichard 627 

Bideford 627 

Bidloo,  Godfried 627 

Bidpay 627 

Biebrich 627 

BiefVe,  fidouard  de 627 

Biel.    See  Bienne. 

Biela,  Wilhelm  von 627 

Bielefeld 628 

Bielev : 628 

Bielgorod.    See  Belgorod. 

Bielitz 628 

Biella 628 

Bielowski,  August 628 

Bielshiihle 628 

Bielski,  Marcin 628 

Bienne 628 

Bienne.  Lake  of 629 

Btenville  parish 629 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne, 

Sieurde 629 

Biernacki,  Aloizy  Prosper 630 

Bieretadt,  Albert 680 

Bies-Bosch 630 

Bigamy 630 

Big  Black  River. 630 

Big  Bone  Lick 630 

Bigelow,  Erastus  Brigham 630 

Bigelow,  Jacob,  M.  D.,  LL.  D 631 

Bigelow,  John 681 

Bigelow,  Timothy. 681 

Big  Horn.    See  Sheep. 

Big  Horn  co 681 

Big  Horn  River 681 

Big  Stone  co 682 

Bihar 682 

Bijanagur. 682 

Bijawnr 682 

Bilbao 682 

Bilberry 688 

Bilderd^jk,  Willem 638 

Bile 633 

Biled-ul-Jerid.   See  Beled-ul-Jerid. 

Bilflnger,  Georg  Bernhard 686 

Bilguer.  Paul  Kudolf  von 686 

Biliary  Ducts 636 

Bilin 636 

Bilious  Fever 637 

Bill 687 

Bill,  a  weapon 689 

Bill  of  Civdit 689 

Bill  in  Equity 689 

Bill  of  Exchange.    See  Exchange. 
Bill  of  Health.    See  Quarantine. 
Bill  of  Indictment.   See  Indictment. 

Bill  of  Lading 640 

Bill  of  Eights 640 

Bill  of  Sale 640 

Billaud- Varenne,  Jean  Nicolas 640 

Bille,  Steen  Andersen 641 

Billiards 641 

Billings,  Joseph 648 

Billings,  William 648 

Billington,  Elizabeth 643 


PAGE 

Billiton 648 

Bilson,  Thomas 648 

Bilston 648 

Bima 644 

Bimini 644 

Binary  Arithmetic.    See  Arithmetic. 

Bindrabund 644 

Bingen 644 

Bingham,  Joseph 646 

Binghauiton  645 

Bingtang 645 

Binnacle 645 

Binney,  Amos 645 

Binney,  Horace 645 

Binney,  Thomas 646 

Biobio 646 

Biology 646 

Bion 646 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste 646 

Bipont  Editions 647 

Birch 647 

Birch,  Samuel 648 

Birch,  Thomas,  D.  D 648 

Birch-Pfeiffer,  Charlotte 648 

Bird,  Edward 648 

Bird,  Golding 648 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery 648 

Birde,  William 649 

Bird  Islands 649 

Bird  Lime 649 

Bird  of  Paradise 649 

Birds 652 

Bird's  Nest,  Edible 657 

Birkenfeld 657 

Birkenhead 657 

Birkenhead,  Sir  John 658 

Birket-el-Keroon 653 

Birmingham,  Eng 658 

Birmingham,  Conn 660 

Birmingham,  Pa %660 

Birnam 660 

Birnee,  Old 660 

Birney,  James  G 660 

Bimey,  David  Bell 660 

Biron,  Armaud  de  Gontaut,  Duko 

de 661 

Biron,  Charles  de  Gontaut,  Duke  de  661 
Biron,  Armand  Louis  de  Gontaut, 

Duke  do 661 

Biron,  Ernest  John,  Duke  of  Cour- 

laud 661 

Birr.    See  Parsonstown. 
Birs  Nimrud.    See  Babel. 

Birstall 662 

Birth.    See  Obstetrics. 

Bisaccia 662 

Bisacquino 662 

Biscay 662 

Biscay,  Bay  of 662 

Biscay,  New.    See  Durango. 

Bisceglie 662 

Bischot  Karl  Gustav 662 

Bischoff,  Christoph  Heinrich  Ernst.  662 
Bischoff,  Theodor  Ludwig  Wilhelm  662 

Bischofswerda 668 

Bischweiler 668 

Bishop 668 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley 664 

Bishop,  Anna  Riviere 665 

Bishop  Stortford 665 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Otto  Edu- 

ard  Leopold,  Prince 665 

Bismuth 666 

Bison 667 

Bissagos 668 

Bisscll,  William  H 668 

Bisset,  Robert 663 

Bistre 668 

Biatritz 668 

Bithoor 689 

Bithynia 669 

Biton  and  Cleobls 669 

Bitonto 669 

Bitsch 669 

Bitterfeld 670 

Bittern 670 

Bitter  Principles 671 

Blttoor.    See  Bithoor. 

Bitumen 671 

Bituminous  Shale 678 

Bitzius,  Albert 678 

Bizcrta 678 


Bjorling,  CarlOlaf. 673 

B.K.rneberg 674 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne 674 

Bjornetjerna,      Magnus       Fredrik 

Ferdinand 674 

Blacas,  Pierre  Louis  Jean  Casimir, 

Duke  de. 674 

Black,  Adam 674 

Black,  Jeremiah  S 674 

Black,  Joseph 674 

Blackall,  Offspring 675 

Blackberry.    See  Bramble. 

Blackbird  co 675 

Blackbird 675 

Blackburn 676 

Blackcap 6T6 

Blackcock 676 

Black  Death.    See  Plague. 

Blackfeet 677 

Blacklist. 677 

Black  Flux 678 

Black  Fly 678 

Blackford  co 678 

Black  Forest 678 

Black  Gum 679 

Black  Hawk 679 

Black  Hawk  co 680 

Black  Hills 680 

Black  Hole 680 

Blackie,  John  Stuart 680 

Blacking 681 

Black  Jack.    See  Blende. 
Black  Lead.    See  Graphite. 

Blacklock,  Thomas,  D.  D 681 

Black  Mail. 681 

Blackman,  George  Curtis 681 

Blackmore,  Sir  Eichard 681 

Black  Mountains 682 

Black  River 682 

Black  Kiver.    See  Big  Black  River. 

Black  Sea 632 

Black  Silver 688 

Black  Snake 11-4 

Blackstone 684 

Blackstone,  William 684 

Blackstone,  Sir  William 684 

Blackstone  River. 1MB 

Black  Vomit d-5 

Blackwall 685 

Black  Walnut.    Sec  Walnut. 

Black  Warrior ri-S 

Blackwater 688 

Blackwell,  Alexander 685 

Blackwcll,  Elizabeth 688 

Blackwell's  Island 686 

Blackwood,  William 

Bladder 686 

Bladen  co 687 

Bladensburg 68T 

Blagovieshtchensk 687 

Blame.  Ephraim 687 

Blainville,  Henri  Marie  Ducrotay  de  687 

Blair  co 683 

Blair,  Francis  Preston 688 

Blair,  Montgomery 688 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  Jr 6S8 

Blah-,  Hugh 6~9 

Blah-,  James,  D.  D 689 

Blair,  John 6»9 

Blair,  Robert fi-'J 

Blairsville 6>9 

Blake,  George  Smith ()-» 

Blake,  John  Lauris,  D.  D 689 

Blake,  Robert 690 

Blake,  William 690 

BLikt-ly,  Johnston 691 

Blakey,  Robert ., 692 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis ." 692 

Blanc,  Augnsto  Alexandra  Charles..  692 

Blanc,  Le 698 

Blanc,  Mont.    See  Mont  Blanc. 

Blanchard,  Emile 698 

Blancbard,  Francois 698 

Blanchard,  Henri  Pierre  Leon  Pha- 

ramond 698 

Blanchard,  Laman 698 

Blanchard,  Thomas 698 

Blanche,  August 69 

Blanche  of  Bourbon 698 

Blanche  of  Castile 694 

Blanco  co 61 1 1 

Bland  co <t'4 


CONTENTS 


IX 


PAGE 

Bland,  Theodorlc 694 

Blandrata,  Giorgio 695 

Blantrmi,    Giuseppe    Marco    Maria 

Fi-lico 695 

Blankenburg. 695 

Blanqui,  .Jerome  Adolphe 695 

Blanqui,  Louis  Auguste 6H6 

Blarney 690 

Blasphemy 696 

Blasting 697 

Blaye 718 

Bleaching 708 

Bleaching  Powder 706 

Bledow,  Ludwlg 707 

Bledsoe  co 703 

Bledsoe.  Albert  Taylor 708 

Bleek,  Friedrich.." 708 

Bleek.  Wilhelm  Hcinrlch  Immanuel  708 

Bleibtreu,  Georg 708 

Blemves 708 

Blende 708 

Blenheim 709 

Blennerhassett,  Harman 709 

Blenny 710 

Blere 710 

Blessington,  Margaret,  Countess  of.  711 

Blicher,  Steen  Steensen 711 

Blidah 711 

Bllgh,  William 711 

Blind,  The 712 

Blind,  Karl 722 

Blind  Fish 722 

lilindvvorm 728 

Blister 724 

Bloch,  Markus  Elieser 724 

Block.  Maurice 724 

Blockade : 724 

Block  Island 725 

Blodgct,  Lorin 725 

Blodget,  Samuel 726 

Bloemaert  Abraham 726 

Bloemen,  Jan  Frana  van 726 

Bloemen,  Peter  van 726 

Bloemfontein 726 

Blois 726 

Blomfield,  Charles  James 727 

Blommaert.  Philip 727 

Blond,  Jacques  Christophe  le 727 

Blondel 727 

Blood 728 

Blood,  Thomas 786 

Bloodhound 786 

Bloodletting 737 

Blood  Money 788 

Blood  Rain 788 

Bloodroot 788 

Blood  Stains 789 

Bloodstone 741 

Bloomary 741 

Bloomfleld.  Robert 744 

Bloomfield,  Samuel  Thomas,  D.D..  744 

Bloomington,  Ind 744 

Bloomington.  Ill 744 

Blount  CO.,  Ala 744 

Blount  co.,  Tenn 744 

Blount,  Charles 744 

Blount,  Thomas 745 


PAGE 

Blount.  William 745 

Blow,  John 745 

Blowing  Machines 745 

Blowpipe  747 

BUicher,  Gebhard  Leberecht  von. . .  750 
Bludoff,  Dmitri  Nikolayevitch,Count  756 

Blue 757 

Blue,  Prussian.    See  Prussian  Blue. 

Bluebird 757 

Blue  Earth  co 757 

Blueflelds 757 

Bluc'tish 757 

Blueing  of  Metals 758 

Blue  Laws 758 

Blue  Lick  Springs 759 

Bluo  Monday 759 

Blue  Mountains,  Jamaica. 759 

Bluo  Mountains,  Australia 759 

Bluo  Ridge 759 

Blue  River 759 

Blue  Stockings 759 

Blue  Vitriol.    See  Copper,  Sulphate 

of. 

Bluet  d'Arberes,  Bernard 759 

Blum,  Robert. 760 

Blumenbach,  Johann  Friedrich ....  760 

Blunt,  Edmund  March 761 

Blunt,  Edmund 761 

Blunt,  John  James 761 

Bluntechli,  Johann  Kaspar 761 

Boa 702 

Boaden,  James 768 

Boadicea 768 

Boar 763 

Boardman,  George  Dana 764 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  D.  D 765 

Boatbill 7(15 

Boavista. 766 

Bobadilla,  Francisco  de 766 

Bobolink 767 

Bobruisk 707 

Boca  Tigris 767 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni 767 

Boccago,  Manool  Maria  Barbosa  du  769 

Boccage,  Marie  Anne  Le  Page 76!) 

Boccanera,  Simone 769 

Boccanera,  Gille 769 

Boccherini,  Luigi 769 

Boccone,  Paolo 769 

Bochart,  Samuel 769 

Bochnia 769 

Bocholt 769 

Bochsa,  Robert  Nicolas  Charles. ...  770 

Bochum 770 

Bock,  Cornelius  Peter 770 

Bock,  Franz 770 

Bock,  Karl  August 770 

Bock,  Karl  Ernst 770 

Bockenheim 770 

Bockelson,  Johann.    See  John  of 

Ley  den. 

Bcickh,  August 770 

Booking,  Eduard 771 

Bocklin,  Arnold 771 

Bocksberger,  Hans  or  Hieronymus .  771 

Bode.Johann  Elert 771 

Bodenstedt,  Friedrich  Martin 771 


PAGF 

Bodichon,  Eugene 77? 

Hodichon,  Barbara  Leigh 772 

Bodin,  Jean 772 

Bodleian  Library 772 

Bodk-y,  Sir  Thoinas 773 

Bodiner,  Georg 778 

Bodmer,  Johann  Jakob 778 

Bodmin 773 

Bodoni,  Giambattista 778 

Boehm,  Jakob 774 

Boeotia 774 

Boerhaave,  Hermann 775 

Boers 775 

Boethius,  Anicius  Manlius  Torqua- 

tus  Severinus 777 

Bouthius,  Hector 776 

Boetie,Etiennede  la 77S 

Bog 77S 

Bog,  a  river  of  Russia.    See  Bug. 

Bog  Ore 779 

Bogardus,  Everardus 780 

Bogardus,  James 7^ 

Bogdanovitch,  Ippolit  Fedorovitch .  781 

Boggs,  Charles  Stuart 7S1 

Bofflipoor 7-1 

Bogodukhov 781 

Bogomiles.    See  Basil,  a  Bulgarian 
physician. 

Bogo'ta,  Santa  F6  de 781 

Bogue,  David 788 

Boguslawski,  Adalbert 783 

Boha-Eddln,  Abul  -  Mohassen  Tu- 

sufibnShedad 788 

Bohemia 788 

Bohemian  Brethren 786 

Bohemian  Language  and  Literature  787 

Bohemond,  Marc 790 

Bfihl  Faber,  Cecilia 790 

Bolilen,  Peter  von 790 

Bohm,  Theobald 790 

Bonn,  Henry  George 790 

Bohol 790 

IWhtlingk,  Otto 791 

Bohun,Edmund 791 

Boiardo,  Matteo  Maria 791 

Boiddieu,  Francois  Adrien 791 

Boii 791 

Boil 792 

Boileau-Despreaux,  Nicolas 792 

Boiling  Point 798 

Boisard,  Jean  Jacques  Francois  Ma- 
rie   796 

Boisard,  Jacques  Francois 796 

Bois6  co 796 

Bois6  City 796 

Bois-le-Duc. . . . , 797 

Boissy,  Hilaire  Etienne  Octave  Rou- 

1116,  Marquis  de 797 

Boissieu,  Jean  Jacques  de 797 

Boissy  d'Anglas,  Francois  Antoine 

de 797 

Bolste,  Pierre  Claude  Victoire 797 

Boivin,  Marie  Anne  Victoire  Gillain  797 

Bqiador,  Cape 798 

Boker,  George  Henry 798 

Bokhara 798 

Bol,  Ferdinand 800 


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